Course: Heat Transfer (MENG 335)

Semester: 2nd (Spring- 2023)

Course Designation Core
Credit 3 (3 hours lectures including1
hour lab/tutorial)
No. of Sessions / Week 2
Total Session Duration 3 hrs

Instructor: Abdul Waheed Badar

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 1
 Course: Heat Transfer (MENG 335)

Recommended Books:

▪ Heat and Mass Transfer A Practical Approach by Y. A. Cengel, A. J. Ghajar

(2nd/6th Ed.)
▪ Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer by T. L. Bergman, A. S. Lavine, F.
P. Incropera (8th Ed.)
▪ Heat and Mass Transfer by J.P Holman (10th Ed.)

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 2

 Course Contents

S.No. Description
1. Elementary Heat Transfer (Introduction)
2. The heat Diffusion Equation :Boundary and Initial conditions

3. 1D Steady State Heat Conduction

4. Heat Transfer through Extended Surfaces

5. Transient Heat Conduction

6. Convection (Free and Forced, Internal and External)
7. Thermal Radiation
8. Heat Exchangers

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 3

 Course Assessment

Assessment Type Weight

Quizzes 10 %
Laboratory/Practical 5%
Subject to Change
Assignments --
Projects/Case Studies 5%
Examinations 40 %
Final Examination 40%
Total 100%

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 4

 Introduction to Heat Transfer

▪Thermodynamics:
→ deals with the amount of heat transfer as a system undergoes
a process from one equilibrium state to another

i.e. it deals only with the end states of the process during which an
interaction occurs

→ Does not give information about:

o How long the process will take
o Mechanisms through with energy is transferred

We will learn
➢ What is heat transfer
➢ How is heat transferred
➢ Relevance and importance

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 5

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
What is Heat Transfer?
▪ “Energy in transit due to temperature difference (or gradient)”
▪ Temperature Difference is the driving force for heat transfer, just as:
o Voltage Difference is the driving force for electric current flow and
o Pressure Difference is the driving force for fluid flow
Thermodynamics tells us:
o How much heat is transferred (δQ)
o How much work is done (δW)
o Final state of the system
Heat Transfer tells us:
o How (with what modes) δQ is transferred
o At what rate δQ is transferred
o Temperature distribution inside the body
Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 6
 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Applications of heat transfer
▪ The problem of determining the temperature distribution and the heat flow is of interest in many
branches of science and technology (or engineering)

o In power engineering heat exchangers, boilers condensers, burners, nuclear reactor cores, radiators,
solar energy conversion, steam power plants
o Domestic applications ovens, stoves, toaster

o In Heating and Air-conditioning building structure, estimate insulation, prevent excessive heat losses

o In Electronic and Electrical Engineering heat distribution, heat stress, dissipation

o Manufacturing / Materials Processing welding, casting, soldering, laser machining

o Automobiles / Aircraft Design

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 7

Introduction to Heat Transfer
Applications of Heat Transfer

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 8

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Modes of heat transfer
-35 1 51
Conduction Heat Transfer: Occurs when a temperature gradient exists through a solid or a stationary
fluid (liquid or gas) -1,91557
Convection Heat Transfer: Occurs between a solid surface and an adjacent moving fluid, when they are
at different temperatures 191 j
Thermal Radiation: Heat transfer between two surfaces (that are not in contact), often in the absence of
an intervening medium in the form of electromagnetic waves

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 9

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Conduction
▪ Transfer of energy from the more energetic to less energetic particles of a substance by collisions
between atoms and/or molecules
T1
T1>T2

xo qx”

x T2
T2
▪ Conduction can take place in solids, liquids, or gases
o In gases and liquids: due to collisions and diffusion of molecules
during their random motion
o In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules in
a lattice and energy transport by free electrons
Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 10
Introduction to Heat Transfer
Conduction

