GENERAL BIOLOGY [Ms. Jeanette Anne J.

Desamparado]

Cell Membrane the immune system as role in cell adhesion.

Why cell membrane is semi permeable? self or non-self.
 Because of phospholipid bilayer
MEMBRANE PROTEIN FUNCTIONS
Six Major Functions [by proteins of the plasma membrane]
1. Transport
2. Enzymatic Activity
3. Signal Transduction
4. Cell-cell Recognition
5. Intercellular Joining
6. Attached to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
(ECM).

 Cholesterol, lubricant that helps bigger substances to

move. It is also present in the membrane. It maintains
The phospholipid is made out of glycerol. the fluidity and increases the stability of the membrane
Hydrophilic head, water loving (because it adapts to the with cholesterol; Membrane would easily split apart.
surrounding environment).
Hydrophobic tail, water fearing. TRANSPORT ACROSS THE CELL MEMBRANE
Deviation of transport mechanisms – how cells or
FUNCTIONS OF CELL MEMBRANE substances move in and outside of the cell membrane.

 Providing a Selectively Permeable Barrier Types of Transport

 Transferring Solutes  Passive Transport
 Transporting Macromolecules  Active Transport
 (GO Foods, Grow, Glow, Biomolecules)
 Responding to External Signals  Passive Transport
 Intercellular Interaction
- high concentration of
 Energy Transduction Concentration
molecules
Gradient
Fluid Mosaic Model
 Describes the cell membrane as a tapestry of several
 Movements of ions and other atomic or molecular
types of molecules (phospholipids, cholesterols, and
substances across the cell membrane without the
proteins) that are constantly moving. This movement
need of energy input.
helps the cell membrane maintain its role as a barrier
between the inside and the outside of the cell
Types of Passive Transport
environments.
 Simple Diffusion
S.J Singer & Garth L. Nicolson (1972)
 Facilitated Diffusion
 Explained the structure of the plasma membrane
 Osmosis
(mosaic of components).
 Phospholipids, Cholesterol, Proteins, and carbohydrates
Diffuse
that gives the membrane a fluid character.  Simple Diffusion [does not use transport protein]
o Random movements of particles or molecules of a
Structures Found in the Cell Membrane
solute from an area of higher concentration to an area of
 Phospholipid bilayer, critical components of cell
lower concentration.
membrane. Lipid bilayer acts as a barrier to the passage
o Most basic and easy.
of molecules and ions into and out of the cell.
 Carbohydrates (present in plasma membrane),
Factors Affecting Diffusion of Materials
sometimes branched chains of sugars attached either to
 Size
exterior peripheral proteins (forming glycoproteins) or to
 Polarity
the polar ends of phospholipid molecules in the outer
 Charge
lipid layer (forming glycolipids).
 As recognition, molecules are also important during
 Facilitated Diffusion [uses transport protein]
embryonic development.
o Transport proteins are needed to move molecules from
 Are major recognition and attaching sites for
an area of greater concentration to an area of lesser
pathogens during infection.
concentration.
 Pathogens are disease causing microorganisms.

2 Types of Transport Protein

Glycolipid
[glyco – sugar]
 Carbohydrates attached
to lipid.
 Serve as cell markers or
antigens recognized by
Glycoprotein
[glyco – sugar]
 Carbohydrates attached
to protein.
 Serve as receptors for
chemical signals play a
o Carrier Protein, embedded in the plasma or cell
membrane. It can change structure to fit in with what
molecules pass through.
o Channel Protein, charged particles (ions) pass through
the channel protein.
 Osmosis

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GENERAL BIOLOGY [Ms. Jeanette Anne J. Desamparado]

o Water molecules move from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lesser concentration.
ENVIRONMENT OF THE CELL
“Tonicity of a Cell”
o Isotonic Solution
o Hypotonic Solution
o Hypertonic Solution
 Isotonic Solution, the concentration of solute inside &
outside of the cell is the same.
 Hypotonic Solution, the concentration of solute is lower
outside the cell than inside the cell.
 It has more water outside the cell, so water moves
into the cell.
 Hypertonic Solution, the concentration of solute is
higher outside the cell than inside the cell.
 Have more water inside the cell, so water moves out
of the cell.
o Receptor-Mediated – found in pit coated with a protein
called clathrin (enzymes that can catalyst the LDL)
 LDL – LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN
Exocytosis
o PROCESS which cells move materials from within the
cell into the extracellular fluid.
o Transcription – one major process in cell dogma.
o Passageway outside of the cell.
o Occurs when a vesicle fuses with the plasma
membrane, allowing its contents to be released outside
of the cell.
o Removing toxins or waste products from the cell’s
interior.
o Facilitating cellular communication.
o Facilitating cellular membrane growth, repair, signaling,
and migration.
Where do these vesicles go?
- It goes to the mitochondria (generates energy).

