A N A L A B |1
ANA LAB FINAL TERM
LESSON: THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Topic 1: The Lymphatic System (Lecture)
Topic 2: Body Defenses and Homeostatic Imbalances (Laboratory)
Topic objectives:
 Explain two systems of body defenses
 Describe the protective functions of skin and mucous membrane
 Explain the importance of phagocytes and natural killer cells
Pre-activity: name the term that does not belong to the group
1. Redness, pain, swelling, itching, heat
2. Neutrophils, macrophages, phagocytes, natural killer cells
3. Inflammatory, chemicals, histamine, kinins, interferon
4. Intact skin, intact mucosae, inflammation, first line of defense
5. Interferons, antiviral, antibacterial, proteins
INTRODUCTION
Even though an army of harmful bacteria, viruses, and fungi swarm on
our skin and assault our internal organs every second of every day, we
generally maintain incredibly good health. The body appears to have
adopted a singular mindset when dealing with such adversaries.
What Are the Two Systems of the Body’s Defenses?
1. Non-Specific Defense System
 Acts swiftly to defend the body against any external substances,
regardless of what they are.
 The inflammatory response, healthy skin and mucous
membranes, as well as a number of proteins made by body cells,
all give these.
 By restricting the admission and spread of pathogens throughout
the body, this system lessens the workload of the second
protective arm, the particular defense system.
2. Specific Defense System
 The immune system is a more frequent name.
 Launches offensive operations against specific foreign chemicals.
 In anatomical terms, the functional system is different from an
organ system.
 It is made up of a wide range of chemicals and trillions of immune
cells that live in lymphatic tissues and move around in bodily
fluids.
 The immune cells that are most crucial are:
o Lymphocytes
o Macrophages
 Our immune system defends us against the majority of germs,
viruses, transplanted organs or grafts, as well as our own cells that
have turned hostile when it is functioning properly.
 By attacking cells, the immune system accomplishes this both
directly and indirectly by releasing chemicals that mobilize cells
and molecules that produce protective antibodies.
 The ensuing, highly precise resistance to illness is immunity.
REVIEW OF THE ANATOMY OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM  Healthy mucous membranes function as equivalent internal
The lymphatic system consists of: mechanical barriers.
a. lymph, b. lymphocytes,  Acting as actual barriers/physical barriers
c. lymphatic vessels, d. lymph nodes,
e. tonsils, f. the spleen and Physical barriers
g. Thymus.  The mucous membranes and skin act as barriers to stop
pathogens from entering the body.
A. LYMPHATIC CAPILLARIES AND VESSELS  Urine, saliva, and tears wash away microbes.
1. Lymph is removed from tissues by lymphatic vessels. One-way
a. Sebum contains compounds that are harmful to bacteria,
lymphatic flow is ensured via valves in the channels and the acidic pH of skin secretions prevents bacterial
2. The lymph is moved through the vessels by skeletal muscle growth. Adult females' vaginal secretions are likewise quite
contraction, smooth muscle contraction in lymphatic vessels, and acidic.
thoracic pressure changes. b. Protein-digesting enzymes and hydrochloric acid are
3. Lymph is discharged into the blood via the right lymphatic duct secreted by the stomach mucosa. both eliminate germs.
and thoracic duct c. Lysozyme, an enzyme that eliminates bacteria, is present in
saliva and lacrimal fluid.
B. LYMPHATIC ORGANS d. d. Numerous germs that enter the respiratory and digestive
1. When exposed to external chemicals, lymphatic tissue makes tracts are captured by sticky mucus.
lymphocytes and filters blood and lymph.
2. The pharynx, as well as the spaces between the nasal and oral 2) Cells And Chemicals
cavities, are shielded by the tonsils.  The body uses a staggering number of cells and substances as its
3. Filtering lymph are lymph nodes found along lymphatic channels. second line of defense to defend itself.
4. While the red pulp phagocytizes foreign material and worn-out  These defenses rely on the pathogen-killing and tissue-repairing
RBC, the white pulp of the spleen reacts to foreign compounds in
abilities of phagocytes and natural killer cells, the inflammatory
the blood. The spleen also serves as a blood reserve. response, and a variety of chemical compounds.
5. In order to react to external chemicals, lymphocytes leave the
 Fever is sometimes regarded as a general defensive reaction.
thymus and travel to other lymphatic tissue.
6.
OVERVIEW OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Phagocytes
 In almost every body organ, phagocytes are present to deal with
A large portion of immunity is produced by B cells and T cells, which
pathogens that manage to get past the mechanical barriers.
are produced by the lymphatic system. It also collects fats from the
 Neutrophils or macrophages swallow a foreign substance
small intestine.
similarly to how an amoeba consumes food.
Immunity
Lysosome
 Immunity is the capacity to fend against the negative effects of
 The particle is bound to by flowing cytoplasmic extensions,
microbes and other foreign substances.
 There are two types of immunity: innate and adaptive.
which then drag it into a vacuole.
 The vacuole's contents are broken down or digested when it fuses
1. NON-SPECIFIC DEFENSES (IMMUNITY)
with the lysosome's enzymatic components.
NON-SPECIFIC DEFENSES
 Some types of illness resistance are inherited.
Natural killer cells
 Patrol the body's blood and lymphatic system and are a special
 Describes the physical defenses that cover body surfaces as well
class of defense cells that have the ability to lyse and kill cancer
as the cells and chemicals that work on the first front lines of
defense against incoming pathogens (dangerous or disease-
cells and virus-infected bodily cells before the immune system
is called upon to help.
causing microbes).
 NK cells can respond spontaneously against any such target by
identifying specific sugars on the "intruders” surface, in contrast
1) Surface Membrane Barriers
to lymphocytes which can only recognize and react to specific
 The initial line of defense for the body against the entrance of
virus-infected or tumor cells.
pathogenic microorganisms:
 Not phagocytic
o In The Skin
o Membrane mucous
White blood cells
 The keratinized epidermis of the skin acts as a robust physical
 The capacity of cells to travel in the direction of pathogens or
barrier to the majority of microorganisms that swarm on the skin
areas of tissue injury is known as chemotaxis.
as long as the skin is intact.

