2 Beamerchapitre 1

Chapter 1: Systems of Linear Equations
February 12, 2024
Chapter 1: Systems of Linear Equations February 12, 2024 1 / 56

Plan
1 Systems of Linear Equation

Linear Equation in n Variables
Systems of Linear Equations
Solving a System of Linear Equations
2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Matrices
Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Homogeneous Systems of Linear Equations
3 Applications of Systems of Linear Equations
Balancing Chemical Equations
Polynomial Curve Fitting
Network Analysis
Kirchhoff’s Laws

Linear Equation in n Variables
Definition (Linear Equation in n Variables)

A linear equation in n variables x1 , x2 , x3 , ..., xn has the form
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + ... + an xn = b.
The coefficients a1 , a2 , a3 , ..., an are real numbers, and the constant

term b is a real number. The number a1 is the leading coefficient, and
x1 is the leading variable.

Definition
A solution of a linear equation in n variables is a sequence of n real
numbers s1 , s2 , s3 , ..., sn that satisfy the equation when you substitute
the values x1 = s1 , x2 = s2 , x3 = s3 , ..., xn = sn into the equation. The
set of all solutions of a linear equation is its solution set, and when
you have found this set, you have solved the equation.

Example
Solve the linear equation x1 +2x2 = 4.

Example
Solving for x1 in terms of x2 , you obtain x1 = 4 − 2x2 .

Example
Solving for x1 in terms of x2 , you obtain x1 = 4 − 2x2 . In this form, the
variable x2 is free, which means that it can take on any real value.

Example
The variable x1 is not free because its value depends on the value
assigned to x2 . To represent the infinitely many solutions of this
equation, it is convenient to introduce a third variable t called a
parameter. By letting x2 = t, you can represent the solution set as
x1 = 4 − 2t, x2 = t, t is any real number.

Example
The variable x1 is not free because its value depends on the value
assigned to x2 . To represent the infinitely many solutions of this
equation, it is convenient to introduce a third variable t called a
parameter. By letting x2 = t, you can represent the solution set as
x1 = 4 − 2t, x2 = t, t is any real number. Then
S = {(4 − 2t, t) , t ∈ R}.

Example
Solve the linear equation x + 2y − 3z = 4.
Choosing y and z to be the free variables, solve for x to obtain
x = 4 − 2s + 3t.
The set of all solutions
S = {(4 − 2s + 3t, s, z) | s, t ∈ R}.

Systems of Linear Equations
Definition
A system of m linear equations in n variables is a set of m equations,
each of which is linear in the same n variables:


 a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + ... + a1n xn = b1

 a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + ... + a2n xn = b2
..

 .


am1 x1 + am2 x2 + am3 x3 + ... + amn xn = bm
A system of linear equations is also called a linear system. A solution

of a linear system is a sequence of numbers s1 , s2 , s3 , ..., sn that is a
solution of each equation in the system.

Example
x +y =3
Solve and graph each system of linear equations.
x − y = −1

Example
x +y =3
x − y = −1

Example
x +y =3
x − y = −1
This system has exactly one solution, x = 1 and y = 2. One way to

obtain the solution is to add the two equations to give 2x = 2, which
implies x = 1 and so y = 2. The graph of this system is two
intersecting lines.

Example
x +y =3
x − y = −1
This system has exactly one solution, x = 1 and y = 2. One way to

obtain the solution is to add the two equations to give 2x = 2, which
implies x = 1 and so y = 2. The graph of this system is two
intersecting lines.
Figure: One solution
.
x +y =3
2x + 2y = 6

x +y =3
2x + 2y = 6
This system has infinitely many solutions because the second
equation is the result of multiplying both sides of the first equation by 2.
A parametric representation of the solution set is x = 3 − t, y = t, t is
any real number. The graph of this system is two coincident lines.