BIOMOLECULES (ORGANIC)
 Bio ~ life Molecules ~ substances

Monomers “Monosaccharides”
 Building Blocks

4 Major Types of Biomolecules

o Carbohydrates (pasta, bread) “Energy” CHO
o Lipids (fatty acids, glycerol) “Fats” CHO
 Provide Insulation.
o Proteins (meat, beans) “Amino Acids” CHON
 Muscle Development.
o Nucleic Acids (DNA)(RNA) “Nucleotides” CHONP

C - carbon
Carbon & Hydrogen =bonding
H - hydrogen
O - oxygen
N - nitrogen
P - phosphorus

Biomolecules Elements Monomers Bonding

Found
Carbohydrate C,H,O Monosaccharides Glycosidic
s or Simple Sugar Bond
Lipids C,H,O Fatty Acids & No Specific
 Active Transport [mainly C & H, but few O]
Glycerol Bonding
- Needs a lot of energy input; movements of molecules from Proteins C,H,O,N Amino Acids Peptide Bond
an area of lower concentration to an area of higher Nucleic Acid C,H,O,N,P Nucleotide Phosphodiester
Bond
concentration.

 Bulk (vesicular) Transport Mechanism Carbohydrates

- Movement of macromolecules, such as proteins or o Quick energy
polysaccharides into or out of the cell which require the o Sugar, Chocolate, Bread, Pasta, Fruits, Vegetables
expenditure of energy (ATP). o Macromolecules necessary for immediate use of energy,
storage energy and cell structure.
2 Types of Bulk
 Endocytosis Types
 Exocytosis  Polysaccharides (MANY)
Structural – guides shape Storage
Endocytosis  Cellulose (plant)  Glycogen (can be
o PROCESS by which cells take in substances from found in the liver)
outside of the cell by engulfing them in a vesicle.  Chitin (fungi)  Starch (plant)
o Helps generate energy.  Peptidoglycan
o Phagocytosis – cell eating (solid) (bacteria)
o Pinocytosis – cell drinking (liquid)

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GENERAL BIOLOGY [Ms. Jeanette Anne J. Desamparado]

Note: Poly = Many Di = Two Mono = One  An insulating layer, or sheath that forms around nerves,
Saccharides = Sugar including those in the brain and spinal cord. Made up of protein
and fatty substances. This myelin sheath allows electrical
impulses to transmit quickly and efficiently along the nerve
 Disaccharides (TWO) cells. If myelin is damaged, these impulses slow down.
Major Disaccharides Types of Protein Structures
o Maltose > Glucose + Glucose o Primary structure
o Lactose > Glucose + Galactose o Secondary structure
o Sucrose > Glucose + Fructose o Tertiary structure
o Quaternary structure
 Monosaccharides (ONE); BUILDING BLOCKS
o Glucose – product after photosynthesis.
o Fructose – “fruits”; sweetest natural sugar.
o Galactose – milk. Dipeptide bond

Amino Amino
DIABETES
Type I Type II
o Insulin tolerant o Auto immune disease
 Process where quaternary structure converts to primary
o Hereditary o Not curable
structure: Denaturation

Glucagon Insulin
Nucleic Bonds
 For higher insulin
o Nucleotides are its monomer.
Insulin
o The more C-H bonds a biomolecule has, the more
 Regulates sugar
energy it has!
o Fats have the most energy because they have the most
Lipids [are hydrophobic]
C-H bonds.
o Mainly Carbon & Hydrogen.
o Fat is the best method of STORING.
Contains 3 parts
o Forms cell membranes.
 5-carbon sugar
o Insulates nerve cells (Myelin)
 Phosphate group
o Insulates body (maintains homeostasis)
 Nitrogenous base
o Monomer: 3 fatty acids + glycerol

Lipid Metabolism – term when we get energy from lipids.