 The first phagocytic cells to react to bacteria are neutrophils.
 Large phagocytic cells known as macrophages become active at
the end of an infection. They are put in place and at potential entry
points for bacteria into tissues.
 Mast cells and basophils encourage inflammation.
 Eosinophils can contribute to the inflammation brought on by
allergic responses.
 Tumor cells and virus-infected cells are destroyed by natural
killer cells.
3) Inflammatory Response
 Every time bodily tissues are injured, this occurs.
 Reaction to physical injury, extreme heat, irritating
substances, viral and bacterial infection, as well as physical
stress.
 There are Five Cardinal Signs and Major Symptoms of
Inflammation:
o Redness (Rubor) because the blood vessels in inflamed
portions of the body are packed with more blood than usual,
inflamed areas of the body may seem red.
o Heat (Calor) It is because more blood is flowing to
inflamed parts of the body that they feel heated.
As a result of the inflammatory response brought on by an infection or
sickness, whole body inflammation may result in fevers.
 There are Five Cardinal Signs and Major Symptoms of
Inflammation:
o Swelling (Tumor) or edema is common when a part 0f the
body is inflamed due to fluid accumulating in tissues either
throughout the body or in the affected area.
o Swelling can occur without inflammation, especially with
injuries.
o Loss of Function (Function laesa) may be brought on by
both illness and injury. It could be difficult to breathe
because a joint is inflamed or because a respiratory illness
is producing inflammation in the lungs.
Homeostatic imbalance
 In locations that are extremely infected, the conflicts are quite
costly for both sides, and the wound may develop creamy, yellow
pus.
 Pus is a mixture of infections, living and dead neutrophils, and
tissue cells that have broken down.
 The pus sac may wall off and turn into an abscess if the
inflammatory process is unable to completely remove the debris
from the area. Before healing to take place, abscesses must be
surgically drained.
4) Antimicrobial Chemicals
 The complement proteins and interferon are the two most
significant antibacterial substances.
Complement
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 Describes a collection of at least 20 plasma proteins that are had experienced a particular infectious sickness, they were unlikely to
circulating in the blood inactively. experience it again.
 Complement is activated and plays a significant role in the  The immunological response has three crucial components:
defense against alien cells when it becomes fixed, or attached, to o It recognizes and combats infections or foreign substances
foreign cells like bacteria, fungus, or mismatched red blood cells. because it is antigen specific 1.
 Lysing bacteria, enhancing phagocytosis through opsonization, o It is systemic: The immune response does not stop at the
and escalating inflammatory response are all functions of this location of the initial infection.
group of plasma proteins. o It remembers past pathogen encounters and mounts ever
o Opsonization is an immunological procedure in which more potent defenses against them.
opsonins are used to mark foreign pathogens for phagocyte
eradication. ARMS OF IMMUNITY
o The negatively charged cell walls of the pathogen and 1. Humoral Immunity
phagocyte reject one another in the absence of opsonin,  Also referred to as antibody-mediated immunity, this type of
such as an antibody. (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.) defense is provided by antibodies found in bodily fluids or
o Opsonins have the ability to interact with bacteria and "humors".
render them vulnerable to phagocyte ingestion. Antibody-Mediated Immunity
 Proteins make up antibodies. The variable region joins with the
Interferons antigens to determine how specific an antibody is. The constant
 Proteins secreted by virus-infected cells that mobilize the immune region binds the antibody to the cell or triggers complement.
system and defend uninfected tissue cells from viral invasion. There are five different categories of antibodies: IgG, IgM, IgA,
 The interferon molecules spread to surrounding cells and bind to IgE, and IgD.
their membrane receptors, preventing viruses from proliferating  Antibodies either cause antigens to clump together or inactivate
inside these cells as a result of this interaction. them directly. Through the induction of phagocytosis and
inflammation, antibodies subtly eliminate antigens.
Urine  The initial encounter with an antigen triggers the main reaction.
 In a healthy body, an acidic pH limits bacterial development and Memory T cells and antibodies are produced by plasma cells,
cleans the lower urinary tract when waste is expelled. which are formed by B cells.
 After a primary response to an antigen, the secondary (memory)
5) FEVER response develops. Plasma cells and new memory B cells are
 The body's reaction to invasive germs. swiftly produced by memory B cells.
 The thermostat, a section of the hypothalamus, controls body
temperature. Pyrogens, chemicals released by white blood cells Five Types of Antibodies and Each Function in the Body
and macrophages in reaction to exposure to foreign cells or
substances in the body, can cause it to reset upward.
2. SPECIFIC BODY DEFENSES (IMMUNITY)
SPECIFIC BODY DEFENSES
 The immunological response, which is the immune system's
reaction to a threat, sharply amplifies the inflammatory response
and offers protection that is specifically focused against antigens.
 The third line of defense for the body, a working system that
detects foreign molecules (antigens) and takes action to neutralize
or eliminate them.
 Guards us against a wide range of infections and aberrant bodily
cells.
 When it malfunctions, fails, or is incapacitated, some fatal
diseases, including:
o Cancer
o Rheumatoid arthritis, and
o AIDS may result.
 Immunology
Immunology, the science of immunity, the ancient Greeks were aware
of the emerging science of immunity and understood that once a person

Antibodies Structure Functions
Immunoglobulin Being the only isotype that can
G (lgG) cross the placenta, an lgG antibody
from the mother’s body protects
the baby it is the primary antibody
in blood and has a strong ability to
attach to bacteria and poisons.
Immunoglobulin Constructed of five units of basic
M (lgM) Y-shaped structures and is mainly
distributed to the blood.