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 11

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Conduction
Basic Heat Conduction Law—Fourier Law
▪ Heat conduction regularity is result of Biot’s experimental observation and
Fourier’s analysis theory of heat
▪ Rate of heat conduction through a medium depends on:
o geometry of the medium,
o its thickness, and
o material of the medium, as well as
o temperature difference across the medium
▪ Rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is proportional to temperature
difference across the layer and heat transfer area, but is inversely proportional to the
thickness of layer

constant of proportionality k → THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY of the

material
Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 12
 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Conduction
Basic Heat Conduction Law—Fourier Law -- Contd--
▪ In the limiting case of x → 0
Fourier’s Law Of Heat Conduction

o dT/dx is the Temperature Gradient, i.e., Slope of the temperature curve on a T-x diagram (the rate of
change of T with x), at location x
o Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing temperature, and temperature gradient becomes
negative (-ve) when temperature decreases with increasing x

▪ Heat Flux is then: T1(high) q x”

o Rate of heat transfer per unit area

⇒
T2 (low)
heat rate by conduction, qx (W), through a plane wall of area A is then the
x1 x2
product of the flux and the area, qx//.A x
Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 13
 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Conduction
Example
The roof of an electrically heated home is 6 m long, 8 m wide, and 0.25 m thick, and is made of a flat layer of
concrete whose thermal conductivity is k 0.8 W/m · °C. The temperatures of the inner and the outer
surfaces of the roof one night are measured to be 15°C and 4°C, respectively, for a period of 10 hours.
Determine (a) the rate of heat loss through the roof that night and (b) the cost of that heat loss to the home
owner if the cost of electricity is $0.08/kWh.

kW

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 14

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Conduction
Example
The roof of an electrically heated home is 6 m long, 8 m wide, and 0.25 m thick, and is made of a flat layer of
concrete whose thermal conductivity is k 0.8 W/m · °C. The temperatures of the inner and the outer
surfaces of the roof one night are measured to be 15°C and 4°C, respectively, for a period of 10 hours.
Determine (a) the rate of heat loss through the roof that night and (b) the cost of that heat loss to the home
owner if the cost of electricity is $0.08/kWh.

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 15

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Conduction
Thermal Conductivity
▪ Measure of a material’s ability to conduct heat
k = 0.608 W/m·°C for water and
k = 80.2 W/m·°C for Iron at Room Temp.
⇒ iron conducts heat more than 100 times faster than water can

▪ ⇒ k is rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness of the

material per unit area per unit temperature difference

k of pure copper at room temperature is 401 W/m · °C,

⇒ a 1-m-thick copper wall will conduct heat at a rate of 401 W per m
area per °C temperature difference across the wall

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 16

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Conduction
Thermal Conductivity – contd --

o A layer of material of known thickness and area can be heated from

one side by an electric resistance heater of known output
o If outer surfaces of the heater are well insulated, all heat
generated by the resistance heater will be transferred through the
material whose conductivity is to be determined

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 17

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Conduction
Thermal Conductivity – contd --
Range of thermal conductivity of various materials at
room temp.
pure crystals and metals have the highest thermal
conductivities, and gases and insulating materials
the lowest
▪ k’s of a substance is normally highest in the Solid
Phase and lowest in Gas Phase

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 18

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Conduction
Thermal Conductivity – contd --
variation of thermal conductivity over certain
temperature ranges is negligible for some materials,
but significant for others

it is common practice to evaluate the thermal

conductivity k at av. temp and treat it as a
constant in calculations

Further Detailed Discussion on Thermal Conductivity:

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 19
Ch-1, pp: 19-23, Book Cengel 2nd Ed.
 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Conduction
Thermal Diffusivity
▪ Cp represent the heat storage capability of a material per unit mass (J/kg·°C) whereas ρCp expresses it per
unit volume (J/m3·°C)

▪ Another material property that appears in transient heat conduction analysis is Thermal Diffusivity →
represents how fast heat diffuses through a material

▪ k represents how well a material conducts heat, and Cp represents how much energy a material stores per
unit volume
▪ Larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the propagation of heat into the medium
▪ A small value of Thermal Diffusivity means that heat is mostly absorbed by the material and a small
amount of heat will be conducted further

▪ Note that the thermal diffusivity ranges from 0.14 X 10-6 m2/s for water to 174 X 10-6 m2/s for silver, which is
a difference of more than a thousand times
Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 20
 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Convection
▪ Energy transfer by random Molecular Motion (as in Conduction) plus Bulk (Macroscopic) motion of the
fluid
o Convection: transport by random motion of molecules and by bulk motion of fluid
o Advection: transport due solely to bulk fluid motion
▪ Convective Heat Transfer — Fluid flows over a solid body or inside channel, while temperature of fluid
and solid surface are different, heat transfer between the fluid and the solid surface takes place as a
consequence of the motion of fluid relative to the surface

o faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfer
o In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid
is by pure conduction

