Chapter 2 2024 Part 1

Fundamentals of Power Systems TECE 3731
Transmission Line Parameters

Chapter 2
POWER SYSTEM I - I375EP By: M.Kanime 1
Content
 Introduction
 Resistance
 Inductance
 Types of Conductors
 Stranded conductors
 Three-phase transmission lines
 Bundled conductors
 Line capacitance
 Effect of earth on line capacitance

Introduction
 Overhead transmission lines consist of a group of conductors running parallel to each other and
carried on supports (transmission towers) which provide insulation between the different
conductors and between each conductor and the earth.
 A transmission line has four parameters: Resistance, inductance, capacitance, and shunt
conductance.
 The series resistance causes active power loss in the conductor.

Introduction
 The series inductance governs the power transmission capacity of
the line.
 The shunt capacitance causes a charging current to flow in the

line, and it assumes importance for medium and long lines.
 The shunt conductance accounts for leakage currents flowing

across insulators and ionized pathways in the air. The leakage
current is negligible in relation to the current flowing in the
conductor.

Introduction
Transmission Line Components
 Conductors:
Bare conductors
Insulated wires and cables
 Towers
 Insulators
 Accessories
POWER SYSTEM I - I375EP By: MMK 5

Introduction
Conductors:
 Copper: stranded hard-drawn copper
 Aluminium conductor steel reinforced (ACSR)
 All aluminium alloy conductor (AAAC)
 Expanded ACSR
 Aluminium conductor alloy reinforced (ACAR)

Introduction
Conductors:
 An overhead transmission line consists of conductors, insulators, support

structures, and, in most cases, shield wires.
 For several reasons, Aluminum has replaced copper as the most common
conductor metal for overhead transmission.
 The most common conductor types is aluminum conductor, steel-reinforced

(ACSR), which consists of layers of aluminum strands surrounding a central core
of steel strands.

Introduction
Copper: stranded hard-drawn copper
 High electrical conductivity
 Hard-drawing: cold rolling and drawing reduces conductivity slightly but

considerably increases tensile strength.

Introduction
Aluminium compared to copper:
 Cheaper
 Lighter: lower weight/resistance smaller poles & less support accessories in

overhead lines.
 Lower conductivity: larger surface area or volume/resistance more surface area

for winds and snow, also lower potential gradient in overhead lines.
 Lower tensile strength: shorter line span or suspended on a (stranded

galvanized steel) sling wire or replaced the centre strands with reinforcing
material (ACSR)

Introduction
Stranded conductors:
 Stranded conductors are easier to manufacture, since larger conductor sizes can
be obtained by simply adding successive layers of strands.
 They are also easier to handle and more flexible than solid conductors,
especially in larger sizes.
 EHV lines often have more than one conductor per phase; these conductors are
called a bundle.
 Bundle conductors have a lower electric field strength at the conductor

surfaces, thereby controlling corona.
 They also have a smaller series reactance

Introduction

Introduction
Now, here you can see, that we have used different kinds of structure depending
on the voltage level. So, at a lower voltage level, we can use this kind of structure.
Also, we see that for this, we are using a single conductor. Whereas, in this
structure, we are seeing, that we are using two conductors for each phase. This
kind of arrangement is called bundle conductors. This is generally used at high
voltages of 220 kV and above.
The reason behind this is, this increases the effective radius of the conductors.
Therefore, it reduces the electrical stress and so the corona losses. This also
reduces the inductance, which is very useful in terms of reducing the voltage drop.
Now, in this structure, we also find that at the top of the structures, the towers or
the poles, we use ground wires. Now, these ground wires are provided mainly to
protect the phase wires from direct lightning strikes.

Introduction
Cables:
 Conductor types: copper or aluminium
 Insulation used: XLPE material, impregnated paper or plastics (PVC);
 Armouring:
 Steel wires for protection against mechanical damage
 Lead sheath to prevent moisture and water absorption

Introduction
Support structures:
 Transmission lines uses a variety of support structures depending on the line

voltage.
 Self-supporting, galvanized steel towers are used for higher voltages.
 Wood frame configurations are commonly used for lower voltages.
 Concrete towers may be used for high and lower voltages.