Produced first upon pathogen
invasion by B cells.
It has key role in the initial
immune system defense for
protecting the body.
Immunoglobulin To stop bacterial invasion from a
A (lgA) mucosal membrane, it primarily
exists as monomers (the shape of a
single Y), but it can also form
dimers (a combination of two Ys)
in secretions including intestinal
fluid, nasal discharge, and saliva.
Immunoglobulin It is said to be present on the
D (lgD) surface of B cells and to contribute
to the production of antibodies as
well as the protection of
respiratory tract infections
Immunoglobulin It is believed that IgE was
E (IgE) originally related to immunity
reactions to parasites.
IgE is though to be implicated in
allergies like pollinosis via
attaching to mast cells
2. Cellular Immunity
 Cell-mediated immunity, as living cells operate as the protective
element.
 Cellular targets for the cellular arm include cancer cells, cells
from foreign transplants, and tissue cells infected with viruses.
 The foreign cells are the target of the lymphocytes' actions, which
can be either direct (lysing the foreign cells) or indirect (releasing
substances that heighten the inflammatory response or stimulate
other immune cells).
Antigen
 (Ag) is any substance capable of exciting our immune system by
provoking an immune response.
 Most antigens are large, complex molecules that are not normally
present in our bodies.
 They are foreign intruders or non-self.
Cell-Mediated Immunity
 Antigen exposure creates memory T cells and activates cytotoxic
T cells.
 Lying down tumor cells, virally- infected cells, and transplanted
tissue are cytotoxic T cells. Cytotoxic T cells release cytokines
that encourage phagocytosis and inflammation.
Adaptive Immunity
 The chemicals known as antigens activate adaptive
immunity.
 T cells are engaged in cell-mediated immunity, while
B cells are in charge of antibody- mediated immunity.
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF LYMPHCYTES
Lymphocytes
 Red bone marrow is where T lymphocytes and B cells are
created. B cells are processed in red bone marrow, while T
cells are processed in the thymus.
 T and B cells migrate from their processing locations to
lymphatic tissue. They move back and forth between
lymphatic tissues continuously.
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
1. Regular exposure to an antigen that the body's immune system
responds to leads to active natural immunity.
2. When a person intentionally exposes themselves to an antigen
(such as a vaccine), their own immune system reacts to it,
producing active fake immunity.
3. The transmission of antibodies from a mother to her fetus during
pregnancy or to her infant during breastfeeding is known as
passive natural immunity.
4. 4. Transferring antibodies from an animal or another human to a
person who needs immunity is known as passive artificial
immunity.
OVERVIEW OF IMMUNE INTERACTIONS
To cure illness, immunotherapy either activates or suppresses the
immune system.
EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND
IMMUNITY
1. The lymphatic system's capacity to absorb fat from the digestive
tract, remove damaged RBCs from the blood, and remove fluid
from tissues is mostly unaffected by aging.
2. Reduced helper T cell proliferation leads to diminished cell- and
antibody-mediated immunological responses.
3. With aging, the primary and secondary antibody responses
diminish.
4. Age reduces one's capacity to fend off intracellular pathogens.
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES OF IMMUNITY
a. Allergies
 Hypersensitivities
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 Abnormally vigorous immune responses in which the immune
system causes tissue damage as it fights off a perceived “threat”
that would be harmless to the body.
b. Immunodeficiency
 Both congenital and acquired conditions in which the production
or function of immune cells or complement is abnormal.
 Severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID) in which
there is marked deficit of both B cells and T cells.
 Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (HIV) the most
devastating of the acquired immunodeficiencies.
 It cripples the immune system by interfering with the activity of
helper T cells
c. Autoimmune Diseases
 The immune system loses its ability to distinguish friend from
foe.
 That is tolerating self-antigens while attacking foreign antigens.
When this happens, the produces antibodies (autoantibodies) and
sensitized T cells that attack and damage its own tissues.
1. Multiple Sclerosis (MS), which destroys the white matter
(myelin sheath) of the brain and spinal cord.
2. Myasthenia Gravis (MG), which impairs communication
between nerves and skeletal muscles.
3. Graves’ Disease, in which the thyroid gland produces
excessive amounts of thyroxine.
4. Juvenile (Type 1)diabetes mellitus, which destroys
pancreatic beta cells, resulting in deficient production of
insulin.
5. Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE), a systematic
disease that occurs mainly in young females and
particularly affect the kidneys, heart, lungs, and skin.
Summary
Body defenses refer to the various mechanisms and systems within the
human body that protect it from harmful invaders, such as pathogens
and foreign substances. These defenses play a critical role in
maintaining overall health and preventing illness. Here is a summary
of the key components and functions of body defenses:
a. Physical Barrier b. Immune System
c. White Blood Cells d. Inflammatory Response
e. Antibodies f. Complement System
g. Fever h. Lymphatic System
i. Vaccination j. Gut Microbiota
k. Hormonal Regulation l.
In summary, the body's defenses encompass a complex and
interconnected system of physical, cellular, and molecular
mechanisms that work together to protect the body from invaders and
maintain overall health. This multifaceted defense system helps to
prevent and combat infections, diseases, and other threats to the body's
well-being.

LESSON: THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 5.
Topic 1: The Digestive System Overview (lecture)
Topic 2: Functions of the Digestive System (lecture)
Topic 3: Anatomy & physiology of the Digestive System 6.
(Laboratory)
7.
Topic objectives
 Describe the general regions of the digestive system Cecum
 List the major regions of the digestive system  Absorbs fluids and salts that remain after the completion
 Describe the processes involved in functioning of the digestive
system  Breakdowns bacteria
 Re-ingest feces
Pre-activity
 The esophagus connects the stomach to the small intestine. THE REGIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 False. The esophagus connects the mouth to the stomach. 1. The mouth
 The gallbladder stores bile produced by the liver.
