Abpsych Neuroscience

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Source: Barlow, Durand & Hofmann (2018), Comer & Comer (2017), Hooley, Butcher, Nock & Mineka (2017), DSM-V,
DSM-V-TR, Psych Pearls
Axis V: Global Assessment of Functioning o Twin Studies – usually conducted to identical twins
Theoretical Approaches in Explaining the Etiology of because they share genetic makeup’
Psychological Disorders (20) o Those people who reported more severe stressful life
o One-Dimensional – looking for a single cause events and had at least one short allele of the 5-HTT
o Multidimensional – looking for a systemic cause gene were at greater risk of developing depression
Genetic contributions (Caspi et al., 2003) (serotonin-transporter gene)
o Genes – long molecules of DNA at various locations o Epigenetics – factors other than inherited DNA
on chromosomes, within cell nucleus sequence, such as new learning or stress, that alter
▪ Chromosomes: the chain-like structures within a the phenotypic expression of genes
cell nucleus that contain the genes Biological and Neurological Bases
▪ Genes: carries of the information we inherit from o Neuroscience – study of the nervous system,
our parents especially the brain to understand behavior,
o 46 Chromosomes, 23 Pairs, 22 Pairs of Autosomes,
emotions, and cognitive processes
1 pair Sex Chromosomes
o XX – female, XY – male High Low
o Dominant and Recessive Dopamine Schizophrenia Parkinson’s
o Phenotypes – observable characteristics Acetylcholine Alzheimer’s
(Dementia)
o Genotypes – unique genetic makeup
Norepinephrine Mania Depression
o Polymorphisms – naturally occurring variations of
GABA Relaxation Anxiety/OCD
genes
Serotonin Mania Depression
o Polygenic – influenced by multiple genes or by Anxiety
multiple polymorphisms of genes with any one gene Eating
having only very small effects Disorders
o Endophenotypes – genetic mechanisms that Epinephrine Stress Fatigue
ultimately contribute to the underlying problems Sleep Disorders
causing the symptoms and difficulties experienced Glutamate Psychosis Huntington’s
by people with psychological disorders Neuron Death Disease
o Basic Genetic Epidemiology – statistical analysis of Endorphin Eating
family, twin, and adoption studies; if the disorder can Disorders
be inherited and how much is attributable to genetics o Synapse – a tiny fluid-filled space between the axon
o Advanced Genetic Epidemiology – studies the endings of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body
factors that influence the disorder of another neuron
o Gene Finding – what gene influences the behavior o Agonist – effectively increase the activity of the
neurotransmitters (Excitatory)
o Molecular Genetics – biological analysis of
o Antagonist – decrease or block neurotransmitter
individual DNA samples; biological processes genes
(Inhibitory)
affect to produce symptoms of the disorder o Inverse Agonists – produces effects opposite to
o Family Studies – examine behavioral pattern or those produced by the neurotransmitters
emotional trait in the context of the family o Reuptake – neurotransmitter is released, quickly
o Proband – family member with the trait singled out broken down and brought back to the synaptic cleft
for study o Hormones – chemical messengers secreted by the
▪ The first person in the family to be identified as endocrine glands in the body
possibly having genetic disorder and who may o Neurotransmitter – chemical messengers of the
receive genetic counseling or testing body
o Adoption Studies – identify adoptees who have a a) Glutamate (E) [ memory ]– most abundant in
particular behavioral pattern or psychological the brain and plays a key role in thinking,
learning, and memory
disorder and attempt to locate first-degree relatives
who were raised in different family settings
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b) GABA (I) [ calming ]– most common inhibitory ▪ Left Hemisphere – responsible for verbal and
neurotransmitter in the brain and regulates mood, other cognitive processes
irritability, sleep, seizures ▪ Right Hemisphere – perceiving the world
