What are the 7 categories of aircraft?

These classes are airplane, rotorcraft, powered lift, gliders, lighter than air, powered parachute and weight-shift-control
aircraft.

Airplane:

Fixed Wing and Helicopter Wing:

 Very light Jets

Capacity 4 passengers, 1000 miles range… Embraer Phenom 100, Cessna Citation Mustang. Agility to access
small airport with shorter runways.

 Light Jets--- Agility to access small airport with shorter runways. Bombardier Learjet 40XR/45XR, Hawker
Beechcraft 400, Embraer Phenom 300, Dassault Falcon 10, Cessna Citation CJ1-CJ4--- upto 1500 miles non-
stop ( 2.5 to 3 hrs non stop), cruising speed: 400-450 miles/hr.

 Mid Size- Embraer Legacy 450/500, Bombardier Learjet 60XR, Dassault Falcon 20, Hawker Beechcraft 750,
Gulfstream 150/250. Upto 10 passengers, pressurized cabin, 2 pilots are necessary, range 2000-3000 miles
(upto 5 hrs non-stop), they can land on smaller runways, but are more suitable for transcontinental flights1.
Cruising speeds of 430-480 miles/hr.

 Super Mid size: Dassault Falcon 2000S, Citation X, Embraer Legacy 600, Gulfstream G250, Challenger 3000, Hawker
Beechcraft 4000- upto 10 passengers, range 3400-3600 miles, support intra-continental travel2 needs, cruising speeds
of 490-590 miles/hr.

 Large Size: Intercontinental travel2 is the goal. Gulfstream G500/550/650, Global 7500, Dassault Falcon 7x,
Bombardier Challenger 604/605/650. Upto 18 passengers, range is above 6000 miles/hr ( upto 8 hrs non-
stop). Cruising speeds of 480-560 miles/hr.

List of Bombardier Jets:

 Challenger 350
 Challenger 3500
 Challenger 650
 Global 5500
 Global 6500
 Global 7500
 Global 8000

 Ultra Long range

1: A flight that travels non-stop across the country, usually from coast-to-coast.
2: Intercontinental (between continents) Intra continental (between countries in the same continent)
 Lecture 2:

 Narrowbody: one aisle

 Widebody: two or more aisles

A narrow-body aircraft or single-aisle aircraft is an airliner arranged along a single aisle, permitting up
to 6-abreast seating in a cabin less than 4 metres (13 ft) in width. In contrast, a wide-body aircraft is a
larger airliner usually configured with multiple aisles and a fuselage diameter of more than 5 metres (16 ft),
allowing at least seven-abreast seating and often more travel classes.

Aisle:

The aisle side is open and gives you room to lean your leg on the armrest without crossing into your
neighbor's territory
Aircraft Systems:

 Communication
 Navigation
 Landing Gear
 Electrical System
 Avionics
 Ice/Rain Protection
 Flight Control
 Bleed System
 Fuel
 Power Plant
 Environmental Control Systems
 Hydraulics System

1. Communication
 Aircraft communication capability is an important means of voice communication and information exchange
between pilots and ground air traffic control (ATC), command centers, maintenance centers, or other stakeholders
during flight.
 VHF communication systems are the most widely used for maintaining contact between ground and aircraft. This
employs "Line Of Sight" transmission, which translates to a range of about thirty miles for an aircraft operating at
1,000 feet above the ground, or about 135 miles with an aircraft operating at 10,000 feet. Frequency of aircraft to
aircraft communication is 122.75 MHz.
 The transmitting station sends a signal that travels in a straight line and is picked up by the receiving station.
 Radio waves used in aircraft communication includes VHF (30-300MHz). Other radio wave bands are UHF (300MHz-
3GHz), and super high frequency (SHF) (3Ghz-30Ghz) radio waves. VHF communication radios are the primary
communication radios used in aviation. They operate in the frequency range from 118.0 MHz to 136.975MHz.

