NURSING PHARMACOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACOLOGY
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WHAT IS PHARMACOLOGY?
● Etymologically, it is the science of drugs (Greek
pharmakos, medicine or drug, and logos, study)
● It is the study of how chemical agents affect living
processes.
● It studies the effects of drugs and how they exert their
effects to the body.
BRANCHES
PHARMACOTHERAPEUTICS/ PHARMACOTHERAPEUTICS
● Otherwise known as clinical pharmacology, the branch
of pharmacology that uses drugs to treat, prevent, and
diagnose disease.
● Addresses two key concerns: the drug’s effects on the
body and the body’s response to the drug.
● A subdivision of Pharmacology that deals with the use of
drugs in the prevention and treatment of diseases.
● TREATMENT OF DISEASES WITH MEDICINES
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PHARMACOGNOSY
● branch of pharmacology dealing with natural drugs & their
constituents deals with the sources, procurement &
chemistry of natural products.
● IDENTIFYING CRUDE MATERIALS AS DRUGS
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PHARMACOKINETICS
● the study of the movement of drugs in the body, including
the processes of absorption, distribution, localization in
tissues, biotransformation, & excretion
● WHAT THE BODY DOES TO THE DRUG
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PHARMACODYNAMICS
● the study of the biochemical & physiological effects of
drugs & the mechanisms of their actions, including the
correlation of their actions & effects with their chemical
structure.
● WHAT THE DRUG DOES TO THE BODY
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TOXICOLOGY
● Study of poisions
WHAT IS A DRUG?
● According to WHO “Any substance or product which is
used or intended to be used to modify or explore
physiological systems or pathological states for the
benefit of the recipient”.
● It is a chemical substance used in the treatment, cure,
prevention, or diagnosis of disease or used to
otherwise enhance physical or mental wellbeing.
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HIPPOCRATES – Father of Medicine
● He founded a school of medicine that focused on
treating the causes of disease rather than its symptoms. A
disease was dictated by natural laws and therefore could
be treated through close observation of symptoms.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF A PERFECT DRUG
It should be biocompatible No side Shows
and biodegradable. effects. selectivity in its
action.
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WISHLIST OF A PERFECT DRUG
1. REVERSIBLE - effects of a process or condition capable of
being reversed so that the previous state or situation is
restored:
2. PREDICTABLE - behaving or occurring in a way that is
expected:
3. NO ADVERSE EFFECTS: A side effect is usually regarded
as an undesirable secondary effect which occurs in
addition to the desired therapeutic effect of a drug or
medication. Side effects may vary for everyone depending
on the person's disease state, age, weight, gender, ethnicity,
and general health.
4. NO INTERACTIONS: Anytime you take more than one
medication, or even mix it with certain foods, beverages,
or over-the-counter medicines, you are at risk of a drug
interaction. Most drug interactions are not serious, but
because there are a few, it is important to understand the
possible outcome before you take your medications.
⮚ DRUG-DRUG INTERACTIONS - These are the most
common type of drug interaction. The more
medications you take, the greater the chance for your
drug interacting with another medicine. Drug-drug
interactions can decrease how well your medications
work, may increase minor or serious unexpected side
effects, or even increase the blood level and possible
toxicity of a certain drug. For example, if you take a
pain medication, like Vicodin, and a sedating
antihistamine, such as Benadryl, at the same time
you will have an additive amount of drowsiness as
both medications cause this side effect.
⮚ DRUG-FOOD/BEVERAGE INTERACTIONS - You
have probably seen the stickers on your prescription
bottle to “avoid grapefruit juice” at one time or
another. Certain medications can interact with foods
or beverages. For example, grapefruit juice can lower
the levels of enzymes in your liver responsible for
breaking down medications. Blood levels of an
interacting drug may rise, leading to toxicity. This
interaction can occur with the commonly used statins
to lower cholesterol, like atorvastatin, lovastatin, or
simvastatin. The result can be muscle pain, or even
severe muscle injury known as rhabdomyolysis.
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NURSING RESPONSIBILITIES IN DRUG THERAPY
o Administering drugs
o Assessing drug effects
o Intervening to make the drug regimen more tolerable.
o Providing patient teaching about drugs and the drug regimen
o Monitoring the overall patient care plan to prevent medication
errors.
o safe and reliable administration and to monitor side-effects.
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SOURCES OF DRUGS
1. PLANT SOURCES
- Several plants have medicinal qualities and have been
used for centuries as drugs or drug sources. Although the
earliest plant source for drugs was the leaf, other parts of
plants (e.g., barks, fruits, roots, stem, wood, seeds,
blossoms, bulb etc.) were also later exploited for drug
extraction. Where the product is used without further
processing e.g., ground leaves or bark, boiled
concoctions or powdered sap, the substance is called
crude drug
- oldest source of drugs.
- Almost all parts of the plants are used i.e., leaves, stem,
bark, fruits and roots.
ALKALOIDS ✔ Atropine (Atropa belladonna)
✔ Morphine (Papaver somniferum)
GLYCOSIDES ✔ Digoxin (Digitalis purpura)
OILS ✔ Essential oil (Volatile oil)- leaves & flower
[Clove oil, peppermint, eucalyptus]
GUM ✔ Excretory products (gum acacia)
RESINS ✔ Tolu balsam (cough mix)
TANNINS ✔ catechu
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2. ALKALOIDS
- Diverse group of bitter tasting, organic, basic
substances found in plants with examples such as
caffeine, morphine, and atropine
- Digitalis purpurea are the source of Digitoxin and
Digoxin, which are cardiac glycosides.
- Leaves of Eucalyptus give oil of Eucalyptus, which is
important component of cough syrup.
- Tobacco leaves give nicotine.
- Poppy papaver somniferum gives morphine (opoid)
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3. ANIMAL SOURCES
- Drugs obtained from animal sources are whole animals,
glandular products (thyroid organ), liver extract,
polypeptide venoms, non- peptide toxins and others.
- Urine of pregnant women gives hCG used for the
treatment of infertility.
- Thyroid of sheep is a source of thyroxin, used in
hypertension
- Cod liver is used as a source of vitamin A and D.
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HORMONES ✔ Insulin (Pork – Procine); (Beef – Bovine)
VACCINE ✔ Polio, Antirabies
SERA ✔ ATS (antitetanus serum)
VITAMINS ✔ Vitamin B12 from liver extract
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4. INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
- Aluminum
● Antacid to decrease gastric acidity
● Management to hyperphosphatemia
● Prevention of the formation of phosphate urinary
stones
- Fluorine (as fluoride)
● Prevention of dental cavities
● Prevention of osteoporosis
- Gold
● Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis
- Iron
● Treatment of iron deficiency anemia
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5. SYNTHETIC SOURCES
- Drugs that are produced upon alteration of chemical
compositions of existing plants and animals when proven
to have therapeutic activity.
DRUG EVALUATION
Process by which toxicity, metabolism, absorption,
elimination, preferred route of administration, safe dosage
range, etc., for a drug or group of drugs is determined through
clinical assessment in humans or veterinary animals.
1. PRE-CLINICAL TRIALS
- In this stage, chemicals that may have therapeutic value
