nd

2 Term 2023
Magnetism and Electromagnetism
O Levels Physics (5054)
If you want easy-to-understand notes on magnetism and electromagnetism, you will love this
comprehensive resource I am about to share with you.

In fact, these are the exact notes I used to understand this topic (easily).

Table of Contents

 Magnetism:
o Properties of Magnet:
o Magnetic Induction:
o Methods of magnetization and demagnetization:
 Electromagnetism:
o The right-hand rule:
o Fleming’s left-hand rule:
o Applications of electromagnetism:
 Wrapping up:

Q. What is magnetism?

Magnetism:

Have you ever heard about attraction or repulsion? In simple words, this is magnetism.
In Physics, magnetism is the phenomenon that causes attraction and repulsion between objects
(due to electric charges).

Q. What are Magnetic materials?

Magnetic materials are those materials that are attracted to a magnet (due to their magnetic
properties). Some examples are:
1. Cobalt
2. Nickel 3. Iron (and their alloys etc)
On the other hand,

Q. What are non-magnetic materials?

the materials that are not attracted by a magnet are called non-magnetic materials. Some
examples are:

Rubber, water, plastic, gold, and silver, etc.

Properties of Magnet:
 Attractive property: Note that a magnet attracts ferromagnetic materials (that are easily
magnetized like Iron).
(Opposite poles attract, such as North-South or South-North).
 Repulsive property: Like (same) poles (such as North-North or South-South) repel each
other.
 Directive property: Note that a freely suspended magnet points in the North-South
direction. This is the exact reason we use magnetic as compasses as well.
Q. How will you test whether a material is a magnet or not?
Test of magnetism
Let’s suppose there are two materials. One material (X) gets attracted to a magnet, but the
second material (Y) repels the magnet. Which material is a magnet?
The material Y is magnet because repulsion is a test of magnetism.

Magnetic Induction:
Magnetic induction is a process by which substances (such as steel or iron) get magnetized by
a magnetic field.
Methods of magnetization and demagnetization:
After studying the topic of magnetic induction, you may have this question: Are there any ways we can
magnetize an object?
The answer is, yes! Here are a few methods of magnetization:

1. The “Stroking method“:

If you have a bar of steel and a (bar) magnet, you can magnetize the steel bar. Here’s how.
The steel bar is stroked with the same pole of the permanent magnet from one end to the other
(in one direction). This stroking multiple times will magnetize your steel bar.

We can use two (permanent) magnets for this method as well. But, you will have to ensure that
both magnets are stroked in the opposite direction (and have the opposite poles).If one magnet
has the North pole (and is struck from the left), then the second magnet should have the South
pole (and should be struck from the right).

The electrical method:

If we have a bar of steel or iron (to be magnetized), simply connect a solenoid (a coil with multiple turns) to a
D.C supply (current flows in one direction only).
Then place the iron bar in the solenoid and turn on the D.C power supply. When the current
flows through the solenoid, a magnetic field is produced (due to the current). This magnetic
field causes the iron bar to be magnetized.

Methods of demagnetization.

Hammering (or by dropping the magnet from a height):

Before understanding this concept, we need to know about the magnetic domain. A magnetic
domain is a region where magnetic moments align in the same direction. This alignment allows
the material to stay magnetized.

However, hammering disturbs the magnetic domain and the alignment breaks as well. As a
result, the material gets demagnetized. In the same way, dropping a magnet from a height
(continually) also disturbs its alignment (magnetic domain).
Heating:

Heating the magnet (over a particular temperature) can also demagnetize it?
If you heat the magnet past the Curie point (temperature above which the magnet becomes
demagnetized), the magnet will start losing its magnetic properties.
Due to heating, the magnet faces a reduction in the magnetic field as the particles gain energy
and move faster. This movement causes the magnetic domains to misalign (causing the
magnetism to reduce).

This is the reason why heating can also cause demagnetization.

Electrical method (using A.C supply):

We remember the electrical method (that was previously discussed)? It is the same but has
some slight differences.
First of all, we connect a solenoid with an A.C supply. Then, the magnet is placed inside the
solenoid and the A.C power supply is turned on.
We then slowly withdraw the magnet from the solenoid (as the current is still flowing). This
action causes the magnetic to be demagnetized.
Note: This is because the A.C current changes its direction multiple times. As a result, the
magnetic domain of the magnet is disturbed. This is the reason why it gets demagnetized.

These were some details about the topic of magnetism. Now, let’s take a look at
electromagnetism in detail.

Electromagnetism:

In simple words, this is a process through which we create a magnetic field by passing a current
(in the conductor).