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 21

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Convection
Boundary Layer Development in Convection Heat Transfer
Hydrodynamic, or Velocity, Boundary Layer
▪ consequence of the fluid–surface interaction is the development of a region in the fluid through which the
velocity μ varies from zero at the surface to a finite value u∞ associated with the flow

Thermal Boundary Layer

▪ if the surface and flow temperatures differ, there will be a region of the fluid through which the temperature
varies from Ts at y = 0 to T∞ in the outer flow

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 22

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Convection
Boundary Layer Development in Convection Heat Transfer
▪ contribution due to random molecular motion (Diffusion) dominates near the surface where the fluid
velocity is low
▪ contribution due to Bulk Fluid Motion originates from the fact that the Boundary Layer grows as the flow
progresses in the x-direction

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 23

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Convection

o Heat transfer processes involving change of phase of a fluid are

also considered to be convection
o There is also fluid motion induced during the process of rise of the
vapor bubbles during boiling or the fall of the liquid droplets during
Condensation

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 24

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Convection

Forced Convection Natural

Convection

Boiling Condensation

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 25

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Convection
Newton’s Law of Cooling
▪ Convective Heat Flux is proportional to: x q  (T − T )
"
S 
proportionality constant is the Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient, h (W/m2.K)

q"x = h(TS − T ) ⇒
h: Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient in W/m2·°C or Btu/h·ft2·°F
As: Surface Area through which convection heat transfer takes place, m2
Ts: Surface Temperature
T∞ : temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface
o h is not a property of the fluid
o h is an experimentally determined parameter whose value depends on many variables:
✓ surface geometry,
✓ nature of fluid motion,
✓ properties of the fluid, and
✓ bulk fluid velocity Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 26
Introduction to Heat Transfer
Convection

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 27

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Convection
Example
A 2-m-long, 0.3-cm-diameter electrical wire extends across a room at 15 °C, as shown in Fig. Heat is
generated in the wire as a result of resistance heating, and the surface temperature of the wire is measured
to be 152 °C in steady operation. Also, the voltage drop and electric current through the wire are measured
to be 60 V and 1.5 A, respectively. Disregarding any heat transfer by radiation, determine the convection
heat transfer coefficient for heat transfer between the outer surface of the wire and the air in the room.

(152-15) K
Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 28
 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Radiation
▪ Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of Electromagnetic Waves (or photons) as a result
of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules

▪ Unlike conduction and convection, transfer of energy by radiation does not require the presence of an
intervening medium

▪ Energy transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it suffers no attenuation in a vacuum
▪ Can occur from solid surfaces, liquids and gases

▪ Thermal Radiation is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their Temperature
▪ All bodies at a temperature above Absolute Zero emit Thermal Radiation
▪ Radiation is a Volumetric Phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and gases emit, absorb, or transmit
radiation to varying degrees

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 29

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Radiation
▪ Radiation usually considered to be a Surface Phenomenon for solids that are opaque to thermal radiation
such as metals, wood, and rocks
o radiation emitted by the interior regions of such material can never reach the surface
o radiation incident on such bodies is usually absorbed within a few microns from the surface
▪ Maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at an absolute temperature Ts (in K or R) is
given by the STEFAN–BOLTZMANN LAW as:
Ϭ = Stefan–Boltzmann Constant
= 5.67 X 10-8 W/m2 · K4 or 0.1714 10-8 Btu/h · ft2 · R4

o idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate is called a Blackbody, and the radiation
emitted by a Blackbody is called Blackbody Radiation

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 30

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Radiation
▪ Radiationemitted by all Real Surfaces is less than the radiation emitted by a Blackbody at the same
temperature

ε = Emissivity of the surface 0 ≤ε≤1

▪ Radiation may also be incident on a surface from its surroundings, such
as Sun

o rate at which all such radiation is incident on a

unit area of the surface as the Irradiation G

o Radiant Energy absorbed per unit surface area:

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 31

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Radiation

▪ Absorptivity(α): Fraction of radiation energy incident

on a surface that is absorbed by the surface
0≥α≥1
▪ Blackbody absorbs entire radiation incident on it
⇒ A Blackbody is a perfect absorber (α = 1) as it is a perfect
emitter. (ε = 1)

▪ If α < 1 and surface is opaque, portions of the irradiation are Reflected

▪ If surface is Semi-transparent, portions of the irradiation may also be Transmitted
▪ α depends on the nature of the irradiation, as well as on the surface itself
E.g. Absorptivity of a surface to solar radiation may differ from its absorptivity to radiation emitted
by the walls of a furnace

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 32

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Radiation
▪ When a surface of emissivity ε and surface area As at an absolute temperature Ts is completely enclosed by
a much larger (or black) surface at absolute temperature Tsurr separated by a gas (such as air) that does not
intervene with radiation
Net rate of Radiation Heat Transfer between these two surfaces is:

Here, emissivity and the surface area of the surrounding surface do not have any
effect on the net radiation heat transfer
For per unit area of the surface (HEAT FLUX):

OR

Where, hr = Radiation Heat Transfer Coefficient

⇒
Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 33
 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Radiation
o Qrad to or from a surface surrounded by a gas such as air occurs parallel to Conduction (or Convection, if
there is bulk gas motion) between the surface and the gas

Total rate of heat transfer from the surface is then:

▪ Radiation is usually significant relative to conduction or natural

convection, but negligible relative to forced convection

▪ Thus radiation in Forced Convection applications is usually

disregarded, especially when surfaces involved have low
emissivities and low to moderate temperatures

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 34

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Radiation
Example
An uninsulated steam pipe passes through a room in which the air and walls are at 25 oC. The outside diameter of the
pipe is 70 mm, and its surface temperature and emissivity are 200 oC and 0.8, respectively. What are the surface
emissive power and irradiation? If the coefficient associated with free convection heat transfer from the surface to the
air is 15 W/m2 K, what is the rate of heat loss from the surface per unit length of pipe?

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 35

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Radiation
Example
An uninsulated steam pipe passes through a room in which the air and walls are at 25 oC. The outside diameter of the
pipe is 70 mm, and its surface temperature and emissivity are 200 oC and 0.8, respectively. What are the surface
emissive power and irradiation? If the coefficient associated with free convection heat transfer from the surface to the
air is 15 W/m2 K, what is the rate of heat loss from the surface per unit length of pipe?

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 36

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanisms
▪ Heat Transfer is only by conduction in Opaque Solids, but by conduction and radiation in Semi-transparent
solids
⇒ a Solid may involve conduction and radiation but not convection
▪ A Solid may involve heat transfer by convection and/or radiation on its SURFACES exposed to a fluid or
other surfaces
o Outer surfaces of a cold piece of rock will warm up in a warmer environment as a result of heat gain
by convection (from air) and radiation (from sun or warmer surrounding surfaces)
But inner parts of the rock will warm up as this heat is transferred to the inner region of the rock by
conduction.

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 37

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanisms
▪ Gases are practically transparent to radiation, except that some gases are known to absorb radiation
strongly at certain wavelengths
E.g., Ozone strongly absorbs Ultraviolet Radiation

▪ In most cases, a gas between two solid surfaces does not interfere with radiation and acts effectively as a
vacuum

▪ Liquids are usually strong absorbers of radiation

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 38

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanisms

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 39

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanisms
Example
Consider steady heat transfer between two large parallel plates at constant temperatures of T1 = 300 K and T2 = 200 K
that are L 1 cm apart, as shown in Fig. Assuming the surfaces to be black (emissivity 1), determine the rate of heat
transfer between the plates per unit surface area assuming the gap between the plates is
(a) filled with atmospheric air, (b) evacuated, (c) filled with urethane insulation, and
(d) filled with superinsulation that has an apparent thermal
conductivity of 0.00002 W/m · °C.

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 40

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanisms
Example
Consider steady heat transfer between two large parallel plates at constant temperatures of T1 = 300 K and T2 = 200 K
that are L 1 cm apart, as shown in Fig. Assuming the surfaces to be black (emissivity 1), determine the rate of heat
transfer between the plates per unit surface area assuming the gap between the plates is
(a) filled with atmospheric air, (b) evacuated, (c) filled with urethane insulation, and
(d) filled with superinsulation that has an apparent thermal
conductivity of 0.00002 W/m · °C.

