Curriculum Development Principles and Practices

Curriculum Development
Principles and Practices
Enzo Archer
Curriculum Development: Principles and
Practices
Curriculum Development:
Principles and Practices
Edited by Enzo Archer

College Publishing House,
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Copyright © 2017 College Publishing House
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ISBN: 978-1-9789-2243-3
Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Curriculum development : principles and practices / edited by Enzo Archer.

p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-9789-2243-3
1. Curriculum planning. 2. Education--Curricula. 3. Universities and colleges--Curricula.
4. Education, Higher. I. Archer, Enzo.
LB2806.15 .C87 2017
375.001--dc23
Contents

Preface....................................................................................................................................VII
Chapter 1 Planning sustainable peer learning programs: An application

and reflection............................................................................................................................1
Andrea Adam, Jane Skalicky, Natalie Brown
Chapter 2 Beyond demographics: Predicting student attrition within

the Bachelor of Arts degree..................................................................................................14
Andrew Harvey and Michael Luckman
Chapter 3 Obtaining learning independence and academic success through

self-assessment and referral to a Mathematics Learning Centre..................................25
Nadine Adams, Clinton Hayes, Antony Dekkers, Sherie Elliott,
Jinx Atherton
Chapter 4 Designing and evaluating an empowering online pedagogy for

commencing students...........................................................................................................37
Jill Lawrence
Chapter 5 Embedding academic socialisation within a language support

program................................................................................................................................... 50
Shelley Beatty, Ashok Collins^, Maureen Buckingham
Chapter 6 A participative evaluation model to refine academic support

for first year Indigenous higher education students.......................................................60
Bronwyn Rossingh, Terry Dunbar
Chapter 7 A fourth generation approach to transition in the first year in higher

education: First year in higher education community of
practice (FYHECoP).............................................................................................................. 73
Sorrel Penn-Edwards, Sharn Donnison
Chapter 8 Exploring the disconnections: Student interaction with support

services upon commencement of distance education....................................................84
Mark Brown, Mike Keppell, Helen Hughes, Natasha Hard, Liz Smith
Chapter 9 Transition Pedagogy for an undergraduate, case-based learning

medical program....................................................................................................................96
Lynne Raw, Anne Tonkin, Ray Peterson, Alison Jones
Chapter 10 Focusing on first year assessment: Surface or deep approaches

to learning?...........................................................................................................................108
Sharn Donnison, Sorrel Penn-Edwards
__________________WORLD TECHNOLOGIES__________________
VI Contents
Chapter 11 MAPs to Success: Improving the First Year Experience of

alternative entry mature age students.............................................................................119
Liana Christensen, Sarah Evamy
Chapter 12 First year students negotiating professional and academic

identities...............................................................................................................................132
Kate Wilson, Linda Devereux, Paul Tranter
Chapter 13 What is student-centredness and is it enough?.............................................................143

Janet Taylor
Chapter 14 Institution-wide peer mentoring: Benefits for mentors...............................................153

Susan Beltman, Marcel Schaeben
Chapter 15 The hero’s journey: Stories of women returning to education...................................165

Sarah O’ Shea, Cathy Stone
Chapter 16 First year mathematics at a regional university: Does it cater to

student diversity?................................................................................................................178
Robert Whannell, Bill Allen
Chapter 17 Increasing student performance by changing the assessment

practices within an academic writing unit in an Enabling Program.........................190
Keith McNaught, Sophie Benson
Chapter 18 Inclusive pedagogy in Australian universities: A review of

current policies and professional development activities..........................................205
Danielle Hitch, Susie Macfarlane, Claire Nihill
Chapter 19 Engaging, supporting and retaining academic at-risk students

in a Bachelor of Nursing: Setting risk markers, interventions
and outcomes....................................................................................................................... 216
Marion Tower, Rachel Walker, Keithia Wilson, Bernadette Watson,
Glenyss Tronoff

Permissions

List of Contributors
Index
Preface
This book on curriculum development discusses topics related to the design and development
of student educational processes and material. Curriculum development consists of various
categories such as prescribed courses and syllabus as well as extra-curricular activities and
added material. Syllabus development practices seek to emphasize student experiences in
learning and the role of cognition in learning. The book studies, analyses and uphold the
pillars of curriculum development and its utmost significance in modern times. It strives
to provide a fair idea about this discipline and to help develop a better understanding of
the latest advances within this field. This book is appropriate for students seeking detailed
information in this area as well as for experts.
Various studies have approached the subject by analyzing it with a single perspective,
but the present book provides diverse methodologies and techniques to address this field.
This book contains theories and applications needed for understanding the subject from
different perspectives. The aim is to keep the readers informed about the progress in the
field; therefore, the contributions were carefully examined to compile novel researches by
specialists from across the globe.
Indeed, the job of the editor is the most crucial and challenging in compiling all chapters
into a single book. In the end, I would extend my sincere thanks to the chapter authors
for their profound work. I am also thankful for the support provided by my family and
colleagues during the compilation of this book.
Editor
1
Planning sustainable peer learning

programs: An application and reflection
Andrea Adam, Jane Skalicky and Natalie Brown

University of Tasmania
Abstract
A Peer Learning Framework was proposed at the University of Tasmania (UTAS) to foster a
coherent approach to peer learning programs and to guide the effective design and planning
of new initiatives (Skalicky & Brown, 2009). A planning tool was constructed within a
theoretical framework underpinned by a community of practice model (Lave & Wenger,
1991). The framework is examined through its application to a program which offers
student-facilitated drop-in learning skills support. The framework’s community of practice
perspective on peer learning provided insights into the UTAS Student Learning Mentor
program. A reflection on the usefulness of the Peer Learning Framework and on the process
of application is presented. Questions to facilitate deeper consideration of design for peer
learning are proposed for addition to the framework.
2 Curriculum Development Principles and Practices
Introduction This is unsurprising in the context of an

institution and a sector striving to address
issues of first year retention, transition and
Peer learning and mentoring has been
engagement in a climate of significant
established as a powerful learning tool,
growth in numbers and diversity of
with the potential to facilitate students’
students (Adam, Hartigan, & Brown, 2010;
development in a range of academic areas,
Kift & Nelson, 2005). However, the
and to enhance confidence and ownership
underpinning principles of a PASS program
of learning (Biggs, 2003; Ramsden, 1992;
(Australasian Centre for PASS, 2010) mean
Topping, 1996). Peer learning programs in
that not all requests for PASS in units, or in
the tertiary education sector are designed
response to perceived areas of student
not only to target specific learning
need, fitted with the nature of PASS or
outcomes, but also to enhance students’
were possible with the available resources
overall university experiences (Anderson &
without sacrificing quality. The inception
Boud, 1996). Peer learning has been
and design of the PLF was set against this
recognised as a proactive and effective
context.
approach to support student learning
within a context of broadening
Drawing on the underlying elements of
participation (van de Meer & Scott, 2008).
PASS as a quality and evidence-based
However, it is important that this
program, the PLF aimed to provide a
engagement with peers is of quality,
framework that would guide the
well‐conceived and supported. The
development of other peer learning
purpose of this paper is to present an
programs at UTAS without compromising
exploration of a Peer Learning Framework
quality. It also aimed to provide an
(PLF; Skalicky & Brown, 2009) proposed at
institutional view of quality peer learning
the University of Tasmania (UTAS) to
that could consolidate and connect
structure and guide the development of
disparate programs that were operating
new peer learning programs.
across the university. Unconnected with
PASS, staff in various areas of the
Institutional background university had initiated or proposed a
range of co-curricular peer mentoring and
Peer learning is becoming well established other peer support or student-led
at UTAS primarily through the success of initiatives to meet perceived needs of
the peer assisted study sessions (PASS) different schools and cohorts (e.g., Senior
program. The PASS program was first Student-Led Study Sessions in the School of
piloted at UTAS in 2007, and has since Medicine), with many of the programs
grown into a program supporting 53 first targeting the first-year cohort (e.g., ULead-
year units, with 46 student leaders offering UGrow). Indeed, the peer learning
approximately 90 sessions per week across environment at UTAS has fluctuated over
seven campuses in Tasmania. The success the years, covering much of the range of
of the program, particularly for first year peer tutoring outlined in Topping’s (1996)
students, both in terms of supporting them typology. While each individual program
to achieve higher grades and to improve had its own merits, as does PASS, each
overall student retention (Skalicky, 2010), program developed and was administered
has led to an increasing demand from separately.
teaching staff to offer PASS in their units.
Planning sustainable peer learning programs: An application and reflection 3
In essence, the PLF was proposed as a within the core teaching and learning
means of providing a common structure for activities of a unit or course.
emerging peer learning programs at UTAS
and a quality assurance assessment tool for The framework is presented in the form of
existing programs, with a focus on the a planning tool, informed by a social
sustainability of such endeavours. constructivist view of peer learning
Furthermore, as the name implies, the PLF (Schunk, 2008) and guiding the planner
was intended to focus attention and effort through considerations pertinent to the
on the learning opportunities provided by implementation of a community of practice
peer-led groups of the university. While the (Wenger, McDermott, & Snyder, 2002).
PASS program is by no means the only This planning tool is comprised of
model of a successful peer learning questions addressing three elements: 1)
program at UTAS or elsewhere, for the Community of practice, 2) Peer learning
reasons outlined, it was vital to the drive and 3) Evaluation. The first two elements
and character of the PLF. The aim of the correspond to the community of peers
PLF was to ensure that students’ learning leaders and the interactions of the leaders
outcomes and experiences remained a within the broader community of peers,
priority in any of the new and varied ways respectively. Wenger et al.’s (2002) three
in which peer learning might be enacted at elements of a community of practice, the
the institution. domain, community and practice, are also
reflected in the first two levels of the
The Peer Learning framework. The third element of the PLF,
evaluation, acknowledges the critical role
Framework
that collection and analysis of data, both
quantitative and qualitative, and ongoing
The framework conceptualises peer reflection play in informing improvement
learning programs as communities of in teaching and learning endeavours.
practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Peer
learning contexts are considered to be a Evidence exists for the positive benefits to
subset of communities of practice because both tutees and tutors in peer learning
they involve the collective and active relationships, in areas such as writing
participation of peers towards a stated goal skills, higher order thinking and confidence
or goals (Skalicky & Brown, 2009). Within (Topping, 1996). This learning potential is
the framework, two levels of community of assumed in the framework, which focuses
practice are proposed, one amongst the on facilitating peer learning at a formal,
peers leading the interactions (the peer program level rather than strategies for
leaders) and one incorporating all of the managing individual peer learning
peers interacting in the network for the interactions.
purpose defined by the program (the peer
learners). The framework is targeted at As PASS was used as a case study in
describing and guiding the operation of developing the framework and the
formal, co-curricular peer learning groups questions for planning, applying the
or programs. The PLF does not address the planning tool to the PASS program was not
nature of informal learning networks or seen an objective measure of the
peer groups, nor those emerging or utilised transferability of the tool and framework
to other programs. This paper describes
how the PLF has been applied to a new Roscoe & Chi, 2007; Young & Fritzsche,
peer learning initiative, the Student 2002). The SLM Program was trialled in
Learning Mentor (SLM) Program and is 2009, and now operates with five mentors
accompanied by a reflection on the process each on the two major UTAS campuses:
and suggestions for the framework’s Hobart and Launceston, and an additional
extension. member (from 2011) dedicated to
providing online peer support for distance
Case study: The Student and remote campus students. The mentors
Learning Mentor Program receive training and ongoing support from
a coordinator based in CALT. The drop-in
service operates out of dedicated spaces on
At UTAS, a recently adopted First Year and each main campus three or four hours per
Transition Framework (FYTF; Brown & day, Tuesdays to Thursdays. The drop-in
Adam, 2010) provides an institution-wide supports students from across the
view of what contributes to successful undergraduate community, though the
study at University. Drawing on literature majority of attendees are in their first year
and models from other Australian of study.
institutions (e.g., Lizzio, 2006; University of
Sydney, 2001), and the UTAS context, it Peer study support programs are not new.
proposes five Elements of Success in first- The discipline-specific Supplemental
year: Sense of purpose; Being connected to Instruction (known in Australia as PASS)
peers, staff, discipline and community; began in the 1970s at the University of
Knowledge and experience of discipline; Missouri at Kansas (Martin, 2008). Peer
Independence; and Academic writing support, in the form of peer writing
preparedness and development. The SLM centres, have a significant history in the
Program aims to provide peer-led support campus traditions of North America
for the development of UTAS students’ (Murphy & Law, 1995; see also
writing and general study skills, addressing http://writingcenters.org/) and are also
the Academic preparedness, Independence emerging in the UK (O’Neill, 2008).
and Connectedness elements of the FYTF. It Although not yet as commonplace in
is part of a suite of initiatives provided by Australasian higher education institutions,
the Centre for the Advancement of peer support programs also exist locally.
Learning and Teaching (CALT) that also For example, the Peer Writing Assistants
includes a pre-semester academic program at the University of New South
orientation and transition program, Wales (UNSW) has been operating since
generic workshops in study and writing 1997 and other examples include
skills, discipline- and assignment-specific programs at the University of the Sunshine
workshops and individual student Coast (peer advisers), QUT (Peer Advisers,
consultations. Academic Learning), the University of
Melbourne (Peer Writing Tutors), and the
A proposal was raised in 2008 to offer a University of Otago (Student Leadership
drop-in service (inspired by the Flinders Peer Support Programme). However,
Writing Centre, but using student leaders although there are a range of peer learning
instead of staff), because of the potential programs operating in Australasia, the
benefits to students on a range of levels, peer learning environment does not
including persistence (Cooper, 2010; resemble that in North America,
particularly in the case of peer writing A review of available data was made from
support. the electronic folder for the program on the
Centre’s shared server and hard copy
Evaluation of the SLM material stored in the student learning
Program with the PLF spaces on each campus.
Planning Tool Sources of data used were: the original
program proposal, training materials,
The purpose of this case study was to agenda items for meetings, SLM resources
examine the insights that could be afforded folders, advertising materials, email
by the PLF into one particular peer communications with mentors and staff,
learning program. This was with a view not and reports to the UTAS Student Transition
only to examine the program, but also to and Retention Taskforce (START). For each
apply and critique the PLF itself. In this of the questions in the planning tool,
way, recommendations could be made evidence was collated and where it was
regarding the transferability of the PLF to absent, or limited, the question was flagged
other programs. to indicate an area for development.
In order to progress the study, the The evaluation of the SLM program against
questions in the planning tool were the planning tool is presented in Table 1.
answered with reference to documentary
evidence collected from the SLM Program.
Table 1: Evaluation of the SLM Program against the PLF planning tool
Questions to inform practice SLM case study

