ARYA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING

TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

SUBJECT: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
CODE: 2FY3-08
BRANCH: Common for all I year
Session: 2022-23

Prepared by:
Rohan Sharma
Asst. Professor (EE)
 RTU UNIT- III
SYLLAbUS Transformers:

BASIC Ideal and practical transformer

ELECTRICAL EMF equation
ENGINEERING
Equivalent circuit
Losses in transformers
Regulation and efficiency

2
Introduction
One of the main reasons that we use alternating AC voltages and currents in our
homes and workplace’s is that AC supplies can be easily generated at a
convenient voltage.
Can be easily transformed (hence the name transformer) into much higher
voltages and then distributed around the country using a national grid of pylons
and cables over very long distances.
The generated energy is transformed twice, thrice or even four times before it is
utilized.
Such transformation of AC from one voltage to another is carried out by an
electromagnetic (EM) device, called as Transformer.

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Basic construction and operating
mechanism

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Contd..

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Basic principle of Transformer
Faraday’s Law of EM induction
Principle of mutual induction

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EMF equation of the transformer
The EMF induced in the primary winding of the transformer is given as:
Ep = - Np (dф/dt) ..........(1)
The flux can be given as:
Ф= фmax cos(ωt)
Put value of ф in equation (1), we will get:
Ep = - Np.d/dt(фmax cos(ωt))
= Np.ωфmax sin(ωt)

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Contd……
The induced EMF will be maximum, if sin ωt=1
So, Epmax.= Np .ωфmax
The RMS value of the induced EMF in primary is
Eprms= Epmax./√2
= Np .ωфmax./√2
= Np .(2πf)фmax./√2
Ep = 4.44 f Np фmax Volts
Ep = 4.44 f Np Bmax A Volts ....(2)

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Contd….
Similarly, for the secondary windings
Es= 4.44 f Ns фmax Volts
Es= 4.44 f Ns Bmax A Volts ......(3)

The induced EMF in the primary and secondary windings is in the phase. So
divide eq. (2) by eq. (3):
Ep/Es = Np/Ns = n = Turn ratio or transformer ratio

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Physical significance of turn ratio (n)
If this ratio is less than unity, n < 1 then NS is greater than NP
and the transformer is classed as a step-up transformer.
If this ratio is greater than unity, n > 1, that is NP is greater
than NS, the transformer is classed as a step-down
transformer.
Ideal transformer: If the turns ratio is equal to unity, n = 1,
then both the primary and secondary have the same
number of windings, therefore the voltages and currents are
the same for both windings.

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Different types of transformers
Classification based on voltage levels

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Classification based on core

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Classification based on the core medium
used

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Transformer Losses
In any electrical machine, 'loss' can be defined as the difference
between input power and output power.
An electrical transformer is an static device, hence mechanical
losses (like windage or friction losses) are absent in it.
A transformer only consists of electrical losses (iron losses and
copper losses).
Transformer losses are similar to losses in a DC machine, except
that transformers do not have mechanical losses.

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Types of Losses
Core Losses Or Iron Losses: further classified as
hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.
◦Depend upon the magnetic properties of the material
used for the construction of core.
◦Hence these losses are also known as core losses or iron
losses.
Copper Loss: caused by the flow of current and
occurs in the primary and secondary windings.

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Hysteresis loss
Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of magnetization in the transformer core.
Depends upon the volume and grade of the iron, frequency of magnetic
reversals and value of flux density.
Can be given by, Steinmetz formula:
Hysteresis loss= ηVf (Bmax)η Watt
where η is known as Steinmetz’s coefficient and its value ranges from 1.6 to
2.1 depending on the material.

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Eddy current loss
In transformer, AC current is supplied to the primary winding, which sets up
alternating magnetizing flux.
When this flux links with secondary winding, it produces induced emf in it.
But some part of this flux also gets linked with other conducting parts like
steel core or iron body or the transformer, which will result in induced emf in
those parts, causing small circulating current in them.
This current is called as eddy current.
Due to these eddy currents, some energy will be dissipated in the form of
heat.

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Eddy current losses
These losses depends upon the following factors:
Thickness of lamination of magnetic core (t)
Frequency of flux reversal (f)
Maximum value of flux density (Bmax) in the core.
Volume of core (V)
Quality of the magnetic material used for the magnetic frame.
Eddy current loss = k V B2max f2t2 Watts

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Copper losses
Most transformer coils are made from copper wire which has resistance in
Ohms, ( Ω ).
Copper loss is due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings.
Copper loss for the primary winding is I12R1 and for secondary winding is
I2 2 R 2 .
Where, I1 and I2 are current in primary and secondary winding respectively,
R1 and R2 are the resistances of primary and secondary winding respectively.
It is clear that Cu loss is proportional to square of the current, and current
depends on the load. Hence copper loss in transformer varies with the load.

