9CHII-ethics and Professionalism

CH2- Profession and Ethics
2.1 Profession: Definition and Characteristics

2.2 Professional Institutions
2.3 Relation of an Engineer with Client, Contractor and Fellow
Engineers
2.4 Ethics, Code of Ethics and Engineering

Ethics
2.5 Moral Dilemma and Ethical Decision Making
2.6 Detailed Duties of an Engineer and Architect
2.7Liability and Negligence
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society
Ethics
Professionalism
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1. Introduction to Ethics
The word Morals is derived from a Greek word
“Mos” which means custom.
talk about Ethics, it is also derived from a Greek
word “Ethikos” which means character.
Ethics in general,
presenting the current situation of courses
on Ethics in their universities, talked about
necessity of Ethics in Engineering
education and the ways it should be
implemented in educational system. 7
moral
1. Do not cheat
2. Be loyal
3. Be patient
4. Always tell the truth Ethics
5. Be generous 1. Truthfulness
2. Honesty
3. Loyalty
4. Respect
5. Fairness
6. Integrity
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General Knowledge on Ethics
people learn about ethics all the time,
being aware of it or not.
The society, the religion, the family, the
culture, the media, the traditions, everything
has its influence.
The awareness of ethics is on a very high
level, but the level of knowledge of
every person and every society is not
the same.
Also, common ethics are learned because
of the factors mentioned above, but
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professional ethics are not.
It’s needed to take into account the distinction
between morals and ethics, ethics being the
practical reflection of some morals.
Morals are unconsciously learnt during childhood,
but ethics are learnt at the time of confrontation
with problems in life.
Ethics as a field of study is universal, but the
perception of ethical correctness differs in
different cultures.
Ethics are changing during the years because
society is changing.
Distinctions between personal and professional 10
epp ETHICS
Perspective on Morals, Ethics, and

Professionalism Morals: Concerned with
goodness and badness of human
characters, free from action of nature or
animal.
Moral measures the standard of good
behaviour by which people are judged.
(Distinction between right and wrongs,
conforming to accepted standards and
rules). 11
epp ETHICS AND moral
Perspective on Morals, Ethics, and Professionalism
Engineering morals means the standard of good behaviour of
engineering people by which they are judged.
Moral means the standards of behaviour accepted by the

culture and religion of the society.
Non- moral is means devoid of moral quality.
The actions of animal or nature are neither moral nor non-

moral.
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epp ETHICS AND PROFESSIONALISM
• Perspective on Morals, Ethics, and Professionalism
• Ethics: Greek word (ethos) means location or space where
people lived together
• Later it covered meaning
• Customs, usages and habit
• The association of professional Engineers, Geologist, and

Geophysicists of Alberta define standard of study of right
and wrong,
• Science and philosophy deals 13

Ethics: Ethics is the branch of philosophy concerned with the
nature of ultimate value and the standards by which
human action can be judged right or wrong.
It is also applied to any system or theory of moral values or

principle.
Ethics is a system of belief that supports the view of morality.
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Ethics is an activity of understanding moral values, resolving moral
issues, and justifying moral judgment. It refers to moral principles
or rules of behavior.
Ethics may be defined as the science of rightness or wrong of

conduct. Some times ethics is used to refer to the particular set of
belief, attitudes, and habits that a person or groups displays
concerning morality.
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• Morality is complex and not easily expressed in a simple definition.
• Moral reasons require us to respect other people as well as us to care for their good as well
as our own.
• When we speak about ethics, we refer to peoples outlooks on the morals issues.
• When we speak of ethical problem issues and controversies, we mean to distinguish them
from non-moral problems.
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• Ethics seeks to teach us how we can pass correct moral judgment upon human
conduct and consider it as right or wrong with reference to supreme ideal of
human life.
• TRUTH, BEAUTY, GOOD ARE IDEAL OF HUMAN LIFE.
• Thus ethics is the science of human character as expressed in right or wrong

conduct.
• DO UNTO OTHERS AS YOU WOULD HAVE

OTHERS DO UNTO YOU.
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Ethics: ???
• If you live by yourself on an island, you have only
yourself to consider. When you band together with
other people, however, your actions can affect the
group of which you are a part.
• Throughout the history, the group has attempted to set
limits on the behaviors of individuals in the perceived
best interest of the group and or even individuals.
• Group-living has always involved a compromise
between enjoying individual freedom and protecting the
best interests of the groups. So, how an individual’s
freedom can best be protected against the interest of the
society is the concern.
• This concern has long been dealt with the study of
Ethics. The study of Ethics is the study of “how to live
in group.”
Western history: Ancient Greece
Socrates: the Socratic method of reasoning “the
unexamined life is not worth living”
Plato (Socrates’ student):
Realms of reality: realm of forms (perfect) and realm
of appearance (imperfect)
Tripartite soul:
Faculty of reason->thought and truth->head
Faculty of spirit->eternal life, love, beauty ->chest
Faculty of appetite->human desire and emotions--
>guts
Allegory of the cave
Ancient Greece cont’d
• Aristotle (Plato’s student): more practical

approach to reasoning. He believes in the
importance of empirical inquiry.
• In nichomachean ethics, aristotle (trans,2002)
discussed practical wisdom (phronesis) as being
necessary for deliberation about what is good and
advantageous if people want to move toward their
human purpose or desire end goal of eudaimonia
(happiness or well-being) aristotle believe that a
person needs education to cultivate phronesis,
which is intellectual excellence.
Middle Ages (Dark Ages)
•Christianity becomes the dominant religion
(monotheistic) while Greece was (polytheism).
Catholic saints, Augustine and Aquinas:
Both men were influenced by the Ancient Greeks.
Augustine(354-430 C.E.) "Plato of the Middle
Ages.”:
•His belief in a heavenly place of unchanging moral Truth
is similar to Plato’s belief in the realm of ideal Forms.
•These truth are imprinted by God on the soul of each
human being.
•He believed in the existence of good .
So evil is present when good is missing.
Middle ages cont’d
Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274):

Christianized version of Aristotle’s ethical teaching.
Believed that people have a desirable end goal or

purpose and that practicing excellences of character
(virtues) leads to human happiness and good moral
reasoning.
Virtue ethics and natural law theory!!
Modern philosophy and
the age of enlightenment
•The scientific revolution began.