c) Serotonin (I) [ mood ]– regulates mood, sleep around us and creating images
patterns, sexuality, appetite, and pain ▪ Lobes: Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal
d) Dopamine [ pleasure ]– body reward system, ▪ Prefrontal Cortex – area responsible for higher
pleasures, achieving heightened arousal and cognitive functions
learning ▪ HPA Axis – Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland,
e) Epinephrine [ fight-or-flight ] – responsible for Adrenal Cortex
fight-or-flight response o Somatic Nervous System – controls the muscles
f) Norepinephrine [ concentration ] – alertness, o Autonomic Nervous System – regulate
arousal, decision-making, attention, and focus cardiovascular system and endocrine system
g) Endorphins [ euphoria ]– natural pain reliever, ▪ Sympathetic – fight or flight responses
reduces pain ▪ Parasympathetic – calms the sympathetic
h) Acetylcholine (E) [ learning ] – regulates heart nervous system; rest and digest functions
rate, blood pressure and gut motility, role in o Endocrine System – glands produce hormones that
muscle contraction, memory, motivation, sexual is released to the blood streams
desire, sleep, and learning ▪ Pituitary – master gland
o Brain Stem – lower and more ancient part of the ▪ Thyroid – controls metabolism and growth
brain; essential for autonomic functioning such as (thyroxine)
breathing, heartbeat, etc. ▪ Parathyroid – controls the levels of calcium
▪ Hindbrain – contains the medulla, pons, and ▪ Adrenal – controls metabolism, blood pressure,
cerebellum; regulates many autonomic activities sex development, stress (epinephrine)
such as breathing, heartbeat, and digestion ▪ Pineal – releases melatonin
▪ Cerebellum – controls motor coordination ▪ Pancreas – creates insulin
abnormalities associated with autism ▪ Testes – makes sperm and release testosterone
▪ Midbrain – coordinates movements with sensory ▪ Ovaries – releases estrogen, progesterone, and
input and contains parts of reticular activating testosterone
system (contributes to sleep, arousal and tension) Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis
▪ Thalamus and Hypothalamus – involves in 1. Messages in the form of corticotropin-releasing
regulating behavior, emotions, and hormones hormone (CRH) travel from the hypothalamus to
o Limbic System – located around the edge of the pituitary gland
center of the brain 2. Pituitary Gland releases adrenocorticotropic
▪ Hippocampus, Cingulate Gyrus, Septum, and hormone (ACTH), which stimulates the cortical part of
Amygdala the adrenal gland (located at the top of the kidney) to
▪ Amygdala – emotions produce epinephrine (adrenaline) and cortisol (stress
▪ Hippocampus – shrinks when a person have hormone), which is released into the general circulation
depression 3. Cortisol gives negative feedback to the
▪ Regulate emotional experiences and expressions hypothalamus and pituitary to decrease their release of
and, to some extent, our ability to learn and to CRH and ACTH, which in turn reduces the release of
control impulses adrenaline and cortisol
o Basal Ganglia – base of the forebrain, includes o Temperament – refers to a child’s reactivity and
caudate nucleus characteristic ways of self-regulation
▪ Damage involved changing our posture or ▪ As early as 2-3 months of age, approx. five
twitching or shaking dimensions of temperaments can be identified:
▪ Related to Parkinson’s Disease fearfulness, irritability/frustration, positive affect,
o Cerebral Cortex – provides us with our distinctly activity level, and attentional persistence/effortful
human qualities, allowing us to look to the future and control
plan, to reason, and to create o Permissive Hypothesis – when serotonin
(norepinephrine) levels are low, other
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neurotransmitters are permitted to range more ▪ E.g., You are afraid of fury dogs because they
widely, become dysregulated, and contribute to once attacked you. Now, whenever you see
mood irregularities something fury, your body trembles, you cannot
Structure Associated Behaviors breathe properly and wanted to go away.