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 Transformer efficiency
Just like any other electrical machine, efficiency of a transformer
can be defined as the output power divided by the input power.
Efficiency = output / input .
Most of the transformers have full load efficiency between 95% to
98.5% .
Efficiency = (input - losses) / input
= 1 - (losses / input)

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 Hence, efficiency of a
transformer will be
maximum when copper
loss and iron losses are
equal.
That is Copper loss = Iron
loss.

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 What is an Ideal Transformer?
An ideal transformer is an imaginary transformer which has
the following characteristics −
◦ The primary and secondary windings have negligible (or zero)
resistance.
◦ No leakage flux, i.e., whole of the flux is confined to the magnetic
circuit.
◦ The magnetic core has infinite permeability, thus negligible mmf is
require to establish flux in the core.
◦ There are no losses due winding resistances, hysteresis and eddy
currents. Hence, the efficiency is 100 %.
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 Characteristics of ideal transformer
Zero winding resistance: It is assumed that, resistance of primary as well as
secondary winding of an ideal transformer is zero. That is, both the coils are
purely inductive in nature.
Infinite permeability of the core: Higher the permeability, lesser the mmf
required for flux establishment. That means, if permeability is high, less
magnetizing current is required to magnetize the transformer core.
No leakage flux: Leakage flux is a part of magnetic flux which does not get linked
with secondary winding. In an ideal transformer, it is assumed that entire amount
of flux get linked with secondary winding (that is, no leakage flux).
100% efficiency: An ideal transformer does not have any losses like hysteresis
loss, eddy current loss etc. So, the output power of an ideal transformer is exactly
equal to the input power. Hence, 100% efficiency.
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Woking of Ideal Transformer
Ideal Transformer on No-Load
Ideal Transformer On-Load

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 Ideal Transformer on No-Load
Consider an ideal transformer on no-load, i.e., its secondary
winding is open circuited. Thus, the primary winding is a coil of
pure inductance.

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When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary
winding, it draws a very small magnetising current Im to
establish the flux in the core, which lags behind the applied
voltage by 90°.
The magnetising current Im produces an alternating flux ϕm
which is proportional to and in phase with it. This alternating
flux (ϕm) links the primary and secondary windings
magnetically and induces EMF E1 in the primary winding and
EMF E2 in the secondary winding.

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The EMF induced in the primary winding E1 is equal to and in
opposition to the applied voltage V1 (according to Lenz’s law).
The EMFs E1 and E2 lag behind the flux (ϕm) by 90°, although
their magnitudes depend upon the number of turns in the
primary and the secondary windings.
From the phasor diagram of the ideal transformer on no-load,
it is clear that the flux is common to both the windings, hence
it can be taken as the reference phasor. Also, the EMFs E1 and
E2 are in phase with each other, but E1 is equal to V1 and 180°
out of phase with it.
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 Ideal Transformer on On-Load
When load is connected across the terminals of secondary winding
of the ideal transformer, the transformer is said to be loaded and a
load current flows through the secondary winding and the load.

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Consider an inductive load of impedance ZL is connected
across the secondary winding of the ideal transformer (see the
figure). Then, the secondary EMF E2 will cause a current I2 to
flow through the secondary winding and the load, which is
given by,

Since, for an ideal transformer, the EMF E2 is equal to

secondary terminal voltage V2.
Here, the load is inductive, therefore, the current I2 will lag
behind the E2 or V2 by an angle ϕ2. Also, the no-load current I0
being neglected because the transformer is ideal one.

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The current flowing in the secondary winding (I2) sets up an
mmf (N2I2) which produces a flux ϕ2 in opposite direction to
the main flux (ϕm). As a result, the total flux in the core
changes from its original value, however, the flux in the core
should not changes from its original value. Therefore, to
maintain the flux in the core at its original value, the primary
current must develop an MMF which can counter-balance the
demagnetising effect of the secondary mmf N2I2. Hence, the
primary current I1 must flow such that,

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Therefore, the primary winding must draw enough current to
neutralise the demagnetising effect of the secondary current
so that the main flux in the core remains constant. Hence,
when the secondary current (I2) increases, the primary current
(I1) also increases in the same manner and keeps the mutual
flux (ϕm) constant.
It is clear from the phasor diagram of the ideal transformer on-
load that the secondary current I2 lags behind the secondary
terminal voltage V2 by an angle of ϕ2.

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 Voltage Regulation of Transformer
Voltage regulation is a measure of change in the voltage magnitude
between the sending and receiving end of a component.
It is commonly used to describe the percentage voltage difference
between no load and full load voltages of transformers.