 Triglycerides
 Phospholipids
 Steroids
 Waxes

Proteins [control speed of chemical reactions; growth & repair]

o The most diverse among the biomolecules.
o Central compound of life.
o Amino acids is its monomer.
o Provides us with the building blocks for life. Energy – ability to do work.
o Also regulate most functions in a cell.  Newton’s first law of Thermodynamics:
o Glycoproteins (antigens). ”Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be
o Combines with DNA to form chromosomes. transformed from one form to another”
o Turns genes on and off.  Once a cell has used energy to do work, it cannot be
used again by any organism.
o Antibodies (fight disease).
 White Blood Cells: Immunoglobulin
Food Chain
 Red Blood Cells: Hemoglobin
o Provides structure and strength (fibers).
o Transport molecules in and out cells.
o Hemoglobin (transports O2). Sunlight → Plants → Worms → Roosters → Human
100% 80% 60% 40%
o Enzymes (speeds up rxns).
 has -ase suffix
o Acts as hormones (insulin).
 Helps in secondary growth development. Nucleobases:
o We have 20 amino acids.  (adenine) ATP – primary energy currency of cell.
o Essential: what we eat.  Has bigger storage; energy.
o Non - Essential: what we make.  (guanine) GTP - guanosine triphosphate.
 ATP & GTP are under purines.
Mylin Sheath
ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)

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GENERAL BIOLOGY [Ms. Jeanette Anne J. Desamparado]

o A single molecule ATP contains ten carbon atoms, o The set of metabolic pathways that construct molecules
sixteen hydrogen, five nitrogen, thirteen oxygen and from smaller units. These reactions require energy,
three phosphorus atoms. known also as an endergonic process.
o The secret behind the power of ATP lies in the breaking
of the chemical bond between the second and third
phosphate groups. When this happens, a large amount
of energy is released. PHOTOSYNTHESIS
o ATP is water soluble. o Comes from the 2 words: photo and synthesis.
 Photo = light
ATP structure  Synthesis = combine or mix
o It is a process wherein the light energy is converted to
make chemical energy (glucose).
o Photons – basic unit of light.
o Absorbs light and its wave.
o

Karl Lahmann (1898-1978)

 Discovered ATP from extracts of muscles and liver.
 His analysis on the ATP structure was in close The stem also
competition with the other scientists but he succeeded transports the
through hydrolysis. nutrients.

Hydrolysis
o Any chemical reaction in which a molecule of water
ruptures one or more chemical bonds.
o
Additional Information:
 ATPases
o A group of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of a
phosphate bond in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to
form adenosine diphosphate (ADP).
 Phosphorylation & Hydrolysis
o Pi = Inorganic Phosphate

 Epidermis, in botany, outermost, protoderm-derived

 Exergonic & Endergonic
o Exergonic – releases energy.
o Endergonic – absorbs energy.
Metabolism [sum total of the chemical inside our body]
o The process involving chemical reactions needed to
maintain life processes.
Catabolism
o Breakdowns macro particles into smaller particles.
o Responsible for breaking complex molecules down into
smaller molecules.
o During catabolism, energy is released from the bonds of
the large molecules being broken down.
o color of plants and certain other autotrophs.
layer of cells covering the stem, root, leaf, flower, fruit,
and seed parts of a plant.
Parts of Leaf
 Mesophyll Cell
o Found in dermal tissue
 Specifically, located in upper and lower dermal tissues.
o Specialized cell that contains the chloroplast.
 Chlorophyll – green pigments.
 primary pigment used in photosynthesis.
 Plants contain two main forms of chlorophyll: a & b.
 Chlorophyll has a hydrocarbon tail that anchors it to
an integral protein in the thylakoid membrane of the
chloroplast. Chlorophyll is the source of the green
 Chloroplast (double membrane, has inner & outer part)
 site of photosynthesis.
 organelle in a plant cell where photosynthesis occurs.

Parts of Chloroplast
 Thylakoid
o Where light dependent reactions occur.
 Granum – stacks of thylakoid.
Anabolism  Grana – many stacks of thylakoid (plural term).
o Builds up macro molecules.
o From small to big molecules.  Stroma
o Fluid part of the chloroplast.

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GENERAL BIOLOGY [Ms. Jeanette Anne J. Desamparado]

