UNIT 4: On Ends of Human Acts and the Norms of Morality

Fundamentals

Introduction Unit Learning Objective

All human acts are believed to be done for an end. By the end of this unit, you should be
In connection with such end, the whole society able to:
considers the norms of morality as means to social ends
which include social control, peace, and order in • compare the essential roles of a
society. This unit gives attention on end of human acts law with conscience.
in general, and the ultimate end of human acts, in
particular. Also, it tries to address the information
about the standards of right and wrong in human acts as it offers detailed reasons why certain acts
are morally right and why others are considered or assumed to be morally wrong.

Timing

This subject is credited with 54 hours for the whole semester. The said fifty-four (54) hours
will be divided into 6 weeks, which means that a total of nine (9) hours per week must be consumed.
Such 9 hour-allotment is intended to handle the demands of a unit. Due to the broadness of this part,
it is suggested that you need to allocate the first segment of your eighteen (18) hours to the reading
of your notes regarding the content of this unit. Take note the key concepts and start answering
certain unit-end guide questions using the remaining time.

Getting Started!

4.1. On Ends and Its Descriptions

Ends of Human Acts: Description

An end is both a termination and a goal of an activity (action). An end is that which completes
or finishes a thing (or action) and it is that for which the thing is finished. In a human act the end is
the final cause, that is to say, that on account of which, or to attain which the act is performed, and
which is, in consequence, apprehended as a good sufficiently desirable to motivate the agent (the
actor or doer) in performing the act. Likewise, an end refers to the termination or completion of an
action done. For example, if the goal right now of a student is to pass the semi-final examination, he
or she will prepare for it through diligent studying in order to pass such exam. If during the actual
exam the said student is able to finish the exam after being able to answer correctly most items, then
the end of passing the midterm exam is achieved. Likewise, the midterm exam has ended for him or
her particularly if a passing mark is given because he or she will not retake the same exam.

By simple apprehension, every activity, then, tends toward an end. Every activity is a tendency
where an act is directed to an end known as desirable, that is, to say as good to attain. Every tendency
may also be called as Appetite, or more properly, Appetency. Now, here is the different forms of
appetency: Natural Appetency, Sensual Appetency, and Will / Rational Appetency.

On Appetency and Its Forms

1. Natural Appetency
These are normal tendency toward a certain activity. These are not planned, but an
inherent activity being performed. This form of appetency exists without any sort of
knowledge, like plants which undergoes the process of growing and man reaching the stage
 of maturity. Simply, this form of appetency is considered as a normal tendency in a non-
human being. For instance, plants have the tendency to grow if well-nourished or anything
the goes up must go down. But, when appetency comes with knowledge, it happens under
sensual and will /or rational appetency, just as knowledge itself is of two kinds.

2. Sense Appetency
This is a kind of appetency which is stirred (or stimulated) into action by sensation
(man’s sensual faculty – the senses). So, this form of appetency is something that is fostered
because of sensation. For example, if man is hungry, his senses direct him to look for food;
and if man is thirsty, it directs his sense to look for water or because of the delectable aroma
one desires to sip coffee.

3. Will / Rational Appetency

The last form of appetency is where man’s will, reason, or intelligence is at work. When
man performs an action, he/she is being guided and directed by his/her will, reason, or
intelligence. This form of appetency is a tendency exclusive to man being guided by his
intellect or mind. Thus, he chooses based on what he already knows, for no one can freely
choose what he does not know. That which he chooses is known to him as good for man
will not chose anything that is presented to him as evil. In other words, what man choses
is always something desirable.

The end of human act is the purpose for which the act is done. An act is directed to an end
because it is desirable, that is, there is something good in it.
“An act is performed because of something good in it”. Thus, one performs the act due to the
presence of certain goodness.
Hence, whenever man choses to do something, it is for the purpose of achieving something
perceived by him as desirable regardless as to whether, or not it is truly good or evil. It might be asked
why man does something evil if he chooses and desires something good? Man, always desire
something good. But evil things take the aspect of goodness. When man choses something that only
appears to him as good when in reality, is evil, then he incidentally chooses evil not for its own sake,
but for the sake of its being apparently good. Thus, man does not choose evil intentionally. He only
makes a mistake of judgment in his choice.