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 What is a Practical Transformer?
A practical transformer is the one which has following properties-
◦ The primary and secondary windings have finite resistance.
◦ There is a leakage flux, i.e., whole of the flux is not confined to the
magnetic circuit.
◦ The magnetic core has finite permeability, thus a considerable amount of
mmf is require to establish flux in the core.
◦ There are losses in the transformer due to winding resistances, hysteresis
and eddy currents. Therefore, the efficiency of a practical transformer is
less than 100 %.

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The figure shows a typical practical transformer, which possess
all the characteristics that are described above.

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Winding Resistances

As the windings of a transformer are made up of copper

conductors.
Therefore, both the primary and secondary windings will have
winding resistances, which produce the copper loss or I2R loss in
the transformer.
The primary winding resistance R1 and the secondary winding
resistance R2 act in series with the respective windings.

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Iron Losses or Core Losses

The core of the transformer is subjected to the alternating magnetic

flux, hence there occurs eddy current loss and hysteresis loss in the
core.
The hysteresis loss and eddy current loss together are known as iron
losses or core losses.
The iron losses of the transformer depend upon the supply
frequency, maximum flux density in the core, volume of the core
and thickness of the laminations etc.
In a practical transformer, the magnitude of iron losses is very small.

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Magnetic Leakage or Leakage Flux
As the current through the primary winding produces flux. The flux ϕm which
links both the windings is the useful flux and is known as mutual flux.
Although, a part of the flux (ϕ1) produced by the primary current does not link
with the secondary winding. When load is connected across the secondary
winding, a current flows through it and produces a flux (ϕ2), which links only
with the secondary winding. Thus, the fluxes such as ϕ1 or ϕ2 which links only
one winding is known as leakage flux.
The leakage flux paths are mainly through the air which has very high
reluctance. Therefore, the effect of primary leakage flux (ϕ1) is to introduce an
inductive reactance (X1) in series with the primary winding. Similarly, the
secondary leakage flux (ϕ) introduces an inductive reactance (X2) in series with
the secondary winding (see the figure).

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However, the leakage flux in a practical transformer is very small (about 5%
of ϕm), yet it cannot be ignored. Because, the leakage flux paths are through
the air, which has very high reluctance. As a result, it requires considerable
mmf.

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Finite Permeability of Core Material

In general, the practical transformers have a core made up of

silicon steel, which has a specific relative permeability (μr).
Hence, the core saturates at a certain value of magnetic flux
density. Therefore, the core of a practical transformer has
finite permeability and hence possess low reluctance in the
path of magnetic flux.

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Phasor diagram

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Equivalent circuit parameters

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Equivalent circuit of the transformer

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Contd
…

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 Some Questions from Exam Point of View

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Why transformer is called a constant flux
machine?
Due to primary current flux induced at two places primary and
secondary. (Self induction and mutual induction)
Same way for secondary current two flux induced one in primary as
mutual induction and one in secondary as self induction.
All above flux following Lenz law (oppose to their cause of
production)
So when we make net sum of flux at any time we get constant flux
value, that's why it called constant flux machine.

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Why transformers do not operate on
steady state DC voltages?
As transformers require an alternating magnetic flux
to operate correctly, transformers cannot therefore
be used to transform or supply DC voltages or
currents.
Since the magnetic field must be changing to induce
a voltage in the secondary winding.

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What will happen if a transformer is
connected to DC supply?
If a transformers primary winding was connected to a DC
supply, the inductive reactance of the winding would be zero.
As DC has no frequency, so the effective impedance of the
winding will therefore be very low and equal only to the
resistance of the copper used.
Thus the winding will draw a very high current from the DC
supply causing it to overheat and eventually burn out,
because as we know I = V/R.

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 Why is a transformer rated in KVA?
All electrical devices are rated based on the maximum power it
can consume or generate or transfer.
Thus, the total losses in a transformer depend upon volt-
ampere (VA) only and not on the power factor (Cos Ɵ) of the
load. That is why the transformer rating is given in kVA and not
in kW.

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 Problem 1
A single phase transformer has 500 primary and 1000
secondary turns. The net cross-sectional area of the
core is 50 cm2. If the primary winding is connected to
a 50 Hz supply at 400 V, compute:
a) Peak value of the flux density in the core
b) Voltage induced in the secondary winding.

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 Solution

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 Problem 2
A 100 kVA, 440/220 V, 50 Hz core type transformer
has an efficiency of 98.5 %, when supplying full load
at 0.8 power factor lagging and an efficiency of 99 %,
when supplying half load at unity power factor. Find
the iron and copper losses at full load.

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 Solution

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