•Human moral reasoning based on people being
autonomous (self-direction), Rational thinking
creatures rather than being influenced and controlled
by Church dogma and rules.
•Reductionists: hope that after most or all knowledge
was discovered the universe and human behavior
could be predicted and controlled
•A mechanistic approach: is one that focuses one
fixing problems as if one is fixing a machine.
Postmodern era
•Pence (2000) defined postmodernist as “ a
modern movement in philosophy and the
humanities that reject the optimistic view that
science and reason will improve humanity; it
rejects the notion of sustained progress through
reason and the scientific method” (p.43)
•The postmodern mind is one that is formed by a
pluralistic view or a diversity of intellectual and
cultural influences.
Care-based reasoning versus
justice-based reasoning
Care approach is associated with a feminine way of thinking.
Cure approach is associated with a masculine Enlightenment-era way of
thinking
.
Lawrence Kohlberg (1981) defined six stages of moral development
ranging from childhood to adulthood. Also he didn’t include any women
in his study.
Carol Gilligan ,raised the concern of gender bias.

In her book In a Different Voice (1982),she argued that women’s moral
reasoning is different ,but it is not deficient.
Kohlberg's is a male-oriented ethics of justice.

Gilligan’s is a more feminine ethic of care.
Eastern ethics
• Ethics in Asian societies has similarities to and

important differences from western ethics.
• similarities: intertwined with spiritual and religious
thinking. Both examined human nature and what is
needed for people to move toward well-being.
• Differences: the western ethics is generally for people
to achieve self-direction and to understand themselves
personally.
• The eastern ethics often is to understand universal
interconnections, to be liberated from the self.
Although, eastern ethics is not imposed from outside
of a person but is instead imposed from within oneself.
Indian Ethics: Hinduism
• The main emphasis in Hindu ethics is cosmic unity.

• It originated with writings called the Vedas (c. 2000 to
1000 B.C.E.) that include magical, religious, and
philosophical teachings.
• People are believed to be stuck in Maya,(an illusory,
everyday, impermanent experience).
• The quality of one's past actions, karma, influences one's
present existence and future incarnations or rebirths.
• Therefore, people need to improve the goodness of their
actions, which will subsequently improve their karma.
Indian Ethics: Buddhism
• Siddhartha Gautama (6th century B.C.E.) was a Hindu
prince. The Buddha's core teachings, are called the Four
Noble Truths:
• The First is that unsatisfactoriness or suffering (dukkha)
exists as a part of all forms of existence.
• The Second and Third suggest that the cause of suffering is
attachment (clinging or craving).
• The Fourth contains the path for transforming suffering into
enlightenment or liberation.
• This path is called the Eightfold path, and it is composed of
eight right
• practices: Right View, Right Thinking, right Mindfulness,
Right Speech, Right Action, Right Diligence, Right
Concentration, and Right Livelihood.
Chinese Ethics: Taoism
• Lao-tzu(c,571 B.C.E)who wrote the Taoist guide to

life.
• Taoist philosophy underscores the flux and balance
of nature through yin(dark) and yang(light)
elements.
• living well or ethically is living authentically, simply,
and unselfishly in harmony and oneness with
nature.
Chinese Ethics: Confucianism
• K’ung Fu-tzu(551 to 497 B.C.E).

• Confucian ethics is described through the
concepts of li and yi.
• Li provides guidance to social orders and how
humans should relate to one another.
• Yi emphasizes the importance of ones
motivations toward achieving rightness rather
than emphasizing consequences.
• Confucianism is communitarian ethical systems
in which social goals, the good of society, and the
importance of human relationships are valued.
The Moral Views of Socrates
• The history of hortatory ethical speculation can be
interpreted in the light of the attempt to answer two
questions:
1 What is the good life for humankind?
2 How ought humans, insofar as they are moral beings, to behave?
• Socrates' answers to these questions are as follows:
1 People ought to act in such a way as to achieve the good life.
2 The good life can be discovered if and only if people have
knowledge.
• The \Socratic paradox": although people in fact act
immorally, none do so deliberately.
• Socrates believed that if a person knows what is good, then
they will always act in such a way as to try to achieve it.
– virtue is knowledge"
– nobody errs willingly"
Plato's Ethics
• Plato differs from Socrates not only in believing that
knowledge of the good is possible, but also in specifying how
one can go about achieving it.
• Plato's contention is that discovering the nature of the good
is an intellectual task analogous to that required in order to
uncover a fundamental scientific principle.
• The search for the good life is then tied to the theory of
knowledge.
• Plato's blueprint for an ideal social organization contained
two highly dissimilar proposals for educating people,
depending upon whether or not they have the capacity to
acquire knowledge.
• Plato argued that moral standards are just as objective as the
principles of physics or the theorems of mathematics. Those
who think morality is merely a matter of opinion think so
because they lack the knowledge to judge otherwise.
Aristotle's Ethics
• Aristotle's ethics are an attempt to answer two questions:
– 1 What is the good life?
– 2 How ought a person, insofar as they are moral, to act?
• Aristotle's ethics form a far more empirical theory than
Plato's, less hostile to pleasure as a component of the good
life, and positively opposed to the Platonic conception that
moral laws have a validity independent of human interests,
attitudes, desires, and tastes.
• For Aristotle, no specification of the good life will be
adequate which does not take into account a person's unique
nature.
• The good life must be one which is good for humans, and
since humans are, above all, rational beings, the good life will
be one which must be conducted under the governance of
reason.
Kantianism
• Immanuel Kant (1724 – 1804) a German philosopher
• People’s wills should be based on moral rules
• Therefore it’s important that our actions are based on
appropriate moral rules.
• To determine when a moral rule is appropriate Kant
proposed two Categorical Imperatives
1. Act only from moral rules that you can at the same
time universalize.
– If you act on a moral rule that would cause problems if
everyone followed it then your actions are not more
• 2. Act so that you always treat both yourself and other
people as ends in themselves, and never only as a
means to an end.
– If you use people for your own benefit that is not moral
Ethics: ???
• Sociologist Raymond Baumhart asked business people, "What does
Ethics mean to you?" Among their replies were the following:
– "Ethics has to do with what my feelings tell me is
right or wrong.“
– "Ethics has to do with my religious beliefs.“
– "Being ethical is doing what the law requires.“
– "Ethics consists of the standards of behavior our
society accepts.“
– "I don't know what the word means."
These replies might be typical of our own. The meaning of "ethics" is
hard to pin down, and the views many people have about ethics are
shaky
“Most people confuse ethics with behaving in accordance with social
conventions, religious beliefs, and the law", and don't treat ethics as a
stand-alone concept.- Tomas Paul and Linda Elder
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Ethics: ???
• Many people tend to equate ethics with their feelings. But being
ethical is clearly not a matter of following one's feelings. In fact,
feelings frequently deviate from what is ethical.
• Ethics, however, cannot be confined to religion nor is it the same

