Digital library

A digital library, also called an online

library, an internet library, a digital
repository, a library without walls, or a
digital collection, is an online database
of digital objects that can include text,
still images, audio, video, digital
documents, or other digital media
formats or a library accessible through
the internet. Objects can consist of
digitized content like print or
photographs, as well as originally
produced digital content like word
processor files or social media posts. In
addition to storing content, digital
libraries provide means for organizing,
searching, and retrieving the content
contained in the collection. Digital
libraries can vary immensely in size and
scope, and can be maintained by
individuals or organizations.[1] The digital
content may be stored locally, or
accessed remotely via computer
networks. These information retrieval
systems are able to exchange
information with each other through
interoperability and sustainability.[2]
History
The early history of digital libraries is not
well documented, but several key
thinkers are connected to the emergence
of the concept.[3] Predecessors include
Paul Otlet and Henri La Fontaine's
Mundaneum, an attempt begun in 1895
to gather and systematically catalogue
the world's knowledge, with the hope of
bringing about world peace.[4] The
visions of the digital library were largely
realized a century later during the great
expansion of the Internet.[5]

Vannevar Bush and J.C.R. Licklider are

two contributors that advanced this idea
into then current technology. Bush had
supported research that led to the bomb
that was dropped on Hiroshima. After
seeing the disaster, he wanted to create a
machine that would show how
technology can lead to understanding
instead of destruction. This machine
would include a desk with two screens,
switches and buttons, and a keyboard.[6]
He named this the "Memex". This way
individuals would be able to access
stored books and files at a rapid speed.
In 1956, Ford Foundation funded
Licklider to analyze how libraries could
be improved with technology. Almost a
decade later, his book entitled "Libraries
of the Future" included his vision. He
wanted to create a system that would
use computers and networks so human
knowledge would be accessible for
human needs and feedback would be
automatic for machine purposes. This
system contained three components, the
corpus of knowledge, the question, and
the answer. Licklider called it a
procognitive system.

Early projects centered on the creation of

an electronic card catalogue known as
Online Public Access Catalog (OPAC). By
the 1980s, the success of these
endeavors resulted in OPAC replacing the
traditional card catalog in many
academic, public and special libraries.
This permitted libraries to undertake
additional rewarding co-operative efforts
to support resource sharing and expand
access to library materials beyond an
individual library.

An early example of a digital library is the

Education Resources Information Center
(ERIC), a database of education citations,
abstracts and texts that was created in
1964 and made available online through
DIALOG in 1969.[7]

In 1994, digital libraries became widely

visible in the research community due to
a $24.4 million NSF managed program
supported jointly by DARPA's Intelligent
Integration of Information (I3) program,
NASA, and NSF itself.[8] Successful
research proposals came from six U.S.
universities.[9] The universities included
Carnegie Mellon University, University of
California-Berkeley, University of
Michigan, University of Illinois, University
of California-Santa Barbara, and Stanford
University. Articles from the projects
summarized their progress at their
halfway point in May 1996.[10] Stanford
research, by Sergey Brin and Larry Page,
led to the founding of Google.

Early attempts at creating a model for

digital libraries included the DELOS
Digital Library Reference Model[11][12] and
the 5S Framework.[13][14]

Terminology
The term digital library was first
popularized by the NSF/DARPA/NASA
Digital Libraries Initiative in 1994.[15] With
the availability of the computer networks
the information resources are expected
to stay distributed and accessed as
needed, whereas in Vannevar Bush's
essay As We May Think (1945) they were
to be collected and kept within the
researcher's Memex.

The term virtual library was initially used

interchangeably with digital library, but is
now primarily used for libraries that are
virtual in other senses (such as libraries
which aggregate distributed content). In
the early days of digital libraries, there
was discussion of the similarities and
differences among the terms digital,
virtual, and electronic.[16]

A distinction is often made between

content that was created in a digital
format, known as born-digital, and
information that has been converted
from a physical medium, e.g. paper,
through digitization. Not all electronic
content is in digital data format. The
term hybrid library is sometimes used for
libraries that have both physical
collections and electronic collections.
For example, American Memory is a
digital library within the Library of
Congress.