Corpus Callosum Communication between right o Introspection – Edward Titchener; subjects report
and left hemisphere their inner thoughts and feelings after experiencing
Limbic System Attention, Emotion, “fight or certain stimuli
flight” o John B. Watson – founder of behaviorism
Frontal Lobe Learning, abstracting, ▪ Little Albert
reasoning, inhibiting o Systematic Desensitization – patients were
Hypothalamus Regulation of metabolism, gradually introduced to the objects or situations they
temperature, and emotions feared so that their fear could extinguish
Temporal Lobe Discrimination of sounds, o Operant Conditioning – behavior changes as a
verbal, and speech behavior function of what follows the behavior (rewards or
Reticular Arousal Reactions, Information punishment)
Formation Screening ▪ B.F. Skinner
Medulla Breathing, Blood Pressure, other ▪ Edward Thorndike – Law of effect (behavior can
vital functions be strengthened or weakened)
Cerebellum Fine motor coordination, ▪ Reinforcement – reward
posture, and balance ▪ Shaping – process of reinforcing successive
Occipital Lobe Visual Discrimination and some approximations to a final behavior or set of
aspects of visual memory behaviors
o Social Learning – Albert Bandura
Thalamus Major relay station for messages
from parts of the body, ▪ Modeling/observational learning: process of
important sensations of pain learning in which an individual acquires
responses by observing and imitating others
Parietal Lobe Somesthetic and motor
▪ Observational learning
discriminations and functions
▪ Social Cognitive Theory: people observe
Sensory Strip Integration of sensory
models, learns chunks of behavior, and mentally
information from various parts
put chunks together into complex new behavior
of the body
patterns
Motor Strip Regulation of voluntary
▪ Albert Bandura
movement
▪ Hitting Doll experiment
Learning ▪ Self-Efficacy – person’s confidence in their own
o Classical Conditioning – type of learning in which abilities to accomplish their goals
neutral stimulus is paired with response until it elicits o Learned Helplessness – when rats or other animals
that response encounter conditions over which they have no
▪ Unconditioned Stimulus – natural stimulus control, they give up attempting to cope and seem to
▪ Unconditioned Response – natural or unlearned develop the animal equivalent of depression
response ▪ Martin Seligman and colleagues
▪ Conditioned Stimulus – newly conditioned ▪ People make an attribution that they have no
event introduced control, and become depressed
▪ Conditioned Response – response from the ▪ Causes: coercive, ineffective, inconsistent
conditioned stimulus parents, media violence, peer rejection
▪ Extinction – without CS showed long enough, ▪ Internal: negative effects due to internal failings
the behavior could be eliminated ▪ Stable: even after a particular negative events
o Stimulus Generalization – strength of the response pass, additional bad things will “always be my
to similar objects or people is usually a function of fault” remains
how similar these objects or people are ▪ Global: attributions extend across a variety of
issues
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▪ Learned Optimism – if people faced with ▪ Tends to Overgeneralize (draw broad negative
considerable stress and difficulty in their lives, conclusions on the basis of single insignificant
nevertheless, display optimistic, upbeat attitude, event) [ Cognitive Bias ]
they are likely to function better psychologically ▪ Depressive Cognitive Triad: depressed people
and physically make cognitive errors in thinking negatively
▪ Positive Psychology about themselves, immediate world, and their
o Prepared Learning – we have become highly future
prepared for learning about certain types of objects ▪ Beck Hopelessness Scale
or situations over the course of evolution because this ▪ Negative Schema: an enduring negative
knowledge contributes to the survival of the species cognitive system about some aspects of life
▪ Learning from ancestors ▪ Self-Blame Schema: people feel personally
o Hopelessness Theory – desirable outcomes will not responsible for every bad happenings
occur, and that the person has no responses available ▪ Negative Self-Evaluation Schema: “can never
to change this situation do anything correctly”
Cognitive theories with Psychoanalytic ▪ False Consensus Effect/False Consensus Bias:
o Fear – fight or flight response people tend to overestimate the extent to which
▪ Evolutionary adaptation their opinions, beliefs, preferences, values, and
▪ White with fear, trembling, faster breathing, habits are normal and typical of the others
increase in glucose, pupil dilate, hearing become (“Everyone shares the same opinion as me,”)