1 Communities of practice
1.1 Defining your domain
Why has your domain been established? In response to First Year issues of retention and
transition.
To provide an avenue to initiate new members
into conventions of the academic community.
Because of concerns surrounding the perceived
lowering levels of academic preparedness of
students entering the university.
To capitalise on the benefits of collaborative
learning.
What is your shared interest or expertise that Members of the community share an interest in
distinguishes your community? supporting and assisting their peers.
As “more knowledgeable others”, members
share knowledge about the conventions,
customs, habits and values of the academic
community, particularly in relation to the
requirements of writing academically.
Members share understandings regarding
methods of collaboration and support.
What principles have guided the establishment of Co-construction of knowledge by working with
your domain? peers just beyond the level of the student
themselves, or peers providing alternative
perspectives on learning or writing.
All students can develop their writing and study
skills.
Principles of social learning.
How do these principles fit with the institutional These principles align with the institution’s
goals? strategic objectives (EDGE2; UTAS, 2011) and the
focus areas of the first-year focussed START
committee. In particular, the principles align with:
A1 and A2 in Priority A: Fully embed a
high-performance culture; and B5 and
B10 in Priority B: Create and implement
a distinctive UTAS teaching and learning
model.
START Focus Areas 3: Transition Support
and 7: Student Leadership and Peer
Learning.
How is your domain established? Primarily through recruitment, training and
mentor meetings.
SLM Code of Conduct and Ethics Agreement.
How is your domain developed? Community members’ own experiences of study
and learning, training, collaborations and
discussions.
1.2 Defining and establishing your community
Who is your community? SLMs, Student Learning Skills staff
Who will lead the community (who is responsible)? Coordinator of Student Learning, CALT, and
Student Learning Skills staff on each campus
What are the qualities of the people who will form High-achieving undergraduate students with an
your community? interest in assisting other students, good
interpersonal skills, patience and commitment to
working as a team developing skills.
What are your guidelines for selecting or inviting Target high-achieving students in areas of study
members of the community? from which we have many students seeking
assistance (Distinction in targeted unit and at least
a Credit average) and which complement our skills
set within the community. Select on the basis of
qualities outlined above.
What are the processes for selecting/inviting your Email invitation to all eligible students within
members? targeted units, written application, short-listing,
interview and successful completion of training.
How are your guidelines and processes inclusive Students are invited to apply for the position on
of diversity? the basis of their grades. Alternative methods of
interviewing are available for students
experiencing difficulty attending campus for
interview. Students can be interviewed by
phone if unable to attend campus in person.
Inherent requirements of the position have
precluded participation by students with
physical disabilities such as sight or speech. A
role providing online support only is being
trialled currently, which would potentially open
the positions to a wider range of student
physical abilities.
The diversity of the community reflects that of
the peer participants, in that neither group
includes international students due to funding
restrictions.
How will personal and professional One-day training at start of year and mid-year.
development be facilitated? Monthly meetings amongst peer leaders across
campuses. Reflection and response at end of
year.
Opportunities to participate in a range of
activities in relation to primary peer role, such
as advertising (speaking to large groups), etc.
Members participate in shaping the delivery and
decision-making surrounding the program.
1.3 Supporting practice
How do the members of your community Reflection and development occur at training
develop their shared resources: experiences, and mentor meetings.
tools and ways of addressing problems? Mentors are rostered on to share time with at
least one other mentor.
Mentors contribute resources to folders on each
campus and a shared central electronic
repository.
What opportunities for reflection on learning Mid-year training.
are built into the practice? End of year reflection on their experiences.
How will this be coordinated? Student Learning Skills staff on each campus &
the Student Learning Coordinator, CALT.
How will this be resourced? The program is part of an enabling and
supporting program supported by
Commonwealth funding and supplemented by
institutional strategic funds.
2 Peer Learning
Who are the stakeholders in the peer learning? Peer leaders, Peer learners (domestic
undergraduate students), Student Learning Skills
staff, Faculty teaching staff, Student Advisers.
How will the stakeholders be inducted into the Flyers, presentations as part of the Student
purpose of the peer learning? Learning Support Network, presentations at
lectures by peer leaders (SLMs), training.
With whom will the community be interacting? Primarily with peers/fellow students.
Incidental interactions with faculty teaching staff
and Student Advisers.
How will the peers with whom they interact be Flyers, presentations at lectures by peer leaders
engaged? (SLMs), emails and other communications by
Student Advisers, reminders from teaching staff
(lecturers and tutors).
How will the peers with whom they interact be Information on advertising.
inducted into the purposes of the community of Guidelines displayed in drop-in area.
practice? Verbal prompts or responses from peer leaders.
How and where will this interaction take place? Central locations on the Hobart and Launceston
campuses: 11am to 2/3pm, Tuesday to Thursday,
in or adjacent to the CALT area.
What will be the characteristics of the Peer leaders will provide feedback and guidance
interactions? for students on written work in terms of structures
and conventions of academic writing (but not
content), assistance with planning, personal
strategies for learning and study, and referral to
other services as required/appropriate.
How will this interaction be resourced? As above, a mixture of Commonwealth and
institutional funding.
How will the quality of the interactions with peers AREA for DEVELOPMENT. Currently, rely on self-
be evaluated? report and training. There is a need for
observation.
How will student leadership be recognised? AREA for DEVELOPMENT. No direct recognition
currently provided. Experience can be used when
applying for other positions or opportunities.
3 Evaluation
How will the community of practice be evaluated AREA for DEVELOPMENT. Activities are evaluated
in relation to the purposes outlined in the domain by peer learners’ self-reports (invited at the end of
section, the resources required and sustainability? the year) and peer-leaders’ self-report. Evaluation
is undertaken of the program as a whole.
There is a need to collect additional objective data
to add to the qualitative and self-report analyses
currently available.
Reflection there is the potential to jump in a-

theoretically or, once in, not to allocate
sufficient time for reflection (Ede, 1989). If
Using the planning tool to consider the SLM
for no other reason, the planning tool was
Program raised interesting observations
useful for providing a theoretical
about not only the SLM Program but also
framework and a process requiring that
the PLF planning tool itself. Each will now
careful thought and reflection.
be discussed.
Significantly, thinking about the SLM
Observations and reflections Program from a community of practice
of the SLM Program perspective initiated new ideas about the
program and its future direction. The
The PLF planning tool highlighted areas of conceptualisation of both the leaders and
improvement for the sustainability of the the learners as existing within
program. In particular, the evaluation and communities of practice was problematic
recognition of peer leaders’ performance for the SLM program. The concept of a
and evaluation of the program are areas for community of practice amongst peer
development. Topping (1996, p. 325) learners makes sense within the context of
stresses the vital importance of PASS, from which model the framework
“monitoring and quality control” in any was developed, but may not be applicable
peer learning endeavour. In and of to all peer learning programs. In the PASS
themselves, these were not startling program, students gather in groups
revelations. There was already an repeatedly over the course of a semester.
awareness of the deficits in these areas of Although attendance is voluntary and
the program. However, the planning tool students are not required to register for a
did help to highlight these issues, in part, single class (as they might do for a lecture
because other aspects of the program were or tutorial), many students attend
perhaps better defined than anticipated. As regularly, and the majority of students
is probably the case with many programs attend the same PASS session each time
as they begin, it is easy to feel that you have they attend. There is the potential,
missed important considerations. In this therefore, to productively view the PASS
case, this sensation was not borne out by attendees and facilitators as a community
the evaluation. In turn, this highlighted a of practice comprising peer learners and
significant value of the PLF: that the peer leaders. In contrast, the attendance
planning tool prompted careful records for the SLM drop-in form a highly
consideration of the SLM Program. It skewed distribution, with the majority of
necessitated the devotion of time to the students attending the drop-in once or
consideration of what was happening in twice a semester, and only a few students
the program, and why. In this regard, it is coming regularly. Furthermore, meetings
significant that the first question of the between leaders and learners—between
planning tool relates to the “why” of the the mentors and their peers—are usually
domain, before the “what” We are so often one-on-one. Therefore, this community is
seeking to respond to areas of need, to best conceptualised as a community of
react, fill up and rescue in student support
and academia in general, that under the
time pressures so pervasive in the area,
learners1 rather than a community of continuing transmission and secondary

practice. Even then, the claim to dissemination of understanding and
“community” is contestable. knowledge generated by attendees to
drop-in (our primary peer learners) in
However, the “apprenticeship” aspect of collaboration with the mentors (peer
the community of practice model is evident leaders), to new groups of peers who have
in the relationships and practices of the not themselves been party to that initial
peer leaders and peer learners together. In interaction and collaborative learning
this context, the boundaries of the domain process.
extend well beyond the drop-in
relationship. Particularly as viewed from Observations about the
the perspective of the peer learners, framework planning tool
mentors represent the central participants
in a community of practice encompassing
The process of applying the framework has
the university or tertiary education
not only drawn out elements of the
experience. They are the “old-timers” (in
investigated program in need of further
Wenger’s, 1998, description) who have
attention, but also helped to clarify the
knowledge in experience of the practices of
scope of operation of the planning tool.
this community. All potential students are
This process highlighted the framework’s
therefore members of this community,
focus on the community of peer leaders, in
with students moving from periphery
contrast with other models of peer learning
towards the centre and back again as they
that focus on the processes of peer learning
move in and out of the relationship with
interactions and/or the outcomes for the
the mentor. This conceptualisation opens
peers involved, particularly the “targets” of
consideration of the potential for peer
the program: the peer learners. This focus
learners themselves to become central to
on the community of peer leaders is
the community of practice as they pass on
consistent with the aims of the framework:
understanding and build new knowledge in
to foster a consistent, quality approach to
this domain through their own practices
peer learning programs and to guide the
and through interactions with their own
development of new programs at the
peers outside drop-in. However, the
university. A focus on the community of
domain of this community is potentially
peer leaders is therefore appropriate, as
hidden to many of the members, as is their
these are the elements of the interaction
membership of the community itself.
most under the control of the organisers
Nonetheless, this way of thinking about the
(the “planners”) of the peer learning
interactions between peer leaders and
program. This also highlights the value of
learners is a helpful one in so far as it
the framework as an addition to that wider
prompted consideration of the potential of
section of the literature dealing the
immediacy of the interactions between
1 Though not a “learning community” as it has
peers as they learn together.
come to be defined in the higher education
sphere: as a purposeful linking of units across The PLF planning tool provides a bridge
the curriculum to encourage collaborative and between the community of practice
social learning (see e.g., Engstrom & Tinto, literature (and to a lesser extent the peer
2008; Tinto, 2003; though see Kilpatrick, learning literature) and the pragmatic task
Barrett, & Jones, 2003, for a broader definition).
of setting up an effective community of There are a myriad of considerations for