Some important digital libraries also

serve as long term archives, such as
arXiv and the Internet Archive. Others,
such as the Digital Public Library of
America, seek to make digital
information from various institutions
widely accessible online.[17]
Types of digital libraries

Institutional repositories

Many academic libraries are actively

involved in building repositories of their
institution's books, papers, theses, and
other works that can be digitized or were
'born digital'. Many of these repositories
are made available to the general public
with few restrictions, in accordance with
the goals of open access, in contrast to
the publication of research in
commercial journals, where the
publishers usually limit access rights.
Irrespective of access rights,
institutional, truly free, and corporate
repositories can be referred to as digital
libraries. Institutional repository software
is designed for archiving, organizing, and
searching a library's content. Popular
open-source solutions include DSpace,
Greenstone Digital Library (GSDL),
EPrints, Digital Commons, and the
Fedora Commons-based systems
Islandora and Samvera.[18]

National library collections

Legal deposit is often covered by

copyright legislation and sometimes by
laws specific to legal deposit, and
requires that one or more copies of all
material published in a country should be
submitted for preservation in an
institution, typically the national library.
Since the advent of electronic
documents, legislation has had to be
amended to cover the new formats, such
as the 2016 amendment to the Copyright
Act 1968 in Australia.[19][20][21]

Since then various types of electronic

depositories have been built. The British
Library's Publisher Submission Portal
and the German model at the Deutsche
Nationalbibliothek have one deposit
point for a network of libraries, but public
access is only available in the reading
rooms in the libraries. The Australian
National edeposit system has the same
features, but also allows for remote
access by the general public for most of
the content.[22]

Digital archives

Physical archives differ from physical

libraries in several ways. Traditionally,
archives are defined as:

1. Containing primary sources of

information (typically letters and
papers directly produced by an
individual or organization) rather
than the secondary sources found
in a library (books, periodicals, etc.).
 2. Having their contents organized in
groups rather than individual items.
3. Having unique contents.

The technology used to create digital

libraries is even more revolutionary for
archives since it breaks down the second
and third of these general rules. In other
words, "digital archives" or "online
archives" will still generally contain
primary sources, but they are likely to be
described individually rather than (or in
addition to) in groups or collections.
Further, because they are digital, their
contents are easily reproducible and may
indeed have been reproduced from
elsewhere. The Oxford Text Archive is
generally considered to be the oldest
digital archive of academic physical
primary source materials.

Archives differ from libraries in the

nature of the materials held. Libraries
collect individual published books and
serials, or bounded sets of individual
items. The books and journals held by
libraries are not unique, since multiple
copies exist and any given copy will
generally prove as satisfactory as any
other copy. The material in archives and
manuscript libraries are "the unique
records of corporate bodies and the
papers of individuals and families".[23]
A fundamental characteristic of archives
is that they have to keep the context in
which their records have been created
and the network of relationships between
them in order to preserve their
informative content and provide
understandable and useful information
over time. The fundamental
characteristic of archives resides in their
hierarchical organization expressing the
context by means of the archival bond.

Archival descriptions are the

fundamental means to describe,
understand, retrieve and access archival
material. At the digital level, archival
descriptions are usually encoded by
means of the Encoded Archival
Description XML format. The EAD is a
standardized electronic representation of
archival description which makes it
possible to provide union access to
detailed archival descriptions and
resources in repositories distributed
throughout the world.

Given the importance of archives, a

dedicated formal model, called NEsted
SeTs for Object Hierarchies (NESTOR),[24]
built around their peculiar constituents,
has been defined. NESTOR is based on
the idea of expressing the hierarchical
relationships between objects through
the inclusion property between sets, in
contrast to the binary relation between
nodes exploited by the tree. NESTOR has
been used to formally extend the 5S
model to define a digital archive as a
specific case of digital library able to take
into consideration the peculiar features
of archives.

Features of digital libraries

The advantages of digital libraries as a
means of easily and rapidly accessing
books, archives and images of various
types are now widely recognized by
commercial interests and public bodies
alike.[25]
Traditional libraries are limited by storage
space; digital libraries have the potential
to store much more information, simply
because digital information requires very
little physical space to contain it.[26] As
such, the cost of maintaining a digital
library can be much lower than that of a
traditional library. A physical library must
spend large sums of money paying for
staff, book maintenance, rent, and
additional books. Digital libraries may
reduce or, in some instances, do away
with these fees. Both types of library
require cataloging input to allow users to
locate and retrieve material. Digital
libraries may be more willing to adopt
innovations in technology providing
users with improvements in electronic
and audio book technology as well as
presenting new forms of communication
such as wikis and blogs; conventional
libraries may consider that providing
online access to their OP AC catalog is
sufficient. An important advantage to
digital conversion is increased
accessibility to users. They also increase
availability to individuals who may not be
traditional patrons of a library, due to
geographic location or organizational
affiliation.