more acute, digestive system stops, pressure to Negative Cognitive Styles:
urinate, defecate, vomit to reduce waste materials Dichotomous Thinking/Absolutist/Black and White
o Introjection – direct all their feelings for the loved Thinking
one, including sadness and anger, toward themselves - seeing only of the extremes of things, never the
o Symbolic or Imagined Loss – person equates other middle
kinds of events with the loss of a loved one - “either I ace this test or fail,”
▪ Does not necessarily involve death of a person Overgeneralization
▪ E.g., an athlete got injured and can no longer do - making generalizations about a negative aspect
the sport they have been doing for a long time - “bagsak ako sa physics, hindi na ko makaka-graduate
▪ Introjected Loss: actual death of a person ng college,”
o Attributional Style – ways in which people explain Personalization
the cause of events within their lives - tendency for individuals to relate external events to
Internal-External – who or what is responsible for the themselves, even when there is no basis for making this
event connection
- whether something unique about the person (internal) - egocentric thinking, everything is about him
or something about the situation caused the event - “kasalanan ko kung bakit umiyak yung bata”
(external) Selective Abstraction
Stable-Unstable – perceived permanence of the cause - focuses on the negative
- an event can be viewed as constant and likely to - detail is taken out of context and believed whilst
happen again (stable) or it only happens once (unstable) everything else in the context is ignored
Global-Specific – universal throughout your like - /almost good feedback except for one /focused on that
(global) or specific to a part of your life (specific) single feedback
o Cognitive Theory of Depression - persons Arbitrary Inference
susceptible to depression develop - evident when depressed individuals emphasize the
inaccurate/unhelpful core beliefs about themselves, negative rather than the positive aspects of a situation
others, and the world as a result of their learning - only accepts negative thoughts
histories - no logical reasoning
▪ Depressed people consistently think in illogical - interpreting a situation when there is no factual
ways and keep arriving at self-defeating evidence
conclusions - /passed, “chamba”, /negative “kasalanan ko kasi”
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Labeling and Mislabeling o Types of Amnesia:
- portraying one’s identity on the basis of imperfections 1. Biogenic – caused by brain damage or disease
and mistakes made in the past and allowing them to ▪ Retrograde – inability to retrieve information
define one’s true identity that was acquired before (remote memory loss)
- /bullied for being dark-skinned, “I am ugly.” ▪ Anterograde – inability to transfer new
Minimization information from the short-term store to long-
- downplaying the significance of an event or emotion term store (recent memory loss)
- common strategy in dealing with feelings of guilt 2. Psychogenic or Dissociative or Functional –
- “Parang nakakarami ka na ah,” caused by psychological trauma, repressed memories
“Luh parang tanga, sampung bote pa lang” ▪ Generalized – origin is rare psychological
Magnification disorder and spontaneous recovery from amnesia
- effects of one’s behaviors are magnified in a comparatively short period of time
- /may konting mantsa sa damit, “Iniisip siguro nila ▪ Localized – no memory of specific events
hindi ako naglalaba,” ▪ Selective – can only recall only small parts of the
o General Adaption to Stress Theory – events
understanding the relationship between stressful ▪ Situation-Specific – result of severely stressful
events and the body’s response to stress event, as part of PTSD
▪ Alarm: fight-or-flight response ▪ Global – cannot recall both past and present; total
▪ Resistance: coping mechanisms memory loss
▪ Exhaustion: body defenses resources are o Memory – the process by which we encode, store,
depleted and retrieve information
▪ Hans Selye ▪ Declarative: factual information
o Stress-Appraisal/Cognitive Appraisal Theory – ▪ Procedural: skills and habits
stress is a two-way process, it involves a production ▪ Semantic: general knowledge and facts, logic
of stressors and the response of an individual ▪ Episodic: events that occur in a particular time,
subjected to these stressors place, or context
o Primary Appraisal: an individual tends to ask o Three-System Approach to Memory – information
questions like, “What does this stressor and/or must travel if it is to be remembered
situation mean?”, and “How can it influence me?” ▪ Sensory: initial storage of information, perceived
▪ Understanding the stressor by the senses