2. Navigation
Navigation means detecting the location and distance of an aircraft. Radar is commonly used for this purpose. Radar
has a transponder; a transponder is an electronic device aboard an aircraft that enhances its identity on the air-
traffic controller's radar screen. A transponder is an avionic system located on board the aircraft that provides
information about the aircraft identification and barometric altitude3 to the ATC system on the ground and to TCAS
on other aircraft.

Barometric altitude is the standard used by the aviation industry. – GPSs display altitude as a distance, whereas
3-

altimeters display altitude based on pressure measurements.

There are several on-board navigation systems which can be divided into:

 Global Navigation Satellite System – GNSS

 Inertial Reference System – IRS
 Flight Management System – FMS

GNSS is the set of navigation systems that help the pilot to know the coordinates, speed, altitude and
other parameters of the aircraft. The three most established systems worldwide are:

 GPS (Global Positioning System)

Inertial Reference System (IRS)
The IRS, through the accelerometer and gyroscope, detects the displacement on any axis and calculates
the position of the aircraft.

Flight Management System (FMS)

Brain of the aircraft, as it is responsible for flight management
Some functions of the flight management system are:
 Configuration of the autopilot.
 Configuration of take-off and approach routes and the information transmitted by air traffic
controllers.
 Recommendations to reduce fuel consumption.

Autopilot
An aircraft autopilot (automatic pilot) system controls the aircraft without the pilot directly operating
the controls. Such system is developed to reduce the work load of human pilots in order to lessen their
fatigue and reduce operation errors during long flights.
Auto pilots consist of four major elements: (1) a source of steering commands (such as a computerized
guidance program or a radio receiver), (2) motion and position sensors (such as gyroscopes,
accelerometers, altimeters, and airspeed indicators), (3) a computer to compare the parameters
specified in the guidance.

Landing Gear
Landing Gear is the undercarriage of an aircraft. It is used during take off, landing, taxi. Wheeled
landing gears are most common in modern aircraft.

The structural components include Main fitting, Shock absorber, Bogie beam/ Trailing arm, Axle, Torque
links, Drag/ Side braces, Retraction actuator, Down lock mechanism, Up lock, Wheel, Tire
3. Electrical Systems
 Battery and generators are primary source of electric power in a modern aircraft. Transformer
Rectifier Units (TRUs) and inverters are secondary sources.
 Primarily 115V AC is used in aircraft operations, however in certain cases, DC can be used as an
alternative source of electric power ( a fully charged DC Battery4), in the case of AC Power
failure.
 Modern aircrafts use both a.c and d.c for operating various components. An electric generator
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Commonly, 115V AC , f 400 Hz and for DC-
28 V DC is used.
 In many cases,ac power is changed to a different value, i.e stepped down or stepped up using
transformers. In other cases, ac is converted to dc ( for e.g for aircraft battery charging), using
transformer rectifier units. DC is converted to AC, using inverters. ‘
 AC Electrical systems make use of Star connected configuration, for a 3 phase electrical system.
An alternator is an electric generator that produces a.c. The 3 sine waves generated by the three
phases are all 120 degrees out of phase with each other.

STAR CONNECTION:

Each end of a wire is connected to a neutral point and the other end is connected to electrical loads,
while the other end of electrical load is also grounded.
 4- Firstly aircraft battery is turned on, then APU is turned on, a battery capacity can be explained as: if a
battery has 40 amp-hrs. capacity, it means when the battery is fully charged, it can feed a 1 ampere
load for 40 hrs. or a 40 amp load for 1 hour.

APU:

 Auxiliary power unit is a small turbine engine located at the tail of the aircraft. It too uses the usual
Aviation Fuel from the aircraft's fuel tanks.
 The APU is started, when the engines are not running or the plane is not connected with an external
power source
 The APU is switched off after the engines are started, as it is no longer needed. Sometimes, the APU is
kept on for air-conditioning purposes during takeoff, as engines’ bleed air is not used for AC during
takeoff (specially at hot and high operations).
 On a small jetliner, such as an Airbus A320 or a Boeing 737, the APU uses fuel at the rate of 160–200
kg/h. On the other hand, a big Jumbo Jet, such as a Boeing 747 or an Airbus A380, uses fuel at 400–500
kg/h.