are tested on laboratory animals (guinea pigs) for two
main purposes:
✔ To determine whether they have the presumed
effects in living tissue.
✔ To evaluate any adverse effects.
- Pre-clinical trials involve drug testing on non-human
subjects, a process that enables researchers to compile
information relating to the efficacy, toxicity, and
pharmacokinetic properties of a drug.
- It is in this phase that scientists must determine how to
make enough of the drug to meet testing
requirements.
- At the end of the preclinical trials, some chemicals are
discarded for the following reasons:
a. The chemical lacks therapeutic activity when
used with living animals.
b. The chemical is too toxic to living animals to
be worth the risk of developing into a drug.
c. The chemical is highly teratogenic (causing
adverse effects to the fetus).
d. The safety margins are so small that the
chemical would not be useful in the clinical
setting.
- Some chemicals, however, are found to have
therapeutic effects and reasonable safety margins.
This means that the chemicals are therapeutic at doses
that are reasonably different from doses that cause
toxic effects.
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2. PHASE 1 STUDIES
- Uses human volunteers to test the drugs.
- More tightly controlled than preclinical trials and are
performed by specially trained clinical investigators.
- The volunteers are fully informed of possible risks and
may be paid for their participation.
- Once a drug has passed through pre-clinical trials, it is
subjected to extensive studies on humans to
demonstrate that it is safe and effective.
- In phase 1 clinical trials, a drug is tested for the first
time on humans — typically a small number (100
people or less) of healthy volunteers.
- The first clinical trial phase assesses the safety of a
drug when used on humans. Clinical researchers look at
the pharmacokinetics of a drug to see how it is absorbed
by the body. Researchers also look at the
pharmacodynamics of a drug, assessing the dosage
for side effects. From there, phase 1 clinical trials aim to
establish a safe dosage range, and whether a drug should
move on to the next phase of clinical trials. Only 70
percent of drugs move on to the next phase.
- Usually, the volunteers are healthy, young men. Women
are not good candidates because the chemicals may
exert unknown and harmful effects on a woman’s ova.
- Some chemicals move to the next stage of testing
despite undesirable effects. For example, the
antihypertensive drug was found to effectively treat
malignant hypertension, but it caused unusual hair growth
on the palms and other body areas. Now, its hair-growing
effect has been channeled for therapeutic use into various
hair-growth preparations such as Rogaine.
3. PHASE 2 STUDIES
- Allows clinical investigators to try out the drug in
patients who have the disease (100- 500 patients) that
the drug is designed to treat to evaluate the drug’s
effects.
- Usually, phase II studies are performed at various sites
across the country—in hospitals, clinics, and doctors’
offices—and are monitored by representatives of the
pharmaceutical company studying the drug.
- If a drug is successful in the first stage of clinical trials, it
moves on to phase 2, where researchers assess the
safety and efficacy of the drug in a small group of
patients. In contrast to the volunteers needed in the
phase 1 trial, phase 2 volunteers have been diagnosed
with the disease or condition that the drug is
targeting. In this phase, there could be somewhere
between 100 and 500 patient volunteers.
- Aim in determining the dosage to be given to patients
with the disease
- The purpose of phase 2 trials is twofold. They are
intended to establish if a drug works in the disease
population and are aimed at determining which
dosage a drug works for. Phase 2 trials can take up to
2 years.
- Only 33% of drugs move on to the next phase of clinical
trials.
4. PHASE 3 STUDIES
- Involves use of the drug in a vast clinical market.
- Prescribers are informed of all the known reactions to
the drug and precautions required for its safe use.
- Prescribers observe patients very closely, monitoring
them for any adverse effects.
- Phase 3 clinical trials are generally the last phase
before a drug can be put forward for approval from the
US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). At this stage,
a drug is administered to a larger number of patients
— 1,000 to 3,000 — around the world.
- The intention of this phase is to “generate statistically
significant data about the safety, efficacy and overall
benefit-risk relationship of the investigational
medicine.” Phase 3 clinical trials also set the stage for
labeling instructions to ensure proper use.
- With an estimated three-year lead time, in this phase
clinical researchers look to identify adverse effects of a
drug when it is administered to a larger population. phase
3 clinical trials are the most expensive, as they often
use multiple study sites.
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- At this stage, manufacturing scientists work to perfect the
high-quality production of the drug for use in trials, as
well as for commercialization following FDA approval.
- Simultaneously, the company producing the drug must
prepare the application to submit the drug for FDA
approval. Only 25 to 30 percent of drugs will move
forward to the next phase.
- Prescribers ask patients to keep journals and record
any symptoms they experience.
- Prescribers then evaluate the reported effects to
determine whether they are caused by the disease or
by the drug.
- A drug that produces unacceptable adverse effects is
usually removed from further study by the drug
company.
- In some cases, the FDA may have to request that a drug
be removed from the market.
5. FDA APPROVAL
- Drugs that finish phase III studies are evaluated by the
Food and Drug Administration, which relies on
committees of experts familiar with the specialty area
in which the drugs will be used before marketing in
the public.
- An approved drug will be given generic name, brand
name, and chemical name
6. PHASE 4 STUDIES
- Stage of continual evaluation.
- Prescribers are obligated to report to the FDA any
untoward or unexpected adverse effects associated
with drugs.
- Some drugs cause unexpected effects that are not
seen until wide distribution occurs. Sometimes, those
effects are therapeutic.
- For example, patients taking the antiparkinsonism drug
amantadine (Symmetrel) were found to have fewer
cases of influenza than other patients, leading to the
discovery that amantadine is an effective antiviral agent.
- In other instances, the unexpected effects are
dangerous.
- The diet drug dexfenfluramine (Redux) may develop
serious heart problems.
- NSAID Rofecoxib (Vioxx) show an increase in
cardiovascular mortality.
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TO BE APPROVED FOR MARKETING, A DRUG MUST PASS
THROUGH ANIMAL TESTING, TESTING ON HEALTHY HUMANS,
SELECTED TESTING ON PEOPLE WITH THE DISEASE BEING
TREATED, AND THEN BROAD TESTING ON PEOPLE WITH THE
DISEASE BEING TREATED.
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DRUG CLASSIFICATIONS
1. ORPHAN DRUGS
- Drugs that have been discovered but are not financially
viable and therefore have not been “adopted” by any
drug company.
- It may be useful in treating a rare disease, or they may
have potentially dangerous adverse effects,
- These are often abandoned after preclinical trials or
phase 1 studies.
2. OVER-THE-COUNTER DRUGS
- Products that are available without prescription for self-
treatment of a variety of complaints
- OTC drugs have been found to be safe when taken as
directed, nurses should consider several problems
related to OTC drug use:
● Taking these drugs could mask the signs and
symptoms of underlying disease, making
diagnosis difficult
● Taking these drugs with prescription medications
could result in drug interactions and interfere
with drug therapy.
NURSING PHARMACOLOGY | INTRODUCTION