o Secondary Appraisal: involves those feelings ▪ Short-Term Memory: holds info for 15 to 20
related to dealing with the stressor or the stress it seconds
produces ▪ Long-Term Memory – stores on a relatively
▪ Deals with the stressor permanent basis, although, at times, it can be
▪ Starts to assess internal and external resources difficult to retrieve
available to solve the problem o Chunks – meaningful grouping of stimuli that can
▪ Positive: “I can do it if I do my best,” be stored as a unit in STM
▪ Negative: “I cannot do it.” o Rehearsal – repetition of information that has
Memory Disorders entered the STM
Anosognosia: no memories of his own illness ▪ Repetitive: as long as it is repeated, it states in
Confabulation: filling in memory gaps with imaginary the STM
experiences ▪ Elaborative: transfers info to LTM
Disorientation: cannot identify or recognize time, o Tip-Of-The-Tongue Phenomenon – inability to
places, and persons recall information that one realizes one knows
De Javu: unfamiliar perceived as familiar o Retrieval Cue – allow us to recall more easily
Jamais Vu: familiar perceived as unfamiliar ▪ Recall: memory task in which specific
Hypermnesia: increased memory information is retrieved
▪ Recognition: individual is presented with a
Paramnesia: false or perverted memory
stimulus and asked whether they have been
Amnesia: loss of memory
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exposed to it in the past or to identify it from the o Lewinsohn’s Behavioral Theory - depression is
list of alternatives caused by a combination of stressors in a person's
o Levels-Of-Processing Theory – degree to which environment and a lack of personal skills
new materials is mentally analyzed diathesis-stress model
▪ Implicit Memory: can be recalled automatically o Diathesis-Stress Model – individuals inherit
without thinking tendencies to express certain traits or behaviors,
▪ Explicit Memory: requires conscious retrieval of which may then be activated under conditions of
information stress (Eric Kandel)
o Constructive Processes – memories are influenced ▪ Diathesis – a condition that makes someone
by the meaning we give to them susceptible to developing disorder (vulnerability)
▪ Autobiographical: episodes from our own lives ▪ Stress – the response or experience of an
▪ Flashbulb Memories: specific or surprising individual to demands that he or she perceives as
events that are so vivid in memory it as if they taxing or exceeding his or her personal resources
represented a snapshot of the event ▪ The higher vulnerability, the lesser life stress
o Forgetting – permits us to form general impressions needed to trigger traits
and recollections ▪ Disturbances stem from a genetic predisposition
▪ Helps us avoid being burdened and distracted by triggered by stress
trivial stores of meaningless data Predisposing Factor – cause of a disorder (i.e.,
▪ Failure of Encoding: failure to pay attention situations that trigger the development of the disorder)
and place information in memory Precipitating Factor – factors that allow the disorders
▪ Decay: loss of information due to non-use to develop (i.e., factors that could contribute to the
▪ Cue-Dependent Forgetting: insufficient development of a disorder)
retrieval cues Protective Factor – reduces the severity of the
▪ Proactive Interference: learned earlier disrupts problems
the recall of newer material; you forget the new Perpetuating Factor – factors that maintain the
info problem once established
▪ Retroactive Interference: difficulty in recalling Gene-Environment Interaction
info learned earlier because of later exposure to o Gene-Environment Correlation Model – people
different material; you forget the old info might have genetically determined tendency to
o Learned Helplessness (Martin Seligman) – if they create the environment risk factors that trigger a
learn that nothing they do helps them avoid the genetic vulnerability
shocks, they eventually become helpless, give up, o In most cases, genetic factors are not necessary and
and manifest an animal equivalent of depression sufficient to cause mental disorders but instead can
▪ Anxiety is the first response to a stressful contribute to a vulnerability or diathesis to develop
situation psychopathology that only happens if there is a
▪ The depressive attributional style is (1) internal, significant stressor in the person’s life
(2) stable, (3) global o Epigenetics – study how your behavior and
o Aaron T. Beck suggested that depression may result environment can cause changes that affect your
from a tendency to interpret everyday events in a genes work
negative way o Reciprocal Gene-Environment Model – claims
