Lecture 5: The stress tensor The stress tensor cont. . .

• One of the main applications of tensor calculus is in the derivation of the equations of motion of • In general δF 1 has components in all 3 coordinate directions relative to the surface
continuous media
δF 1 = δF11 n + δF1 n1 + δF2 n2
• The stress tensor is key: describes the distribution of internal forces when the medium is
subjected to external forces (e.g. gravity) where n1 and n2 are parallel to the surface. Here, FN is the normal or direct stress, and F1
and F2 are shear stresses.
• Consider a point P in the body, δS a small plane at P , with outward pointing normal n1
• To relate this to the basis vectors of the space, we can choose to align n, the normal, with the
• The material on the outside of δS exerts a force δF 1 across δS
three basis vectors x1 , x2 and x3 :
(δF 1 is not necessarily parallel to n1 )
T1 = σ11 x1 + σ12 x2 + σ13 x3
• The stress (or force per unit area) at P across δS is
T1 = σ21 x1 + σ22 x2 + σ23 x3 (1)
δF 1 dF 1
t = lim = T1 = σ31 x1 + σ32 x2 + σ33 x3
δS→0 δS dS

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Stress tensor: general term

The stress tensor cont. . . • By considering planes normal to n2 and n3 show that

ti = σij nj
• Thus we can (and do) write
• Alternatively, taking a dot product with nj
t1 = σ11 n1 + σ12 n2 + σ13 n3 = σ1j nj
σij = ti · nj
◦ σ11 is the normal (or direct) stress
• The stress tensor σ = [σij ] has 9 components (in general)
◦ σ12 , σ13 are the tangential (or shear) stresses
• It is a tensor [see Chorlton]
• General stress component σij
• Since δF varies with position, so does σ (in general)
◦ i specifies the normal direction to the surface across which the force acts
◦ j specifies the direction in which the force acts • Can show that (in an isotropic fluid) the i component of stress on a general plane δS with normal
n (with components (n1 , n2 , n3 ) in (x1 , x2 , x3 ) coordinates) is
n
ti = σij nj

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 Stress tensor is symmetric

• For isotropic materials at rest, we can show that the stress tensor must be symmetric No net force equation

• Consider a volume V inside the body, with surface S

• Using the definition of the stress tensor
• A surface element dS has unit normal n, and is acted on by stress tn ZZ ZZZ
• If the body is at rest the net force, and net couple, on the body must be zero, so σij nj dS + ρBi dV = 0
S V
ZZ ZZZ
tn dS + ρB dV = 0 • Applying the divergence theorem
S
ZZ Z Z ZV ZZZ
∂
r × tn dS + ρr × B dV = 0 σij + ρBi dV = 0
V ∂xj
S V

• Taking the i component of each vector equation • The integral must be zero for any choice of volume V , hence
ZZ ZZZ ∂σij
n
ti dS + ρBi dV = 0 + ρBi = 0
∂xj
S
ZZ Z Z ZV
[r × tn ]i dS + ρ[r × B]i dV = 0
S V

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No net couple equation

No net couple equation cont. . .

• Write i component of cross product using alternating tensor and use stress tensor definition
ZZ ZZZ • Use summation convention identities and gather terms
ǫijk xj σkp np dS + ρǫijk xj Bk dV = 0
 
∂σkp
S V ǫijk δjp σkp + ǫijk xj + ρBk = 0
∂xp
• Apply the divergence theorem
ZZZ • The bracketed term is zero (from the no net force equation), so
∂
[ǫijk xj σkp ] + ρǫijk xj Bk dV = 0
V ∂xp ǫijk δjp σkp = 0

• Integral is zero for any volume V , so integrand must itself be zero • Using summation convention identities again to get
∂
[ǫijk xj σkp ] + ρǫijk xj Bk = 0 ǫijk σkj = 0
∂xp

• Use chain rule to simplify the derivative • Now, if for any rank 2 tensor s,, ǫpqr sqr = 0 (for all p) then s is symmetric. Thus

∂xj ∂σkp σ is symmetric ⇔ σij = σji

ǫijk σkp + ǫijk xj + ρǫijk xj Bk = 0
∂xp ∂xp

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 Simple stress states
Stress tensor properties
1. Hydrostatic pressure

• It is symmetric, and thus has only 6 independent entries σij = pδij

◦ normal stresses σ11 , σ22 , σ33 This is the stress state for any fluid in equilibrium. p is the hydrostatic pressure
◦ shear stresses σ12 , σ13 , σ23 2. Uniform tension/compression (e.g. in the x1 direction)

• Can show that the symmetry remains while the body is in motion  
σ 0 0
 
• Physical reason for the symmetry is that the body cannot support couples whilst at rest σ = 0
 0 0 σ > 0 for tension, σ < 0 for compression

• NB anisotropic materials do not have a symmetric stress tensor: 0 0 0
e.g. polymers, liquid crystals, silly putty, paint, oobleck
3. Uniform shear stress (e.g. in the x1 direction on the plane x2 =constant)
• Knowledge of the stress tensor leads to equations of motion. e.g. Navier Stokes for a fluid,  
conservation of momentum is 0 τ 0
Dv 
σ= 0

0
ρ = ∇ · σ + ρF τ
Dt

0 0 0

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