as religion.
• laws, like feelings, can deviate from what is ethical. Our own pre-
Civil War slavery laws and the old apartheid laws of present-day
South Africa are grotesquely obvious examples of laws that
deviate from what is ethical.
• In any society, most people accept standards that are, in fact,

ethical. But standards of behavior in society can deviate from what
is ethical. An entire society can become ethically corrupt. Nazi
Germany is a good example of a morally corrupt society.
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Ethics: ???
• The early Greek attempted to understand the meaning of

life and is considered by many to have begun the
development of a Reasoned Philosophy of Ethics. The
teachings of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle culminated in
Nichomachus Ethics, named after the name of Aristotle’s
son - Nichomachus.
• Plato said that philosophy begins in wonder. Ethics as
branch of philosophy arises from the curiosity about the
values involved in the human behavior.
• The ultimate goal of the quest of human life is usually
mentioned by the words like, The Good, the Highest Good,
the Supreme Good or End, Summum Bonum etc.
• Aristotle debated at length the meaning of the word ‘Good’
as well as the concept of ‘Justice and happiness’.
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Ethics - Definition
• Derived from the Latin word “Ethos”- the space where people
living together
• Later it covered the Custom, Usage and Habit
• Ethics is related with moral but it is not exactly morale
• The word `moral’ is derived from the Latin word `mores’ which
also means customs, usages or habits
• Morality is the standard of behavior by which people are judged
but Ethics is a system of belief that supports a view of morality,
the aim of ethics is to define the nature of the “Highest good of
a man” as a member of society
• Ethics is related with human conduct, character and values.
Ethics also explores into the problem of practical life i.e.
morality.
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Ethics - Definition
• Literally, Ethics is the science of customs or collective habits of
men. Any custom has a reference to the community. Customs
are the ways of acting, approved by the group.
• Paulsen defines Ethics as a science of customs or morals.
• According to Mackenzie, Ethics is the study of what is good or
right in conduct.
• For Seth, as the science of the Good, Ethics is the science par
excellence of the ideal and the ‘ought’.
• For Jadunath Sinha, Ethics is the science of the Highest Good.
• Lillie’s definition is a comprehensive definition. According to
William Lillie, “Ethics is a normative science of the conduct of
human beings living in societies – science which judges this
conduct to be right or wrong, good and bad.”
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Ethics: Definitions
Therefore, Ethics is-

The science of custom and habit
The science of character and conduct
The science of rightness and wrongness
The science of morality and
The normative science
2. Use of Ethics
Use of Ethics
• It exposes the inconsistent measures, defects and
discriminations of the social customs and habits
• It helps to remove incorrect ideas and hence to reduce
possibilities of wrong actions
• It helps to determine the duties of life with reference to moral
ideas
• It helps to rationalize our notion of right or wrong
• It influences directly/indirectly in all sphere of our life
• Examples-
– Lay off of the employees
– Pounding on upstream side of a dam
– Operating Cigarette and Bear factories
– Child workers
Use of Ethics
• Ethics studies the moral behaviour in human, and how one
should act. It may be divided into four major areas of study
which include:
• Meta-ethics, about the theoretical meaning and reference of
moral propositions and how their truth-values (if any) may be
determined;
• Normative ethics, about the practical means of determining a
moral course of action;
• Applied ethics, about how moral outcomes can be achieved in
specific situations; and
• Descriptive ethics also known as comparative ethics, about
what moral values people actually abide by.
• Within each of these branches are many different schools of thought and still
further sub-fields of study.
Use of Ethics: Area and Nature of Ethics
• The nature of Ethics can be stated as follows:-
• Ethics is a science:
– Ethics aims at systematic explanation of its subject matter. It
systematically aims at explanation of rightness and wrongness in
human conduct with reference to ideals. It systematically classifies
our actions into voluntary, involuntary, moral, non- moral and
evaluates them.
• Ethics is a normative science:
– Every individual has three faculties viz. Cognitive, Affective and
Conative (knowing, feeling and willing or acting).there are 3 ideals
in human life corresponding to the three aspects of human nature.
Truth, Beauty, and Good are the Supreme Ideals. Logic, Aesthetics
and Ethics study the ideals of Truth, Beauty and Good respectively.
– The ideals in normative science cannot be proved. In the other words
values” cannot be proved; they are to be approved.
• The nature of Ethics:
• Ethics is the science of ideals involved in human conduct:
– Conduct is the assimilation of choice of Ends and choice of means
with some purpose. Thus Ethics is the science of ideals (Ends)
involved in human conduct.
• Ethics evaluates human action:
– Ethics is a discipline which considers human actions from the
viewpoint of ethical norm or standard. It studies what is good or
right in human conduct. Ethics evaluates conduct with reference to
the Summum Bonum of human being.
• Ethics is related with Values:
– Ethical questions are value-oriented questions. Value judgments are
complex products of intuition, sense experience and reason. Values
are necessarily associated with choice of activities. We have to select
the action that is consistent with promotion of life, live organized
rational life.
• The nature of Ethics
• Ethics: A Theoretical science or a Practical science?
– Many Western thinkers believe that Ethics is not a practical science
as it gives us knowledge of guiding principles but does not tell us
how to apply them. . A practical science teaches us to know how to
do. It is concerned with means for the realization of a definite end.
E.g. medical science.
– However, in Indian context, Ethics is a practical science. Different
schools of Indian Philosophy prescribe the supreme end of life
(mostly liberation) and prescribe the path to attain it. The ethics of
Bhagawad Gita prescribes the duties of individual.
• Ethics is not an Art :
– According to Mackenzie, the difference between ethics and art :-
– Art is connected to a particular field of skill such as painting,
dancing, etc. Ethics is connected with the whole life of an individual.
• There are four branches of Ethics - Descriptive Ethics, Normative
Ethics, Meta-Ethics and Applied Ethics.
• Descriptive Ethics
– Descriptive Ethics is the study of people’s beliefs about morality. It
involves empirical investigation. It gives us a general pattern or a
way of life of people in different types of communities. It studies the
history and evolution of Ethics.
• Normative Ethics
– Normative Ethics is also called as prescriptive ethics is the study of
ethical theories that prescribe how people ought to act. It examines
standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions. Normative
Ethics suggests punishment when a person deviates from the path of
ideals. It provides justification for punishing a person who disturbs
social and moral order.
• Four branches of Ethics:-
• Meta- Ethics
– Meta Ethics is the study of what ethical terms and theories actually refer to.
It determines the validity of theories advanced in Normative Ethics. We use
certain moral concepts such as right, wrong, good or bad to evaluate human
actions.
– Meta Ethics deals with the questions such as ‘What is the meaning o f moral
terms or judgments?’, ‘What is the nature of moral judgments?’, ‘How may
moral judgments be supported or defended?’
• Applied Ethics
– It deals with the problems confronted in our life. It attempts to apply ethical
theory to real life situations. It helps to use knowledge of moral principles to
present dilemmas.
– Applied Ethics guides the individuals facing conflicting situation. Some
critical moral issues arise due to the insensible and irresponsible attitude of
human beings without any concern to other children of Mother Nature.
3. Characteristics of Ethical problem
Engineering Ethics
• The field of applied ethics which examines and