practice or peer learning situation that is someone wishing to implement a peer
evidence-based. It removes the need for learning scheme. Some of the key
the practitioner to be familiar with the considerations when thinking of peer
literature. At the same time, the questions learning in a formal, co-curricular program
are designed to prompt the planner to are ways of ensuring that the leaders are
connect their practice with the theory by fostering a positive, active and
thinking more deeply about these issues collaborative environment in which the
than they might otherwise do. learner maintains ownership of their
learning. The five sub-processes of Topping
Viewing peer leaders as part of a and Ehly’s (2001) model of the peer
community of learners removes the assisted learning process: organisation and
expectation that the administrator of such engagement, cognitive conflict, scaffolding
a group be the sole repository of and error management, communication,
knowledge and guidance. A community of and affect, provide a theoretical grounding
practice conceptualisation can therefore for these questions. Four additional
increase sustainability by taking some of questions are suggested for the PLF,
the pressure off the organiser to micro- drawing on Topping’s sub-processes and
manage everything. The participants of the providing a starting consideration for the
community themselves, through practice, community of peer leaders seeking to
move from periphery to centre and share foster peer learning:
the “burden” of responsibility for their
interactions. This is not to say that good “How will leaders ascertain individual
planning or administration is unnecessary learners’ needs?”
or against the ethos of a peer learning “What activities or methods will be
program – it merely represents the used to achieve your learning
character of central participants in the outcomes?”
community. “What forms of communication
(explaining, questioning, prompting,
The limitations of the current PLF relate etc.) will you use to emphasise
mainly to the second level of community of knowledge-building over knowledge-
practice: that of the broader community of telling?”
peer learners. It would be helpful to have “What methods will be used to
questions that more specifically address promote a positive and emotionally
whether or not the interactions within this safe environment for the learner(s)?”
community of learners follow principles
designed to foster effective peer learning. The third question, regarding
There is the potential for the planned peer communication, also highlights factors
learning activity defined as the domain in considered to be important for the learning
section 1.1 to be self-sustaining but not an of the peer leaders (Roscoe & Chi, 2007).
effective peer learning environment, before Although this peer learning framework is
evaluation and monitoring occur. focussed on formal, co-curricular
Specifically, an expansion of the question programs, potential programs may still
“What will be the characteristics of the vary considerably along the 13
interaction?” is suggested to address organisational dimensions outlined by
known principles of peer learning. Topping (Topping, 2005; Topping & Ehly,
2001). These additional questions are Anderson, G., & Boud, D. (1996). Extending the role of
peer learning in university courses.
intended to draw the attention of planners
Proceedings of HERDSA: Different
to some of the key considerations in peer approaches: Theory and practice in higher
learning that may not have been addressed education. Retrieved February 16, 2011,
by other sections of the framework. from
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derson.html
Conclusion Australasian Centre for PASS. (2010). Peer Assisted
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The community of practice model for peer practice. Wollongong, Australia: University
learning programs is a positive of Wollongong.
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participatory, and therefore more likely to university (2nd ed.). Maidenhead, UK: The
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be sustainable, organisation and & Open University Press.
leadership. The process of applying the PLF
planning tool to the SLM Program proved a Brown, N., & Adam, A. (2010, June). UTAS First Year
Framework – Proposal. Report to the UTAS
valuable exercise. It provided a timely Student Transition and Retention
reminder of those aspects of the program Taskforce. Hobart, Australia: Centre for the
that require attention, namely the Advancement of Learning and Teaching,
evaluation and recognition of peer leader University of Tasmania.
performance. It also stimulated Cooper, E. (2010). Tutoring center effectiveness: The
consideration of the clients in the program, effect of drop-in tutoring. Journal of College
Reading and Learning, 40(2), 21-34.
the majority of whom are in first year, as
active participants in a wider community of Ede, L. (1989). Writing as a social process: A
learners at the university, which theoretical foundation for writing centers?
The Writing Center Journal, 9(2), 3-13.
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support is not opportunity. Change: The
of the framework as a planning tool could
Magazine of Higher Learning, 40(1), 46-50.
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reform: Embedding the transition
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at UTAS and potentially other institutions Australia: HERDSA.
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Kilpatrick, S., Barratt, M., & Jones, T. (2003). Defining
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2
Beyond demographics: Predicting student attrition

within the Bachelor of Arts degree 1
Andrew Harvey and Michael Luckman
La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia
Abstract
This paper examines factors linked to first year attrition within the Bachelor of Arts (BA)
degree at an Australian university. Drawing on a broad range of institutional data, the
authors considered correlations between attrition and several variables. Our research
revealed the need to move beyond analysis of geo-demographic factors towards indicators of
student choice and educational achievement. While few demographic factors were found to
be strong indicators of attrition, two other factors were clearly correlated. These factors –
course preference, and first year educational performance – were significant predictors of
attrition. Because subject failure is the single strongest predictor of attrition, and because
the BA offers a wide range of subjects, developing strategies to ensure consistency and
quality across those subjects is imperative.
1The research in this paper is based on an unpublished La Trobe University management report from
2012, Understanding first year attrition within the Bachelor of Arts (Harvey, Mestan & Luckman, 2012).
Beyond demographics: Predicting student attrition within the Bachelor of Arts degree 15
Introduction First, we examine the correlation between

course preference and attrition. In Victoria
The need to raise student retention rates Australia, prospective university students
confronts the Australian university sector may select up to 12 course preferences in
(Long, Ferrier & Heagney, 2006). Meeting their university application. Preference
this need requires an understanding of the level was found to be significantly
underlying reasons for student correlated with attrition, with students
disengagement, transfer and withdrawal. who enrolled in the BA having listed the
Factors influencing withdrawal may relate course as their fourth preference or lower
to the characteristics of the students, their being relatively likely to withdraw from
educational background, environmental the course. Second, the relationship
factors, or their teaching and learning between first year academic achievement
experiences (Crosling, Thomas & Heagney and course attrition is explored. University
2008; Quinn et al., 2005; Yorke & Longden, success is found to be strongly correlated
2008). While some causes of attrition can with attrition, with subject failure being a
be identified at the institutional level, major indicator of likelihood to withdraw.
retention rates vary considerably by
course (Department of Innovation, The manifest relationship between subject
Industry, Climate Change, Science, failure and course attrition led to further
Research and Tertiary Education investigation of subject failure rates.
[DIICCSRTE], 2011). This variation Substantial differences were found in first
suggests a need for sophisticated analysis year subject pass rates, and large numbers
that focusses primarily on the courses most of students were found to record grades so
at risk. low as to indicate non-submission of
assignments. In addition, a relationship
Attrition rates within the Bachelor of Arts was found between those subjects from
(BA) degree are relatively high across the which a high proportion of students
sector, including at La Trobe University withdrew before the deadline for payment
where our evaluation was conducted. This of student fees (census date), and those
paper draws on an internal review of the that registered relatively high fail rates
degree conducted by the authors in 2012, from post-census students. This
specifically examining factors linked to first correlation, together with high variability
year attrition. During the initial evaluation, amongst subject pass rates, may not be
several areas of potential relevance were explained by content difficulty, with many
analysed, including the geo-demographic variable subjects lying within the same
characteristics of students, their prior broad disciplinary area. Further research
educational background, and their into the causes of subject variability is
achievement once enrolled in the course. merited.
Two particular factors were clearly
correlated with attrition: the course Our analysis reveals the need to promote
preferences of students; and their the BA as a destination in its own right, and
propensity to fail an individual subject in potentially to identify low preference
the course. In this paper we explore each of students as at-risk from the
these findings and provide suggestions to commencement of their studies. For many
minimise the risks of attrition. uncertain students, recruitment cannot be
considered final at enrolment or even
census date, with ongoing academic and
career support required throughout their learning outcomes will fall” (Group of
first year of study. Secondly, the impact of Eight, 2012, p. 5). Similarly, Norton argues
individual subject failure suggests a need that attrition levels appear to fluctuate
for greater monitoring and benchmarking with changes to demand and supply,
to ensure horizontal equity among possibly owing to the academic quality of
subjects. Subject choice alone should not university entrants rising whenever
be a strong predictor of failure and, by demand exceeds supply (Norton, 2013).
extension, course attrition. More broadly,
our results underline the potential value of Central to preventing attrition is the ability
academic analytics in reducing attrition in to predict attrition. Many demographic
a course characterised by its breadth of characteristics have been analysed to
subjects and pathways. assess potential risk factors, often before
students have commenced their courses. In
Context the UK, socio-economic status is commonly
found to be correlated with attrition
The costs of attrition in higher education (Quinn et al., 2005; Smith & Naylor, 2001;
are well-documented. A study by Adams, Yorke & Longden, 2008), though a major
Banks, Davis and Dickson (2010) estimates Australian study notes that “the available
the total cost of domestic student attrition data on students from lower socio-
to the Australian higher education sector to economic backgrounds shows that while
be as high as $1.2 billion per annum, while access rates are lower, students once
Vincent Tinto has also shown that non- enrolled have broadly comparable rates of
completing students receive little financial success, retention and completion”
benefit from their studies (Tinto, 2012, p. (Krause, Hartley, James, & McInnis, 2005, p.
1). In Australia, the importance of student 68). Age has also been examined, with
retention in higher education has been mature age students often recording higher
further underlined by the introduction of a rates of withdrawal than school leavers
demand-driven system for Commonwealth (Powdthavee & Vignoles, 2007, p. 3). There
undergraduate funding in 2012 as a result may be greater difficulties of transition for
of the recommendations of the Bradley younger students, while older students
Review of Higher Education (Bradley, typically have more family and work
Noonan, Nugent & Scales, 2008). By commitments and are more likely to enrol
uncapping student places, the new funding part-time, which is itself a risk factor
system has led to a rapid expansion of (Krause et al., 2005, p. 73; Yorke &
higher education (Norton, 2012), in line Longden, 2008, p. 16). Potential links
with the Australian Government’s objective between attrition and gender, disability
to see 40 per cent of Australians aged and ethnicity have also been explored in
between 25 and 34 hold a bachelor’s detail (Broecke & Nicholls, 2007;
degree by 2025 (Australian Government, Powdthavee & Vignoles, 2007; Purcell,
2009). As access to higher education has Elias, Davies, & Wilton, 2005; Smith &
broadened, some commentators have Naylor, 2001). Beyond demographics, the
argued that student attrition could become burgeoning field of predictive analytics has
a more serious problem. The most selective facilitated analysis of learning and
university group, the Group of Eight, behavioural indicators, which could enable
believes that “without increased resources the identification of at-risk students early
and attention to learning needs, attrition in their course and their referral to
will increase or the quality of student relevant services and support (Nelson &
Creagh, 2013). While predictive analytics another course within the same university,
also enable geo-demographic factors to be three in ten students depart the university
examined, they typically encompass a altogether. Unfortunately, we do not know
broader range of indicators such as course how many of the departing students
preference and prior educational transfer to another university within the
attainment. For example, much research sector, and how many withdraw from
highlights the importance of course choice higher education altogether. We are
(Davies & Elias, 2002; Long et al., 2006). therefore only able to measure course and
Predictive analytics enable quantitative institutional retention, and not sectoral
analysis of such factors, providing a more retention.
expansive base than post hoc student
interviews. Because retention rates vary Initial benchmarking suggests that attrition
substantially by institution and course, within the La Trobe BA is comparable to
understanding the causes of attrition in a the 30% average for Australian BAs
specific course requires tailored included in the Associate Deans of
investigation. While many geo- Teaching and Learning Network Working
demographic and behavioural factors have Party’s benchmarking project (2010).
been linked to student attrition, there There were 1,124 commencing BA
remain acknowledged differences and students at La Trobe University in 2010. Of
several conflicting findings across nations, this cohort, 782 students remained
institution types, and disciplines (Crosling enrolled at the university in 2011, creating
et al., 2008; Grebennikov & Skaines, 2008, an institutional retention rate of 69.5% for
p. 60; Powdthavee & Vignoles, 2007). 2010-2011.
The Bachelor of Arts is the largest degree Methodology