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 41

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanisms

Example – contd--

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 42

 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Conservation of Energy
1st Law of Thermodynamics
▪ For a CLOSED SYSTEM (a region of fixed mass)

ΔEsttot : change in the total energy stored in the system

Q: net heat transferred to the system
W: net work done by the system
▪ For a CONTROL VOLUME (or open system)
Mass entering and leaving the control volume carries energy with it

ΔEst = change in thermal and mechanical

energy stored over the time Δt
Ein, Eout = Thermal and mechanical energy transport across
the control surfaces, i.e., inflow and outflow terms
Eg= Thermal and mechanical energy generation
Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 43
 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Conservation of Energy
1st Law of Thermodynamics—contd--
▪ Energy conservation on a rate basis: (may be applied at any instant of time)

➢ Inflow and outflow are surface phenomena

➢ Generation and accumulation are volumetric phenomena
➢ Ėg is associated with rate of conversion from some other energy form
➢ Ėst due to internal, kinetic and/or potential energies

Further Detailed Discussion on

Relationship to Thermodynamics:
Ch-1, Book: Cengel 2nd Ed. Or
Incropera
Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 44
 Introduction to Heat Transfer
Surface Energy Balance
▪ Wewill frequently have occasion to apply the Conservation of Energy requirement at the surface of a
medium
▪ A surface contains no volume or mass, and thus no energy
▪ Control Surfaces are located on either side of the physical boundary and enclose no mass or volume
⇒ generation and storage terms of the conservation are no longer
relavent

▪ For this case, the conservation requirement becomes:

q’’cond: conduction from medium to control surface

q’’conv: convection from surface to fluid

q’’rad: Radiation from surface to surrounding

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 45

 Introduction to Heat Transfer

Example
A closed container filled with hot coffee is in a room whose air and walls are at a fixed temperature. Identify
all heat transfer processes that contribute to the cooling of the coffee. Comment on features that would
contribute to a superior container design.

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 46

 Introduction to Heat Transfer

Example– contd--

q1: free convection from the coffee to the flask

q2: conduction through the flask.
q3: free convection from the flask to the air
q4: free convection from the air to the cover
q5: net radiation exchange between outer surface of flask and inner surface of the cover
q6: conduction through the cover
q7: free convection from the cover to the room air
q8: net radiation exchange between the outer surface of the cover and the surroundings

Design Improvements
(1) use of aluminized (Low Emissivity) surfaces for flask and cover to reduce Net Radiation
(2) evacuating the air space or using a filler material to retard
Mechanical free
Engineering convection
Dept. UoB 47
 Introduction to Heat Transfer

Example 5.1
Consider a flat plate solar collector placed horizontally on the flat roof of a house. The collector is 5 ft wide
and 15 ft long, and the average temperature of the exposed surface of the collector is 100 °F. The emissivity of
the exposed surface of the collector is 0.9. Determine the rate of heat loss from the collector by convection
and radiation during a calm day when the ambient air temperature is 70°F and the effective sky temperature
for radiation exchange is 50°F. Take the convection heat transfer coefficient on the exposed surface to be 2.5
Btu/h·ft2·°F.

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 48

 Introduction to Heat Transfer

Example 5.1
Consider a flat plate solar collector placed horizontally on the flat roof of a house. The collector is 5 ft wide
and 15 ft long, and the average temperature of the exposed surface of the collector is 100 °F. The emissivity of
the exposed surface of the collector is 0.9. Determine the rate of heat loss from the collector by convection
and radiation during a calm day when the ambient air temperature is 70°F and the effective sky temperature
for radiation exchange is 50°F. Take the convection heat transfer coefficient on the exposed surface to be 2.5
Btu/h·ft2·°F. English unit

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 49

 Introduction to Heat Transfer

Practice Problems:

Book: Yunus Cengel 2nd Ed.

▪ Examples: 1.5, 1.6, 1.8, 1.9, 1.10, 1.11

▪ Problems: 1.43, 1.65, 1.67, 1.85, 1.88, 1.102, 1.109E, 1.105, 1.104, 1.84, 1.128, 1.137,

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 50