On the Kinds of Ends

Ends can be grouped into 1) End of the Act and End of the Agent (Performer), 2) Proximate
and Remote End, 3) Intermediate and Ultimate End

1. End of the Act, and End of the Agent (Performer)

The end of the act is the end toward which the act of its own nature tends. For example,
if a paracetamol can cure a headache, then that means that the end of the act of taking a
paracetamol includes the cure of a headache. Also, the act of giving food and shelter to
destitute persons tends of its nature toward the relief of distress, and we say that relief of
distress is the end of the act.
The end of the agent is the end which the agent intends to achieve by his/her act. This
form of end refers to the intention of the doer in doing the action.
For instance, even if taking a paracetamol can cure a headache, the End of the Agent can
be different like when it is only intended to create an overdose in an attempt to perform
suicide. So, it means that the End of the Act and the End of the Agent is not actually the
same, although sometimes they might accidentally be taken to mean the same.
Likewise, the act of giving food and shelter to destitute persons maybe be performed
by the agent to increase his merit to God or the act is performed by the agent in order to
gain reputation of a beneficent person. This kind of end specifically deals on the Purpose
of Act and the Agent (Performer).
In its simple analogy, the “end of the act” is objective while the “end of the agent” is
subjective.

2. Proximate and Remote End

Proximate End is the end intended as the immediate outcome of an act. A proximate
end is a “Result Oriented” form of end. For example, when one intends to give alms to the

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 needy, it would be (very) obvious to assume that the immediate outcome of giving alms to
the poor is to help alleviate poverty.

Remote End refers to the one which the agent wishes to achieve later on using the
present action as a means. For example, a politician gives alms today to help alleviate
poverty for the purpose of getting noticed and elected in the future elections. Thus, the
Proximate End of giving alms to alleviate poverty is the immediate outcome which can be
used by the politician as a means towards a Remote End which is winning the elections in
the future.
To put it, remote end is that by which the agent wishes to achieve, later (on), and toward
the attainment of which he employs the present act as a means. A remote end is
“Expectation Oriented” form of end.
An end, whether proximate or remote, is willed either for its own sake or as a means to
an end more remote. If it is willed for its own sake, it is a last or ultimate end. On the other
hand, if it is willed as a means to an end then it is an Intermediate End.
To understand this, imagine that a politician wants to win the upcoming elections. To
do this, he wants to be noticed by the public that he is helping the poor, so he gives financial
aid to them (an Intermediate End). So, to be sure that he will be noticed, he will require the
presence of the media men to document (an Intermediate End) the act of giving financial
aid to the poor. Afterwards, he wants the media men to publish (an Intermediate End) his
actions of benevolence so that a wider number of viewers and readers can notice. Then he
will run during elections using such documented activity as a campaign ad (an
Intermediate End). Finally, he will feel satisfied that he achieved his ultimate end, when he
wins the election.

3. Intermediate and Ultimate End

Intermediate End is an End willed as a means to a further End. This end works as
Instrument Oriented form of end.

Ultimate End is an End willed for its own sake, also considered as the last End. This is
a Result Oriented form of end.
Example: “An aspiring politician man gives money to the poor”. The giving of money is
done to gain favorable notice to the public (newspaper, radio, television) this End serves
as a proximate and intermediate End and his willingness to give is for publicity, just to gain
favors or votes from the public (this is a remote and intermediate End). He wills election
for the prominence, power, and wealth which the office will give him (a remote and
ultimate End). This example shows us the chain or series of ends / or the relation of ends.

Thus, the ultimate End gives meaning to the intermediate Ends, and the intermediate
Ends are subordinated to the ultimate End.

4.2. On Norms of Morality

Norms of Morality and Its Kinds

The standards of what is right and wrong in human acts are the Norms of Morality. Human acts
are directed to their true ends by such norms. These Norms of Morality are the (1) Laws (as Objective
Norm) and (2) Conscience (as Subjective Norm).