o Where light independent reactions occur. o refers to the gain of electrons. It often occurs in
 Also known as “Calvin Cycle” or dark reaction. conjunction with oxidation.
o These 2 reactions are interconnected with each other.  Rubisco, an enzyme that bonds carbon dioxide with
RuBP.
 Stomata [ stoma: plural ]  Examples [can undergo photosynthesis]
o “Breathing organ” or nose of the plant.  (a) Mosses, ferns, and flowering plants.
o 2 guard cells. ○ Releases oxygen.  (b) Kelp
Terminologies  (c) Euglena
 ADP  (d) Cyanobacteria
o Stands for adenosine diphosphate, a product of the Visible Lights – among all EM waves.
Calvin Cycle that is used in the light-dependent Light Energy:
reactions. 6CO₂+6H₂O > C₆H₁₂O₆+6O₂
 ATP
o Stands for adenosine triphosphate. ATP is a major 2 Reactions in Photosynthesis
energy molecule in cells. ATP and NADPH are products o Light Dependent Reaction
of the light- dependent reactions in plants. ATP is used
in reduction and regeneration of RuBP.
 Autotrophs
o Are photosynthetic organisms which convert light energy
into the chemical energy they need to develop, grow,
and reproduce.
 Calvin Cycle
o Name given to the set of chemical reactions of
photosynthesis that does not necessarily require light.
The Calvin cycle takes place in the stroma of the
chloroplast. It involves the fixing of carbon dioxide into
glucose using NADPH and ATP.
 carbon dioxide (CO2)
o A gas naturally found in the atmosphere that is a
reactant for the Calvin Cycle. o Light Independent Reaction; Dark Reaction or Calvin
 Carbon Fixation Cycle
o ATP and NADPH are used to fix CO2 into
carbohydrates. Carbon fixation takes place in the General Equation for Photosynthesis
chloroplast stroma. o Reactants, also called raw materials or input.
 Light o Product, also called “output”.
o A form of electromagnetic radiation; the shorter the  End product
wavelength the greater amount of energy. Light supplies o Products that are not released to the atmosphere
the energy for the light reactions of photosynthesis. because they are still needed in the process.
 Light harvesting complexes (photosystems  Biproduct
complexes) o Are released to the atmosphere because they are not
o A photosystem (PS) complex is a multi-protein unit in needed in the process.
the thylakoid membrane that absorbed light to serve as  Coenzyme are capable to be electron carrier.
energy for reactions inside the thylakoid.  Carbon Fixation, a process wherein inorganic
 Light reactions (light dependent reactions) compounds are converted to organic compound.
o Are chemical reactions requiring electromagnetic energy
(light) that occur in the thylakoid membrane of the
chloroplast to convert light energy into chemical forms
ATP and NAPDH.

 Lumen
o Region within the thylakoid membrane where water is
split to obtain oxygen. The oxygen diffuses out of the
cell, while the protons remain inside to build positive
electrical charge.
o Fluid area of Thylakoid.
 NADPH, A high-energy electron carrier used in
reduction.
LIGHT REACTION
 Oxidation refers to the loss of electrons.
 3 major processes of light reaction
 Oxygen (O2), a gas that is a product of the light-
o Reduction
dependent reactions
 Photosynthesis  Losses electrons.
o The process by which organisms convert light energy o Oxidation
into chemical energy (glucose).  Gains electrons.
 Reduction o Photophosphorylation

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 the process where ADP is converted to ATP using  Rubisco – enzyme, capable of converting inorganic to
light energy. organic (ribulose biphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase)
 can be found in the atmosphere
 Photosystem I & II
o Protein complex capable of absorbing light energy.  RUBP is located inside stroma
 First to process: Photosystem II
 Discovered First: Photosystem I
Photosystem I Photosystem II Reduction
o Will gain electron from ATP and NADPH.
Capacity to absorb P700 Capacity to absorb P680
o 3 PGA will undergo reduction.
o If ATP will bind with PGA, 1-3 biphosphoglycerate will
 ATP synthase
o Factory of ATP
o ADP + P = ATP

 Chemiosmosis, making of gradians of hydrogen ion.

 Reaction Center, where electrons rests.

Light Independent Cycle

o It is Cyclic.
o Occurs in stroma of chloroplast.
o Primary compound to start dark reaction is carbon
dioxide.
o 2 molecules that is essential: ATP and NADPH.
o Can process even without direct input of light energy.

 Melvin Calvin be formed.

o Bind NADPH to PGA to produce Glyceraldehyde.
 G3P = Glyceraldehyde 3 Phosphate

Regeneration
o Will start if G3P is made. [6 G3P is needed, 1 will serve
[store] as a starter to form glucose and the other 5 will
regenerate again with ATP to form RUBP.

Cellular Respiration
 GLYCOLYSIS
o Location: Inside cytoplasm
o Doesn’t need oxygen (anaerobic)
o Glucose is converted into pyruvate.
o Net yield: 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP molecules, and 2 NADH.
o NADPH- co enzyme, has the ability to transfer electrons.
3 Major Process (Cycle of Light Independent Reaction)
Intermediate Step:
 Carbon Fixation
o Pyruvate transported by active transport into
 Reduction
mitochondria, particularly mitochondrial matrix
 Regeneration
o The two pyruvates are converted into 2 acetyl CoA
 Raw Materials: CO2 & NADPH o Carbon dioxide is released and 2 NADH is produced.
 C02 + RUBP – [Inside of Stroma]
 (1,5- ribulose biphosphate)\  KREBS CYCLE
o Location: Mitochondrial matrix
Carbon fixation o Considered as aerobic, doesn’t directly consume oxygen
o First step in the cycle of light independent reaction. but some process needs oxygen.
o Conversion of inorganic to organic compound. o Carbon dioxide is released.
o Converts CO2 (inorganic, from atmosphere) to organic o Outputs: 2 ATP, 6 NADH and 2 FADH
with the help of rubisco. o FADH is also a co-enzyme and will assist in transferring
electrons to make even more ATP.

 ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN AND

CHEMIOSMOSIS
o Location: Inside inner mitochondrial membrane
o Aerobic
o Electrons are transferred from NADH and FADH to
protein complex and electron carriers, the electrons are
used to generate proton gradient, as protons are

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GENERAL BIOLOGY [Ms. Jeanette Anne J. Desamparado]

pumped across to cross into inter membrane space. All  Citric acid is responsible to help ETC to make many
these protons pumped out of inter membrane space electrons.
generates chemical and electrical gradient
o In chemiosmosis, the protons travel down their
electrochemical gradient through a portion of the ATP
synthase, powering it to make ATP.
Oxygen is the final acceptor of electrons, when oxygen
combines to hydrogen, you get H2O. ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
o Crucial step it is responsible for the making of many
CELLULAR RESPIRATION electrons
o Occurs in mitochondrion 2 Process:
 Cristae - folded  Oxidative phosphorylation
 Matrix - fluid structure  Making of ATP by using oxygen gas.
o Exergonic  Chemiosmosis
GLYCOLISIS  Makes (long) linkage of hydrogen ion and electrons.
o Cytosol is its location.
o 1st step of cellular respiration. o Final e- acceptor: Oxygen, then it will be converted to
o Decides what pathways the molecules will follow. H2O (sweat).
o Also called EMP (Embden Meyerhof Parnas Pathway) 1ST STAGE: 2 ATP
2ND STAGE: 2 ATP > 4 ATP = 4 ATP
 10 NADH x 3 ATP = 30 ATO
or Glycolytic Pathway. 3RD STAGE: 34 ATP
 2 FADH x 2 ATP = 4 ATP
o “Splitting of sugar” TOTAL: 38 ATP

o C₆H₁₂O₆+6O₂ > 6H₂O +6CO₂+ATP

= 34 ATP

 2 organ system that helps in cellular respiration

 Respiratory and digestive

o If split: will yield 2 pyruvates ADDITIONAL INPUTS

o Glucose is a 6 carbon, It will undergo glycolysis to spilt

and it will yield (2) 3 carbon pyruvate.
o 2 ATP is yielded through redox.
o 2 NADH is yielded through phosphorylation.

 NADP is for photosynthesis

 NADH is for cellular respiration

Has two scenarios:

o Aerobic (+O2) presence of oxygen gas
o After oxygen gas joins, it will proceed to Krebs Cycle
and ETC to complete the process.

o Anaerobic (-O2) no presence of oxygen gas

o If there is no presence of oxygen gas, it will undergo
lactic acid fermentation (humans, specifically in the
muscles).
 2 ATP
o Alcoholic fermentation (yeast and other organisms)
 2 ATP

KREBS CYCLE
o Also known as TCA (Tricarboxylic Acid) or Citric Acid
Cycle.
o Mitochondrial matrix
o Discovered by Hans Kreb
o Reactants - CO2 and 2 pyruvates (pyruvic acid).
o Products - 4CO2, 2FADH, 2ATP, 6NADH
 2FADH, 2ATP, 6NADH will proceed to third stage.
 While, the CO2 will go out to the atmosphere

Where citric acid come from:

 3 carbon also known as pyruvate (from glycolysis).
 Since it made 2 molecules of 3carbon, 2 will also
undergo Krebs Cycle.
 Once the pyruvate binds with oxygen, it will be Acetyl
CoA. One carbon will also be added, and it will create
Oxoacetate [to form citric acid].

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GENERAL BIOLOGY [Ms. Jeanette Anne J. Desamparado]

Function of the Cell Membrane:

 Cell membrane separates the components of a cell from
its environment—surrounds the cell
 “Gatekeeper” of the cell—regulates the flow of materials
into and out of cell—selectively permeable
 Cell membrane helps cells maintain homeostasis—
stable internal balance

Concentration – the amount of solute in a solution.

Solute – the dissolved substance in a solution.
Solution – a mixture in which two or more substances are
mixed evenly.
Concentration gradient - the gradual difference in the
concentration of solutes in a solution between two regions.

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