program at La Trobe University. In 2011, a
total of 2,666 students were enrolled in the This project is based on the Australian
degree across the university’s five teaching Department of Education definition of
campuses. The main campus is in retention, which is employed by all
Melbourne and hosts 84% of the BA cohort, Australian higher education institutions.
while the other four campuses are situated The Department’s retention rate formula
in central and northern Victoria. In comprises the following elements:
analysing attrition, it is important to
distinguish between retention at course, Students=All students in the relevant
group and reference year
institutional and sectoral level. Attrition in
Completed=All students who complete a
the BA is high relative to other courses, course in the reference year
even after considering the broader Base=“Students” minus “Completed”
institutional context. The course retention Retained= Number of students from
rate for the BA cohort in the 2010-2011 “Base” who had enrolled the following
retention period was 59.8%, which year
compares with the commencing bachelor Retention Rate=“Retained”/ “Base”
course retention rate for La Trobe of
72.1%. The institutional retention rate of While this measure is widespread in
the BA was 69.5%, compared with the institutional and government reporting, it
university commencing bachelor level rate has a number of limitations. The
of 82.9%. This means that while one in ten Department’s retention definition uses the
BA students transfers from the degree into Student Identification Number to track
enrolments between years. However, this All categorical variables were recoded to a
methodology does not take into account dichotomous variable of 1=category
deferrals, legitimate leave of absences and membership and 0=non membership.
the sizeable body of students who transfer
to another institution (Department of The authors tested a range of geo-
Education, Employment and Workplace demographic factors, including SES,
Relations [DEEWR], 2012). Since 2010, gender, age, and regionality, but found no
with the development of statistics utilising significant relationship between them and
the Commonwealth Higher Education student attrition within the sample. For
Student Support Number (CHESSN), the example, SES revealed a non-significant
Department has developed a new measure relationship with attrition (Pearson’s
of retention which takes transfers into r=0.005), as did age (r=0.022). There may
consideration, and this measure was be a number of reasons for the lack of geo-
published in the Base Funding Review final demographic correlation, including
report (Lomax-Smith, Watson, & Webster, potential paucity of variability within the
2011). Unfortunately, individual sample size. The research sample was
institutions remain unable to factor exclusively focussed on students from a
transfer between institutions into their specific course at a mid-tier Australian
retention calculations and data using this university. Krause et al. (2005) also note
approach remains limited. that within the Australian context:
“Overall, the attitudes towards the
Our study uses the 2010 commencing academic aspects of the transition to
Bachelor of Arts student cohort as the base university study and the attitudes towards
and confirms if those students were teaching and learning are very similar
retained in 2011. The data were across the SES subgroups” (p. 69). Indeed,
predominantly sourced from the low SES students at La Trobe University
university’s Student Information System actually report slightly higher retention
(SIS). Data compiled for the project were rates than for the entire domestic cohort at
used in a correlational analysis of retention the university (DIICCSRTE, 2011).
against variables collected from the SIS. International research is mixed on the
relative influence of demographic variables
The correlational analysis is based on a by discipline and institution (Powdthavee
dichotomous variable which has been & Vignoles, 2007) and as this study is
coded to 0=retained and 1=left the quantitatively focussed, we did not explore
university. A positive correlation the geo-demographic correlations further.
coefficient suggests that an increase in X
would reflect an increase in attrition, while Similarly, prior educational achievement is
a negative correlation coefficient suggests excluded from this paper. Much has been
that a decrease in X would result in an written about the relationship between
decrease in attrition. To test the correlation university achievement and the Australian
between attrition and interval Tertiary Admissions Rank (ATAR). The
(continuous) level data, such as weighted Commonwealth’s 2011 Base Funding
marks, tertiary rank and age, the point bi- Review finds a direct correlation between
serial correlation was used. For nominal ATAR and attrition (Lomax-Smith et al.,
(categorical) level data such as socio- 2011), while a number of studies have also
economic status (SES), gender, and first in examined the connection between ATAR
family status, the Phi correlation was used. and first year academic performance (Birch
& Miller, 2005; Dobson & Skuja, 2005; The BA receives a lower proportion of first
James, Bexley, & Shearer, 2009; Palmer, preferences than the average La Trobe
Bexley, & James, 2011). While our own course, which means that many enrolled
study found some correlation between students would prefer to be in a different
prior academic achievement and attrition, course but did not receive the required
it was not as strong as that reported in rank. Fewer than half of the students
other research (Birch & Miller, 2007; enrolled in the BA in 2011 listed the course
McMillan, 2005). We found no meaningful as their first preference. In some cases,
correlation when considering all available students explicitly want to study an
students with ATARs, while when we alternative offering, while in other cases
selected for recent school leavers only, we the BA is operating as a default option for
found a significant but minor correlation those who aspire to university but lack
between attrition and ATAR: r =.13, p<.05. specific career plans.
School leavers comprise less than a third of
commencing BA enrolments, and we do not Receiving a relatively low proportion of
explore this finding further here given the first preferences carries two risks. The first
constraints of space. and most obvious risk is that in a demand-
driven system, more students will receive
Course preferences an offer for their first preference course,
damaging enrolment numbers in those
The first clues to attrition can be found at courses which rely on second and third
recruitment. School completers receive a preferences. However, the other unstated
ranking (ATAR) out of 100, and most risk with courses reliant on lower
undergraduate university courses base preferences is that of attrition.
student selection on these rankings. International evidence reveals high
Typically, popular courses with the highest withdrawal rates among students who
ATAR cut-offs are also those that record believe they have made the wrong choice
the lowest attrition. For example, of field of study or course (Quinn et al.,
Physiotherapy and Dentistry at La Trobe 2005; Yorke, 2000; Yorke & Longden,
University maintain ATAR cut-offs of 95 2008). Australian research supports this
and 99 respectively, and have attrition finding (Long, et al., 2006), and also reveals
rates of less than 3.5%, compared with the that just under one-third of students feel
university average of 17.1%. The ill-prepared to choose a university course
university cut-offs are based on supply and on leaving school (Krause et al. 2005, p. v).
demand, so that the high ATARs in a course
such as Physiotherapy are a reflection of Our study found a statistically significant
popularity (and limited supply). Large correlation between preference number
numbers of students list such courses as and attrition. For all BA students examined,
their first of twelve preferences when the correlation was r=.14, p<.01. For
making their course applications through regional students only, the correlation was
the Victorian Tertiary Admissions Centre r=.41, p<.01. Although we were only able to
(VTAC). Applicants who do not obtain the match a VTAC preference to 668 students
rank required for admission into their first within our sample, of the students who
preference course typically gain admission entered the BA having listed it as their
into a course of lower preference. fourth preference or lower, attrition rates
averaged a high 43%. If the course is not in
their first three preferences, students who While the Australian attrition literature has
enrol in the BA are almost as likely to focused largely on the predictive validity of
withdraw as to remain enrolled into the the ATAR, there is comparatively little
second year of the degree. discussion on the link between attrition
and university marks. Birch and Miller
The implications of this finding are (2007) purposely excluded first year
twofold. While the need to increase course academic performance from their analysis
attractiveness to prospective students is of university attrition out of concern that
clear, a parallel need exists to provide the “inclusion of this variable would
pathways and assurance for the large introduce into the behavioural relationship
cohort of uncertain students. To some aspects of the university rules regarding
extent, the La Trobe BA reflects a broader academic progression, as students are
reality that there are comparatively high often excluded from continuing university
rates of course change and attrition on the basis of poor academic
amongst people studying in the field of performance” (pp. 14-15). As our analysis
society and culture (McMillan, 2005, p. 21). is attempting to find general factors that
A long view must be taken of recruitment are correlated with attrition, we did not
into the BA. Many students enter the share this concern. Our finding of a strong
course with limited commitment and/or relationship between poor university
with the explicit intention of transferring achievement and attrition is supported by
courses, and the recruitment of many a similar study by Grebennikov and
students to the BA remains incomplete Skaines (2008) into attrition at the
even after the census date. Transition University of Western Sydney, which also
commonly occurs over months rather than found a strong association between grade
weeks. Post-enrolment strategies still need point averages and attrition.
to highlight the purpose and value of
completing the degree, including explicit The correlation between Success Rate and
advice around potential careers and attrition in our study was substantial (r
postgraduate pathways. =.44, p<.01) as was the correlation
between first year Weighted Average Mark
First year academic and attrition (r =.42, p<.01). For the
performance regional course subgroup, the correlations
between attrition and Success Rate (r =.49,
The strongest correlation found in our p<.01) and attrition and Weighted Average
analysis was between attrition and first Mark (r =.45, p<.01) were marginally
year performance in the BA. The study stronger.
examined a combination of first year
performance variables including Success The nature of the relationship between
Rate (the number of subjects passed first year marks and attrition is likely to
divided by the number of subjects reflect both cause and effect. As a cause, it
attempted) and the Weighted Average is conceivable that students become
Mark (WAM) for the student for the full increasingly alienated from the course as a
year and by semester. A relatively strong result of sustained poor grades.
relationship was found between poor Alternatively, poor grades may result from
marks/failure rates and attrition. students withdrawing mid-semester and
failing not because they are submitting
substandard work but because they are not
attending class or submitting assignments It could be argued that the reason why
at all. In many cases, the high proportion of some subjects have higher fail rates is that
fail grades below 25 marks indicate non- their curriculum is more complex and the
completion. assignments more difficult. However, many
of the “outlier” subjects are within the
The strong correlation between university same discipline as subjects with average
achievement and attrition supports the fail rates. There is little evidence that
development of an effective academic early mathematics requirements, for example,
warning system to identify students at risk are impeding students. Rather, different
of withdrawing. The results also reveal a fail rates are often found within the same
need for further research into the specific broad discipline, such as history. A
causes of low achievement within the BA, curriculum and assessment benchmarking
including disengagement, inadequate process may help to elucidate subject
academic preparation, dissatisfaction with variability.
teaching and learning, financial and work-
related reasons. Interestingly, the subjects that record high
withdrawal rates before the census date
Variable subject failure rates tend to be the subjects with high failure
rates after the census date. We found a
Given the centrality of first year academic relatively strong correlation (r=.40, p<.01)
performance to attrition, the variability of between the pre-census withdrawal rate
achievement across individual BA subjects and the failure rate for subjects. There are
is of concern. In 2011, there were 13 first at least two plausible explanations for this
year units where less than 70% of students correlation. Challenging subjects may
passed. 2 This compares with a 78% cause some students to withdraw before
average pass rate of first year BA units. census date, and the others who persist to
There exists significant variability in pass struggle academically with the material.
rates across first year subjects. While most Alternatively, students may initially enrol
units have a pass rate of between 75 and in a subject because of their interest, but as
80% of students, there is a significant they become disengaged with the teaching
minority of units where only between 55 some may withdraw before the census
and 65% of students pass. Conversely, date, and others who persist may lose
there is also a significant minority of units interest subsequently and not submit
where 90% or more students pass, assignments.
including some units with a 100% pass
rate. Non-submission of assessable work
appears to be prevalent within the BA.
There are two obvious ways to fail a
subject: by submitting work that is not
considered acceptable; and by not
2 Language units have been excluded from this submitting work at all (yet remaining
analysis. Unlike all other first year subjects
enrolled). Data reveal that a relatively high
offered within the BA, language units have as
many as three levels of variable difficulty: number of failing students receive grades
beginner, intermediate and advanced. As a below 25, which indicates that they have
result, language units report high transfer rates probably not submitted one or multiple
during the initial period of the semester as
assignments. Indeed, around 17% of
students find the subject that best fits their
level of competency. overall average marks were under 25.
While we do not have this evidence by Academic early warning systems linked to
subject level, the high rates of failure in scaffolded support are important in
some subjects probably reflect a number of mitigating this attrition risk, but the
students failing to submit assignments prevention of disengagement may also
rather than submitting sub-standard work. require more fundamental reform of
Taken together, the high number of pre- teaching, learning and student engagement
census withdrawals and the prevalence of strategies.
sub-25 WAMs provide an area for further
investigation. These data indicate that Indeed, when we conducted an analysis at
many students have become disengaged subject level, we found highly variable
well before the semester finishes. failure rates. Often, subjects which record
high failure rates are the same subjects
Conclusion from which many students withdraw
before the census date. Our analysis
Our analyses found two main factors suggests that failure rates are influenced
correlated with attrition in the first year of not only by the difficulty level of the
the BA at La Trobe: course preference; and curriculum but by other factors such as
first year university achievement. The academic disengagement. Given the clear
study found a significant relationship connection between subject failure and
between course preference and attrition. institutional attrition, further investigation
This is especially problematic for the BA is required into the causes of variability
because relatively few enrolled students among subjects. In courses such as the BA,
listed the course as their first preference which are defined by their subject breadth,
during the applications process. At least it is imperative to understand why some
two implications of this finding are clear. particular first year subjects record
First, there is a need to continue efforts to relatively high failure rates. More broadly,
redesign and promote the BA as a course of our evaluation highlights the need for
first choice and a destination in its own granular analysis. Attrition is an
right. Second, a long view of recruitment institutional problem, but its causes often
must be taken. Many students enter the BA lie at the lower levels of course and subject.
degree with limited commitment and/or
with the explicit intention of transferring
courses. Preventing attrition may require References
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3
Obtaining learning independence and academic