Introduction
Insulators:
 They provide electric insulation between conductors and the supporting

structures.
 For overhead line, air provides insulation between the bare conductors of
different phases.
 Insulators for transmission lines consist of a string of discs constructed from

porcelain, toughened glass, or polymer.
 The number of insulator discs in a string increases with line voltage.

Introduction
Insulators:
 Shield wires located above the phase conductors protect the phase conductors
against lightning.
 The number and location of the shield wires are selected so that almost all
lightning strikes terminate on the shield wires rather than on the phase
conductors.
 Shield wires are grounded to the tower so that when lightning strikes a shield
wire, the access current flows harmlessly to ground.

Introduction
Accessories :
 Grading or Corona rings: cause electric potential to evenly distributed among

insulator sections to minimize the Corona effect.
 Arcing horns: they allow electric arc to occur away from insulator strings, and
therefore avoid insulation break down.

Introduction
Accessories :
 Wind dampers: Reduce line vibrations due to winds.

Introduction

Transmission

Power Transmission
Power Transmission
By using a tr-line electrical power is transferred from the
remote generating station to the load centres,(where electrical
power is utilized)
Objective:
The tr-line system must be more efficient with min line losses
and maximum power transfer capability.

Transmission
TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS
Types of Conductors
1. Solid -Copper – CB Contacts, CT, PT, Terminals
2. Hollow – Copper – Isolators, Bus Duct
3. Stranded _ ACSR – Tr-lines , Bus Bar.

Types of Conductors
 Transmission line conductors used in practice are always stranded. Stranded or
composite conductors provide the necessary flexibility for stringing.
 Examples of conductors used for transmission lines are: stranded copper conductors,
hollow copper conductors and Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR)
conductors.
 ACSR is commonly used for overhead transmission because aluminium has a lower
weight compared to that of copper. The low tensile strength of aluminium is made up by
providing central strands of high tensile strength steel. ACSR conductors have the
following advantages:
 Cheaper than copper conductors of equal resistance
 Reduced corona losses due to a larger diameter of the conductor
 Superior mechanical strength, hence span of larger lengths which result in small
number of supports for a particular length of TX line.
The total number of strands (S) in a concentrically stranded conductor with total annular
space filled with strands of uniform diameter (d) is given by:
(2.22)

Types of Conductors Cont.
Where y is number of layers, where in a single central strand is counted as the first layer.
The overall diameter (D) of the stranded conductor is given by:
(2.23)
The figure below shows the cross-sectional view of a ACSR conductor

Types of Conductors
Stranded (or) ACSR Conductors

Transmission
Technical Names of ACSR Parameter of Tx-line ÷
Panther ÷ (33-132)Kv
Zebra ÷ (132 – 220) Kv 1. Resistance
Moose ÷ (220, ˃ 220)Kv 2. Inductance
Fox & Dog ÷ 33Kv , Distribution 3. Capacitance

4. Conductance
American ÷ Bird names …..

Transmission

Resistance
The line resistance is very important in transmission efficiency evaluation and
economic studies of a transmission line or power system.
The DC resistance of a solid round conductor is given by:
(2.1)
Where
 The conductor resistance is affected by four factors: Frequency, spiralling,

temperature and current magnitude (in magnetic conductors).
 Spiralling of strands that make up the conductor makes the strands longer than
the conductor itself, the DC resistance of the conductor is therefore greater
than the value given by (2.1).
 The increase in DC resistance due to spiralling is 1% for a three stranded
conductor and 2% for concentrically stranded conductors.
Resistance Cont.
Resistance (R)
1.6
Because of two reasons:

i. Skin effect
ii. Proximity effect

Resistance Cont.
Skin Effect

Resistance Cont.
 When AC current flows through the conductor, the current density is usually
greatest at the surface of the conductor.
 This non-uniformity of current distribution is caused by the internal magnetic

flux and increases with increase in frequency. This effect is known as the skin
effect, and it causes the AC resistance to be greater than the DC resistance at
nominal frequency.
 The inner layer of the conductor has more flux linkage than the outer layer
 Higher flux linkage causes higher inductance
 Higher inductance leads to high inductive reactance
 High inductive reactance causes a high impedance
 The higher impedance causes less current to flow for the same voltage drop
 The effective AC resistance is given by:

Resistance Cont.
Proximity Effect
The proximity effect occurs due to currents In the

mutual conductors. The effective area of the
current flowing path is reduced because of non-
uniform flux linkage b/w the two adjacent
conductors.
Proximity effect depends on;

i. Frequency
ii. μr
iii. δ
iv. Distance b/w conductor
Proximity effect is more in the case of power cables because the distance between
the conductors is small. And this effect is negligible in the case of overhead tr-line
b/c the distance between conductors is large.

Resistance Cont.
The accumulation of current on the surface of the conductor is

called skin effect. Due to skin effect the effective area of the
current flowing path is reduced causing (Rac˃Rdc).
Skin effect depends on the frequency of supply, Conductivity,
and conductor size.
Resistance Cont.

Resistance Cont.

Resistance Cont.
 Since the value of the conductor resistivity ρ is given at a specific temperature
and the line usually operates at a higher temperature, the actual resistance of
the conductor is higher than that given in (2.1).
 For small changes in temperature, the resistance increases linearly with an

increase in temperature. The resistance at temperature T is given by:
(2.2)
Where
Fundamentals of Power Systems TECE 3731 (M.K) 36

Resistance Cont.
If the resistance at temperature is known, then, the resistance at
temperature can be found from:
(2.3)
For aluminium

Resistance Cont.
The resistivity, % conductivity and temperature constant of conductor metals.

Resistance Cont.
Resistance of magnetic conductor:
 Resistance of magnetic conductor depends on the current magnitude.
 For ACSR conductors, the steel core has relatively high resistance compared to
the aluminium strands, carrying less current.
 The effect of current magnitude on the ACSR resistance is small.

Resistance Cont.

Inductance
INDUCTANCE
 To determine the inductance of a transmission line, we need to derive the expression for
inductance of a single conductor. This expression will then be extended to inductance of
a single-phase transmission line, and then that of a three-phase line
 Similarly, the expression of inductance of a group of conductors will be derived and then
extended to inductance of a three-phase transmission line.
 The inductance of the line is due to the conductor magnetic flux lines that form
magnetic flux linkages.
 Magnetic flux lines are concentric closed circles with their direction given by the right
hand rule.
Inductance
Inductance – basic concepts:
Inductance is calculated by determining the following:

 Magnetic field intensity H, from Ampere’s law
 Magnetic flux density B ( = )
 Flux linkages λ
 Inductance from flux linkages per ampere ( = / ).

Inductance

Inductance

Inductance
 We know, from electromagnetic theory, that a conductor carrying current has a
magnetic field around it.
 The voltage induced in a conductor is given by:
 Where ψ represents the flux linkages of the conductor in Wb-Turns. The above equation
can be written as:
 Where is the inductance in Henrys.

Inductance
 In a linear magnetic circuit, the flux linkage varies linearly with the current such that the
inductance remains constant and is given by:
 For AC we can write , λ and I being the rms values of flux linkage and current.
 Ampere’s law relates magnetic field intensity H to the enclosed current .
 Ampere’s circuital law states that: the line integral of magnetic field intensity along a
closed-loop path is equal to the electric current enclosed by the loop.

Inductance
 The flux density in wb/m2 is given by
 Were
 And is the permeability of free space
 And is the relative permeability
 The flux linked with the circuit is obtained by integrating the flux density over any
surface bounded by the conductors composing the circuit.
 Then the inductance can be computed from .
 From the voltage equation he steady state voltage drop due to alternating flux
linkages is given by .