▪ Depressive Cognitive Triad – they make that people with a genetic predisposition to a disorder
cognitive errors in thinking negatively about may also have a genetic tendency to create
themselves, their immediate world, and their environmental factors that promote the disorder
future 3 kinds of Gene-Environment Correlations
▪ Series of negative events in childhood, Passive Gene-Environment – parent provide for their
individuals may develop deep-seated negative children is influenced partly by the parents’ genotypes
schema, an enduring negative cognitive belief Evocative Gene-Environment – child’s genotype
system about some aspect of life evokes certain kind of reactions from other people
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- Genetic makeup may affect the reactions of other ▪ Their risk-taking behavior does not guarantee
people to a child and, hence, the kind of social death
environment that the child will experience o Subintentional Death – a death in which the victim
Active Gene-Environment – children’s genotype plays an indirect, hidden, partial, or unconscious role
influence the kinds of environment they seek o Suicide is officially the 11th cause of death in US
Role of culture, social interactions, and interpersonal o Suicidal Ideation – thinking seriously about suicide
factors in the development o Suicidal Plans – formulation of a specific method
o Sociogenic Factors: for killing oneself
a. Unemployment o Suicidal Attempts – the person survives from
b. Poverty attempts
c. Crime o Emile Durkheim’s Suicide Types:
d. Poor Educational Level a. Altruistic – formalized suicides; dishonor to self,
o People who are isolated and lack social support or family, or society
intimacy in their lives are more likely to become b. Egoistic – loss of social supports as an important
depressed when under stress and to remain depressed provocation for suicide
longer than people with supportive spouses or warm c. Anomic – result of marked disruptions, such as
friendships sudden loss of job
o People’s online relationships tend to parallel their d. Fatalistic – loss of control over one’s own destiny
offline relationships o Freud believed that suicide indicated unconscious
o Family Systems Theory – family is a system of hostility directed inward to the self rather than
interacting parts who interact with one another in outward to the person or situation causing the anger
consistent ways and follow rules unique to each o If a family member committed a suicide, there is an
family increased risk that someone else will also
▪ Structure and communication patterns of some o Low levels of serotonin is associated with suicide
families actually force individual members to and with violent suicide attempts (low levels of
behave in a way that otherwise seems abnormal serotonin is linked with impulsivity, instability, and
o An individual’s behavior, whether normal or the tendency to overreact to situation)
abnormal, is best understood in the light of the o The stress of a friend’s suicide or some other major
individual’s unique cultural context stress may affect several individuals who are
o Multicultural Perspective – each culture within vulnerable because of existing psychological
large society has a particular set of values and beliefs, disorders
as well as special external pressures, that help o Hopelessness – pessimistic belief that one’s present
account for the behavior and functioning of its circumstances, problems, or mood will not change
members (Culturally Diverse Perspective) o Dichotomous Thinking – viewing problems and
Suicide solutions in rigid either/or terms
o Suicide – self-inflicted death in which the person o Common triggering factors:
acts intentionally, directly, and consciously ✓ Stressful events
o Death Seekers – clearly intend to end their lives at ✓ Mood and thought changes
the time they attempt suicide ✓ Alcohol and other drug use
▪ May last only a short time ✓ Mental disorders
o Death Initiators – clearly intent to end their lives, ✓ Modeling
but they act out of a belief that the process is already o One of the signs of suicides is when the client are
under the way and that they are simply hastening the giving away their prized possessions
process Psychological Disorders and Specific Symptoms based
o Death Ignorers – do not believe that their self- on DSM-5 (50)
inflicted death will mean the end of their existence o Ego-Syntonic – actions that align with the client’s
o Death Darers – experience mixed feelings, or personal goals, values, and beliefs
ambivalence, about their intent to die, even at the o Ego-Dystonic – actions that are inconsistent with the
moment of their attempt, and they show this client’s ego
ambivalence in the act itself

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