success through self-assessment and referral to a
Mathematics Learning Centre
Nadine Adams, Clinton Hayes, Antony Dekkers, Sherie Elliott and Jinx Atherton
Central Queensland University, Mackay, Australia
Abstract
Globally, universities are striving to increase enrolment rates, especially for low
socioeconomic status and mature-aged students. In order to meet these targets,
universities are accepting a broader range of students, often resulting in a widening
mathematical knowledge gap between secondary school and university (Hoyles,
Newman & Noss, 2001). Therefore, even amid the growing trend of scaling back
services, there exists a need for extra learning support in mathematics. Mathematics
support services are recognised as vital in assisting students to both bridge the
knowledge gap and become independent learners. Through a survey of students using
the Mathematics Learning Centre at Central Queensland University Australia, it was
found that the implementation of scaffolding, adult learning principles and the
embedding of mathematics support provides students with not only fundamental
mathematical knowledge but also the skills required to become self-directed learners.
Introduction tertiary level. “The increasingly weaker

mathematics background of university
The demographic of university students is entrants and its consequences have been
changing. Increasing enrolment rates and reported around the world (Varsavsky). As
broadening participation, especially low the mathematical knowledge gap between
socioeconomic status and mature-aged secondary school and university broadens
students, has become a focus for many (Hoyles et al., 2001), mathematics learning
universities including Australia, New centres in universities are becoming
Zealand and the United Kingdom (UK) increasingly important. These independent
(Australian Technology Network of units, which are typically separate from the
Universities [ATNU], 2010; Curtin faculties, are in an ideal position to foster
University of Technology [CUT], 2010; independent learning practices which are
Hoyles et al., 2001; MacGillivray, 2008). vital for academic achievement. The
Within Australia, changes have resulted facilities offered by these centres are
from the Review of Higher Education providing “lifelines for students in areas
(Bradley Report) recommending “that the with the greatest problems and inner
Australian Government set a national conflicts in perceptions of the roles of
target of at least 40 per cent of 25 to 34 mathematics both directly and indirectly in
year-olds having attained a qualification at their disciplines” (MacGillivray, 2008, p.
bachelor level or above by 2020” (Bradley, 24).
Noonan, Nugent & Scales, 2008, p. xviii).
The global trend to increase enrolments The Mathematics Learning
and accept a broader range of students is
Centre
resulting in a “much greater diversity of
numeracy, mathematical skills and
knowledge backgrounds across tertiary The Mathematics Learning Centre (MLC) at
cohorts” (MacGillivray, p. 15). The Central Queensland University Australia
mathematics deficit exhibited by students (CQU) was established in 1984 as an
entering university is “symptomatic of a academic support centre. The MLC
general denial of mathematics for more provides assistance to students who are
than a decade, the consequences of which experiencing difficulty with the
must now be acknowledged and faced by mathematics or quantitative component of
all types of universities” (p. 27). their course. Undergraduate students
wishing to utilise the service do so either
With the removal of compulsory by self-referral or by referral from their
mathematics subject in years eleven and lecturer or tutor. Students are able to
twelve in Australian schools, an increasing access the MLC for both individual and
number of Australian students choose not group tuition, according to their needs,
to study mathematics beyond Year 10 regardless of school or faculty. In 2010,
resulting in under preparedness of approximately 2,500 12 enquires came
students entering higher education
(Varsavsky, 2010). Wilson and 1 In 2010 there were approximately 4,800
MacGillivray (2007) found that even when
students enrolled in first level courses with
students had completed senior high school a mathematics component.
algebra and calculus, they still required 2 This number also includes repeat visits by
assistance with basic mathematic at a individual students.
Obtaining learning independence and academic success through self-assessment... 27
through the MLC. This number includes knowledge that help is nearby, enables
inquiries from individual students either students with low mathematical confidence
on-campus, by telephone or by email and to work more assuredly on their own and
group sessions and class room visits. Many to ask for assistance only as required.
of the students utilising the MLC choose to
do so anonymously. The MLC also offers a MLC resources – Scaffolding and
range of preparatory courses for students
adult learning
seeking university entry through alternate
pathways and bridging courses in
mathematics for enrolled students Scaffolding was initially conceptualised
undertaking course work with a from a socio-cultural perspective as “a
mathematical component. form of assistance that enables the child or
the novice to solve a problem, carry out a
Two of the most important student task, or achieve a goal that would be
characteristics, which influence the beyond his or her unassisted efforts”
teaching and learning process used by the (Wood, Bruner & Ross, 1976, p. 90).
MLC, pertain to the students’ prior skills However, this approach to learning is true
and knowledge and their personal learning for all (Wood & Wood, 1996).
requirements. Many students who use the
MLC have had limited mathematical The original notion of scaffolding has been
opportunities throughout their schooling, extended and challenged as information
leading to a deficiency in the required and communication technologies (ICT)
fundamentals of mathematics. This of based learning support has emerged
course results in difficulties understanding (Azevedo & Hadwin, 2005; Lajoie, 2005).
the abstract and complex concepts often Within contemporary higher education,
encountered in university mathematics. learning can be situated on a continuum
Additionally, negative mathematical from face-to-face, through a blended
experiences often result in apprehension approach to one that is completely ICT-
and anxiety when solving mathematical based. In mathematics learning support
problems. utilising ICT, the human interaction varies
from reduced interaction to no interaction
In contrast, some students who access the and teachers tend to be less responsive to
MLC have sound mathematical skills and learner feedback. Wood and Wood (1996)
knowledge but require assistance with suggest that if interaction with computers
extending their mathematical can mirror even a small part of the
understanding of more complex concepts effectiveness of class instruction, then
and technological competencies. These progress towards more effective teaching
students require minimal assistance and is being made.
often have the confidence to continue on
their learning journey with basic tips and A number of guiding principles have
occasional support. informed the design and development of
study materials for scaffolding students
On campuses with a dedicated MLC room, using the MLC. These principles are
students are encouraged to utilise the essentially based on the adult learning
space and the resources to study literature of Knowles, Holton and Swanson
independently. This, coupled with the (1998) and Entwistle and Ramsden (1983)
and the principles in the use of computer- learning. Accordingly, study

based materials (Alessi & Trollip, 1991). materials should be activity-based
These aspects are briefly considered: and promote experiential learning
within a supportive learning context.
• Adult learners accessing the MLC are
considered experiential learners • Individuals become ready to learn
who need programs that are something when they experience a
meaningful and relevant to them. need to know in order to satisfy
Adult learners like to be involved in real-life tasks or problems. Thus
a learning process facilitated in a materials should be relevant to the
climate of respect. A mathematics adult learner’s own needs and
skills audit test is used to determine encourage the learner to discover
learners’ background knowledge the need to know.
and understanding of mathematics.
The model currently used by the MLC
• Adult learners see education as a includes:
process of developing increased
competence to achieve their full • Use of mathematics skills audit
potential in life. They want to be testing. Such testing is used to
able to apply whatever knowledge establish whether the student has
and skills they gain today to living any knowledge gaps in their basic
and working more effectively mathematics or the prerequisite
tomorrow. Accordingly, learning knowledge required for a particular
experiences should be organised course. In some cases these tests
around competency-development have been embedded into
categories. undergraduate courses.
• It is a normal aspect of maturation • Provision of mathematics resources.

for a person to move from These resources, designed to assist
dependence towards increasing self- students in overcoming gaps in
direction. The rate of change to self- existing mathematics knowledge,
directed learning varies between are available online and from MLC
people, depending on their centres on CQU campuses. In some
backgrounds. Thus it is important to instances, the resources have been
provide independent learning embedded into undergraduate
materials appropriate to a range of courses. Through collaboration
individual needs and levels of between faculty and MLC staff, a
ability. Materials should, as far as web site has been especially
possible, be self-instructional and prepared to enable students to
self-paced and contain self- refresh or bridge the background
assessment opportunities. mathematics content and concepts
needed for a range of programs. The
• As individuals grow and develop, content is presented in such a way
they accumulate a reservoir of that the students are able to work
experience that becomes an through it at their own pace.
increasingly rich resource for
• Provision of individual assistance This model ensures that the services

with studies in mathematics. This provided by the MLC are scalable and
service is provided through a drop- provide an efficient service adjusted to
in service on the Bundaberg, meeting the different levels of scaffolding
Rockhampton, Gladstone and support required by students. The
Mackay campuses. Many students practices of the MLC are directed to
use this service and in some cases supporting students in taking
there can be over 10 students in responsibility for their own learning and
attendance on a single campus at skills development.
one time.
Study overview
• Assistance for students studying in
distance mode. The MLC can be In 2010-2011, undergraduate students
accessed in person at four of the accessing the MLC services were invited to
CQU regional campuses, by complete an MLC survey. Surveys were
telephone or via email. MLC staff use available within each of the MLCs with
Tablet PCs to assist in providing a dedicated rooms or available from staff
personalised online service to members where there were no dedicated
students. “A Tablet PC is a laptop study rooms. Completion of the surveys by
computer that is equipped with a on-campus students depended on the
touch screen and stylus (pen) student’s willingness to complete the
enabling the user to annotate (write survey when anonymity was not
on) the screen” (Adams, Elliott & guaranteed. Distance students who had
Dekkers, 2010, p. 4). These Tablets contacted the MLC via email were posted a
allow MLC staff to easily and quickly paper-based survey. No follow up was
respond to student enquiries, conducted to encourage students to
providing hand written solutions to respond. While the primary aims of the
problems or even videos if required. survey were to gain a snapshot of MLC
students and determine if dedicated MLC
• Delivery of workshops. The MLC spaces for students were supported and, if
provides workshops, on topics so, how they contributed to independent
where students experience learning practises, another aim was to
difficulties, at the request of course evaluate the resources provided by the
coordinators and in cooperation MLC staff to assist with student queries.
with faculty. Workshops are held Anecdotal evidence from student
during orientation week to highlight comments had supported the beliefs that
the mathematics the students may dedicated spaces were more conducive to
encounter in their undergraduate independent learning (over appointment-
degree, give a brief introduction and based tutorials in staff members’ offices)
advise students of resources and and that distance students appreciated the
services available. Students are then type of support that can be afforded them
encouraged to use the online through the use of the Tablet PC.
resources provided via the MLC
website.
Forty-four students participated in the interested in reasons why individual

study, comprising 14 males and 30 females students accessed the service and if they
ranging in age from 19 to 62. The study attended by self-referral. Due to the
was conducted across four CQU campuses increasing prevalence of mathematics
and included students studying internally deficits exhibited by students entering
or by distance as well as those studying university, we wanted to know if students
part- or full-time. Of the students surveyed, felt that the assistance provide through the
Table 1: MLS survey questions
Date: Course(s): Program: Study Mode: FT PT Internal Flex
Gender: M F Age:
I learnt about the MLC through:
Lecturer/Tutor Moodle/CQU website Email Class visit by MLC staff or orientation session Fellow
Student
What was your main reason for visiting/contacting the MLC? (pick only one)
A Recommend by Lecturer/Tutor E Previously failed assessment item or course
B Recommended by a fellow student F Didn’t want to ask the lecturer
C Needed help with an assignment question(s) G Low confidence in my mathematics ability
D Didn’t understand a concept/topic/problem in a lecture/tute/text and needed help
How did you seek assistance from the MLC? Which campus did you visit
Did you find sharing the room with other students helpful or In your opinion, how conducive to independent
inconvenient? learning/self-study was the MLC study room?
In your opinion, overall how conducive to study/learning was The handouts provided were effective and readily
the MLC room? available
The MLC website was useful By contacting/visiting the MLC, I have found that my
mathematics has improved
75% (33/44) attended the MLC on a MLCs increased their mathematical