1. On Law: Objective Norm of Morality

The most operative definition of a law was given by St. Thomas Aquinas which states
that “a law is an ordinance of reason, promulgated for the common good by one who has
charge of a society.”
The above definition shows that a law must be a reasonable ordinance. A law must also
be promulgated which means that it is made known to those bound by it called the subjects
of the law. Finally, a law must be for the common good instead of a private good. That is
why when there is an apparent conflict between a private good and the common good, the
latter prevails.
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 Before proceeding further, what makes a law reasonable? A reasonable law is just,
honest (which means it does not contradict a higher law), possible of fulfilment (does not
require extraordinary effort from its subjects), useful (practical for the common good),
relatively permanent (it remains permanent until it is revised or repealed because of
changing needs) and promulgated. If one of the said qualities of a reasonable law is
disregarded, it might lose its being reasonable.
Is a precept the same as a law? The answer is no. First, a precept is only for the private
good. Second, it is issued by a private authority like parents, but a law comes from a public
authority. Third, a precept is personal while a law is territorial. Fourth, the precept dies
with the death of the preceptor (the issuer of the precept) while a law remains in force
even if the original makers or legislators are already dead or no longer in power. A good
example of a precept is a binding agreement between a child and a parent that the former
must first become a medical doctor before entering into marriage otherwise she will never
get a share from the preceptor’s estate. Although not for the common good, the child must
abide by such precept as long as the preceptor is alive except if she desires to be divested
of her right of succession.
What is the purpose of a law? The purpose of a law is not to impose hardships upon its
subjects but to promote true liberty among men. Remember, anyone who abides by the law
is free while the one who deviates from the law is not free at all. For example, a citizen who
follows the rules of the road is free to travel while the one who disregards the said rules is
bound to meet an accident and ultimate be made liable to the law for wanton neglect of the
laws. Thus, a law is a true liberating agency of men.
The lawgiver can be a single person known as a “physical person” or a group of
legislators like the senate known as a “moral person”. All laws have only expressed their
applications and interpretations of the Eternal Law whose authority emanates from the
Divine.

On Laws and Its Division

The division of laws are according to different basis, such as the following:

1. According to immediate author

a) Divine Laws-they directly come from God like the Ten Commandments
b) Human Law-they are either enacted by the Church called Ecclesiastical Laws or
by the State called here as Civil Laws.
2. According to their duration
a) Eternal Law-is the Divine plan and providence for the universe. This requires
another description in the next section.
b) Temporal Laws-all human laws are temporal or limited in their duration even if
some of them are expressions of the Eternal Law.
3. According to manner of promulgation
a) Natural Law-in a widest sense, is the rule that directs creatures toward their
ends. In a strict sense, it is the Eternal Law as apprehended by human reason.
This means that the Natural Law, in its strict sense, is the Eternal as interpreted
by human reason.
b) Positive Laws-are laws enacted by the positive act of a legislator which is of the
Church or the State. Hence, all human laws that are valid are known here as
positive laws. Positive make concrete applications of the Natural Law
promulgated for the common good.
4. According to whether they prescribe or forbid an act
a) Affirmative Laws-are laws that bind always but not at every moment. All
affirmative laws are written without any negative part for example the law
which says “Honor thy father and thy mother.” Since Affirmative Laws bind
always but not at every moment, these laws allow exceptions during extremely
grave situation which matter about life or death.
b) Negative Laws-are laws which bind always and at every moment. There is no
exception allowed by a negative law. A negative law is written in a manner that
it clearly contains a negative element like for example, “Thou shall not commit
adultery.” Again there is no possibility of an exception from a Negative Law even
in an extremely grave situation which matter about life or death.
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 5. According to effect of violation
a) Moral Law-a violation of this law infects a fault or sin. Example is a violation of
the Ten Commandments.
b) Penal Law-a violation of which renders the violator liable to an established
penalty but does not infect him with sin. Example is a violation of the Anti-
Jaywalking Ordinance of a municipality.
c) Mixed Law-violation of which involves both fault and penalty. Example here is
the commission of murder which creates a grave sin on the agent or murderer
and makes him liable to a penalty under the existing laws.

This is a clarification of the Eternal Law. According to St. Augustine, the Eternal Law
commands that the natural order of things be preserved and forbids that it be disturbed. All
creatures are governed by this Divine Plan except that humans are given the freedom to follow
or deviate. Other creatures aside from humans which are governed by the Eternal Law are
governed by necessity because they have no use of freedom of choice. On the other hand, all
humans governed by the Eternal Law are governed by suasion because they can exercise free
choice.

2. On Conscience: Subjective Norm of Morality

Unlike a law which is an objective norm that guides man’s actions, conscience is its
counterpart which is a subjective norm. So, what is a conscience?
Conscience is the practical judgment of reason upon an individual act as good and to be
performed, or as evil and to be avoided (Glenn,1998).