 True
 Most nutrient absorption occurs in the stomach
 False. Most nutrient absorption occurs in the intestine.
 The appendix is an essential organ for digestion
 False. The appendix is considered a vestigial organ with no
known essential function in digestion.
 Vestigial organs are the organs that have no apparaent
function and describe the process of evaluation
 The large intestine is also known as the colon
 True
 Salivary amylase is an enzyme that breaks down proteins in the
stomach.
 False. Salivary amylase is an enzyme that breaks down
carbohydrates in the mouth.
 The liver produces insulin to regulate blood sugar levels.
 False. The pancreas produces insulin, not the liver.
INTRODUCTION
The digestive system
 The digestive system consists of the digestive tract, a tube
extending from the mouth to the anus, and its associated
2. Pharynx
accessory organs, primarily glands, which secrete fluids into the
digestive tract.
 The digestive tract is also called the alimentary canal or
alimentary tract.
 The term gastrointestinal tract technically only refers to the
stomach and intestines but is often used as a synonym for the
digestive tract.
The regions of the digestive tract
1. The mouth or oral cavity , which has salivary glands and tonsils
as accessory organs;
2. The pharynx, or throat, with tubular mucous glands.
3. The esophagus, with tubular mucous glands.
4. The stomach, which contains many tube-like glands
A N A L A B |4
The small intestines, consisting of the duodenum, jejunum, and The esophagus
ileum, with the liver, gall bladder, and pancreas as major  Also known as gullet, runs from the pharynx through the
accessory organs; diaphragm to the stomach.
The large intestine, including the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal  About 25 cm (10 inches)
canal, with mucous glands;  It is essentially a passageway that conducts food (by peristalsis)
The anus to the stomach.
 The walls of the alimentary canal organs from the esophagus to
the large intestine are made up of the same four basic tissue
layers, or tunics.
intestinal digestions
Four basic tissue layers
1. The mucosa
 The nnermost layer, a moist membrane that lines the cavity,
or lumen of the organ.
 Consists primarily of a surface epithelium, plus amount of
 Food enters the digestive through the mouth or oral cavity, connective tissue (lamina propria) and scanty smooth
a mucous membrane-lined cavity. muscle layer.
 The lips (labia) protects its anterior opening, 2. The submucosa
 The Cheeks form its lateral walls.  Found just beneath the mucosa
 The hard palate form its anterior roof.  Soft connective layer containing blood vessels, nerve
 The soft palate forms the posterior roof. endings, lymph nodules, and lymphatic vessels.
 The uvula is a fleshy fingerlike projection of the soft palate, 3. The muscularis externa
which extends downward from its posterior edge.  Muscle layer typically made up of an inner circular layer
 Vestibule space between the lips and cheeks externally and and outer longitudinal layer of the smooth muscle.
the teeth and gums internally. 4. The serosa
 Oral cavity proper the area contained by the teeth.  The outermost layer of the wall
 The tongue occupies the floor of the mouth.  Consists of a single layer of flat serous fluid-producing
 Has several bony attachments: cells.
 Hyoid bone  The alimentary canal wall contains two important nerve
 Styloid processes of the skull. plexuses

 The Lingual Frenulum a fold of mucous membrane, Submucosal nerve plexus
 Myenteric nerve plexus
secures the tongue to the floor of the mouth and limits its
posterior movements.
 Tongue tied -- these are children born with an extremely 3. Stomach
 The body is the mid portion
short frenulum, and distorted speech when tongue
 Pylorus the funnel-shaped is the terminal
movement is restricted.
 Continuous with the small intestine through the
 From the mouth, food passes posteriorly into the pyloric sphincter, or valve.
 The stomach is approximately 25 cm(10 inches) long.
oropharynx, and laryngopharynx, both of which are
 Chyme most digestive activity occurs in the pyloric
common passageways for food, fluids, and air.
 Nasopharynx part of the respiratory passageway region.
 The food processed in the stomach that resembles
 Oropharynx posterior to the oral cavity.
heavy cream.
 Laryngopharynx, which is continuous with the esophagus
below.
 The walls of the pharynx contain two skeletal muscle layers. Peritonitis
• When the peritoneum is infected.
 The cells of the inner layer run longitudinally: those of the
• The peritoneal membranes tend to stick together around the
outer layer (the constrictor muscles) run around the wall in
a circular fashion. infection site.
Signs and Symptoms:
 The alternating contractions of these two muscle layers
• Abdominal pain or tenderness
propel food through the pharynx into the esophagus.
• Bloating or feeling of fullness in your abdomen
 This propelling mechanism, called peristalsis.
• Fever
• Nausea and vomiting
 A N A L A B |5

• Loss of appetite  Has voluntary sphincter composed of skeletal  Has four lobes and is suspended from the diaphragm and
• Diarrhea muscle. abdominal wall by a delicate mesentery cord, the falciform
• Low urine output - Opens during defecation when feces are ligament
• Thirst eliminated from the body.  Has regulatory and metabolic roles.
 Produce bile and bile leaves the liver the common hepatic duct
4. Small intestines ACCESSORY ORGANS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM and enters the duodenum through the bile duct.
 It is the body’s major digestive organ. The Accessory Glands  Bile is a yellow to green, watery solution containing bile salts.
 Within its twisted passageways, usable food is finally • Salivary Glands  Bile pigments (bilirubin) a breakdown product of hemoglobin,
prepared for its journey into the cells of the body. • Teeth cholesterol, phospholipids, and a variety of electrolytes.