Inductance
 The mutual inductance between two circuits is defined as the flux linkage of one circuit
due to the current in the second circuit.
 The voltage drop in circuit 1 due to flux linkage in circuit 2 is:
 The concept of mutual inductance is required while considering the coupling between
two parallel lines and the effect of power lines on telephone lines.

Inductance of a single conductor
 Transmission lines are made up of parallel conductors (NB)
 To determine the inductance of a single conductor, we need to develop expressions for

flux linkages of an isolated current carrying cylindrical conductor with a return path lying
at infinity
 To calculate inductance of a conductor, we consider the internal and external flux linkage

Internal inductance:
 A cross-section of a long cylindrical conductor of radius r carrying a sinusoidal current of

rms value I is shown in the figure.
 According to Ampere’s law
Hx is magnetic field intensity at distance x from the centre
Ix is current in amps enclosed up to distance x
 The field is symmetrical, therefore Hx is is constant for all points equidistant from the
center.
 Integrating the magnetic field intensity we get:
(skin effect neglected)

 Substituting for Ix and solving for Hx we get:
 Assuming a non-magnetic conductor, the magnetic flux density Bx at a distance x from

the center is obtained from Hx as:
 The differential flux f for a small region of thickness dx and one meter length of the
conductor is:


 The flux links only the fraction of the conductor
 Only the fractional turn of the total current is linked by the flux, and therefore:
 Integrating from o to r, we get the total internal flux linkages as:
 The total internal inductance is therefore given by:
 We can see that depends on the current and not radius of the conductor .

Inductance due to external flux:
 The figure shows two points P and Q at distances D1 and D2 from a conductor which
carries a current of I Amperes.
 The field intensity at a distance x is:
 The flux density at distance x is:
 The flux outside the conductor links the entire current I and hence the flux linkage is
numerically equal to the flux .

 The flux for a small region of thickness dx and one meter length of the conductor is
given by:
 Therefore, the total flux linkages of the conductor due to flux between points P and Q is:
 The inductance between two points external the conductor is then:

Inductance Cont.
The inductance of a single conductor due to internal flux is given by:
(2.5)
The inductance of a single conductor due to external flux is given by:
(2.6)
Fig 2.1: Flux linkage between two external points.

Where & are the distances from the centre of the conductor to the external points.
The total inductance due to internal and external flux linkage is therefore given by:
(2.7)
Inductance Cont.
𝑑 𝐷2
𝑟= 𝐷1

Inductance Cont.
HOMEWORK
Find the inductance of

I. Hollow conductor
II. ACSR conductor
If r =1 cm and the outside distance is 1m

Inductance Cont.
Inductance of a single phase two wire transmission line
Consider the single phase line consisting of two solid round conductors of radius
and spaced distance D apart.
Fig 2.2: Single phase two wire line

Assume that all the external flux setup by the current in conductor 1 links all the current up
to the centre of conductor 2. The inductance of conductor 1 due to external flux linkage is
therefore given by:
(2.8)

Inductance Cont.
The total inductance of conductor 1 is therefore given by:
Where
(2.9)

Inductance Cont.
Similarly the inductance of conductor 2 is given by:
(2.10)
The total inductance of the single phase transmission line is therefore given by:
(2.11)
If the two conductors are identical i.e. Then,
(2.12)
Since both conductors are identical, we can write = L , and inductance per phase per
km can be written as:
(2.13)

Inductance Cont.
Self and Mutual Inductance
 Inductance of a single-phase two wire TX line can also be expressed in terms of self
inductance of each conductor and their mutual inductances.
 Consider the single-phase circuit represented by two coils characterized by self
inductance and and the mutual inductance = . The flux linkages and
can be written as:
(2.14)
(2.15)
Therefore we can write
(2.16)
(2.17)