x +y =3
2x + 2y = 6
This system has infinitely many solutions because the second
equation is the result of multiplying both sides of the first equation by 2.
A parametric representation of the solution set is x = 3 − t, y = t, t is
any real number. The graph of this system is two coincident lines.
Figure: Infinitely many solutions

x +y =3
x +y =1

x +y =3
This system has no solution because the sum of two
x +y =1
numbers cannot be 3 and 1 simultaneously. The graph of this system
is two parallel lines.

x +y =3
This system has no solution because the sum of two
x +y =1
numbers cannot be 3 and 1 simultaneously. The graph of this system
is two parallel lines.
Figure: No solution

Example
A linear equation in three variables corresponds to a plane in
three-dimensional space. Solutions to a system of three such
equations will be points that lie on all three planes. As for systems of
two equations, there can be a unique solution, no solution, or many
solutions.

Number of Solutions of a System of Linear Equations
For a system of linear equations, precisely one of the statements
below is true.

below is true.
1 The system has exactly one solution (consistent system).

below is true.
2 The system has infinitely many solutions (consistent system).

below is true.
2 The system has infinitely many solutions (consistent system).
3 The system has no solution (inconsistent system).

Which system is easier to solve algebraically?

 

 x − 2y + 3z = 9 
x − 2y + 3z = 9
−x + 3y = −4 y + 3z = 5

 

2x − 5y + 5z = 17 z=2

Which system is easier to solve algebraically?

 

 x − 2y + 3z = 9 
x − 2y + 3z = 9
−x + 3y = −4 y + 3z = 5

 

2x − 5y + 5z = 17 z=2
The system on the right is clearly easier to solve. This system is in

row-echelon form, which means that it has a “stair-step ” pattern with
leading coefficients of 1. To solve such a system, use
back-substitution.

Definition
Two systems of linear equations are equivalent when they have the
same solution set.

To solve a system that is not in row-echelon form, first rewrite it as an
equivalent system that is in row-echelon form using operations 1,2 and
3.

3.

3.
Operations That Produce Equivalent Systems

Each of these operations on a system of linear equations produces
an equivalent system.
1 Interchange two equations. Ri ↔ Rj .

3.

2 Multiply an equation by a nonzero constant. Ri ← αRi with
α ̸= 0.

3.

2 Multiply an equation by a nonzero constant. Ri ← αRi with
α ̸= 0.
3 Add a multiple of an equation to another equation.
Ri ← αRi + βRj

Rewriting a system of linear equations in row-echelon form usually
involves a chain of equivalent systems, using one of the three basic
operations to obtain each system. This process is called Gaussian
elimination.
Example
Solve the system 

 x − 2y + 3z = 9
−x + 3y = −4


2x − 5y + 5z = 17

Solution
Work from the upper left corner of the system, saving the x at the
upper left and eliminating the other x-terms from the first column

 x −2y +3z = 9 · · · R1
−x +3y = −4 · · · R2 ← R2 + R1 ≈

2x −5y +5z = 17 · · · R3 ← R3 − 2R1

 x −2y +3z = 9 · · · R1
y +3z = 5 · · · R2

−y −z = −1 · · · R3 ← R3 + R2

Now that you have eliminated all but the first x from the first column,

work on the second column.
 x −2y +3z = 9 · · · R1
y +3z = 5 · · · R2 ≈

2z = 4 · · · R3 ← 12 R3

 x −2y +3z = 9
y +3z = 5

z = 2
using back-Substitution in row-Echelon Form, we get
z = 2,
y = 5 − 3 (2) = −1,
x = 9 + 2 (−1) − 3 (2) = 1.
Then S = {(1, −1, 2)}.

Example

 x −3y +z = 1
Solve the system 2x −y −2z = 2 .

x +2y −3z = −1


 x −3y +z = 1 · · · R1
2x −y −2z = 2 · · · R2 ← R2 − 2R1 ≈

x +2y −3z = −1 · · · R3 ← R3 − R1

 x −3y +z = 1 · · · R1
5y −4z = 0 · · · R2

5y −4z = −2 · · · R3 ← R3 − R2

 x −3y +z = 1
≈ 5y −4z = 0

0 = −2

The statement 0 = −2 is false, so this system has no solution.
Moreover, this system is equivalent to the original system, so the
original system also has no solution.