 The muscular tube extending from the pyloric sphincter to • Pancreas  Emulsify fats by physically breaking large fat globules into
the ileocecal valve • Liver smaller
 The longest section of the alimentary tube, with an average • Gallbladder
length of 2 to 4 m (6-13 ft. in a living person. Gallbladder
a. Jejunum Salivary glands  Is a small, thin –walled green sac that snuggles in a shallow fossa
 About 2.5m (8 feet) long and extends from the  There are three salivary glands empty their secretions into the in the inferior surface of the liver.
duodenum to the ileum mouth.  When food digestion is not occurring, bile backs up the cystic
b. Ileum  The large parotid lie anterior to the ears. duct and enters the gall bladder.
 About 3.6m (12 ft) long, the terminal part of the  Mumps a common childhood disease, an inflammation of the  When fatty food enters the duodenum, a hormonal stimulus
small intestine parotid glands prompts the gallbladder to contract and spurt out stored bile,
 It joins the large intestine at the ileocecal valve  Submandibular glands and small sublingual glands empty making it available to the duodenum.
c. Duodenum their secretions into the floor of the mouth through tiny ducts.  Homeostatic imbalance
 “twelve finger widths” which curves around the  Saliva is a mixture of mucus and serous fluids.  Gallstones these are the bile that is stored in the gallbladder
head of the pancreas about 25cm (10 inches)  The mucus moistens and helps to bind food together into a for too long or too much water is removed, the cholesterol
long mass called bolus which makes chewing and swallowing it contains may crystallize.
5. Large intestine easier  Jaundice these are yellowish discoloration of the skin due
 Larger in diameter than the small intestines but shorter in  Salivary amylase is the clear serous portion contains an enzyme. to the bile pigments that circulates to the body when it enters
length.  Begins the process of starch digestion in the mouth. in the bloodstream.
 1.5 m (5 feet long).  Saliva contains substances such as lysozyme and antibodies (IgA)  Hepatitis an inflammation of the liver
 Extends from the ileocecal valve to the anus. that inhibit bacteria.  Most often due to viral infection resulting from
 Major functions are: drinking contaminated water transmitted in blood via
 Dry out the indigestible food residue by absorbing water. Teeth transfusion or contaminated needles.
 Eliminate residues from the  Masticate, or chew, by opening and closing our jaws and moving  Liver Cirrhosis a chronic inflammatory condition in which
 It frames the small intestines on three sides. them from side to side while continually using our tongue. the liver is severely damaged and becomes hard and fibrous
 Tear and grind the food, breaking it down into smaller fragments.  Due to alcoholic addiction and it is a common
Subdivisions of the Large Intestines  Two sets of Teeth consequence of severe hepatitis.
Cecum Colon  Deciduous teeth or milk teeth 20 teeth by the age of 2 years. 
Appendix Rectum  Lower central incisors the first teeth to appear
 Classifications of teeth
Anal canal  Incisors the chisel-shaped are adapted for cutting.
 Cecum the first part of the large intestines and hanging  Canines are the eyeteeth for tearing or piercing.
from the cecum is the appendix  Premolars (bicuspids) and Molars have broad crowns
 Appendix is a wormlike and usually twisted an ideal with rounded cusps (tips) and are best suited for grinding.
location for bacteria to accumulate and multiply.  Homeostatic imbalance
 Colon  When teeth remain embedded in the jawbone, they are said
 Ascending colon travels up to the right side of the to be impacted
abdominal cavity and makes a turn, right colic or  Impacted Teeth exert pressure and cause a t good deal of
hepatic flexure, to travel across the abdominal cavity. pain and must be removed surgically.
 Transverse colon  Wisdom tooth are the most commonly impacted.
 Descending colon with s-shaped sigmoid colon.
- The sigmoid colon, rectum and anal lie in the Liver and gallbladder
pelvis Liver
 Anal Canal  The largest gland in the body.
 Ends at the anus, which opens to the exterior.  Located under the diaphragm, more to the right side of the body.
 A N A L A B |6

LESSON: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM  The anterior pituitary gland controls the activity of so many stimulates powerful uterine contractions and causes
Topic 1: Functions of the Endocrine (Lecture) other endocrine glands that it has been often called the “ milk ejection.
Topic 2: the major organs of the endocrine system (laboratory) master endocrine gland”  Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
 Except for growth hormone and prolactin, hormones of the
Topic 3: other hormone producing organs and tissues of the endocrine  Diuresis is urine production, thus, an
system (lecture) anterior pituitary are all tropic hormones.
antidiuretic is a chemical that inhibits or
 Growth Hormone (GH): an anabolic and protein-
conserving hormone that promotes total body growth. prevents urine production.
Topic objectives
 Name and identify the different glands of the endocrine system  Its important effect is on skeletal muscles and bones  ADH causes the kidneys to reabsorb more water from
 Describe the structure and functions of the following glands:  Untreated hyposecretion during childhood results in the forming urine; as a result, urine volume decreases
 Pituitary glands pituitary dwarfism (stunted growth) and blood volume increases.
 Thyroid glands  Untreated hypersecretion produces gigantism during  In larger amounts, ADH also increases blood
 Parathyroid gland childhood and acromegaly in adulthood. pressure by causing constriction of the arterioles
 Adrenal gland  Prolactin (PRL)
(small arteries (vasopressin)
 Pancreas  A protein hormone structurally similar to growth
 Gonads hormone and its only known target in human is the
Homeostatic imbalance
 Describe the major importance of the endocrine glands breast.
 Stimulates production of breast milk after childbirth  Diabetis Insipidus
INTRODUCTION  Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)  Hyposecretion of ADH leads to a condition of
The Endocrine System  Regulates the endocrine activity of the cortex portion excessive of urine output.
 The major endocrine organs of the body include: of the adrenal gland  People with this problem are continually thirsty and
 Pituitary gland  Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) drink huge amounts of water.
 Thyroid gland  Influences the growth and activity of the thyroid
 Parathyroid gland gland.
3. Thyroid gland
 Adrenal gland  Gonadotropic Hormones
 It is a hormone – producing gland that is similar to most
 Pineal gland  Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH): beginning at
people primarily because many individuals blame their
 Thymus gland puberty, stimulates follicle development and estrogen
overweight condition on their “glands:.