campus. The survey questions are knowledge.
presented in Table 1.
Dedicated MLC rooms
Following a study on Mathematics
Learning Centres within Australia, The Australia Learning and Teaching
MacGillivray (2008) recommended that Council (ALTC) study conducted by
MLCs should have dedicated study spaces. MacGillivray (2008) recommends that MLC
In view of this recommendation, we spaces should be a dedicated place where
wanted to determine if students felt that students can work and access at least
dedicated MLC spaces were conducive to paper-based resources and assistance from
independent learning/study and if these a duty tutor during specified hours. Its
spaces were preferable to assistance value is lessened if it is only available when
provided in staff offices. We were also a tutor is on duty or if there is no staffing
assistance at all. The atmosphere of the On campuses with dedicated MLC spaces,
space should be conducive to collaborative there are often multiple students utilising
work provided others are not disturbed. the service at any particular time.
Sometimes students will attend in a study
CQU presently has dedicated MLC rooms group and sometimes they will form an
on two of the four campuses. On the other impromptu study group with other
two campuses, the student either obtains students already in the room. As can be
on-campus assistance in the staff member’s observed from Figure 1, when asked if
office or a tutorial room is booked for the students found it helpful or inconvenient to
session. have other students in the room at the
same time, only 7% (2/28) of students
The dedicated MLC rooms on both found it inconvenient whilst many found it
Rockhampton and Mackay campuses are helpful.
located near staff offices. A timetable of
staff availability is displayed on the MLC Self-assessment
door and even though staff are only
available at rostered times, the space is Self-assessment is an important part of
available to use within normal office hours. becoming a successful student. The
Thirty-four of the 39 (87.2%) participants acquisition of self-assessment skills not
having access to a dedicated MLC space only improves learning in a particular
found it conducive to overall course but also establishes the foundation
study/learning. Of these, 64.7% (22/34) for lifelong learning (McDonald & Boud,
thought the service was excellent at 2003). In a study examining self-
achieving this. Student comments on the assessment in school children, Blatchford
use of the dedicated MLC spaces included I (1997) found that social factors affected
like the convenience of being able to study children’s ability to accurately self-assess.
anytime in the room and It is a quiet and Dunning, Heath and Suls (2004) conclude
conducive place [sic] to study. that accurate self-assessment is especially
Figure 1: Students views on sharing MLC space
crucial in higher education though several Even though McDonald and Boud (2003)
factors limit the student’s ability to found that self-assessment training should
accurately self-assess. These factors are: be incorporated as part of the curriculum,
through the use of diagnostic testing and
• Information deficits—the lack of reciprocal relationships between the MLC
knowledge or expertise to accurately and the faculties, students are better able
assess competence. Five of the to self-assess their need for mathematical
students surveyed were referred to support and self-refer to the service for
the MLC for assistance by their assistance. In fact 52% (23/44) of
lecturer or tutor indicating their participating students attended the MLC
inability to correctly self-assess. When because they recognised their failure to
faculties and MLCs work closely comprehend a concept, topic or problem in
together, students with information a lecture, tutorial or in their textbook. Nine
deficits can reap the benefits of the needed help with assignment questions
MLC and work toward gaining a closer and even though the MLC does not assist
alignment between their predicted students with their assignments, staff will
and actual abilities. MacGillivray help students gain the mathematical
(2008) also highlighted the knowledge required for their assignment.
importance of a symbiotic Furthermore, distance students that
relationship between mathematics contact the MLC are supplied with
support and faculties. resources, including videos and
handwritten solutions created with the
• Unknown errors of omission—the Tablet PC, to bridge their knowledge gap.
inability to recognise knowledge gaps.
To assist in highlighting the Independent learning and study
knowledge gaps that a student may
have, the MLC has developed course- The MLC encourages students to develop
specific mathematics skills audit tests. independent learning habits by providing
Some of these tests are still assistance on an as needed basis. Small
administered by MLC staff but the group tutorials are encouraged to entice
majority have been embedded into students to interact and work together to
courses, often being offered as an on- improve their own learning. The MLC does
line quiz that students can attempt not provide an editorial service or check
repeatedly in order to reassess their student assignments. On campuses with
knowledge. dedicated MLC spaces, students can work
independently and seek assistance from
• Information neglect—the failure to the duty tutor when required. Knowing
take into account information that is that assistance is nearby increases the
at hand. Some students either never students’ confidence to work
seek mathematical support when independently. As can be observed from
required or wait until they have failed Figure 2, of the students surveyed that
an assessment or subject, sometimes attended MLCs with dedicated study
more than once, before attending the spaces, 82% (7/39) found the space to be
MLC. Two of the study participants fell conducive to independent learning and
into this category. study, with the remaining 18% being
neutral. Additionally, of the students who
thought the space was beneficial, 66% manner, similar to the nature of
(21/32) rated it as excellent. mathematics itself. Through this structure
“students can select and access material
Under the direction of the Head of the MLC, and content according to their needs”
specialised MLC staff skills are utilised to (Webster & Hackley, 1997, p. 1289).
create an array of resources that can be Twenty-two of the students surveyed had
incorporated into enabling programs or used the MLC website. Of these, nearly
used by university students to bridge any three-quarters (16/22; 72.7%) stated that
gaps in their knowledge. These resources they found the site to be very useful.
Good
34%
Neutral Conducive
18% 82% Excellent
66%
Figure 2: Independent learning and self-study
are available for students to use and keep Embedding in undergraduate

when accessing the MLC service on courses
campus. Of the 30 students that used the
handouts 80% (24/30) found them at least Where students have omissions in the
satisfactory with 79% (19/24) of these mathematical knowledge required to
students finding them to be an excellent succeed in a course or fail to understand
resource. the mathematical concepts being taught,
support is required to prevent attrition. All
The majority of these resources are also of the students surveyed found the MLC
available via the MLC website. This allows service useful and would recommend it to
students to access resources at their own other students. When asked if they had
convenience, further enhancing discovered an improvement in their
independent study habits. Providing mathematics, 98% (39/40) of the students
materials via the Web reflects mathematics found that there was at least some
as a dynamic discipline with a range of improvement with 48% (19/40) attesting
intertwining concepts as opposed to the to a vast improvement in mathematical
linear approach provided by text-based performance.
materials. The Web affords opportunities
to present the material in a more fluent
To address the growing mathematical Conclusion

knowledge deficit in students entering
university, many universities are The importance of mathematics to
attempting to embed mathematics learning modern society cannot be understated.
support within the content of their Globally, policy makers are promoting
undergraduate courses. Within CQU, an participation in Science, Technology,
increasing number of mathematics and Engineering and Mathematics (STEM)
statistics courses 3 are embedding learning education and training as a means of
support. Though the embedded material is constructing a skilled workforce
not as extensive and sophisticated as other (Department of Education, Training
universities, especially some within the UK and the Arts [DETA], 2007). Within
(Golden & Lee, 2007), it does assist Australia, STEM education and training
students in self-assessment of their is nationally recognised as
mathematical knowledge and encourages underpinning economic growth
either self-directed study or self-referral (DETA). Yet, a shortfall in mathematical
for further assistance. knowledge is prevalent globally.
Within the UK, government funded projects In the present academic climate of
and collaboration between universities has widening participation and increasing
resulted in Web- and text-based gaps in mathematical knowledge,
mathematics learning support resources mathematics support centres are
being made available (Golden & Lee, 2007). becoming increasingly important.
These resources are then able to be Providing students with dedicated
embedded into individual university study spaces and assistance when
courses. Unfortunately within Australia, required has been shown to increase
the varying intellectual property policies independent learning and study.
across universities make the sharing of Combining this with the ability of
teaching materials difficult (Porter, 2011). students to self-assess through the
provision of embedding of skills audit
Despite the turf wars, however, it remained tests in undergraduate degrees enables
the case that, addressing the need for students to bridge mathematics
learning support arising from students’
poor mathematical skills required and still
knowledge gaps.
requires, collaborative effort and a coherent
framework in which the provision of Through the provision of mathematics
learning support can be aligned with the support units as individual entities
subjects/disciplines that are generating the working closely with faculties,
need. While through this project, a mathematical knowledge gaps are better
sustainable infrastructure has been created able to be bridged. Furthermore students
for hosting a resource collection, there need ready access to such services.
remains a need for universities to
encourage staff to fully populate the
repository with good quality peer reviewed
resources. (p. 11)
3 A semester-long teaching activity with
synonyms of “subject” or “unit.”
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4
Designing and evaluating an empowering online

pedagogy for commencing students
Jill Lawrence
University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Australia
Abstract
Realising the potential for commencing students to succeed at university depends on
designing a pedagogy that not only engages students in learning but also encourages their
reflection on that learning. This guiding philosophy provided the impetus for a course that
also needed to accommodate challenges emanating from a very diverse student cohort, a
program decision to switch from an on campus to an online teaching mode, an inter-
disciplinary and collaborative program emphasis and the complexities stemming from
change forces currently impacting on the Australian higher education sector. These forces
included changes in pedagogy, curriculum, assessment, academic identity, technology,
research-informed learning and student and stakeholder expectations. This paper documents
the design, development, delivery and evaluation of a first semester, first year undergraduate
nursing course conducted in the Nursing Program at the University of Southern Queensland.
The course integrates an engaging learning philosophy while simultaneously embracing new
directions in higher education to empower commencing students.
Introduction and student—used to assess the

effectiveness of CMS. Finally the lessons
This paper will focus on the design, learnt and improvements made are
development, delivery and evaluation of reviewed.
a first year undergraduate nursing
course conducted by the Department of Perspectives underlying
Nursing and Midwifery at the University program design
of Southern Queensland (USQ). The
course has been conducted since 2006 The rationale for the academic practices
and is one of two courses designed to underpinning the new flexible and
assist students to develop the literacies online nursing education program
and skills they need to succeed as continued to include design features
learners in their higher education (HE) from the 2006-2011 nursing program.
studies and as nursing professionals: The program was developed in inter-
Building Professional Nursing Attributes disciplinary collaborations between the
A (CMS) and Building Professional Nursing Department, the Faculty of
Nursing Attributes B (MAT). The aim of Sciences (mathematics and computing
CMS is to develop students’ academic skills), the Faculty of Arts (academic
and information literacies and learning, literacy and communication skills),
research, communication, interpersonal Learning and Teaching Support
and team work skills as well as assisting (pedagogical reinforcement and learning
them to begin their professional e- and teaching guidance), The Australian
portfolios. Its companion course, MAT, is Digital Futures Institute (online
charged with the responsibility of pedagogical advice) and the library
developing students’ numeracy and (information literacies).
computing skills directly linked to their
degree and to their later professional The impetus for curriculum design
practice. The rationale, design and decisions since 2006 was the diverse
delivery and evaluation of CMS and MAT nursing cohort. This cohort includes
(2006-2011) have been documented mature age students as well as school
(see Lawrence, Loch & Galligan, 2008, leavers, international, domestic and
2010). In 2012, however, USQ’s nursing disadvantaged students such as low-
program was offered for the first time in socio economic, indigenous and rural
an online mode, in some cases and isolated students as well as second
augmenting its on campus delivery and year students completing an accelerated
in others replacing it. program as Assistants in Nursing or
having completed a Technical and
The paper first describes the rationale Further Education College nursing
underpinning the general nursing qualification. Student diversity
program including its theoretical influenced curriculum design in terms of
perspectives. It then documents the its interdisciplinary approach,
changes in CMS’s academic practices embedded practices and emerging HE
made in its conversion to online initiatives.
delivery. Thirdly, the paper outlines the
evaluation methodology before
summarising the two perspective—staff
Designing and evaluating an empowering online pedagogy for commencing... 39
Interdisciplinary collaborations approaches to skills courses are less

likely to be effective than those targeted
The nursing program team considered at specific aspects of learning within
that the inter-disciplinary approaches academic courses where the need for
adopted were more able to address knowledge or skill becomes apparent.
diverse students’ needs. Inter- Keimig also proposed hierarchical levels
disciplinary curriculum describes an of support to provide for the total
integration of multiple disciplines to learning requirements of students
respond to modern working patterns, including their needs and attitudes.
which increasingly call for multi- These insights underpin CMS and MAT.
disciplinary team work, and challenges
arising from the 21st century demand Critical literacy also supports the
for inter-disciplinary solutions (Woods, integration of embedded and scaffolded
2007). The nursing program uses a approaches in CMS and MAT. Critical
combination of disciplines approach to literacy (Cope & Kalantzis, 2000;
meet an area of common concern Fairclough, 1995; Kirkpatrick &
(Davies & Devlin, 2007). Mulligan, 2002) theorises that university
is like a culture made up of a range of
Both CMS and MAT have the literacies, discourses and cultural
responsibility for instilling the practices. Students’ transition is then
interdisciplinary whole-of-program recast as a process of gaining familiarity
approach, role modelling the holistic with and demonstrating these new
focus essential to students’ transition to literacies (Lawrence, 2005).
university and effective nursing practice. Commencing students, for example,
The courses replace de-contextualised, need to rapidly master faculty, school
“bolt-on” skills courses and disparate and subject discourses, including
and “piecemeal” efforts to support academic, library, numeracy, research,
commencing students (Krause, Hartley, information, administrative and
James, & McInnis, 2005), where technological literacies as well as the
engagement and retention are left to more personal literacies also crucial for
chance. Crossing these inter-disciplinary success, including communication,
boundaries thus enables the courses to interpersonal, stress and time
constitute an academic and social management and financial literacies.
“organising device”—the glue that holds These sit alongside new teaching and
knowledge and the student experience learning styles and a plethora of
together. unfamiliar cultural practices. Nursing
students are also required to
Embedded and scaffolded demonstrate (in assessment) a number
practices of disparate discipline literacies;
Another design decision implemented to biological, chemical, computing, nursing,
embrace student diversity relates to communication, research (both
embedding and scaffolding (Pea, 2004) quantitative and qualitative
key university literacies. This design methodologies) and information
impetus stems from Keimig’s (1983) literacies amongst others.
model of learning improvements, a
model confirming that generalized Their capacity to master key literacies
however depends on students’
awareness of the skills and knowledge students. It is important, in addition,