Functions of APU—

 The APU itself is started from the main aircraft battery.

 APU can provide electrical power in the case of generator(s) failure. APU generates AC electrical power
115V AC 400 hz 3 phase, during ground operations with both engines off.
 Supply high pressure bleed air to air conditioning packs while on the ground.
 Provides electrical power to the aircraft, while the main engines are switched off.
 Provide hydraulic and pneumatic power to start the main engines of the aircraft.
 Can be used to start engines while the aircraft is in flight.

RAT: In the case of generators failure, continuous power can be provided by Ram air turbine (RAT), also known
as air-driven generators. RAT are located in the wings or fuselage. Thus, the RAT performs the same function as
an auxiliary power unit (APU). But while an APU is essentially a small jet engine that burns regular jet fuel to
generate this additional power, the RAT consists of a propeller that is spun by the high-speed air flowing past
the aircraft.
Aircraft Propulsion System
An aircraft propulsion system mainly comprise the aircraft engines and a means to generate thrust ( such as a
propeller _).

Aircraft Engines:
The Challenger 604 is equipped with two General Electric CF34-3B high-bypass ratio turbofan engines.

Turbine: A turbine is a machine that transforms rotational energy from a fluid that is picked up by a rotor
system into usable work or energy. Turbines achieve this either through mechanical gearing or electromagnetic
induction (Electromagnetic Induction is a current produced because of voltage production (electromotive
force) due to a changing magnetic field )to produce electricity.

Shaft — The shaft connects the turbine to the compressor, and runs most of the length of the engine. There
may be as many as three concentric shafts, rotating at independent speeds, with as many sets of turbines and
compressors. Cooling air for the turbines may flow through the shaft from the compressor.
 Normal takeoff thrust rating is 8729 pounds per engine.
 Ambient temperature is the temperature of the air surrounding a component.
 A flat-rated engine is one that generates less than its maximum capable thrust in normal conditions. An
engine that operates at 100% of its thrust capability will give less performance in hotter or high-
altitude conditions where air density is lower.
 Thrust Reversers- During landing, it contributes to the aircraft’s safe braking with the deployment of the
nacelle’s thrust reverser component.
 An aircraft engine nacelle is the housing the protects the engine from the elements. It contains the
engine, contributes to its ventilation and heat regulation in extremely demanding temperature
environments, protects it with its fairing but still enables easy access through cowl doors designed for
maintenance and repairs.
 The nacelle also channels both the primary and secondary engine air flows, which is essential for the
optimized generation of thrust. Moreover, it plays a considerable role in noise reduction thanks to
sophisticated acoustic treatments using both composite and metallic materials. During landing, it
contributes to the aircraft’s safe braking with the deployment of the nacelle’s thrust reverser
component.
 Finally, the nacelle ensures the transfer of power and fluids between the engine and the aircraft via
tubing and connections for electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic and fuel flows – functions that are
performed using the Engine Build Units (EBU) hardware.
”Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum” (RVSM) airspace: means any airspace or route where aircraft are
separated by 1000 feet vertically between FL 290 and FL 410. RVSM Operations means operations conducted in
RVSM airspace.

MMEL and MEL

All equipment installed on an aircraft in compliance with the Airworthiness Standards and Operating Rules
must be operative. However, Canadian Aviation Regulations (605.07, 704.07 and 705.07) permit the publication
of a Minimum Equipment List (MEL) where compliance with certain equipment requirements is not necessary
in the interests of safety under all operating conditions.

Experience has shown that with the various levels of redundancy designed into aircraft, operation of every
system or installed component may not be necessary when the remaining operative component can provide
the required level of safety.