No physical boundary: The user of a

digital library need not to go to the
library physically; people from all over
the world can gain access to the same
information, as long as an Internet
connection is available.
Round the clock availability: A major
advantage of digital libraries is that
people can gain access 24/7 to the
information.
Multiple access: The same resources
can be used simultaneously by a
number of institutions and patrons.
This may not be the case for
copyrighted material: a library may
have a license for "lending out" only
one copy at a time; this is achieved
with a system of digital rights
management where a resource can
become inaccessible after expiration
of the lending period or after the lender
chooses to make it inaccessible
(equivalent to returning the resource).
Information retrieval: The user is able
to use any search term (word, phrase,
title, name, subject) to search the
entire collection. Digital libraries can
provide very user-friendly interfaces,
giving click able access to its
resources.
Preservation and conservation:
Digitization is not a long-term
preservation solution for physical
collections, but does succeed in
providing access copies for materials
that would otherwise fall to
degradation from repeated use.
Digitized collections and born-digital
objects pose many preservation and
conservation concerns that analog
materials do not. Please see the
following "Problems" section of this
page for examples.
Space: Whereas traditional libraries are
limited by storage space, digital
libraries have the potential to store
much more information, simply
because digital information requires
very little physical space to contain
them and media storage technologies
are more affordable than ever before.
 Added value: Certain characteristics of
objects, primarily the quality of images,
may be improved. Digitization can
enhance legibility and remove visible
flaws such as stains and
discoloration.[27]

Software

Digital libraries offer a variety of software

packages, including those tailored for
kids' educational games[28] (for notable
ones see Category:Digital library
software). Institutional repository
software, which focuses primarily on
ingest, preservation and access of locally
produced documents, particularly locally
produced academic outputs, can be
found in Institutional repository software.
This software may be proprietary, as is
the case with the Library of Congress
which uses Digiboard and CTS to
manage digital content.[29]

The design and implementation in digital

libraries are constructed so computer
systems and software can make use of
the information when it is exchanged.
These are referred to as semantic digital
libraries. Semantic libraries are also used
to socialize with different communities
from a mass of social networks.[30] DjDL
is a type of semantic digital library.
Keywords-based and semantic search
are the two main types of searches. A
tool is provided in the semantic search
that create a group for augmentation and
refinement for keywords-based search.
Conceptual knowledge used in DjDL is
centered around two forms; the subject
ontology and the set of concept search
patterns based on the ontology. The
three type of ontologies that are
associated to this search are
bibliographic ontologies, community-
aware ontologies, and subject
ontologies.

Metadata

In traditional libraries, the ability to find

works of interest is directly related to
how well they were cataloged. While
cataloging electronic works digitized
from a library's existing holding may be
as simple as copying or moving a record
from the print to the electronic form,
complex and born-digital works require
substantially more effort. To handle the
growing volume of electronic
publications, new tools and technologies
have to be designed to allow effective
automated semantic classification and
searching. While full-text search can be
used for some items, there are many
common catalog searches which cannot
be performed using full text, including:
finding texts which are translations of
other texts
differentiating between
editions/volumes of a text/periodical
inconsistent descriptors (especially
subject headings)
missing, deficient or poor quality
taxonomy practices
linking texts published under
pseudonyms to the real authors
(Samuel Clemens and Mark Twain, for
example)
differentiating non-fiction from parody
(The Onion from The New York Times)
Searching

Most digital libraries provide a search

interface which allows resources to be
found. These resources are typically
deep web (or invisible web) resources
since they frequently cannot be located
by search engine crawlers. Some digital
libraries create special pages or
sitemaps to allow search engines to find
all their resources. Digital libraries
frequently use the Open Archives
Initiative Protocol for Metadata
Harvesting (OAI-PMH) to expose their
metadata to other digital libraries, and
search engines like Google Scholar,
Yahoo! and Scirus can also use OAI-PMH
to find these deep web resources.[31]

There are two general strategies for

searching a federation of digital libraries:
distributed searching and searching
previously harvested metadata.

Distributed searching typically involves a

client sending multiple search requests
in parallel to a number of servers in the
federation. The results are gathered,
duplicates are eliminated or clustered,
and the remaining items are sorted and
presented back to the client. Protocols
like Z39.50 are frequently used in
distributed searching. A benefit to this
approach is that the resource-intensive
tasks of indexing and storage are left to
the respective servers in the federation. A
drawback to this approach is that the
search mechanism is limited by the
different indexing and ranking
capabilities of each database; therefore,
making it difficult to assemble a
combined result consisting of the most
relevant found items.