they bring with them to HE. Critical that students accept their own
literacy is again helpful as it responsibility in this process by not only
encompasses Bourdieu’s (2001) view of reflecting their own skill base but also
capitals: that when students access building their capacities to develop
university they do so with various levels these literacies throughout their studies.
of academic, linguistic and socio-cultural Lawrence (2005) reports that using
literacies which need to be understood communication skills like asking for
before students are able to master the help, making social connections and
literacies they confront. Both the expressing disagreement enables
institution/staff and students have students’ transition and also need to be
responsibilities in this process. Kift made explicit and embedded in
(2009), from the First Year Experience curriculum design.
(FYE) perspective argues for “transition
pedagogy”: Emerging higher education and
research initiatives
...the curriculum and its delivery
should be designed to be consistent
The twenty-first century has witnessed a
and explicit in assisting students’
transition from their previous range of HE initiatives like a student-
educational experience to the nature focused curriculum (Kember, 2009) and
of learning in higher education and the FYE (Nelson, Duncan & Clarke, 2009;
learning in their discipline as part of Tinto, 2009) but there are also the
their lifelong learning. The first year change forces emanating from changing
curriculum should be designed to assessment needs, principally the
mediate and support transition as a implications of the new Threshold
process that occurs over time. (p. 1) Learning Outcomes (TLOs) proposed as
part of the Tertiary Education Quality
Devlin (2013) uses the notion of
and Standards Agency quality assurance
sociocultural incongruence to
processes, and academic identity, for
conceptualise the differences in cultural
example, stemming from the sector’s
and social capital of diverse students, for
move to integrate graduate and work-
example from low SES backgrounds, and
based qualities and skills (Barrie, 2006;
the high SES institutions in which they
Bridgstock, 2009). Other change forces
study. Embedded and scaffolded
are those generated by communication
learning experiences, based on an
technology, in this instance, helping
assessment of the skills and abilities
students master and demonstrate the
students bring with them, assist
rapidly evolving range of technological
students to deal with the tacit
literacies demanded by both HE and the
expectations inherent in university
profession (Reushle, McDonald, &
practices. Devlin suggests that such an
Postle, 2010); recent research-informed
intentional design of learning, teaching
learning, especially important for
and assessment acknowledges the
nursing students who need to manage
reality of the contemporary student
changing professional development
context and seeks to mediate student
needs; and student and other
diversity in relation to the preparedness
stakeholder expectations, including
and cultural capital of commencing
professional demands for effective
interpersonal and team work capacities Carpe diem provides a structured

and the political pressures regarding framework for course teams to design
nursing accountability and scope of and implement e-learning designs
practice (Lawrence et al., 2008). grounded in discipline practice. It
provides ways of exploring a variety of
These new directions and change forces resources and low-cost, high-impact
influenced CMS pedagogy, mainly in technologies to deliver a course online.
relation to technological engagement While this allowed participants to
and e-learning. Forum discussions and become more skilled in the use of
e-tivities (see next section) were technology, they did so in the process of
incorporated to engage students. addressing a pedagogical design
Learning Management System (LMS) challenge. The interdisciplinary team—a
forums were used to facilitate student learning technologist, librarian and
engagement. One of the potential other nursing team members—provided
strategies for measuring the attainment input and support during the process.
of TLOs for instance, is a portfolio. CMS
incorporates a professional e-portfolio The carpe diem process consists of a
as an assessment item, its mechanics preparation session, a 2-day facilitated
taught in MAT. The question of academic workshop and a post-session used for
identity in relation to the sector’s move review and re-design, if required. During
to integrate graduate and work-based the 2-day workshop, the facilitator led
qualities and skills is addressed by both the team through a number of
the e-tivities and an assessment item in collaborative tasks including
the e-portfolio where students are asked blueprinting, story boarding, team
to reflect about their development of a working, scaffolding of networked
graduate quality. Research informed learning (using Salmon’s 5-stage model),
learning is also catered for by CMS’s development of e-tivities, peer
development of information literacy, for reviewing, aligned assessment and
example in relation to the online follow up actions.
databases, while the question of
stakeholder expectations is similarly Once the mission for CMS had been
managed by a portfolio reflection item established, learning outcomes were
addressing students’ application of a articulated by the course team followed
nursing code of practice. by a brainstorming exercise to
determine, at a general level, the content
While these emerging directions related to each of the objectives of the
informed CMS design decisions, its course. The next step involved the
development benefitted specifically participation by peers (members of the
from recent research into online nursing team not already participating
pedagogy (see Reushle et al., 2009; as well as critical friends) to provide
Salmon, 2011). The next section will feedback about the proposed e-tivities.
describe CMS’s approach. The feedback offered by these “reality
checkers” was helpful in ensuring the
Curriculum development activities, posts and links to assessment
were student-centred, engaging and
The carpe diem process (see Salmon, appropriate to the anticipated level and
2011) was used to redesign CMS online. abilities of the students. The reality
checkers continued to assist the design an accompanying online tutor. The

process as their feedback was sought on online tutors responded to students’
the various iterations of course design, posts either individually or through
including feedback on the LMS summaries.
components, for example the use of web
pages, forum posts and stimulus Learning management system
activities.
CMS uses USQ’s LMS to generate its
Curriculum delivery flexible e-learning environment. The
material made available through a multi-
CMS’s content was significantly reduced. modal in-house content creation system
There are no study modules, no (i.e. print, CD and on the web through
textbook and no selected readings. the open source Moodle LMS).
Instead there are weekly video-lectures Assessment and other resources are
and e-tivities (see Figure 1). Each made available online through the
weekly e-tivity comprises formative Moodle site (Study desk). This includes
assessment, explicitly linked to one of multimedia material and the interactive
the assignments. Each student is placed discussion forums. All assessment is
in their own forum group (n=20) submitted and marked electronically.
variously named the Resuscitators, the I The e-portfolio assignment uses the
V Leaguers, the Betta-Blockers, etc. with Mahara platform.
Figure 1: Sample of an e-tivity
Assessment students’ semester 1 (s1) experiences,

their development of a nursing
CMS assessment includes two competency or code and a graduate
assignments and forum participation. quality and their capacity for
Assignment 1 includes four tasks technological engagement.
building on the e-tivities: a reflective
paragraph on the students’ learning Curriculum evaluation
strengths and areas for improvements
as well as specific strategies to achieve Methodology
this improvement; a paragraph
reflecting on an interview conducted The methodology included continuous
with a fellow student; an academic evaluative processes which were
writing exercise including thesis applied throughout the design, delivery
statements, main points, referenced and evaluation of the program. The
paragraphs and reference lists (on a methodology used a standard method of
clinical aspect of hand washing); and an evaluation and program development
article selection (on a clinical aspect of (Taylor & Galligan, 2002, developed
hand washing) and evaluation exercise. from Guba & Stufflebeam, 1970) and
Assignment 2 consists of the e-portfolio includes both quantitative and
and includes reflective paragraphs on qualitative data collection techniques in
Table 1: Relationships between the evaluation strategies and stages in the course
design
Program Program Program

Pre-program
Item Evaluation Strategy Design Delivery Conclusion
Design Stage
Stage Stage Stage
The staff perspective
1 Needs assessment   
st
2 Discussions with 1 year nursing lecturers    
st
3 Debrief with 1 year nursing lecturers 
Peer review through presentations in and beyond the 

4 university and through peer reviewed articles
5 Feedback from reality checkers and online tutors   
The student perspective
6 Feedback from previous student surveys    
7 Reflections in assignments and the portfolio  
8 Student Surveys  
9 Official Student Evaluations of Teaching 
10 Online discussion and forum groups  
Second and third year student cohort surveys (yet to be

11 undertaken for the 2012 cohort)
12 One-on-one sessions with students   
each cycle (see Table 1). During the delivery stage, continuous
evaluation included unsolicited feedback
Two perspectives are investigated: staff presented in emails, forum discussions
and student perspectives (documented (Item 10) and intensive one-on-one
in Table 1). While these evaluation sessions (Item 12). Two independent
cycles began in 2006, in terms of the formal student evaluations were also
online design, two cycles have been conducted at the conclusion of each
undertaken: in 2012 in s1 (n = 365) and cycle: one designed to address program
s2 (n = 153). specific issues (Item 8); and the other,
the standard university course quality
Within the study, a longitudinal survey item (Item 9). Continuous
phenomenological approach (Jeffers, feedback was obtained, principally from
1998) is taken to understand the lived the e-portfolio assignment (Item 7).
experiences of students as they become Students were asked to reflect about
more academically prepared. This their learning and academic skills as
evaluation methodology is reiterated they bridged the divide between their
during each offering. pre-university school and employment
(both nursing and casual work) contexts
The staff perspective (many are mature-age students) and
their university and nursing contexts.
In the initial design stage, the design The e-portfolio, for example, included an
team took advantage of their online personality, learning approach
experiences in previous development of and learning style questionnaire that
curricula for nursing students. In each generated feedback for students to
stage, as well as in the reiteration of reflect about (see Figure 1).
these stages, regular meetings were held
to develop, review, moderate, and fine- Findings and discussion
tune the academic practices (Item 2).
Ongoing feedback was also obtained This section will explore the online
from the leaders of the first year nursing components of CMS pedagogy. The
courses during delivery and evaluation continuous processes at the heart of the
stages. Debriefing meetings with nursing methodology revealed both positive and
lecturers were conducted throughout negative findings.
the teaching cycle and in the debriefing
and pre-planning stages for the next Staff perspective
course cycle (Item 3). Peer review was
also undertaken (Item 4). Reality In terms of course design, staff agreed
checkers and online tutors also provided that the carpe diem method assisted the
feedback (Item 5). design process in many ways. Comments
confirmed that the story board
The student perspective components helped “strip” the content
away from the course and renew a focus
In the pre-program stage, use was made on students’ learning outcomes. Staff
of the extensive amount of feedback that responses also revealed that learning
had been collected from students in activities had been appropriate and that
previous research studies (Item 6). they closely aligned with assessment.
Staff further perceived that students’ For me using forums was something I
forum posts, embedded as formative had never done before so I avoided the
assessment in the e-tivities and formal notion from the beginning but mainly it
was a culmination of things. Personally,
assessment, ensured that student
I was working full time, looking for a
feedback was integral to course design. house, travelling sometimes 2 hrs a day
CMS was conducted again in semester 2 for work and uni and the online
with this feedback integrated, mainly subjects were the ones that suffered
relating to LMS organisation and for me as they were easier to "forget"
structure. Overall, the staff considered about (portfolio reflection).
that the carpe diem process had a
positive impact about how they viewed An issue of concern was students’ lack of
course design process and the course understanding of the importance of the
itself. However staff testimony also online environment as a key to accessing
called for improvements mainly in all material and communication. There
forum organisation and participation. is also inconsistency with the study desk
Although the forum groups were small that is being tackled at program and
enough (n=20), the large number of institutional levels:
students generally made forum marking
cumbersome. The wiki included in one Functionally: there were so many
different "levels" to the moodle system,
e-tivity did not work well and was I initially found it hard to
dropped in s2. It is important to ensure navigate. Then keeping track of the
that the feedback loops and training forums took me hours (which I didn't
sessions for online tutors/markers are have). With everything else going on I
sustained. just put it in the too hard basket and
just focused on the tasks I found easier
Student perspective (portfolio reflection).
The diversity of students’ background However there were positive findings in