From the above definition the following elements can be expounded:

First, conscience is a judgment of reason, which means it is a reasoned
conclusion. Since this is a reasoned conclusion, there must be a basis of which known
here as a principle. This set of moral principles which serve as basis for judgment upon
an individual act to be done or already done is called Synteresis (a starting point of
reasoning process of judgment). Just like in Logic, the Synteresis is the major premise,
the action done is the minor premise, and the conclusion is the reasoned judgment or
conscience.
Second, conscience is a practical judgment. This means that it is about what must
be done because it is proven by a reasoned judgment as good or must be avoided
because it is evil.
Third, conscience is a judgment upon an individual act, done or avoided and to
be performed or to be avoided. This makes a judgment on what has been done or
avoided being a judgment after action. Likewise, this is a judgment on what is to be done
or to be avoided as conscience before action.

Kinds of Conscience
Conscience exists in different states such as what are written below; to wit: a)
Certain; b) Doubtful; c) Correct; d) False.

a) Certain
It leaves no doubt on the morality of the action. The performer of the act
is convinced and firm of the morality of his action.
b) Doubtful
The person is undecided to the morality of action. The performer is
uncertain and has reservation on the morality of his action. The reason is,
the law does not allow anyone to act when in doubt regardless as to whether
it will result in something good or evil. Hence, certainty of conscience is
required first before acting even if such certainty will result in evil acts and
consequences. There will be a further discussion regarding resolution of
doubt later.
c) Correct
This is a kind of conscience that reveals the true morality of the action.
The performer follows the rules or laws as the basis of the morality of his
action.
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 d) False
It tells one that this present good action is evil and this present bad action
is good. The performer is misled on the truth, veracity, and morality of his
action. It appears to the performer that a good action is wrong and a bad
action is right.

On Types of Erroneous Conscience

Erroneous Conscience can be a) vincible erroneous; b) invincible erroneous.

a) Vincible Erroneous
A type of conscience wherein the wrong judgment can still be corrected.
In this kind of conscience, the performer has the time and opportunity to
make amends by correcting or rectifying his judgment and action. Failure to
correct becomes the answerability of the human agent.

b) Invincible Erroneous
With this kind of conscience, the reasoned judgment about an action
cannot be corrected anymore. Hence, this is not the fault of the agent
anymore.

Resolving a Practical Doubt

A doubt can be manifested in a failure to reach either an Absolute Certitude or Moral

Certitude. An Absolute Certitude does not allow even a slight possibility of error and therefore
difficult or even impossible to achieve. On the other hand, Moral Certitude is one which allows
even a slight possibility of error which cannot materially influence the rendering of a valid
reasoned judgment about an act and can prudently exclude any amount of practical doubt.
Thus, in resolving a practical doubt known here in Ethics as “Forming One’s Conscience”, it
is enough to reach the level of Moral Certitude. How can this be done?

Moral Certitude can be reached either directly or indirectly.

If to be done directly, a thorough investigation and careful study of the moral determinants
must be made until moral certainty is reached. For example, if there is a doubt whether or not
your deceased great grandparent has already paid up all instalment dues of his credit acquisition
when still alive, there is a need to gather evidences like official receipts of such payments. What if
official receipts are nowhere to be found? It is best to inquire about the creditor’s office. If still the
creditor’s office has been located and documents have been retrieved, then your practical doubt
on whether or not there is still a payable account can already be determined. The practical doubt
is resolved through a direct method.

In an indirect method, after a prudent study and investigation, there is no hint about
achieving moral certitude, then the Reflex Moral Principle: “a doubtful law does not bind” can now
be applied. Using the same example above in the case of the direct method, that despite efforts to
locate the office of the creditor, still there is no success because it has been discovered to have
closed down due to cash-related problems. As a result, the doubt has honestly continued to persist.
The application of the Reflex Moral Principle is already valid. That means the obligation to pay the
creditor is no longer binding due to the existing doubt. However, if the same creditor is located
later, the Reflex Moral Principle expires and the duty to pay is right there and then immediate.

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 Notes

Key Concepts – End, Appetency, Kinds of End, Norm, Kinds of Norms, Kinds of Conscience

Unit Activity

To measure your comprehension in understanding the concept of ends and the norms of
morality, a series of activities for unit should be performed. Refer to the attached Unit
Assessments in Activity section.

Readings

On Ends of Human Acts and Norms of Morality

Unit Summary

• Every human act tends towards an end.

• Human acts must be guided by ethical norms so that they can finally get towards their
desired ends with ease.
• Ethical norms are either objective or subjective.
• Objective norms are laws while subjective norms are known as conscience.

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