Searching over previously harvested

metadata involves searching a locally
stored index of information that has
previously been collected from the
libraries in the federation. When a search
is performed, the search mechanism
does not need to make connections with
the digital libraries it is searching—it
already has a local representation of the
information. This approach requires the
creation of an indexing and harvesting
mechanism which operates regularly,
connecting to all the digital libraries and
querying the whole collection in order to
discover new and updated resources.
OAI-PMH is frequently used by digital
libraries for allowing metadata to be
harvested. A benefit to this approach is
that the search mechanism has full
control over indexing and ranking
algorithms, possibly allowing more
consistent results. A drawback is that
harvesting and indexing systems are
more resource-intensive and therefore
expensive.

Digital preservation

Digital preservation aims to ensure that

digital media and information systems
are still interpretable into the indefinite
future.[32] Each necessary component of
this must be migrated, preserved or
emulated.[33] Typically lower levels of
systems (floppy disks for example) are
emulated, bit-streams (the actual files
stored in the disks) are preserved and
operating systems are emulated as a
virtual machine. Only where the meaning
and content of digital media and
information systems are well understood
is migration possible, as is the case for
office documents.[33][34][35] However, at
least one organization, the Wider Net
Project, has created an offline digital
library, the eGranary, by reproducing
materials on a 6 TB hard drive. Instead of
a bit-stream environment, the digital
library contains a built-in proxy server
and search engine so the digital
materials can be accessed using an
Internet browser.[36] Also, the materials
are not preserved for the future. The
eGranary is intended for use in places or
situations where Internet connectivity is
very slow, non-existent, unreliable,
unsuitable or too expensive.
In the past few years, procedures for
digitizing books at high speed and
comparatively low cost have improved
considerably with the result that it is now
possible to digitize millions of books per
year.[37] The Google book-scanning
project is also working with libraries to
offer digitize books pushing forward on
the digitize book realm.

Copyright and licensing

Digital libraries are hampered by

copyright law because, unlike with
traditional printed works, the laws of
digital copyright are still being formed.
The republication of material on the web
by libraries may require permission from
rights holders, and there is a conflict of
interest between libraries and the
publishers who may wish to create online
versions of their acquired content for
commercial purposes. In 2010, it was
estimated that twenty-three percent of
books in existence were created before
1923 and thus out of copyright. Of those
printed after this date, only five percent
were still in print as of 2010. Thus,
approximately seventy-two percent of
books were not available to the public.[38]

There is a dilution of responsibility that

occurs as a result of the distributed
nature of digital resources. Complex
intellectual property matters may
become involved since digital material is
not always owned by a library.[39] The
content is, in many cases, public domain
or self-generated content only. Some
digital libraries, such as Project
Gutenberg, work to digitize out-of-
copyright works and make them freely
available to the public. An estimate of the
number of distinct books still existent in
library catalogues from 2000 BC to 1960,
has been made.[40][41]

The Fair Use Provisions (17 USC § 107)

under the Copyright Act of 1976 provide
specific guidelines under which
circumstances libraries are allowed to
copy digital resources. Four factors that
constitute fair use are "Purpose of the
use, Nature of the work, Amount or
substantiality used and Market
impact".[42]

Some digital libraries acquire a license to

lend their resources. This may involve the
restriction of lending out only one copy at
a time for each license, and applying a
system of digital rights management for
this purpose (see also above).

The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of

1998 was an act created in the United
States to attempt to deal with the
introduction of digital works. This Act
incorporates two treaties from the year
1996. It criminalizes the attempt to
circumvent measures which limit access
to copyrighted materials. It also
criminalizes the act of attempting to
circumvent access control.[43] This act
provides an exemption for nonprofit
libraries and archives which allows up to
three copies to be made, one of which
may be digital. This may not be made
public or distributed on the web,
however. Further, it allows libraries and
archives to copy a work if its format
becomes obsolete.[43]

Copyright issues persist. As such,

proposals have been put forward
suggesting that digital libraries be
exempt from copyright law. Although this
would be very beneficial to the public, it
may have a negative economic effect
and authors may be less inclined to
create new works.[44]

Another issue that complicates matters

is the desire of some publishing houses
to restrict the use of digit materials such
as e-books purchased by libraries.
Whereas with printed books, the library
owns the book until it can no longer be
circulated, publishers want to limit the
number of times an e-book can be
checked out before the library would
need to repurchase that book. "
[HarperCollins] began licensing use of
each e-book copy for a maximum of 26
loans. This affects only the most popular
titles and has no practical effect on
others. After the limit is reached, the
library can repurchase access rights at a
lower cost than the original price."[45]
While from a publishing perspective, this
sounds like a good balance of library
lending and protecting themselves from
a feared decrease in book sales, libraries
are not set up to monitor their collections
as such. They acknowledge the
increased demand of digital materials
available to patrons and the desire of a
digital library to become expanded to
include best sellers, but publisher
licensing may hinder the process.