So in this topic, I will be explaining some important concepts to you such as:
The right-hand rule

The left-hand rule

DC Motor

The right-hand rule:

As I said earlier, we can create a magnetic field by passing a current through a conductor. But, how can we find
out the direction of the current or the magnetic field?

For that, we use the right-hand rule. And here is what it says:

If you point your thumb in the direction of the current, then your (curled) fingers will indicate the direction of
the magnetic field.

Here are some other concepts related to this rule:

 If the direction of the current is reversed, then the direction of the magnetic field will also be reversed.
  The strength of the magnetic field (in a conductor) increases as the current in it increases.

 In a solenoid (a conductor with multiple turns), increasing the number of turns increases the magnetic
field (as the current flows through it).

Moreover, if you place a soft iron core within a solenoid, the strength of the magnetic field will also increase.
Can you guess the reason for this?

Forces between parallel current-carrying conductors:

You should know that:

 Current carrying conductors in opposite directions repel.

 Current carrying conductors in the same direction attract.

(The diagram below summarises this information):

With this, it is time to talk about Fleming’s left-hand rule and the motor effect.

Fleming’s left-hand rule:

This concept is pretty simple but important. But what does it say? Let me explain.

We can use this method to find the force on a conductor (in an electric motor) if we know the direction of the
magnetic field and the current.
Basically, we use our thumb, index finger and middle finger:

Thumb: It represents the direction of the force (motion) on the conductor.

Index finger: It indicates the direction of the magnetic field.

Middle finger: It represents the direction of the current.

The Motor effect:

When talking about the left-hand rule, we have to discuss the motor effect.

A current-carrying conductor can apply force on a (permanent) magnet. This is called the motor effect.

Note: It is the motor effect that allows an electric motor (DC motor) to operate. Here is how it is done.

In a simple DC motor, we have stationary magnets and a coil of wire (carrying current). This current produces
a magnetic field as well.

The point to note over here is that a force is applied on the coil (due to the current and the magnetic field) that
allows it to rotate. The step-by-step guide summarises all this:

1. An electric current flows through the wire.

2. On the South pole of the magnet, an upward force acts that cause the wire to move up.
 3. Due to this, the coil of wire rotates on an axis.

4. When the coil reaches the vertical position, the current stops flowing but it rotates due to inertia.

After the vertical position, the current continues to flow and the process continues.

Applications of electromagnetism:

Have you ever heard about a circuit breaker or an electric bell? Well, these are some everyday applications of
electromagnetism.

Circuit breaker: It is an (automatic) switch that opens (stops the current from flowing) when a large current
passes through it. Here is what happens.

When the current increases, the strength of the electromagnet will also increase. Due to this, a soft
iron armature gets attracted towards the electromagnet.

As a result, the contact is pulled apart by the spring and the circuit is disconnected (immediately). When this
happens, the current stops flowing (as the path is blocked).

This is how we use circuit breakers to protect our appliances from damage.

Loudspeakers: These devices operate by the “motor effect”. Here’s how.

Basically, a variation (change) in the current also causes a change in the electric field (produced by the
electromagnet). Due to this, the “cone” in the loudspeaker moves that causes pressure changes in the air.

As a result of these pressure variations, sound waves are formed.

In short, here is what happens:

 A current (AC supply) in the coil produces a magnetic field.

This magnetic field interacts with the permanent magnet. As a result, a force is produced that pushes the
cone outward.
  Now, the current flows in the opposite direction.

Now an inward force acts on the cone.

This repeated movement of the current causes the cone to move forward and backwards.

 These vibrations result in pressure changes that ultimately produce sound waves.

Simple, isn’t it?

Since magnetism is related to the movements of electrons. It is not surprising that the basic
ideas of magnetism is very similar to those of electrostatics.

 All the magnets have two types of poles: north-seeking poles or north poles and south-
seeking poles or south poles.
 The magnetic strength is the strongest at the poles of the magnet.
 When you freely suspend a bar magnet in a horizontal position, the magnetic field of
the bar magnet will interact with the magnetic field of the Earth. This will cause the bar
magnet to come to rest in a north-south direction, where the north pole of the magnet
points to the north pole of the Earth.
 Like poles repel and unlike poles attract. (just as like charges repel and unlike charges
attract).
 Magnets attract magnetic materials such as iron, steel, cobalt and nickel.
 The stronger a magnet, the larger will be the attractive or repulsive force between other
magnets.
 The closer together the two magnets are, the greater is the magnetic force between
them.