sets standards for engineers’ obligation to the
Public, their Clients, Employers and
Profession.
• Ethical Approaches mostly influenced by
whether the engineers are independently
providing professional service or government
service or production enterprises.
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Interpret this image
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Ethical Dilemma for an Engineer
• A basic ethical dilemma is that an engineer has the duty to

report to the appropriate authority a possible risk to others
from a client or employer failing to follow the engineer's
directions.
• According to first principles, this duty overrides the duty to a
client and/or employer. An engineer may be disciplined, or
have their license revoked, even if the failure to report such a
danger does not result in the loss of life or health.
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• In many cases, this duty can be discharged by advising the
client of the consequences in a forthright matter, and assuring
the client takes the engineer's advice. However, the engineer
must ensure that the remedial steps are taken and, if they are
not, the situation must be reported to the appropriate authority.
• In very rare cases, where even a governmental authority may
not take appropriate action, the engineer can only discharge the
duty by making the situation public.
• As a result, whistleblowing by professional engineers is not an
unusual event, and courts have often sided with engineers in
such cases, overruling duties to employers and confidentiality
considerations that otherwise would have prevented the
engineer from speaking out
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• Most significant decisions in organizations are not only complex
but could be considered dilemmas, because they involve
fundamental conflicts between a set of economic and self-interest
considerations and a competing set of ethical, legal, and social
considerations.
• These competing considerations favour different alternatives.
• While developing creative alternatives can help reduce the
conflict, some tension almost always remains.
• Some individuals avoid the more difficult task of trying to
balance these conflicting factors by arguing that organizations and
managers should consider economic (organizational self-interest)
considerations exclusively.
• Others simplify by over-emphasizing the social responsibility of
organizations and their managers.
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Ethical Dilemma for an Engineer:
Characteristics of Ethical problem
• Our ethical framework is founded on the values we hold and
believe to be important. Values are a set of moral principles we
embrace about what is "good," "desirable," "just, "and "of value" in
human actions and interactions.
• We use these principles (values) to evaluate choices and actions.
• Ethical decisions are almost always complex for several reasons
because they have:-
(a) multiple alternatives;
(b) consequences that extend beyond the immediate situation;
(c) uncertain consequences;
(d) mixed outcomes: economic, legal, and social benefits and costs;
and
(e) personal implications
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Other Ethical Issues
• Relationships with clients, consultants, competitors, and
contractors
• Ensuring legal compliance by clients, client's contractors, and
others
• Conflict of interest
• Bribery and kickback, which also may include: Gifts, meals,
services, and entertainment
• Treatment of confidential or proprietary information
• Consideration of the employer’s assets
• Outside employment/activities (Moonlighting)
• Some engineering societies are addressing environmental protection as a stand-
alone question of ethics.
• The field of business ethics often overlaps and informs ethical decision making
for engineers.
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4. Approaches to Ethical Decision Making:
Ethical Problems for Moral Reasoning
Approaches to Ethical Decision Making:
• Eternal Law
• Ethical Egoism
• Utilitarianism
• Universalism
• Enlightened Self interest
• Ethics of Interdependence
• Distributive Justice
• Personal Liberty
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• Eternal Law: Moral standards are given in an Eternal Law, which
is revealed in scripture or apparent in nature, and then is
interpreted by religious leaders or philosophers. The belief is that
everyone should act in accordance with the interpretation
• Ethical Egoism: Centres around the standpoint of the individual.
The belief is that individuals should seek their own self-interests,
and act to promote the greatest balance of good over bad for
themselves. Ethical egoism might be seen as the usual standard
for businesses in a free market system.
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• Utilitarianism: Moral standards are applied to the outcome of an
action or decision (a teleological theory) for, not only oneself, but
for all those affected by the action. The principle is that everyone
should act to generate the greatest benefits for the largest number
of people (i.e, the highest net social benefit to society, the
"greatest good for the greatest number" ...or maximize the social
benefit function). An act is "right" if, and only if, it produces
greater net benefits for society than any other act possible under
the circumstances.
• In using this system one needs to consider both positive benefits
and negative costs/outcomes, also satisfactions such as health,
friendships in addition to material ones. Most advocates of this
system say we should consider utilities equally for everyone in
society, although some suggest weighting [Jeremy Bentham (1748-
1832)]
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• Universalism: Moral standards are applied to the intent of an
action or decision, because the outcomes are so indefinite and
uncertain at the time the decision to act is made. The principle is
that everyone should act to ensure that similar decisions would be
reached by others, given similar circumstances. This is a
deontological (duties or obligations) approach,
• The first duty of Universalism is to treat others as ends and not
means. Kant (1724-1804) proposed a simple test for personal duty
and goodwill, to eliminate self-interest and self-deception, and to
ensure regard for the moral worth of others: ask whether you
would be willing to have everyone in the world, faced with similar
circumstances, be forced to act in exactly the same way (the
Categorical Imperative) ...i.e., to make a decision and act as if
your basis for action were to become a general law binding on
everyone)
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• Enlightened Self interest: This system is a hybrid of utilitarianism and
egoist theory. It may be thought of as "self-interest rightly understood
by a reasonable person.
• Spinoza maintained that all wrong decisions are due to intellectual error
and result from not understanding one's true or real self-interest.
• By this definition a truly ethical person will recognize that his/her own
long-term interests and those of society are much the same. Using this
framework, a person might ask: how am I likely to judge this action
from my deathbed?
• Ethics of Interdependence: Confucius taught that conflicts should be
resolved by amicable compromise, thereby allowing nature to follow its
harmonious course. In this system, reasonable people will always be
capable of compromise and each side is obligated to try to provide what
the other side needs to achieve its goals and fulfil itself. Any other kind
of behaviour is insincere, exploitive, contentious, and unethical.
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• Distributive Justice: Moral standards are based on the primacy of
a single value, justice. Everyone should act to ensure a more
equitable distribution of benefits, for this promotes individual
self-respect, which is essentially for social cooperation. [This and
Personal Liberty are two modem ethical systems developed by
two different professors at Harvard - this by John Rawls]
• Personal Liberty: Moral standards are based on the primacy of a
single value, liberty. Everyone should act to ensure greater
freedom of choice, for this promotes market exchange, which is
essential for social productivity. This system is espoused by
libertarians. [developed by Robert Nozick at Harvard]
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Whistle-blowing
• If workers bring information about a wrongdoing to the