● It could result in serious overdoses.

c. ORAL DISINTEGRATING TABLETS (ODT)
3. GENERIC DRUGS ● designed to dissolve in the mouth without water;
- These are drugs no longer protected by patent and can useful for pedia and geriatric clients who have
be produced by companies other than the one that difficulty swallowing and for those who are
developed it. experiencing nausea and vomiting. Cannot be
“cheeked” by patients who are not compliant with the
drug regimen.
OTHER WAYS TO CLASSIFY DRUGS
d. ENTERIC- COATED TABLETS
● with coating to mask the unpleasant flavor or odor,
1. BODY SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION and to protect the drug from the stomach contents.
The coat prevents dissolution in the stomach and are
- “Which system of the body is the drug for?
meant to dissolve in the intestines. It protects the
- EX. drugs intended for the cardiovascular system,
stomach lining as well with the effects of the drug (i.e.,
respiratory system, genitourinary system, gastrointestinal
KCl and ASA)
system & etc.
e. FILM- COATED TABLETS
● are coated with a thin outer layer of water-soluble
2. THERAPEUTIC USE/ CLINICAL INDICATION
material that dissolves rapidly in the stomach. The
- “What disease or illness is being treated” coat is designed to cover the unpleasant taste or smell
- EX. drugs intended for diabetes, hypertension, kidney and protect sensitive drugs from deterioration due to air
problems etc. and light (i.e., Erythromycin).