Example

 y −z = 0
Solve the system x −3z = −1 .

−x +3y = 1


 y −z = 0 · · · R1
x −3z = −1 · · · R2 ↔ R1 ≈

−x +3y = 1 · · · R3

 x −3z = −1 · · · R1
y −z = 0 · · · R2 ≈

−x +3y = 1 · · · R3 ← R3 + R1

 x −3z = −1 · · · R1
y −z = 0 · · · R2 ≈

3y −3z = 0 · · · R3 ← R3 − 3R2

 x −3z = −1
y −z = 0 .

0z = 0
To represent the solutions, choose z to be the free variable and

represent it by the parameter t. Because y = z and x = 3z − 1, you
can describe the solution set as x = 3t − 1, y = t, z = t, t is any real
number.
Matrices
Definition (Matrix)
If m and n are positive integers, then an m × n (read “m by n”) matrix is
a rectangular array
 
Row 1 a11 a12 a13 · · · a1n
Row 2   a21 a22 a23 · · · a2n 

Row 3  a31 a32 a33 · · · a3n 


..  .. .. .. .. 
.  . . . . 
Row m am1 am2 am3 · · · amn
in which each entry, aij , of the matrix is a number. An m × n matrix has

m rows and n columns. Matrices are usually denoted by capital letters.

The entry aij is located in the ith row and the jth column. The index i is
called the row subscript because it identifies the row in which the
entry lies, and the index j is called the column subscript because it
identifies the column in which the entry lies.
A matrix with m rows and n columns is of size m × n. When m = n, the
matrix is square of order n and the entries a11 , a22 , a33 , ..., ann are the
main diagonal entries.

One common use of matrices is to represent systems of linear
equations. The matrix derived from the coefficients and constant terms
of a system of linear equations is the augmented matrix of the
system. The matrix containing only the coefficients of the system is the
coefficient matrix of the system. Here is an example.


 x − 2y + 3z = 9
System: −x + 3y = −4


2x − 5y + 5z = 17
 
1 −2 3 9
Augmented Matrix: [A | b] =  −1 3 0 −4 
2 −5 5 17
 
1 −2 3
Cofficient Matrix: A =  −1 3 0 
2 −5 5

An elementary row operation on an augmented matrix produces a new
augmented matrix corresponding to a new (but equivalent) system of
linear equations. Two matrices are row-equivalent when one can be
obtained from the other by a finite sequence of elementary row
operations.
Elementary row operations

1 Interchange two rows.
2 Multiply a row by a nonzero constant.
3 Add a multiple of a row to another row.

Example
Solve the system 

 y + 3z = 4
−x + 2y =3


2x − 3y + 4z = 1

Row-Echelon Form and reduced Row-Echelon Form
A matrix in row-echelon form has the properties below.
1 Any rows consisting entirely of zeros occur at the bottom of
the matrix.
2 For each row that does not consist entirely of zeros, the first
nonzero entry is 1 (called a leading 1).
3 For two successive (nonzero) rows, the leading 1 in the higher
row is farther to the left than the leading 1 in the lower row.
A matrix in row-echelon form is in reduced row-echelon form when
every column that has a leading 1 has zeros in every position above
and below its leading 1.

Example
Determine whether each matrix is in row-echelon form. If it is,
determine whether the matrix is also in reduced row-echelon form.
     
1 2 −1 4 1 2 −3 4 1 0 0 −1
1 0 1 0 3 3 0 2 1 −1 0 1 0 2 
5  
0 0 1 −2 0 0 1 −3 0 0 1 2 
2
   0 0 0 0
1 2 −1 2

1 −5 2 −1 3
0 0 1 3 −24 0 0 0 0
 
  0 1 0 5
0 0 0 1 4  0 1 2 −4 6 0 0 1 3
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

Example
Determine whether each matrix is in row-echelon form. If it is,
determine whether the matrix is also in reduced row-echelon form.
     