attention of their employers or a relevant organisation, they are
protected in certain circumstances under the Public Interest
Disclosure Act 1998 (USA).
• This is commonly referred to as 'blowing the whistle'. The law
that protects whistle-blowers is for the public interest – so
people are encouraged to speak out if they find malpractice in
an organisation. Blowing the whistle is more formally known
as 'making a disclosure in the public interest.
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Whistle-blowing
• Qualifying disclosures are disclosures of information where

the worker reasonably believes one or more of the following
matters is either happening, has taken place, or is likely to
happen in the future:
– A criminal offence
– The breach of a legal obligation
– A miscarriage of justice
– A danger to the health and safety of any individual
– Damage to the environment
– Deliberate attempt to conceal any of the above.
65
Whistle-blowing
• A whistleblower (whistle-blower or whistle blower) is a
person who tells the public or someone in authority about
alleged dishonest or illegal activities (misconduct) occurring in a
government department or private company or organization.
• The alleged misconduct may be classified in many ways; for
example, a violation of a law, rule, regulation and/or a direct
threat to public interest, such as fraud, health/safety violations,
and corruption.
• Whistleblowers may make their allegations internally (for
example, to other people within the accused organization) or
externally (to regulators, law enforcement agencies, to the media
or to groups concerned with the issues).
66
Whistle-blowing
• One of the first laws that protected whistleblowers was the 1863
United States False Claims Act (revised in 1986), which tried to
combat fraud by suppliers of the United States government
during the Civil War. The act encourages whistleblowers by
promising them a percentage of the money recovered or damages
won by the government and protects them from wrongful
dismissal.
• Whistleblowers frequently face reprisal, sometimes at the hands
of the organization or group which they have accused, sometimes
from related organizations, and sometimes under law.
• Questions about the legitimacy of whistle blowing, the moral
responsibility of whistle blowing, and the appraisal of the
institutions of whistle blowing are part of the field of political
ethics.
67
68
10 Tips for Boosting Employee Morale
• 1. Recognize special events in the lives of your employees.
• 2. Keep the conversation going.
• 3. Recognize and reward your employees for doing good work.
• 4. Make the workplace comfortable.
• 5. Smile more.
• 6. Build a culture of trust.
• 7. Encourage work breaks.
• 8. Employee people "engines.“
• 9. Build a culture of employee appreciation.
• 10. Have fun.
• What Are Moral Dilemmas? - General Ethics
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jwOQ7Zq
DWN4
70
Assignment -1
• Whistle Blowing
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1SVIpD
Mk7fk
epp ETHICS
Morals: Concerned with goodness and badness of human
characters, free from action of nature or animal. Moral
measures the standard of good behavior by which people
are judged. (Distinction between right and wrongs,
conforming to accepted standards and rules).
72
epp ETHICS AND moral
Engineering morals means the standard of good behaviour of
engineering people by which they are judged.
Moral means the standards of behavior accepted by the

culture and religion of the society.
Non- moral is means devoid of moral quality.
The actions of animal or nature are neither moral nor non-

moral.
73
• Ethics: Greek word (ethos) means location or space where
people lived together
• Later it covered meaning : Customs, usages and habit
• The association of professional Engineers, Geologist, and

Geophysicists of Alberta define standard of study of right
and wrong,
• Science and philosophy deals
• Moral conduct , duty, and judgments

74
Ethics: Ethics is the branch of philosophy concerned with the
nature of ultimate value and the standards by which
human action can be judged right or wrong.
It is also applied to any system or theory of moral values or

principle.
Ethics is a system of belief that supports the view of morality.
75
• Ethics is an activity of understanding moral values,

resolving moral issues, and justifying moral judgment. It
refers to moral principles or rules of behavior.
• Ethics may be defined as the science of rightness or wrong

of conduct. Some times ethics is used to refer to the
particular set of belief, attitudes, and habits that a person
or groups displays concerning morality.
76
Morality is complex and not easily expressed in a
simple definition.
• Moral reasons require us to respect other people as well as
us to care for their good as well as our own.
• When we speak about ethics, we refer to peoples outlooks

on the morals issues.
• When we speak of ethical problem issues and

controversies, we mean to distinguish them from non-
moral problems. 77
• Ethics seeks to teach us how we can pass correct moral
judgment upon human conduct and consider it as right or
wrong with reference to supreme ideal of human life.
• TRUTH, BEAUTY, GOOD ARE IDEAL OF HUMAN LIFE.
• Thus ethics is the science of human character as expressed