f. SUGAR- COATED TABLETS

3. PHYSIOLOGICAL/ CHEMICAL ACTION ● are coated with outside layer of sugar that protects
- “What does the drug do in the body” the medication and improves the taste and the
- EX. drugs to reduce cholesterol, lower down blood appearance of the medication.
pressure, relieve pain, etc.

CAPSULES
4. PRESCRIPTION / NON PRESCRIPTION ● The active part of the medicine is contained inside a
- “Does the medication require a prescription or can be plastic shell (transparent, semi- transparent, or
availed OTC?” opaque) that dissolves slowly in the stomach.
- EX. prescription drugs such as for hypertension, ● It contains liquid, powder, granule, or crushed tablet
anti-cancer drugs or non-prescription drugs such as some and are formulated with delayed-release characteristics
pain relievers, supplements, etc. to allow for less-frequent dosing and or side effects.

a. SPANULES
5. ILLEGAL DRUGS ● capsules that are filled with granules that dissolve
- “Is the drug use for non-therapeutic reasons?” at different rates, in effect causing sustained release of
- EX. some controlled substances such as cannabis. the active ingredient.

b. SPRINKLE CAPSULE
DRUG FORMS/ PREPARATIONS ● it is like spanules but unique in that it is designed to
be pulled apart and the contents are sprinkled into
foods.
1. SOLID FORMS
- The entire dose is contained in the preparation LOZENGES / TROCHES / PASTILLES
minimizing measuring errors.
- Identified as flat, hard, oval, or discoid disks
- Difficult to swallow, slower onset and may be degraded
containing a medicinal agent in a suitable flavoured
by acidic content of the stomach.
base which is held in the mouth to dissolve slowly.