1 2 −1 4 1 2 −3 4 1 0 0 −1
1 0 1 0 3 3 0 2 1 −1 0 1 0 2 
5  
0 0 1 −2 0 0 1 −3 0 0 1 2 
2
   0 0 0 0
1 2 −1 2

1 −5 2 −1 3
0 0 1 3 −24 0 0 0 0
 
  0 1 0 5
0 0 0 1 4  0 1 2 −4 6 0 0 1 3
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
The matrices in (1), (2), (5), and (6) are in row-echelon form. The
matrices in (5) and (6) are in reduced row-echelon form because every
column that has a leading 1 has zeros in every position above and
below its leading 1. The matrix in (4) is not in row-echelon form
because the row of all zeros does not occur at the bottom of the
matrix. The matrix in (3) is not in row-echelon form because the first
nonzero entry in Row 2 is not1:1.
Chapter Systems of Linear Equations February 12, 2024 32 / 56
Gaussian Elimination with Back-substitution
1 Write the augmented matrix of the system of linear equations.
2 Use elementary row operations to rewrite the matrix in
row-echelon form.
3 Write the system of linear equations corresponding to the
matrix in row-echelon form, and use back-substitution to find
the solution.

Example
Solve the system.


 x2 + x3 − 2x4 = −3


 x + 2x − x =2
1 2 3

2x1 + 4x2 + x3 − 3x4 = −2


 x − 4x − 7x − x = −19
1 2 3 4

Gauss-Jordan Elimination
With Gaussian elimination, you apply elementary row operations to a

matrix to obtain a (row-equivalent) row-echelon form. A second
method of elimination, called Gauss-Jordan elimination continues the
reduction process until a reduced row-echelon form is obtained.
Example
Use Gauss-Jordan elimination to solve the system


 x − 2y + 3z = 9 2x1 + 4x2 − 2x3 = 0
2
1 −x + 3y = −4 3x1 + 5x2 =1


2x − 5y + 5z = 17

Homogeneous Systems of Linear Equations
Systems of linear equations in which each of the constant terms is

zero are called homogeneous. A homogeneous system of m equations
in n variables has the form


 a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + ... + a1n xn = 0

 a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + ... + a2n xn = 0
..

 .


am1 x1 + am2 x2 + am3 x3 + ... + amn xn = 0
A homogeneous system must have at least one solution. Specifically, if

all variables in a homogeneous system have the value zero, then each
of the equations is satisfied. Such a solution is trivial (or obvious).

Theorem (The number of solutions of a homogeneous system)
Every homogeneous system of linear equations is consistent.
Moreover, if the system has fewer equations than variables, then it
must have infinitely many solutions.

Homogeneous systems frequently occur when balancing chemical

equations.


equations. In chemical reactions, we often know the reactants (initial
substances) and products (results of the reaction).


substances) and products (results of the reaction). For example, it is
known that the reactants phosphoric acid and calcium hydroxide
produce calcium phosphate and water. This reaction can be
symbolized as


substances) and products (results of the reaction). For example, it is
known that the reactants phosphoric acid and calcium hydroxide
produce calcium phosphate and water. This reaction can be
symbolized as
H3 PO4 + Ca(OH)2 −→ Ca3 (PO4 )2 + H2 O

| {z } | {z } | {z } |{z}
Phosphoric acid Calcium hydroxide Calcium phosphate Water

An empirical formula for this reaction is an equation containing the
minimal integer multiples of the reactants and products so that the
number of atoms of each element agrees on both sides. (Finding the
empirical formula is called balancing the equation.)

An empirical formula for this reaction is an equation containing the
minimal integer multiples of the reactants and products so that the
number of atoms of each element agrees on both sides. (Finding the
empirical formula is called balancing the equation.)
Remark
In expressions like (OH)2 and (PO4 )2 , the number immediately
following the parentheses indicates that every term in the unit should
be considered toappear that many times. Hence, (PO4 )2 is equivalent
to PO4 PO4 for our purposes.