 Pancreas, and production by the female ovaries;
 Located at the base of the throat, just inferior to the Adam’s
 Gonads  Promotes sperm production in the male.
apple, where it is palpated during a physical
 The hypothalamus, which is part of the nervous system,  Gonadotropic Hormones examination.
recognized as a major endocrine organ because it produces  Luteinizing Hormone (LH): Beginning at puberty,
 Fairly large consisting of two lobes joined by a central mass,
several hormones. stimulates ovulation, converts the ruptured ovarian
or isthmus
 The Purely endocrine glands are: follicle to a corpus luteum, and causes the corpus
 Makes two hormones:
 Anterior pituitary luteum to produce progesterone.
 Thyroid hormone the other called calcitonin
 Thyroid,  Stimulates the male testes to produce testosterone.
 Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3) is
 Adrenals, and released from the thyroid follicles when blood vessels
 Parathyroid Homeostatic imbalance
of TSH rise.
 Mixed glands (Endocrine and Exocrine)  Sterility hyposecretion of FSH or LH both in males
 T4 and T3
 Pancreas, and and females.  It increases the rate at which cells oxidize glucose and
 Gonads.  Some drugs used to promote fertility stimulate the is necessary for normal growth and development.
 Both types of glands are formed from epithelial release of the gonatropic hormones.  Lacks iodine leads to goiter – an enlargement of the
 Endocrine are ductless glands that produce hormones that they  Multiple births indicating multiple ovulations at the thyroid gland.
release into blood or lymph. same time.  Hyposecretion of thyroxine
 Exocrine glands release their products at the body’s surface or - Cretinism (children)
into body cavities through ducts. - Myxedema (adults)
2. Posterior pituitary gland
 Cretinism results in dwarfism in which adult body
1. Anterior pituitary gland  The posterior pituitary is not an endocrine in the strict
proportions remain childlike, if left untreated may lead to
 Approximately the size of a grape. sense because it does not make the peptide hormones mental retardation.
 It hangs by a stalk from the inferior surface of the it releases  Myxedema in which there is both physical and mental
hypothalamus of the brain, where it is snugly surrounded by  Acts as a storage area for hormones made by sluggishness, however , mental retardation does not occur.
the “turk’s saddle of the sphenoid bone. It has two hypothalamic neurons.  Hypersecretion results from Grave’s disease or other forms
functional lobes:  Oxytocin is released in significant amounts only of hyperthyroidism
 The anterior pituitary (glandular tissue)  Calcitonin or Thyrocalcitonin released by C
during childbirth and in nursing women such it
 The posterior pituitary (nervous tissue) (parafollicular) cells found in the connective tissue between

the follicles or surrounding the thyroid follicles in response
to high blood levels of calcium, it causes calcium to be
deposited in bones.
 
4. Parathyroid gland
 These are tiny masses of glandular tissue found on the
posterior surface of the thyroid gland, a total of four small
glands in two thyroid lobes.
 Low blood levels of calcium stimulate the parathyroid
gland to release PTH causes bone calcium to be liberated
into the blood.
 Hyposecretion leads to tetany –neurons become extremely
irritable and overactive and they deliver impulses to the
muscles at such a rapid rate that the muscles go into
uncontrollable spasms.
 Hypersecretion leads to extreme bone wasting and
fractures due to the stimulation of destruction cells or
(osteoclasts)
5. Adrenal glands
 The two-bean shaped adrenal glands curve over the top of
the kidneys.
 Looks like a single organ but it is structurally and
functionally two endocrine organs in one.
 It has glandular (cortex) and neural (medulla) parts.
 The central medulla region is enclosed by the adrenal
cortex, which contains three separate layers.
a. Mineralocorticoids, primarily aldosterone, regulate sodium ion
(Na+) and potassium (K-) resorption by the kidneys.
 Their release is stimulated by low sodium and/or high
potassium in the blood.
 Renin an enzyme produced by the kidneys when blood
pressure drops.
 Causes the release of aldosterone by triggering a series of
reactions.
b. Glucocorticoids enable the body to resist long-term stress by
increasing blood glucose levels and depressing the inflammatory
response which include cortisone and cortisol.
c. Sex Hormones are produced in small amounts throughout
life.
 The bulk of the sex hormones produced by the innermost
cortex layers are androgens (male) , some estrogens
(female)
Homeostatic Imbalance
1) Addison’s disease
Signs and symptoms:
 Suppression of the immune system and increased
susceptibility to infection.
 Hypersecretion problems are generally the results of
tumors, and the resulting condition depends.
 Peculiar bronze tone of the skin
A N A L A B |7
 Low sodium and water from the body leads to problem with  Cardinal signs of DM are polyuria, polydipsia, and
electrolyte and water balance. polyphagia.
 Weak muscles and shock is possible  Polyuria
Hypoglycemia-lessened ability to cope up with stress  Excessive urination: the passing of unusually large
2) Hyperaldosteronism with excessive water and sodium retention amounts of urine
(outermost area of the cortex)  Polydipsia
 Leading to high blood pressure  Great thirst: excessive thirst
 Edema  Polyphagia
 Loss of potassium may lead to disruptions of the activity of  Huge appetite: an insatiable appetite for food
the heart and nervous system.  Glucagon
 Released when blood levels are low
3) Cushing’s Syndrome (Tumor is in the Middle Cortical Area)  It stimulates the liver to release glucose to blood, thus
 Fat on the upper back(Buffalo hump) increasing blood glucose level.
 Moon face
 High blood pressure 7. Pineal gland
 Hyperglycemia and possible diabetes  Known as pineal body
 Weakening of the bones  A small coned-shaped gland found in the roof of the third
 Severe depression of the immune system ventricle of the brain.