Note:
 All magnets have a north and south poles – 2 poles. Cutting a bar magnet in half simply
produces two smaller magnets, each with its own north and south poles. What if you
cut the half-bar-magnet? You will just obtain two smaller magnets, each with its own
north and south poles. There is currently no experimental nor theoretical evidence for
the existence of a magnet containing only 1 pole (magnetic monopole). If a magnetic
monopole is found, most of the Physics texts will have to be rewritten.
 Only magnets can be made to repel each other. Otherwise, the magnets will attract all
other magnetic materials.
 The Earth has a giant magnet, its axis is oriented more or less in the direction of the
Earth’s rotation. The North pole of the Earth is actually the south pole of the Earth’s
magnet. (The magnetic poles actually does not align perfectly with the real north and
south pole. There is a small deviation. But let’s not concern ourselves with this for now.)
Magnetic materials are matter that is attracted by magnets.
 Magnetic materials can be made into magnets.
e.g. Iron, steel, nickel, cobalt and many alloys based on these metals.

Non-magnetic materials are matter that is not attracted by magnets.

 Non-magnetic materials cannot be made into magnets.
e.g. Wood, glass, plastics and metals such as copper and brass.

Induced Magnetism & Electrical Method

Of Magnetization
Magnetic Induction is one of the ways making magnetic materials like steel and iron into
magnets. In other words, magnetic induction is a process of inducing magnetism in an
ordinary piece of magnetic material.

 This method involves simply placing the magnetic material (soft iron) close to a strong
magnet without touching.
 The soft iron bar becomes an induced magnet with the end nearer the magnet having
opposite polarity to that of the magnet.
 Hence, the soft iron bar is attracted and attached to the permanent magnet. Magnetic
induction process reveals how magnetic materials can be attracted to magnets.
 Induced magnetism is a temporary process. If the permanent magnet is removed, the
magnetic material will usually lose its induced magnetism.

Electrical method for magnetization

For magnetization, a direct current flowing into a solenoid (a long insulated wire coiled into a
cylinder) produces a magnetic field that, inside the coil, is uniform in strength and direction.

 The solenoid becomes a magnet.

A steel bar placed inside the coil for a short while becomes magnetised due to magnetic
induction from the solenoid.

 The polarities of the magnet depend on the direction of current flow.

Magnetisation by electric current method creates more powerful magnets than other
magnetization methods such as stroking.
Comparison between electromagnet and permanent magnet

Electromagnet Permanent Magnet

Made of a coil of wire (often with a soft iron

Made of hard magnetic material like steel
core)

Magnetism is temporary. Requires a current Magnetism is permanent. Does not require

through the coil to sustain the magnetic field any electric current to retain magnetic field
strength strength

Applications: Telephone receivers, electric Applications: Magnetic doorstops,

relays, electric bells, circuit breakers compasses, motors
Magnetic Field And Magnetic Field Lines
Magnetic Field is the region around a magnet where other magnetic material will experience a
force.

A magnetic field can be graphically represented by magnetic field lines which indicates its
strength and direction.

Note: Magnetic field is a vector quantity! (It has both magnitude AND direction!)
 When the field lines are close together at a point, the point is said to have a strong
magnetic field.
 Arrows in the field lines outside the magnets show the direction in which a free north
pole would move (from north pole to south pole).
 Field lines NEVER cross over.
 Compass is used to find the direction and pattern of magnetic field. It has a permanent
magnet needle which is free to rotate in a horizontal plane. The north pole of compass
magnet (arrow head) will align and point along the magnetic field line direction.

IMPORTANT: Please note that for the last two diagrams, the field lines are NOT pushing
against one another. Do NOT be tempted to say that the like poles repel because the field
lines push against one another. It is NOT correct!
Interesting tidbits:
Magnetic field strength can be measured using a teslameter.

Plotting of magnetic field lines with a compass

Apparatus Needed: Bar magnet, plotting paper and plotting compass.

Procedure:
1. Place the bar magnet at the centre of the piece of paper so that its north pole is aligned
as shown.
2. Place the compass near one pole of the magnet, and mark the positions of the ends N
and S, of the compass needle by pencil dots. Then, move the compass until the end of
the compass is over the second dot, and mark the new position of the other with a third
dot.
3. Repeat the above until reaching the other pole. Join the series of dots and this will give
a field line of the magnetic field. Use this method to plot other field lines on both sides
of this magnet.

Temporary and permanent magnets

Iron as a temporary magnet:
 Iron can be easily magnetised or demagnetised (soft magnetic material. It can even be
magnetized by a weak magnetic field. it is therefore suitable to be used in temporary
magnets.
 When mixed with other metals (e.g. Ni, Cu, Mn, Si), powerful temporary magnets can
be made.
 These temporary magnets are used to make temporary electromagnets.
Electromagnets lose its magnetism when it is removed from magnetising fields.
Electromagnets are very useful because they can be turned on and off and their
strengths can be varied.
  In order to shield or contain any magnetic effects, soft permeable iron is also used as
effective magnetic shields. (magnetic keepers)

E.g. Electromagnets can be used for such tasks as moving cars or sorting metals from other
landfill materials. Other applications are in circuit breakers, magnetic relays, electric bells,
audio and video tapes transformers etc.