Inductance Cont.
Comparing this to (2.13) we can write
(2.18)
2.13
(2.19)
This approach of self and mutual inductance can be extended to a group of conductors. Let
us consider n conductors carrying phasor currents , to , such that + +… + = 0
The general formula for the flux linkages of conductor i is given by:
(2.20)
Which can also be written as (2.21)

Types of Conductors
 Transmission line conductors used in practice are always stranded. Stranded or
composite conductors provide the necessary flexibility for stringing.
 Examples of conductors used for transmission lines are: stranded copper conductors,
hollow copper conductors and Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR)
conductors.
 ACSR is commonly used for overhead transmission because aluminium has a lower
weight compared to that of copper. The low tensile strength of aluminium is made up by
providing central strands of high tensile strength steel. ACSR conductors have the
following advantages:
 Cheaper than copper conductors of equal resistance
 Reduced corona losses due to a larger diameter of the conductor
 Superior mechanical strength, hence span of larger lengths which result in small
number of supports for a particular length of TX line.
The total number of strands (S) in a concentrically stranded conductor with total annular
space filled with strands of uniform diameter (d) is given by:
(2.22)

Types of Conductors Cont.
Where y is number of layers, where in a single central strand is counted as the first layer.
The overall diameter (D) of the stranded conductor is given by:
(2.23)
The figure below shows the cross-sectional view of a ACSR conductor

Inductance of Stranded Condu.
Consider the single-phase line consisting of two composite conductors X and Y shown in the
figure below,
 Conductor X consists of n identical strands each with radius , the current in X is I

referenced into the page.
 Conductor Y consists of m identical strands each with radius , the return current in Y is
–I.
 Assuming the current is equally divided amongst the strands in each conductor, each
strand in X therefore carries a current and each strand in Y carries a current .

Inductance of Stranded Condu
Applying (2.21) to sub-conductor a to get its flux linkage we get,
(2.24)
The inductance of strand a is therefore:
(2.25)

Inductance of Stranded Conductor
The average inductance of any one sub-conductor of composite conductor X is :
(2.26)
The inductance of composite conductor X is therefore:
(2.27)
Substituting the values of , , ,…, into (2.27) we get:
(2.28)
where

Inductance of Stranded Conductor
 is referred to as the mutual Geometric Mean Distance (mutual GMD) of conductor X.
 is referred to as the self Geometric Mean Distance or the Geometric Mean Radius
(GMR) of conductor X.
 The inductance of conductor Y is found in the same manner, will remain the same
but (GMR) will be different.

Inductance Cont.
Inductance of three-phase transmission line with symmetrical spacing
 Radius of conductor in each phase is r
 The three-phases are symmetrically spaced by D
Applying (2.21), the total flux linkage of the conductor in phase a is given by
(2.28)
Assuming balanced three-phase current we have
(2.29)

Inductance Cont.
Using equations (2.28) and (2.29) we get,
(30)
The inductance of the conductor in phase a is therefore
r’ is GMR if composite conductor (31)
Because of symmetry, the flux linkages of the conductors in all three phases are equal,
hence the inductances of the conductors in all three phases are also equal. This implies that,

Inductance Cont.

Inductance Cont.
Inductance of three-phase transmission line with asymmetrical spacing between
phases
 The figure shows a three-phase TX line with asymmetrically spaced phases

 In practice, conductors of three-phase lines are not equally spaced
 The flux linkages and inductance of each phase conductor are therefore not the same
 The difference in inductance per-phase results in unbalanced receiving end voltages
From (2.21) :

Inductance Cont.
In matrix form
(2.32)
The symmetrical inductance matrix L is therefore given by:
(2.33)

Inductance Cont.
For balanced three-phase currents where is the reference current, and are related to
by the complex operator α i.e.
(2.34)
Where
Using eq. (2.32) and (2.34), the inductance of the conductors of the three phases is given by
(2.35)

Inductance Cont.

Inductance Cont.

Inductance Cont.

Inductance Cont.