Recommendation systems

Many digital libraries offer recommender

systems to reduce information overload
and help their users discovering relevant
literature. Some examples of digital
libraries offering recommender systems
are IEEE Xplore, Europeana, and GESIS
Sowiport. The recommender systems
work mostly based on content-based
filtering but also other approaches are
used such as collaborative filtering and
citation-based recommendations.[46] Beel
et al. report that there are more than 90
different recommendation approaches
for digital libraries, presented in more
than 200 research articles.[46]

Typically, digital libraries develop and

maintain their own recommender
systems based on existing search and
recommendation frameworks such as
Apache Lucene or Apache Mahout.
However, there are also some
recommendation-as-a-service provider
specializing in offering a recommender
system for digital libraries as a service.
Drawbacks of digital libraries

Digital libraries, or at least their digital

collections, also have brought their own
problems and challenges in areas such
as:

User authentication for access to

collections
Copyright
Digital preservation (see above)
Equity of access (see digital divide)
Interface design
Interoperability between systems and
software
Information organization
 Inefficient or non-existent taxonomy
practices (especially with historical
material)
Training and development
Quality of metadata
Exorbitant cost of building/maintaining
the terabytes of storage, servers, and
redundancies necessary for a
functional digital collection.[47]

There are many large scale digitisation

projects that perpetuate these problems.

Future development
Large scale digitization projects are
underway at Google, the Million Book
Project, and Internet Archive. With
continued improvements in book
handling and presentation technologies
such as optical character recognition and
development of alternative depositories
and business models, digital libraries are
rapidly growing in popularity. Just as
libraries have ventured into audio and
video collections, so have digital libraries
such as the Internet Archive. In 2016,
Google Books project received a court
victory on proceeding with their book-
scanning project that was halted by the
Authors' Guild.[48] This helped open the
road for libraries to work with Google to
better reach patrons who are
accustomed to computerized
information.
According to Larry Lannom, Director of
Information Management Technology at
the nonprofit Corporation for National
Research Initiatives (CNRI), "all the
problems associated with digital libraries
are wrapped up in archiving". He goes on
to state, "If in 100 years people can still
read your article, we'll have solved the
problem." Daniel Akst, author of The
Webster Chronicle, proposes that "the
future of libraries—and of information—is
digital". Peter Lyman and Hal Variant,
information scientists at the University of
California, Berkeley, estimate that "the
world's total yearly production of print,
film, optical, and magnetic content would
require roughly 1.5 billion gigabytes of
storage". Therefore, they believe that
"soon it will be technologically possible
for an average person to access virtually
all recorded information".[49]

Digital archives are an evolving medium

and they develop under various
circumstances. Alongside large scale
repositories, other digital archiving
projects have also evolved in response to
needs in research and research
communication on various institutional
levels. For example, during the COVID-19
pandemic, libraries and higher education
institutions have launched digital
archiving projects to document life
during the pandemic, thus creating a
digital, cultural record of collective
memories from the period.[50]
Researchers have also utilized digital
archiving to create specialized research
databases. These databases compile
digital records for use on international
and interdisciplinary levels. COVID
CORPUS, launched in October 2020, is an
example of such a database, built in
response to scientific communication
needs in light of the pandemic.[51]
Beyond academia, digital collections
have also recently been developed to
appeal to a more general audience, as is
the case with the Selected General
Audience Content of the Internet-First
University Press developed by Cornell
University. This general-audience
database contains specialized research
information but is digitally organized for
accessibility.[52] The establishment of
these archives has facilitated specialized
forms of digital recordkeeping to fulfill
various niches in online, research-based
communication.

See also
Anna's Archive
Bibliographic database
Content repository
Digital Library Federation
Digital Collections Selection Criteria
Digitization
 D-Lib, magazine about digital libraries

Full-text database
List of digital library projects
Mobile library
Panjab Digital Library
Shadow library
Traveling library
Web archive
Z-Library

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Further reading
Harvey, Ross; Weatherburn, Jaye
(2018). Preserving Digital Materials (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=Qex
LDwAAQBAJ) (3rd ed.). Rowman &
Littlefield. ISBN 9781538102985.
McCormack, Allison, and Rachel
Wittmann. (2022) "Rarely Analyzed The
Relationship Between Digital and
Physical Rare Books Collections".
 Information technology and libraries
41.2; 1–13.
Pomerantz, Jeffrey, and Gary
Marchionini. 2007. "The Digital Library
as Place". Journal of Documentation
63(4): 505–33.

External links
Retrieved from Scholia
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/i has a
topic
ndex.php?
profile
title=Digital_library&oldid=11 for
78504010" Digital
library.

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