in right or wrong conduct.
• DO UNTO OTHERS AS YOU WOULD HAVE
OTHERS DO UNTO YOU.
78
• Perspective on Morals, Ethics, and
Professionalism
• Ethics is traditionally subdivided as
Normative ethics
Meta ethics and
Applied ethics
79
• Engineering ethics: firstly it is the applied the study of moral issues and decision
confronting individuals and organisation engaged in engineering, and secondly the
study of related questions about the moral ideals, character, policies, and
relationship of people and cooperation in technologies activity.
• Engineering ethics refers to the accepted codes and standards of conduct.
Engineering ethics accordingly is the activity and discipline aimed at understanding
the normal values that ought to guide engineering practice, resolving moral
problems and issues, and justifying morals judgment concerning engineering safety,
health and public welfare.
• Ethics are set of principles that have been created through reflection and
discussion to guide our behavior. Ethics is the science of morality.
• Morality concern what ought or ought not to be done in a given situation, what is
right or wrong about the handling of it , what is morally good or bad.
80
Distinction between moral and non moral action
Engineering ethics refers to the study of morality.
There is difference between morality and ethics.
Ethics is a system of belief that supports a view of morality.
word moral means the principle of right or wrong behavior and standards of behavior.
Morality is the standards of behavior by which people are judged or assessed.
The word non use deviated by way of, means devoid of moral quality (without
something or lacking something).
Moral judgments are about what ought or ought not to be done, what is morally right
or wrong and what is morally good or bad.
On the basis of moral value society can distinguish the good and bad things.
Actions neither moral nor immoral
Calamities’
Animal action
Children action, mad action, idiot action
Action under compulsion
81
Voluntary action of person
desires Deliberation
Mental stage
motive
consequence action
Positive intended Negative intended
82
tradition
Family
individual
and friend
person
Economic
profession condition
Law
83
Discussion on moral dilemma on decision making taking reference of
laws of ethics
In every pace of life, ethical dilemma happens on decision making process.
Ethical dilemma happens on decision making process happens due to
economic and social reasons for an institution and want or desire and
duties for an individual.
Disposal of industrial waste to the river basin may fulfill industries desire or
wants due to economic reasons but it harm the environment and society.
An individual do something to fulfill his wants or desire what he is not
supposed to do.
Asphalt lay during rainy seasons and day after broken out almost.
Software model using crack version and cannot run properly.
84
YOURSELF WHEN MAKING AN ETHICAL DECISION (Tylor-1990)
10. Could the decision become habit forming?

If so, don't do it.
9. Is it legal?
If it isn't, don't do it.
8. Is it safe?
7. Is it the right thing to do?
6. Will this stand the test of public scrutiny?
If it won't, don't do it.
5. If something terrible were to happen, could I
defend my actions?
If you can't, don't do it.
85
YOURSELF WHEN MAKING AN ETHICAL DECISION
4. Is it just, balanced, and fair?

3. How will it make me feel about myself?
If it's lousy, don't do it.
2. Does this choice lead to the greatest good for the
greatest number?
If it doesn't, don't do it.
And the #1 question you should ask yourself when
making an ethical decision:
1. Would I do this in front of my mother?
If you wouldn't, don't do it.
(Taylor, 1990) 86
• Seven sins by Mahatma Gandhi
87
88
1. Right View. The right way to think about life
is to see the world through the eyes of the
Buddha--with wisdom and compassion.
2. Right Thought. We are what we think. Clear
and kind thoughts build good, strong characters.
3. Right Speech. By speaking kind and helpful
words, we are respected and trusted by
everyone.
4. Right Conduct. No matter what we say, others
know us from the way we behave. Before we criticize
others, we should first see what we do ourselves.
89
5. Right Livelihood. This means choosing a job that
does not hurt others. The Buddha said, "Do not earn
your living by harming others. Do not seek happiness
by making others unhappy."
6. Right Effort. A worthwhile life means doing our
best at all times and having good will toward others.
This also means not wasting effort on things that
harm ourselves and others.
7. Right Mindfulness. This means being aware of our
thoughts, words, and deeds.
8. Right Concentration. Focus on one thought or
object at a time. By doing this, we can be quiet and
90
attain true peace of mind.
Four Truth of Buddha

•What's wrong with me?
•Why am I sick?
•What will cure me?
•What do I have to do get well?
91
History of code
• The history can be traced out from the code of conduct of
Hammurabi , the king of Babylon 1792-1750 BC
• "An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth."
• The builder shall be put to death , if the house he builds collapse and
causes death of the house owner
• The builders son shall be put to death, if the houses the builder built
causes the death of the son of the house owner
• The builder shall compensate the house owner with the slave of
equal value , if the house the builder has built causes the death of a
slave of the house owner
• The builder shall restore at his own expense, if the house the builder
has built destroys the property of the house owner
• In Nepal, NEA has approved and adopted the code first time March
1969.
92
epp PROFESSIONALISM
• Objective:
• any professional conduct needs codes of ethics and guidelines to maintain high
level of standard of good behavior or conduct in the public.
• Engineers create facilities and services by any or all of the acts and do so by
applying engineering principles and the experiences gained.
• Fundamental of ethics:
• The national society of professional Engineers NSPE US approved by the board of
directors on 5th Oct 1977 has set the following principles for engineers to support
and advance the integrity, honor and dignity of engineering profession by
• Using their knowledge and skill for the advancement of human welfare
• Being honest and impartial and serving with loyalty the public, their employers and
clients.
• Striving to increase the competencies and prestige of engineering profession
• Supporting the professional and technical societies of their disciplines. 93

epp PROFESSIONALISM
• Five fundamental ethical values for codes
Protection of life and safeguarding people
Sustainable management and care for the
environment
Community well being
Professionalism, integrity and competence
Sustaining engineering knowledge
94
epp PROFESSIONALISM
• Some other basic norm for professional engineers as below
Welfare of public
Serve in area of competences
Issue public statement in an objective and truthful manner
Shall act as faithful or trustee
Should build their reputation, unfairness to others
Enhance honor, integrity and dignity of the profession
Professional career development
Advertise on factual representation
Do not offer or accept the hidden payment
Do not disclose confidential matter(information)
Do not engage in conflicting services
Sign those documents which are prepared under his direct involvement
Report if any unethical matter in your knowledge etc.
95
epp PROFESSIONALISM
Professional ethics concerns the moral issues that arise because of the specialist knowledge that
professionals attain, and how the use of this knowledge should be governed when providing
a service to the public.
Nepal Engineering Council