Inductance Cont.
Inductance of transposed transmission lines
 For asymmetrically spaced conductors, the phase inductances are not equal and due
to the mutual inductance they contain imaginary terms which makes the inductance
values complex numbers.
 Complex inductance values make the study of the power system more challenging.
 The symmetry of the line can be regained, and thus avoid complex values of the
conductor inductances, by exchanging the positions of the conductors at regular
intervals along the line i.e. each conductor occupies the previous position of every
other phase conductor. This technique is known as transmission line transposition.
 Transposition is usually carried out at switching stations and it causes each

conductor to have equal average inductance over the transposition cycle.

Inductance Cont.

Inductance Cont.

Inductance Cont.

Inductance Cont.

Inductance Cont.

Inductance Cont.

Inductance Cont.

Inductance Cont.

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Fundamentals of Power Systems TECE 3731

Transmission Line Parameters

 Three-phase transmission lines

 Effect of earth on line capacitance

POWER SYSTEM I - I375EP By: M.Kanime 2

 The series resistance causes active power loss in the conductor.

POWER SYSTEM I - I375EP By: M.Kanime 3

 The shunt capacitance causes a charging current to flow in the

 The shunt conductance accounts for leakage currents flowing

POWER SYSTEM I - I375EP By: M.Kanime 4

Insulated wires and cables

POWER SYSTEM I - I375EP By: MMK 5

 Copper: stranded hard-drawn copper

 Aluminium conductor steel reinforced (ACSR)

 All aluminium alloy conductor (AAAC)

 Aluminium conductor alloy reinforced (ACAR)

POWER SYSTEM I - I375EP By: MMK 6

 An overhead transmission line consists of conductors, insulators, support

 The most common conductor types is aluminum conductor, steel-reinforced

POWER SYSTEM I - I375EP By: MMK 7

 High electrical conductivity

 Hard-drawing: cold rolling and drawing reduces conductivity slightly but

POWER SYSTEM I - I375EP By: MMK 8

 Lighter: lower weight/resistance smaller poles & less support accessories in

 Lower conductivity: larger surface area or volume/resistance more surface area

 Lower tensile strength: shorter line span or suspended on a (stranded

POWER SYSTEM I - I375EP By: MMK 9

 Bundle conductors have a lower electric field strength at the conductor

 They also have a smaller series reactance

POWER SYSTEM I - I375EP By: MMK 10

POWER SYSTEM I - I375EP By: MMK 11

POWER SYSTEM I - I375EP By: MMK 12

 Conductor types: copper or aluminium

 Insulation used: XLPE material, impregnated paper or plastics (PVC);

 Steel wires for protection against mechanical damage

 Lead sheath to prevent moisture and water absorption

POWER SYSTEM I - I375EP By: MMK 13

 Transmission lines uses a variety of support structures depending on the line

 Self-supporting, galvanized steel towers are used for higher voltages.

 Wood frame configurations are commonly used for lower voltages.

 Concrete towers may be used for high and lower voltages.

POWER SYSTEM I - I375EP By: MMK 14

 They provide electric insulation between conductors and the supporting

 Insulators for transmission lines consist of a string of discs constructed from

 The number of insulator discs in a string increases with line voltage.

POWER SYSTEM I - I375EP By: MMK 15

POWER SYSTEM I - I375EP By: MMK 16

 Grading or Corona rings: cause electric potential to evenly distributed among

POWER SYSTEM I - I375EP By: MMK 17

 Wind dampers: Reduce line vibrations due to winds.

POWER SYSTEM I - I375EP By: MMK 18

POWER SYSTEM I - I375EP By: MMK 19

POWER SYSTEM I - I375EP By: MMK 20

POWER SYSTEM I - I375EP By: M.Kanime 21

POWER SYSTEM I - I375EP By: MMK 22

POWER SYSTEM I - I375EP By: MMK 23

The figure below shows the cross-sectional view of a ACSR conductor

POWER SYSTEM I - I375EP By: MMK 24