TABLET / CAPLET
POWDERS
● The active ingredient is combined with another substance
and pressed into a round or oval solid shape. - Consists of fine mineral dusts such as talc and are
● Soluble or dispersible tablets can safely be dissolved in applied by dusting.
water. - This is used to absorb moisture from the skin thereby
altering conditions favorable to the growth of
a. BUCCAL OR SUBLINGUAL TABLETS microorganisms.
- It can be used internally and should be dissolved in
● These are held in the cheek (buccal) or underneath
water prior to ingestion.
the tongue (sublingual) so the mouth lining absorbs the
active ingredient.
GRANULES
b. CHEWABLE TABLETS
● designed to be chewed and contain a base that is - Larger than powders and are wetted, allowed to dry, and
flavored or colored. Convenient for patients who have ground into coarse, irregularly shaped pieces.
difficulty swallowing tablets. These are an oral - More stable than powders and are more suitable in
dosage form intended to be chewed and then solutions because they will be less likely to float in liquids.
swallowed by the patient rather than swallowed
whole. They should be designed to be palatable and be
easily chewed and swallowed. Chewable tablets should
be safe and easy to use in a diverse patient population of
pediatric, adult, or elderly patients who are unable or
reluctant to swallow intact tablets due to the size of the
tablet or difficulty with swallowing.

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DOSAGE FORMULATIONS DESIGNED TO ALTER
RATE OF RELEASE
IMMEDIATE- RELEASE FORMULATION
- The medication is released within a short period of
time after the drug is taken.
DELAYED- RELEASE FORMULATION
- The release of the medication is extended or delayed
until it has passed through the stomach.
CONTROLLED- RELEASE FORMULATION
- It regulates the rate of release of the active ingredient.
- They are designed to vary the dissolution rate or
release of the active drug.
- Also referred to as long-acting and timed-released
formulations.
SUSTAINED- RELEASE FORMULATION
- It allows the frequency of the dosing to be reduced
compared to that of immediate- release dosage forms.
EXTENDED- RELEASE FORMULATION
- The active ingredient is released at a constant rate for a
prolonged period so that the frequency of dosing is
less than the immediate-release dosage form.
- Usually for once daily dosing and the medication is
available over an extended period of time.
- Compared to immediate release preparations, advantages
of extended- release dosage forms include the following:
● Constant drug level following long-term administration
● Reduction of side effects
● Reduction in administration frequency
● Increased patient compliance
2. SEMI SOLID FORMS
- They come in tubs, bottles or tubes depending on the
type of medicine.
- The active part of the medicine is mixed with another
substance, making it easy to apply to the skin.
- These are creams, lotions or ointments applied
directly onto the skin (topical application).
- Maybe placed in nasal, vaginal, rectal, and anorectal
cavities.
- The dosage is too thick not to be considered a liquid
form and not solid enough to be considered solid
form.
EMULSIONS
- A type of semi-solid dosage form wherein a mixture is
unblendable.
- One substance is dispersed in the other.
- An Oil-in-Water (O/W) emulsion contains small amount
of oil dispersed in water.
- A Water-in-Oil (W/O) emulsion contains small amount of
water dispersed in oil.
- EMULSIFYING AGENT- A chemical that is used to bind
substances that normally do not mix. It has
water-loving and oil- loving properties that keep oil and
water together.
OINTMENTS
- Applied externally to the skin or mucous membranes
or can be formulated and sterilized for use in the eyes.
- It is an example of water-in-oil emulsion.
- It contains medication in a glycol or oil base and can
effectively cover the skin.
- Generally greasier and can leave oily residue at the
site of application.
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CREAMS
- It contains suspension or solutions of drug intended
for external use.
- An example of oil-in-water emulsion and can easily be
massaged into the skin without leaving oily residue.
- It can be formulated for vaginal or rectal use
- EX. hydrocortisone cream, benzoyl peroxide cream, and
betamethasone valerate cream.
LOTIONS
- An oil-in-water emulsion that is thinner than a cream
because it contains more water.
- It can penetrate in the skin and can cover large areas
without leaving an oily residue.
- EX. calamine lotion and hydrocortisone lotion.
GELS
- Contain solid medication like a suspension in a thick
liquid that can be used internally or externally.
- Particles are ultrafine and form semisolid.
- Can penetrate the skin without leaving residue.
- EX. aluminum hydroxide gel and benzocaine gel.
PASTES
- It contains more solid material and less liquid base
than a solid.
- They are like ointments, but stiffer, less greasy, and
applied more thickly.
- EX. zinc oxide.
SUPPOSITORIES
- The active part of the medicine is combined with
another substance and pressed into a “Bullet shape”
so it can be inserted in the anal, rectal, vaginal, or
urethral area and melts in a cavity, releasing the
medication.
- It can be for local action and vehicle for systemic
drugs.
- Suppositories must not be swallowed.
- Used for children with difficulty taking oral medications.
- Rectal suppositories by- pass stomach and helpful to
patients with nausea and vomiting.
- Used to treat inflammatory bowel disease or pain.
- Vaginal suppositories are for yeast infections and vaginal
atrophy.
- EX. miconazole (vaginal) and bisacodyl (rectal)
suppositories.
3. LIQUID FORMS
- The active part of the medicine is combined with a
liquid to make it easier to take or better absorbed
- It is also called a “mixture”, “solution” or “syrup”.
DROPS
- These are often used where the active part of the
medicine works best if it reaches the affected area
directly.
- They tend to be used for eye, ear or nose.
SOLUTIONS
- A homogenous mixture of solute and solvent where it
is in aqueous (water-based), alcoholic or
hydroalcoholic form.
a. AROMATIC SOLUTION
● Aqueous solution that contains oil or other volatile
substance. They usually have pleasant smell.
b. ELIXIR
● It is a clear, sweet solution that contains dissolved
medication in a base of water and ethanol
(hydroalcoholic).
NURSING PHARMACOLOGY | INTRODUCTION