Professional Code of Conduct
The professional code of conduct to be followed by the registered engineers of the council,
subject to the provision of Nepal Engineering Council Act, 2055 (1998) and Nepal
Engineering Council Regulation, 2057 (2000), has been published as the following:
96
97
98
epp PROFESSIONALISM
Preamble: Whereas, it is expedient to make the provision of Nepal Engineering Council in order
to make the engineering profession effective in the State of Nepal and mobilize it in a
systematic and scientific manner as well as to provide for, among other matters, the
registration of the names of engineers as per their qualifications;
Now, therefore, be it enacted by Parliament in the twenty-seventh year of the reign of late
King Birendra.
99
epp PROFESSIONALISM
1. Discipline and honesty:
2. Politeness and secrecy:
3. Non-discrimination:
4. Shall have to do only the concerned professional work:
5. Not to do such works, which may cause harm to engineering profession:
6. Personal responsibility:
7. State name, designation, registration no:
8. No publicity or advertisement shall be made which cause unnecessary effect:
Oath
I ……………………………… having been registered with the Nepal
Engineering Council agree to be governed by the memorandum, rules
regulations and byelaws of the council, as they now stand or as they
may hereafter be altered or added to according to law and I undertake
to observe the ethics of the profession and to promote objects and
interest of the council in so far as it lies in power.
100
Other code of ethics
• Other professional association has also provide the code of ethics
• NEA (Nepal Engineering Association), SOMEN , etc.
• SCAFF (Society of consulting Architecture and engineer's)
• FCAN (Federation of Contractors Association of Nepal)
• APEGGA (the association of Professional Engineers Geologists, and geophysicists
of Alberta)
• ACM (Association for Computing Machinery )
101
Responsibilities of engineers
• Will be honest and fair, will serve the client and e the public with devotion
• Will dedicate himself to the advancement of the competence of the engineering
profession
• Will use the knowledge and skill in the favor of humanity
• RESPONSIBILTY TOWARDS THE NATION
• MORAL RESPONSIBILITY
• INVOLVEMENT IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
• REFRAIN FROM WORKS WHICH ARE AGAINST NATIONAL
INTEREST
102
• RESPONSIBILTY TOWARDS THE CLIENT
• TO GAIN AND MAINTAIN CLIENT CONFIDENCE
• TO BE LOYAL TO THE CLIENTS
• TO PROTECT INTEREST OF CLIENT
• TO SAFEGUARD CLIENT COFIDENTIAL INFORMATION
• TO DISCLOSE THE CONFLICT OF INTEREST
103
• RESPONSIBILTY TOWARDS THE PROFESSION
• THE NECESSITY OF FORMER QUALIFICATION
• REFRAIN FROM CLAIMING SKILL NOT IN HIS/HER PROFESSION
• THE NEED TO EXERCISE GREATER SKILL IN SPECIALISED JOBS
• THE NEED FOR HIGH QUALITY OF SKILL
• ELIGIBILTY FOR agreed remuneration only
• Refrain from holding position where there is conflict of interest
• The need for professional development
104
Relationship of engineering profession to basic science and technology;
relationship to other professions
• Engineering itself is an application of knowledge and skills acquired through a

specialized training, education and experiences and practicing the same as an
occupation in the areas of public safety, health and property protection. In
short it is a systematic application of knowledge and skill.
• The basic science teaches us the law of nature, properties of matters and
sources of power that are available around us. Technology teaches us the best
application of those laws of nature and utilization of the properties of matters
and sources of power by which, engineer can make new facilities and create
new services.
105
• Science: …. A system of data and relationship covering vast areas of

information derived from observation analysis and manipulation of natural
phenomenon.
• Technology: how thing are commonly done or made, what things are done or
made.
• A study of the technical means undertaken in all cultures ( a universal) which

involves the systematic application of organised knowledge ( synthesis) and
tangible ( tools and material) for the extension of human faculties that are
restricted as a result of the evolutionary process. Evident, knowledge based,
accumulative, humanity, survival alters cutlers and society, future oriented,
observable, harmony to human life and nature, etc
106
• Basically the basic science and technology used in an integrated form as a separate
profession for the welfare of people is engineering. So we concluded engineering
knowledge is not possible without basic science and technology.
• Basic science and technology includes physics, chemistry, mathematics and

technology includes those in which the process or method of applying those
describes how to become or how to make. Combining both of these subjects forms
engineering subjects.
107
• Basically the basic science and technology used in an integrated form as a separate
profession for the welfare of people is engineering. So we concluded engineering
knowledge is not possible without basic science and technology.
• Basic science and technology includes physics, chemistry, mathematics and

technology includes those in which the process or method of applying those
describes how to become or how to make. Combining both of these subjects forms
engineering subjects.
108
• Engineering works involve large funds for creating facilities and services for the
people. As the project involves budget and the people the engineer in charge and
staff need to have good procedure of keeping record and rapport with
stakeholders. Therefore engineering profession involves mainly the following
profession, accountant, lawyers, medicals and managers.
• Engineering profession has a deep relation with law, account, medicine, and
management profession. Auditing, budgeting, managing, conflicts and maintaining
harmonies in work sphere.
109
engineering Ethics
The importance of engineers in today's society is great and