4) Hypersecretion of the sex hormones  Only the hormone melatonin appears to be secreted in
substantial amount
 Masculinization regardless of the sex
 Melatonin
 Beard develops
 Masculine pattern of body hair distributions  Affects the biological rhythms and reproductive
behavior.
 Hormones of the adrenal medulla
 The sleep trigger
 Develops from knot of nervous tissue
 The levels of melatonin rise and fall during the course
 When the medulla is stimulated by sympathetic nervous
of the day and night.
system neurons, its cell release two similar hormones:
 Peak level at night and make us drowsy.
 Epinephrine and Norepinephrine into the blood
 Lowest level occurs during daylight around noon.
stream- known as catecholamines
 In some animals, helps regulate mating behavior and
 When you are threatened physically or emotionally,
rhythms.
your sympathetic nervous system brings about the
 In humans, believed to coordinate the hormones of
“fight or flight” response to help cope with the stress.
fertility to inhibit the reproductive system so that
Hypersecretion of catecholamines leads to:
sexual maturation is prevented from occurring during
childhood.
 Excessive sympathetic nervous system activity
 Rapidly beating heart 8. Thymus gland
 High blood pressure  Located in the upper thorax, posterior to the sternum
 Tendency to perspire  Large in infant and children, it decreases in size throughout
 Be very irritable adulthood.
 In adult or old age, it is composed mostly of fibrous
connective tissue
6. The pancreatic islets 
Thymosin
 Located close to the stomach in the abdominal cavity.  During childhood, acts as an incubator for the
 Both are endocrine and exocrine glands maturation of a special group of white blood cells ( T
 The best hidden endocrine glands in the body. Lymphocytes) that are important in the immune
 The endocrine portion (islets) releases insulin and glucagon response.
 Insulin 9. Gonads
 Released when the blood levels of glucose are high  The female and male gonads produce sex hormones that are
 It increases the rate of glucose uptake and metabolism identical to those produced by adrenal cortex.
by body cells.  The ovaries of the female, located in the pelvic cavity
 Hyposecretion of insulin results in Diabetes mellitus release two hormones
(Dm), which severely disturbs body metabolism  Estrogens
 Progesterone

 The testes of the male begin to produce testosterone at
puberty in response to LH stimulation
 Ovaries
 Estrogens
- Release of estrogens by ovarian follicles begins
at puberty under the influence of FSH
- Stimulates maturation of the female
reproductive organs and development of
secondary sex characteristics of the female
 Progesterone
- Released from the corpus luteum of the ovary in
response to high blood level of LH
- Works with estrogens in establishing the
menstrual cycle.
 Testis
 Testosterone
- Promotes maturation of the male reproductive
organs.
- Responsible for the male secondary
characteristics and production of sperm by the
testes
- Hyposecretion of gonadal hormones results in
sterility in both males and females.
LESSON: THE BLOOD
Topic 1: the blood groups
Topic 2: disorders of the blood
Topic 3: developmental aspects of the blood
Topic objectives
 Name major blood groups
 Describe the functions of blood groups
 Explain the Rh group
Pre-activity
 The ABO blood group system is based on the presence or absence
of antigens on red blood cells.
 True. The ABO system classifies blood into four main
groups (A, B, AB, and O) based on the presence or absence
of A and B antigens on red blood cells.
 The Rh factor, or Rhesus factor, is an antigen that can be either
positive or negative
 True. The Rh factor is either present (+) or absent (-),
leading to positive or negative blood types (e.g., A+, B-,
AB+).
 A person with blood type O- is considered the universal donor for
red blood cells
 True. O- individuals can donate red blood cells to
individuals of any blood type
 Individuals with AB blood type are considered universal
recipients for red blood cell transfusions.
 True. AB individuals can receive red blood cells from
donors of any blood type
 It is safe to transfuse type A blood into a person with type B blood
 False. Transfusing incompatible blood types can lead to a
potentially life-threatening reaction. Blood must be
matched for ABO and Rh factors.
 A child with parents of blood types O and A cannot have blood
type B
 False. Blood type inheritance is more complex, and a child
can inherit blood type B from parents with blood types O
and A.
INTRODUCTION
The Blood Groups
 Blood is uniquely specialized connective tissue in that it consists
of two components:
 The Formed Elements or the blood cells
 The Fluid Part of the blood or plasma
The formed elements
 The formed elements of the blood are:
 Red Blood Cells (RBCs) or Erythrocytes
 White Blood Cells (WBCs) or Leukocytes
 Platelets or Thrombocytes
 These accounts for about 45% of the total volume of blood.
 Fluid part or Plasma
A N A L A B |8
 A viscous fluid, accounts for about 55% of the blood
 An average woman has about 5 liters of blood.
 An average man has approximately 6 liters of blood in the body.
 Blood accounts for about 8% of total body weight
The blood type
 It is the classification of blood, based on the presence and absence
of antibodies and inherited antigenic on the surface of red blood
cells.
 These antigen may be proteins, carbohydrates, glycoproteins, or
glycolipids, depending on the blood group system.
THE BLOOD GROUPS
 The human blood is of different types and only certain
combinations are compatible.
 Procedures have been developed for typing blood.
 This ensures that donor and recipient blood transfusions are
compatible
 Agglutination occurs if blood groups are mismatched or clumping
of RBCs will occur.
 This is called transfusion reaction and is caused by a reaction
between protein antibodies in the plasma and RBC surface
molecules called antigens.
 The individual will experience headache and difficulty in
breathing; the face will appear flushed, pain in the neck, chest and
lower back
 The RBCs will be destroyed, their hemoglobin converted to
bilirubin, which accumulates causing jaundice or yellowing of the
skin.
 The kidneys may fail
THE ABO BLOOD GROUP
1) Type A blood individuals have antibody anti- B in their blood
plasma.
 Type B blood individuals have antibody anti-A
 Type AB blood individuals have no antibodies
 Type O blood individual have antibody anti-A and antibody
anti-B
2) Type AB individuals are known as universal recipients because
they can receive any blood type in a transfusion.