c. SYRUP
● Sugar-based solution that may mask the taste of the PATCH OR DISK
drug. - Designed to hold medication to be released in the skin
and absorbed into the blood stream.
d. EXTRACT - It contains backing, drug reservoir, control membrane
● It is a powder or liquid derived from animal or plant and adhesive layer.
sources in which all or most of the solvent has been - Drugs are absorbed slowly, easily applied, and
evaporated minimized stomach upset.
- EX. nitroglycerine, fentanyl, scopolamine, and nicotine for
e. TINCTURE their systemic effects. NOTE: Gels are also in transdermal
● An alcoholic or hydroalcoholic solution that contains forms which are slowly absorbed in the skin.
plant extract.

f. SPIRIT IMPLANTS
● It is an alcoholic or hydroalcoholic solution that - Placing a drug form or a device in the desired site by
contains volatile, aromatic ingredients. insertion in a body tissue or cavity by surgical or
appropriate insertion techniques.
g. IRRIGATING SOLUTION
● A solution that is used for cleansing an area of the
body.

DISPERSIONS
- The medication is not dissolved in a liquid but is
“dispersed” throughout.
- SUSPENSION- a mixture of undissolved, fine, solid
particles throughout the solid, liquid, or gas.
Suspension needs to be shaken before use and must
have “shake well” auxiliary label.
- AQUEOUS SUSPENSION- a mixture of medication in
which solids are dispersed in a water medium.
- INJECTABLE SUSPENSION- allows insoluble drugs to
be administered using a syringe. Often used for depot
therapy- the drug is released over a long period of time.

a. SUBCUTANEOUS/ SC INJECTIONS are given just under the

surface of the skin.

b. INTRAMUSCULAR/ IM INJECTIONS are given into a muscle.

c. INTRATHECAL INJECTIONS are given into the fluid around

the spinal cord.

d. INTRAVENOUS/ IV INJECTIONS are given into a vein.

ENEMAS
- Deliver medications rectally, a way that by-passes the
stomach.
- Water-based medication used to evacuate intestinal
contents as a preparation for surgeries and examinations
of the intestines.

4. INHALATION FORMS
- The active part of the medicine is released under
pressure directly into the lungs via the nose or mouth.

AEROSOLS
- It is a spray that contains very fine liquid or solid
particles in a gas propellant that is packaged under
pressure.
- It has a rapid onset of action

SPRAYS
- It consists of a container that has a valve assembly
unit that contains various bases, such as alcohol or
water, in pump-type dispenser.
- When activated, it emits fine liquid, solid or gaseous
material.

5. TRANSDERMAL FORMS
- Are absorbed through the skin and enter the
bloodstream, providing a controlled release of the
drug into the body.

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