To find the empirical formula for the preceding chemical equation, we
look for minimal positive integer values of a, b, c, and d such that

aH3 PO4 + bCa(OH)2 −→ cCa3 (PO4 )2 + dH2 O

aH3 PO4 + bCa(OH)2 −→ cCa3 (PO4 )2 + dH2 O
balances the number of hydrogen (H), phosphorus (P), oxygen (O), and
calcium (Ca) atoms on both sides. Considering each element in turn,
we get 

 3a + 2b = 2d (H)

a = 2c (P)

 4a + 2b = 8c + d (O)

b = 3c (Ca)

Bringing the c and d terms to the left side of each equation, we get the
following augmented matrix for this system:
 
3 2 0 −2 0
1 0 −2 0 0
 
4 2 −8 −1 0
0 1 −3 0 0
which row reduces to
0 − 13
 
1 0 0
0
 1 0 − 12 0

0 0 1 − 16 0
0 0 0 0 0

Thus, the solution set has the form

1 1 1
S= t , , , 1 |t ∈ R .
3 2 6


1 1 1
S= t , , , 1 |t ∈ R .
3 2 6
Letting t = 6 gives the particular solution having minimal positive

integer values for every variable, producing (2, 3, 1, 6). Therefore, with
a = 2, b = 3, c = 1, and d = 6, the empirical formula for this reaction is


1 1 1
S= t , , , 1 |t ∈ R .
3 2 6
Letting t = 6 gives the particular solution having minimal positive

integer values for every variable, producing (2, 3, 1, 6). Therefore, with
a = 2, b = 3, c = 1, and d = 6, the empirical formula for this reaction is
2H3 PO4 + 3Ca(OH)2 −→ Ca3 (PO4 )2 + 6H2 O.

Polynomial Curve Fitting
Consider n points in the xy-plane (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), ..., (xn , yn ) that

represent a collection of data, and you want to find a polynomial
function of degree n − 1
p(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... + an−1 x n−1
whose graph passes through the points.

This procedure is called polynomial curve fitting. When all
x-coordinates of the points are distinct, there is precisely one
polynomial function of degree n − 1 (or less) that fits the n points, as
shown in Figure. To solve for the n coefficients of p(x), substitute each
of the n points into the polynomial function and obtain n linear
equations in n variables a0 , a1 , a2 , ..., an−1 .
a0 + a1 x1 + a2 x12 + ... + an−1 x1n−1 = y1

a0 + a1 x2 + a2 x22 + ... + an−1 x2n−1 = y2
..
.
a0 + a1 xn + a2 xn2 + ... + an−1 xnn−1 = yn

Network Analysis
Networks composed of branches

Network Analysis
Networks composed of branches and junctions

Network Analysis
Networks composed of branches and junctions are used as models

in such fields as economics, traffic analysis, and electrical engineering.

Network Analysis
Networks composed of branches and junctions are used as models

in such fields as economics, traffic analysis, and electrical engineering.
In a network model, you assume that the total flow into a junction is
equal to the total flow out of the junction.

Example
Set up a system of linear equations to represent the network shown in
Figure. Then solve the system.

Each of the network’s five junctions gives rise to a linear equation, as
shown below.
x1 +x2 = 20 Junction 1

shown below.
x3 −x4 = −20 Junction 2

shown below.

shown below.

shown below.
−x4 +x5 = −10 Junction 5

The augmented matrix for this system is
 
1 1 0 0 0 20
0 0 1 −1 0 −20
 
0 1 1 0 0 20 
 
1 0 0 0 −1 −10
0 0 0 −1 1 −10

Gauss-Jordan elimination produces the matrix
 
1 0 0 0 −1 −10
0 1 0 0 1 30 
 
0 0 1 0 −1 −10
 
0 0 0 1 −1 10 
0 0 0 0 0 0

Gauss-Jordan elimination produces the matrix
 
1 0 0 0 −1 −10
0 1 0 0 1 30 
 
0 0 1 0 −1 −10
 
0 0 0 1 −1 10 
0 0 0 0 0 0
Letting t = x5 , you have

x1 = t − 10, x2 = −t + 30, x3 = t − 10, x4 = t + 10, x5 = t where t is any
real number, so this system has infinitely many solutions.