obvious.
Therefore, the ethical issues they are dealing with and the
decisions they make can influence the whole society and the
discussion on ethics in engineering education is thus of big
importance
Ethics is something everybody learns to a certain level
while growing up, during his/her whole education, at home
etc. So when a person enters the higher level of education he/she
already has some knowledge about ethics.
The discussions on this Symposium were whether that
knowledge is enough for young engineers.
110
Ethics in general,
presenting the current situation of courses on Ethics in
their universities, talked about necessity of Ethics in
Engineering education and the ways it should be
implemented in educational system.
the discussions there have also been talks about
cheating at school as an ethical issue.
111
In today’s life, people learn about ethics all the time, being
aware of it or not. The society, the religion, the family, the
culture, the media, the traditions, everything has its influence. The
awareness of ethics is on a very high level, but the level of
knowledge of every person and every society is not the
same. Also, common ethics are learned because of the factors
mentioned above, but professional ethics are not.
It’s needed to take into account the distinction between morals
and ethics, ethics being the practical reflection of some morals.
Morals are unconsciously learnt during childhood, but ethics are
learnt at the time of confrontation with problems in life. Ethics as
a field of study is universal, but the perception of ethical
correctness differs in different cultures. Ethics are changing
during the years because society is changing. Distinctions
between personal and professional ethics also exist.
112
Ethics in Current Engineering Education
Talking about the ethics in current university education there are different
situations:
113
Ethics in Engineering Education: is it necessary and
why?
• The necessity of ethics in the engineering education was corroborated by the
problems faced by engineers. They will be critical about all the information they will
receive. Also they will be more confident when standing up for their own opinion,
resisting outer pressure if needed. The critical thinking will be raised with a
background on ethics that the engineers will have with this kind of courses. Thus, in
every day situations, the dilemmas will be solved in a better way and the
long-term consequences of engineering discoveries will be more carefully
evaluated.
• Ethics also have an important role on the gaps that there are inevitably in
laws and involve the
• responsibility of communicating with the society, of presenting, objectively, one person’s
own work.
114
Implementation of Ethics in Engineering
Education
The idea of having a course on ethics as compulsory. More ideas on
how the course should look like were presented:
● The course should give a direction of thinking that would make people more aware
of their actions. By introducing a certain level of criticism, automatic behaviour would
be excluded from decision making.
● Students generally would like to have interaction among all the students that
enrolled the course and the teacher. It is a way through which more ideas could come
up and more sharing could exist.
● The course should include: case studies, examples from real life, problem–solving
methods.
● Although theory and definitions are not so attractive to students, they should exist.
● Optionally: the first contact with ethics should be before university, and it should
be about general ethics and latter on professional ethics should be given at
university.
115
Implementation of Ethics in Engineering Education
•Dynamic course: as the time is changing the material should also change.
The technologies are changing, so the courses should take it into account.
•The course should represent a lot of examples from real life.
•About the person(s) who will give the course there were more ideas:
• The person should have not just theoretical knowledge but also a practical
background, the person should have experience as working as an engineer or as
an option, special training on ethics.
• Cooperation among two persons: engineer who will be practical and
philosopher who will be theoretical.
•Having and not having grading:
• The grading will be a reason for bigger interest and motivation during the course. The
grade should not be based on classical exam, but on the activities during the time
the course is rolling and a final project.
•There was not agreement if the course should be in the beginning or in the end of the
studies:
• In the beginning: The students will learn to act even in the beginning of their studies.
• In the end: the course would be based on the final preparation of the
engineer for his/her professional work.
116
Co nc lusio ns
There is a distinction between moral and ethics, as moral is something learned
unconsciously and ethics is something learned by reflecting moral stands in a real
world.
1. Big need exist for engineers to understand ethical issues that will occur during their
carrier, especially as engineers are the ones making the discoveries and they need to
stimulate the consequences of those.
2. Engineers have to stand up for their positions in ethically questionable cases.
3. In different universities the way ethics is taught varies from specific ethical courses,
ethics being part
4. in some technical courses to not having any ethics taught to the students. In cases
where ethics is taught
5. there are some problems concerning competitiveness of teachers, and lack of
practical examples.
117
Co nc lusio ns
• The goal of Ethical courses should be to promote critical thinking.

• They should be compulsory, dynamic and interactive (real cases, case studies and so on).
• The teachers should have theoretical knowledge but also practical and
technical experience as engineers. there was no conclusion reached concerning when
the ethical courses should be implemented (at the beginning of studies or at their end)
• Unethical behaviour during studies can effect future behaviour.
• How ever in many universities system of exams seems to promote or at least doesn't
try to stop that kind of behaviour.
• So the system should change in order to make it unworthy to even try.
118
DUTIES/ LIABILITIES/ of designers or professional
1. Negligent, misstatement.
2. Statutes, bylaws, and standards
3. Examination of site above or below ground surface
4. Public and private rights
5. Plans. drawings/ specification
6. Suitability of materials
7. Suitability of Method of execution
8. Novel/ risky design and employers interference in design
9. Revision of design during execution
119
Int rod uct io n – S ustaina ble Dev elo pment
120
• Engineers should be able to understand other
professionals, such as lawyers, social scientist, other kinds
of engineers and Sustainable Development in Engineering
Education: if it is necessary, how should we implement it?
• The answer on this question is not evident and the
opinions were not always the same. We would like to list
several general accepted ideas that came up during the
discussions together with the questions that are still open
or there was no agreement for the discussions did not
agree whether that course should be theoretical or
practical. At the end of the studies, applied courses are
necessary and they should be different depending of the
field of study.
• ●
121
122
THANK YOU
123

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CH2- Profession and Ethics

2.1 Profession: Definition and Characteristics

2.4 Ethics, Code of Ethics and Engineering

Perspective on Morals, Ethics, and

Moral means the standards of behaviour accepted by the

Non- moral is means devoid of moral quality.

The actions of animal or nature are neither moral nor non-

• Later it covered meaning

• Customs, usages and habit

• The association of professional Engineers, Geologist, and

• Science and philosophy deals 13

It is also applied to any system or theory of moral values or

Ethics is a system of belief that supports the view of morality.

Ethics may be defined as the science of rightness or wrong of

• Morality is complex and not easily expressed in a simple definition.

• TRUTH, BEAUTY, GOOD ARE IDEAL OF HUMAN LIFE.

• Thus ethics is the science of human character as expressed in right or wrong

• DO UNTO OTHERS AS YOU WOULD HAVE

• Aristotle (Plato’s student): more practical

Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274):

Believed that people have a desirable end goal or

•The scientific revolution began.

Carol Gilligan ,raised the concern of gender bias.

Kohlberg's is a male-oriented ethics of justice.

• Ethics in Asian societies has similarities to and

• The main emphasis in Hindu ethics is cosmic unity.

• Lao-tzu(c,571 B.C.E)who wrote the Taoist guide to

• K’ung Fu-tzu(551 to 497 B.C.E).

• Ethics, however, cannot be confined to religion nor is it the same

• In any society, most people accept standards that are, in fact,

• The early Greek attempted to understand the meaning of

Therefore, Ethics is-

• The field of applied ethics which examines and

• A basic ethical dilemma is that an engineer has the duty to

• If workers bring information about a wrongdoing to the

• Qualifying disclosures are disclosures of information where

Morals: Concerned with goodness and badness of human

characters, free from action of nature or animal. Moral

measures the standard of good behavior by which people

are judged. (Distinction between right and wrongs,

conforming to accepted standards and rules).

Moral means the standards of behavior accepted by the

Non- moral is means devoid of moral quality.

The actions of animal or nature are neither moral nor non-

• The association of professional Engineers, Geologist, and

• Science and philosophy deals

• Moral conduct , duty, and judgments

It is also applied to any system or theory of moral values or

Ethics is a system of belief that supports the view of morality.

• Ethics is an activity of understanding moral values,

• Ethics may be defined as the science of rightness or wrong

• When we speak about ethics, we refer to peoples outlooks

• When we speak of ethical problem issues and

• TRUTH, BEAUTY, GOOD ARE IDEAL OF HUMAN LIFE.

• Thus ethics is the science of human character as expressed

Meta ethics and

Positive intended Negative intended