3) Type O individuals are known as universal donors because they
have no antigens and their blood can be transfused into any blood
group
The Rh Blood Group
 The RH blood group was named after the Rhesus monkeys, the
animals in which one of the eight Rh antigens or factors was first
identified and studied.
 This was antigen D or Agglutinogen D, which was later
discovered in humans.
 If antigen D and other Rh antigens are found in the human RBC
membrane, the blood is Rh positive
 Most Americans are Rh positive.

 If the RBCs lack the antigen, the blood is Rh negative.  Hemophilia A is the most common form of the disease,
 The presence or absence of the antigen is an inherited trait whose main symptom is a tendency to hemorrhage
 • Unlike antibodies of the ABO system, anti Rh antibodies do not following minor injuries.
develop spontaneously. Instead, they develop only in Rh negative  Other symptoms include frequent nosebleeds, hematomas
persons if an Rhnegative person receives a blood transfusion of in muscles, and bloody urine
Rh-positive blood. 2. Leukemia
 Shortly after receiving the mismatched Rh-positive, the  It is a type of cancer in which there is abnormal production
Rhnegative person begins to produce anti –Rh antibodies against of WBCs.
the foreign blood  These cells lack normal immunologic capabilities, so that
 This initial mismatch has no immediate serious consequence individuals with the disease are susceptible to opportunistic
because it takes the body time to react and produce antibodies. infections.
 However, if a second mismatched transfusion occurs, the  The excess of production of leukocytes interferes with
patient’s antibodies will now attack and rupture the Rh- positive normal RBC and platelet formation, which results in anemia
blood donor’s RBCs and they will agglutinate. An Rh –negative and excessive bleeding from minor injuries
woman can be given a drug called RhoGAM this anti-R  The sign and Symptoms include:
 An Rh –negative woman can be given a drug called RhoGAM  Weight loss
this anti-Rh antibodies that will bind to any Rh-positive fetal cells  Fever
and shield them, thus protecting any of the child’s RBC that might  Frequent infections
contact the mother’s cells.  Muscular weakness
 This sensitizes her immune system.  Pain or tenderness in joints or bones
 Patches on the skin
LESSON: THE BLOOD  Loss of appetite
Topic 1: the blood groups  Spleen or liver enlargement
Topic 2: disorders of the blood 3. Anemia
Topic 3: developmental aspects of the blood  This disease can be caused by Four Factors:
 Decrease in the normal number of erythrocytes
Topic objectives  A decrease of normal amounts of hemoglobin in the
RBCs
 Name the common disorders of the blood.
 A deficiency of normal hemoglobin
 Differentiate among the different common blood disorders
 Production of abnormal hemoglobin
 Explain the common causes and etymology of the disease
 Anemia reduces the amount of oxygen that RBCs can
transport resulting:
INTRODUCTION
 in a lack of energy
The Disorders of The Blood
 Shortness of breath on minor exertions
 There are many types of blood disorders, which can involve
 Listlessness
problems with red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, blood
 Pale skin
vessels, bone marrow, lymph nodes, or the proteins involved in
 General feeling fatigue
bleeding and clotting.
 There are a number of types of anemia
 Blood disorders affect one or more parts of the blood and prevent
 Sickle cell anemia
your blood from doing its job
- A hereditary disease found mostly in African
 Disorders can be acute or chronic.
Americans and individuals of Southern
 Many blood disorders are inherited. European Ancestry.
 Other causes include: - The Erythrocytes have an abnormal hemoglobin
 Other diseases, - Variations include severity resulting in death
 side effects of medicines, and before age of 30, to mild cases with no
 Lack of certain nutrients in our die symptoms
 Iron-Deficiency Anemia
1. Hemophilia - Results from nutritional deficiencies or from
 It is genetically inherited clotting disorder associated with excessive iron loss from the body resulting in
the expression of a recessive gene on the X chromosome lower than normal erythrocyte production
inherited from the mother and passed down to male  Hemolytic anemia
children.
A N A L A B |9
- An inherited condition in which the erythrocytes
rupture or are destroyed at a faster rate than
normal.
- Can be caused by drugs, autoimmune disease or
snake venom.
4. Thalassemia
 A hereditary disease found in people of African,
Mediterranean, and Asian background.
 Hemoglobin production is suppressed, and death can occur
by the age of 20.
 Mild cases produce a mild anemia
5. Septicemia
 Known as blood poisoning caused by an infection of
microorganisms and their toxins in the blood.
6. Malaria
 Caused by the injection of a protozoa, Plasmodium, by a
female Anopheles mosquito.
 The microorganism spends part of its life cycle in the
erythrocytes, eventually destroying them.
 Chills, and fever are produced by toxins released when the
RBCs rupture
7. Infectious mononucleosis
 Known as mono, caused by Epstein-Barr virus, which
infects lymphocytes and the salivary glands
 The virus alters the lymphocytes causing the immune
system to destroy them.
 Symptoms include sore throat, swollen lymph nodes, and
fever
8. Erythrobalstosis fetalis
 When Rh-negative mother carries an Rh – positive child
during her second pregnancy and the mother able to produce
Rh-positive antibodies that entered to the placenta and
destroy the child’s RBC’s causing the RBC to burst.
 The baby will become anemic and suffered brain damage
due to lack of oxygen to nerve cells and death may result
into that condition.
 HDN Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn
KEY TERMS TO REMEMBER
1. ABO Group – one of the blood groups
2. Agglutination – clumping of red blood cells
3. Albumin – a protein found in blood plasma that maintains
osmotic pressure in blood and tissues
4. Basophil – release heparin, histamine, and serotonin during
allergic reactions
5. Clot – formed by fibrin at the site of a cut in a blood vessel
6. Complement – a set of enzymes that attack foreign antigens