 A Master Minimum Equipment List (MMEL) is developed by Transport Canada, with participation by the
aviation industry, to improve aircraft utilization and thereby provide more convenient and economic air
transportation for the public.
 The approved MMEL includes those items of equipment related to airworthiness and operating
regulations and other items of equipment Transport Canada finds may be temporarily inoperative and
 yet maintain the required level of safety by appropriate conditions and limitations; it does not contain
obviously required items such as wings, flaps, and rudders.
 MMEL is developed by the manufacturer and authorized by civil aviation authority of a member state of
the manufacturer.

The MMEL is the basis for development of individual operator MELs which take into consideration the
operator's particular aircraft equipment configuration and operational conditions. Operator MELs, for
administrative control, may include items not contained in the MMEL; however, relief for administrative control
items must be approved. An operator's MEL may differ in format from the MMEL, but cannot be less restrictive
than the MMEL.

The individual operator's MEL, when approved and authorized, permits operation of the aircraft with
inoperative equipment. Equipment not required by the operation being conducted and equipment in excess of
the requirements are included in the MEL with appropriate conditions and limitations. The MEL must not
deviate from the Aircraft Flight Manual Limitations, Emergency Procedures or with Airworthiness Directives.

It is important to remember that all equipment related to the airworthiness and the operating regulations of
the aircraft not listed on the MMEL must be operative. Suitable conditions and limitations in the form of
placards, maintenance procedures, crew operating procedures and other restrictions as necessary are specified
in the MEL to ensure that the required level of safety is maintained.

The MEL is intended to permit operation with inoperative items of equipment for a period of time until repairs
can be accomplished. It is important that repairs be accomplished at the earliest opportunity. In order to
maintain the required level of safety and reliability, the MMEL establishes limitations on the duration of and
conditions for operation with inoperative equipment.

The MEL provides for release of the aircraft for flight with inoperative equipment. When an item of equipment
is discovered to be inoperative, it is reported by making an entry in the Aircraft Maintenance Record/Logbook.
The item is then either repaired or may be deferred per the MEL or other approved means acceptable to
Transport Canada prior to further operation. MEL conditions and limitations do not relieve the operator from
determining that the aircraft is in condition for safe operation with items of equipment inoperative.

Operators are responsible for exercising the necessary operational control to ensure that the required level of
safety is maintained. When operating with multiple inoperative items, the interrelationships between those
items and the effect on aircraft Operation and crew workload must be considered.

Categories of MEL:

 Category A: Item must be repaired within the time interval specified in the remarks column of
certificate holder’s approved MEL.
 Category B: If inoperative equipment falls under Category B, then it shall be repaired within 3
consecutive calendar days, excluding the day of discovery.
 Category C: If inoperative equipment falls under Category C, then it shall be repaired within 10
consecutive calendar days, excluding the day of discovery.
 Category D: If inoperative equipment falls under Category D, then it shall be repaired within 120
consecutive calendar days, excluding the day of discovery.

"(M)" symbol indicates a requirement for a specific maintenance procedure which must be accomplished prior
to operation with the listed item inoperative. If there is a requirement to perform the procedures more
frequently, for example, before each flight, then this is clearly stated in the provisos.
Normally these procedures are accomplished by maintenance personnel; however, other personnel may be
qualified and authorized to perform certain functions. Procedures requiring specialized knowledge or skill, or
requiring the use of tools or test equipment should be accomplished by maintenance personnel.

"(O)" symbol indicates a requirement for a specific operations procedure which must be accomplished in
planning for and/or operating with the listed item inoperative. Normally these procedures are accomplished by
the flight crew; however, other personnel may be qualified and authorized to perform certain functions. The
satisfactory accomplishment of all procedures, regardless of who performs them, is the responsibility of the
operator.

Configuration Deviation List (CDL):??

The CDL is published as part of the Aircraft Flight Manual