In Example, if you could control the amount of flow along the branch
labeled x5 , then you could also control the flow represented by each of
the other variables. For example, letting t = 10 results in the flows
shown in the figure.

Kirchhoff’s Laws
An electrical network is another type of network where analysis is
commonly applied. An analysis of such a system uses two properties
of electrical networks known as Kirchhoff’s Laws.

1 All the current flowing into a junction must flow out of it.

2 The sum of the products V=I.R (I is current and R is resistance)
around a closed path is equal to the total voltage in the path.

2 The sum of the products V=I.R (I is current and R is resistance)
around a closed path is equal to the total voltage in the path.
In an electrical network, current is measured in amperes, or amps
(A), resistance is measured in ohms (Ω, the Greek letter omega), and
the product of current and resistance is measured in volts (V). An
arrow in the branch shows the direction of the current.

Example
Determine the currents I1 , I2 , and I3 for the electrical network shown in
Figure.

Example
Determine the currents I1 , I2 , and I3 for the electrical network shown in
Figure.

Applying Kirchhoff’s first law to either junction produces

I1 + I3 = I2 Junction 1 or Junction 2

and applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the two paths produces

R1 I1 + R2 I2 = 3I1 + 2I2 = 7 Path 1

R1 I1 + R2 I2 = 3I1 + 2I2 = 7 Path 1
R2 I2 + R3 I3 = 2I2 + 4I3 = 8 Path 2

R1 I1 + R2 I2 = 3I1 + 2I2 = 7 Path 1
R2 I2 + R3 I3 = 2I2 + 4I3 = 8 Path 2

we have the system of three linear equations in the variables I1 , I2 ,
and I3 shown below.
I1 −I2 +I3 = 0
3I1 +2I2 = 7
2I2 +4I3 = 8

Applying Gauss-Jordan elimination to the augmented matrix
 
1 −1 1 0
3 2 0 7
0 2 4 8

 
1 −1 1 0
3 2 0 7
0 2 4 8
produces the reduced row-echelon form

 
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 2
0 0 1 1

 
1 −1 1 0
3 2 0 7
0 2 4 8
produces the reduced row-echelon form

 
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 2
0 0 1 1
which means I1 = 1 amp, I2 = 2 amps, and I3 = 1 amp.

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Chapter 1: Systems of Linear Equations

February 12, 2024

Chapter 1: Systems of Linear Equations February 12, 2024 1 / 56

1 Systems of Linear Equation

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Definition (Linear Equation in n Variables)

The coefficients a1 , a2 , a3 , ..., an are real numbers, and the constant

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Chapter 1: Systems of Linear Equations February 12, 2024 5 / 56

S = {(4 − 2t, t) , t ∈ R}.

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The set of all solutions

S = {(4 − 2s + 3t, s, z) | s, t ∈ R}.

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A system of linear equations is also called a linear system. A solution

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This system has exactly one solution, x = 1 and y = 2. One way to

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This system has exactly one solution, x = 1 and y = 2. One way to

Figure: One solution

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Figure: Infinitely many solutions

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Which system is easier to solve algebraically?

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Which system is easier to solve algebraically?

The system on the right is clearly easier to solve. This system is in

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Operations That Produce Equivalent Systems

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Operations That Produce Equivalent Systems

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Operations That Produce Equivalent Systems

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Then S = {(1, −1, 2)}.

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To represent the solutions, choose z to be the free variable and

in which each entry, aij , of the matrix is a number. An m × n matrix has