Steel as a permanent magnet

 Compared to iron, steel cannot be easily magnetised or demagnetised (hard magnetic
material). It can only be magnetized by a strong magnetic field. But, steel has the ability
to retain its magnetism once it is magnetized. This trait allows steel to be suitable to be
used in permanent magnets.
 Steel is typically mixed with other magnetic material to ensure structural stability. In this
way, strong permanent magnets are made.

E.g. Permanent magnets are used in compasses, magnetic door catches, moving coil
galvanometers, d.c. motors, a.c. generators, loudspeakers, and for many other purposes.

Note: Theoretical limit for a permanent magnetic field is 5 Tesla. Electromagnets made with
ordinary wires can produce steady fields of 34 Tesla.

The difference between magnetic properties of iron and steel can be summarised in the table
below:

Properties Iron Steel

Material Soft Hard

Magnetisation Easy Difficult

Demagnetisation Easy Difficult

Magnetic field strength in

Strong Weak
solenoid

Magnetism Temporary Permanent

Magnetic field due to current in a straight wire
Movement of electric charge is an underlying cause of magnetism. Hence, an electric current,
being a flow of charge, produces a magnetic field. If the current is flowing in a wire, the shape
of the magnetic field is dependent on the configuration of the wire.

The magnetic field lines produced by a current in a straight wire are in the form of circles with
the wire as its centre.

Right-hand rule can be used to find the direction of the magnetic field produced due to current
flow.

 Right-hand rule: Grasp the wire with right hand so that the thumb points in the direction
of the conventional current, then the wrapped fingers will encircle the wire in the
direction of the magnetic field.
The magnetic field is strong in the region around the wire and weakens with increasing
distance, i.e., the field lines near the wire are drawn closer to another. With increasing
distances, concentric circles are further apart.

The larger the current, the stronger is the magnetic field.

Magnetic field due to current in a solenoid

Solenoid consists of a length of insulated wire coiled into a cylinder shape.

 Current in solenoid produces a stronger magnetic field inside the solenoid than outside.
The field lines in this region are parallel and closely spaced showing the field is highly
uniform in strength and direction.
 Field lines outside the solenoid are similar to that of a bar magnet, and it behaves in a
similar way – as if it had a north pole at one end and south pole at the other end.
Strength of the field diminishes with distance from the solenoid.
 Strength of the magnetic field can be increased by:
1. increasing the current in the coil
2. increasing the number of coils in the solenoid; and
3. using a soft iron core within the solenoid.
 Reversing the direction of the current reverses the direction of the magnetic field.
Right-hand rule can be used to find the direction of the magnetic field. In this case, point the
wrapped fingers (along the coil) in the direction of the conventional current. Then, the thumb
will point to the direction of magnetic field within the solenoid.

FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE

Electric bell
The well-known application of electromagnet is the electric bell.
  When the ‘push’ switch is depressed, the circuit is closed. Current passes through the
electromagnet windings and the core becomes magnetised.
 The magnetised core attracts the iron armature which makes the striker hits the gong.
 However, the movement of the armature opens the ‘make and break’ switch which
switches the electromagnet off. The iron armature springs back to its original position,
closing the ‘make and break’ switch and start the cycle again.

Notes:
 Soft iron is used to make electromagnets as it gains and loses magnetism quickly
depending on existence of magnetic fields. The armature is also made of soft iron
which can induce magnetism rapidly.
 No matter what direction is the current flow, the bell rings continuously as long as the
‘push’ switch is closed because any pole induces the armature.

Circuit breaker
December 26, 2015 by Mini Physics
Show/Hide Sub-topics (Magnetism & Electromagnetism | O Level)
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An excess current circuit breaker is a ‘trip’ switch opened by an electromagnet in the same
circuit when the current through the windings exceeds a certain value.

Unlike a ‘make and break’ switch, a ‘trip’ is designed to stay open after it has been opened by
the electromagnet. The trip switch is reset manually after the cause of the excessive current
has been removed.

Wrapping up:

With this, the topic of magnetism and electromagnetism has been covered.

Now, I have a question for you.

Which part of this topic do you find the most interesting. Or there are some concepts you find challenging?
Either way, do let me know in the comments below.

You should practise plenty of past paper questions for this topic as it is important from an examination point
of view.

Thank you very much for reading and staying with me till the end. Stay tuned for more.

.
 CIEGCEO Level

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