knowledge and digital experience was relation to online flexibility and
apparent in the students’ evidence. accessibility:
International and mature age students
A benefit of online delivery is I enjoy
were often confronted by completely the option to study in the comfort of
new literacies: my home as well as having the online
support from the lecturers (portfolio
Being an international student we have reflection).
to face different studying environment.
When I started my study in USQ I was Initially I was confused but now I
not good at the digital world. I never have felt that online learning is
used computers for my studies before. actually beneficial. It provides team
It is funny but I was really shocked learning and there are no geographic
when I saw so many computers in USQ barriers for the students. We are able
(portfolio reflection). to access the course from anywhere
and every student can post their
Mature age students found the online opinions. I am really very happy to
environment too much in an otherwise experience online learning (forum
busy world: post).
Distance students reported that online requirement I was eased into making
delivery reduced their feelings of regular contributions as well as
isolation, thus having a positive impact reading those of others. I soon became
used to it and also found a lot of
on their retention (Kift, 2009).
information that was very helpful and
For me technological engagement in the still do (portfolio reflection).
course has made my dream to study
I would probably have felt a little bit
nursing a reality and has removed any
worried I’d write something incorrect
concern I had about feeling isolated as a
or silly, but CMS has given me the
distance student (survey response).
confidence to write on the appropriate
forums regarding class matters
CMS students revealed their initial
(survey).
reservations about CMS being online
and about their participation in the At first I was hesitant to post things
forums. In many cases these fears onto the forum as I was afraid that I
dissipated. One student expresses her would post the wrong thing, or be
fears about online learning and how she criticised for what I posted. Then I saw
overcame them: that there was no "right or wrong
answer" and I became more confident
I was a little apprehensive about in my postings (forum).
committing to online learning, having
always been in face-to-face classes. By Conversely, evidence suggests that
completing the weekly e-tivities and forums and e-tivities increased student
tasks, I have learned how to engagement:
participate in an online conference, I
have highly tuned my academic For me the forums have also been an
writing skills, learned to use databases excellent way to interact with fellow
for research and experienced students through the sharing of
computer marked assessments. On opinions and feedback. It made me
reflection, I believe that online feel like I was learning collectively
learning is the best way for me to with other students, much like a
complete my education, as it offers classroom situation (portfolio
extreme flexibility in respect to “class reflection).
time.” The personal aspect of learning
is not entirely lost as there is quite a The use of short e-tivities and
bit of engagement with others in the YouTube clips, particularly in the
forums. After completing the survey, I CMS1008 course, has provided a
can safely say that my digital literacy positive experience for me because of
skills have definitely improved. the variety, which tends to keep my
Overall, I am much more confident attention (forum post).
with online learning (portfolio
reflection). The teaching approach incorporated a
variety of stimulating activities which
The forums were off putting for quite a made it an enjoyable and effective
few students who gradually felt more at stepping stone toward achieving my
ease: dream (forum post).
At first forums took me out of my The reflective process also helped

comfort zone. Since it was a students to gauge their progress. A
digital literacy survey conducted online to try hard to actually remember that
reaffirmed to students just how much CMS is still there (portfolio reflection).
they had progressed.1
When the assignment came I thought I
Since starting in July I have would be fine. I did not think that
participated in a WIMBA session, missing a few postings would be a big
produced a PowerPoint presentation deal. I was very wrong. For the tasks I
with voice over, started a fabulous e- had done forum postings for, I did not
portfolio, got valuable feedback from have an issue but as I got deeper into
forum postings and submitted the assignment I found it harder and
assignments via EASE. Imagine what I harder. I regretted not doing the tasks
am going to achieve in the next two (email).
and half years if I have done all this in
just 8 weeks! (forum post). This evidence confirms Morris, Finnegan
and Wu’s (2005) findings that in terms
Two major issues emerged from the of online engagement, unsuccessful
data however: the non-engagement of students were far less active in
some students with the e-tivities and participation than successful students.
online forums; and its corollary, the Poellhuber, Chomienne and Karsenti
propensity for some students to only (2008) argue that online engagement
attempt the assessment. A small may be a particular problem for some
minority of students in both semesters students and requires more
did not participate in the e-tivities, investigation. The CMS experience
despite the allocation of marks and confirms this finding. That such non-
assessment links: in s1 (n=33 or 9% participation could be tracked and
with a grade average of 59.8%) and s2 positively correlated with assignment
(n=20 or 13% with a grade average of failure and/or lower grades is a positive
62.75%).2 Students explained that they step forward however. That this
couldn’t manage the responsibility or tracking also enabled discussions with
self-initiative entailed in online delivery the students concerned was a positive
and/or felt disengaged by the need to consequence and used to empower
participate in the forums: students the following semester.
I really don't enjoy using online Room for improvement and

forums as I don't like sharing my
opinions online that’s why I have
future research directions
really struggled with CMS, I would
prefer it to be an face to face class The case study paints a generally
rather than online, it is not on my positive picture of CMS’s conversion to
timetable as it is online so I really have an online course designed for a diverse
first year cohort. It also reveals ongoing
constructive feedback from staff and
1 The survey was conducted as part of a larger students. For a minority of students,
digital literacy (DART) survey so CMS specific
data is unavailable but it was included in a CMS e-
online engagement remains problematic
tivity and some students commented about it in although CMS design enables this to be
their forum posts that week. tracked and confronted explicitly.
2 Semester 2 is an online cohort only and includes
However it remains a concern to be
mid-year entry and failing students. This may
account for the increased rate of complete
addressed each offering. Longer term
noncompliance. there needs to be ongoing
communication with nursing staff to Measurement and Evaluation Centre in

Reading Education. Bloomington, IN:
ensure the CMS is delivering skills
Indiana University.
transparently. Future directions include
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second or third years. This feedback will guide to learning improvement. ASHE-ERIC
assist in ascertaining whether or not Higher Education Research Report No. 4.
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empowering online pedagogy for
Kember, D. (2009). Promoting student-centred
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5
Embedding academic socialisation within a

language support program
Shelley Beatty, Ashok Collins^ and Maureen Buckingham

Edith Cowan University and the ^University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
Abstract
This paper describes discipline-specific transition support utilised to follow-up the Post-Entry
Language Assessment (PELA) recently introduced at Edith Cowan University as one strategy
to address declining rates of English language proficiency. Transition support was
embedded within a first year core unit and emphasis was placed on assisting students to
develop spoken and written communicative competencies by scaffolding assessment tasks
and providing other academic supports that used contextualised examples. While general
satisfaction with the academic support offered during the course was high, the program
achieved limited success in encouraging at-risk students to seek support. Further
investigation into methods of encouraging student participation is required, along with
research into strategies for extending effective academic socialisation support into the online
learning environment.
Embedding academic socialisation within a language support program 51
Introduction language support is the Post-Entry English

Language Assessment (PELA) which, after
Improving English language proficiency a trial period, was administered for the
has increasingly become a priority for first time within all undergraduate courses
universities both in Australia and overseas. at ECU in 2012 (ECU 2012a). The PELA at
In Australia, the impetus for doing so ECU targets students in their first year of
comes from the Federal Government’s study, emphasising “a focus on English
push to widen participation in tertiary literacy awareness and development for all
education, and an increased awareness of students” (ECU, 2012b, p. 23). One of the
the role of English language ability in crucial considerations surrounding
employment outcomes (Arkoudis et al., implementation of the PELA is the form of
2009). Research indicates English language follow-up support universities should offer,
proficiency support should be integrated as it involves wider problems of
into a wider program of academic participation that transcend the Australian
socialisation and literacies development, higher education context. Barrett-Lennard,
particularly during the first year of study. Dunworth, and Harris (2011) found that in
This paper presents a case study in which the trial of PELA at ECU, less than 50% of
English language and academic literacies students who were subsequently
development was embedded into a first recognised as ”at-risk” chose to seek out
year Population Health unit in the Bachelor support services.
of Health Science course at Edith Cowan
University (ECU) in Western Australia. As well as the associated logistical
concerns in encouraging student
Background participation, more complex problems may
also emerge from applying English skills
The demographic of universities has learnt in a generic context to specific
radically changed in recent decades, and disciplinary content. Baik and Greig (2009)
such a shift brings with it challenges at argue the very nature of English usage at
both an institutional and pedagogical level. the university level is highly context-
One goal of the Australian Government’s specific, which means any language
higher education reform agenda is to support offered external to the disciplines
increase the participation of students from may provide students with general skills
low socio economic backgrounds which they will then struggle to apply in
(Australian Government, 2009; Bradley, their specific course.
Noonan, Nugent, & Scales, 2008). At the
same time, there has been increasing The concept of socialisation envisages
numbers of international student learning as a process of enculturation into
enrolments (Australian Government) a discourse community in which students
leading to concern over rising rates of must develop the ability to engage with
plagiarism and lower standards of English content according to set norms and
competency (Bretag, 2007; Dunworth, conventions (Starfield, 2001). Not only do
2010). These factors have resulted in students need to familiarise themselves
higher numbers of students requiring with the type of English commonly found
support to succeed at university study. within their discipline, but also they must
become accustomed to an entirely new
An important element within the push culture with all its accompanying
towards more extensive academic English expectations. According to Duff (2010),
academic discourse is “a site of internal all students undertaking the Bachelor of

and interpersonal struggle for many Health Sciences must complete. As a result,
people” (p. 170) and so support for the unit attracts a consistent level of
students must acknowledge the deeply student enrolment (during the semester in
personal aspect of studying in a particular which this study was conducted, 111
discipline, and recognise that even basic students were enrolled) and the majority
skills like reading and writing are in of students complete the unit in their first
essence “contextualized social practices” year of study. It has been claimed that
(Russell, Lea, Parker, Street, & Donahue, success at university is largely determined
2009, p. 399). The authors seek to by students’ experiences during their first
demonstrate one way in which post-PELA year of study (James, Krause, & Jennings,
English support can be provided within a 2010; Upcraft, Gardener, & Barefoot, 2005)
disciplinary based academic socialisation and when seeking to confront the challenge
program embedded into a first year Health of retaining first year students, it is
Sciences unit at ECU. important to integrate what Kift (2009)
calls a “coherent, integrated, intentional,
Case Study supportive, and inclusive first year
curriculum design” (p. 15). The unit
Introduction and rationale therefore provided an ideal opportunity to
test the effectiveness of implementing
The socialisation program was structured academic socialisation support at the very
to provide repeated opportunities for beginning of students’ transition into
students to actively practice both written higher education.
and oral communication skills through
collaboration between discipline staff and The socialisation program was taught in
learning advisers. As Duff (2010) notes, collaboration between discipline staff and
discourse socialisation revolves around learning advisers, a team approach that has
“social processes, negotiation, and been utilised in various forms in the past
interaction” (p. 171), thus the support (Baik & Greig, 2009; Dunworth & Briguglio,
offered in this unit aimed to create a 2010; Kennelly, Maldoni, & Davies, 2010; 7;
dialogic space in which students could Scouller, Bonanno, Smith, & Krass, 2008).
critically reflect on their own learning The structure of the collaboration between
experience, share this experience with learning advisers and academic staff within
other students and academic staff, and the unit closely resembled that laid out in
receive out-of-class generic assistance the Integrated Development of English
where necessary (see also Lillis, 2003). The Language and Academic Literacy and
dialogue within the unit was, therefore, Learning (IDEALL) approach (Percy, James,
centered on providing a thorough Stirling, & Walker, 2004; Percy & Skillen,
socialisation of students into the 2000; Skillen, Merten, Trivett, & Percy,
disciplinary discourse community, and 1998) which entails learning development
facilitating the development of the skills staff and academics within the discipline
required to engage with the diverse range collaborating in order to provide students
of literacies they will encounter during with generic and discipline-specific
their studies. support during class time. The in-class
collaboration between the learning adviser
The Population Health unit was chosen for and the lecturer therefore focused on the
various reasons. First, it is a core unit that following elements: general study skills
utilising contextualised examples; the relationships” (p. 171) among ten

socialisation process through promotion of proposed strategies to increase student
self-reflective interaction; the scaffolding of engagement. Such a focus on social
the literacy component of assessment tasks relationships becomes even more relevant
through socialisation techniques; and when dealing with students in the first year
lastly, follow-up of at-risk students to of tertiary study. According to James et al.
encourage participation in support (2010), there is an increasing need to
measures. ensure that first year students are given
the chance to interact more closely with
General and embedded study academic staff, and a recent report on
skills development supporting students from low SES
backgrounds recommends creating “a
A range of general activities were sense of belonging” for students, as well as
implemented to assist students with their “collaborative learning opportunities and
transition to university and to develop peer-to-peer contact inside and outside the
general study skills. First, students curriculum” (Devlin, Kift, Nelson, Smith, &
assessed as borderline on the PELA were McKay, 2012, p. 3). This component of the
referred to academic skills workshops. program was therefore designed to
These workshops covered general study facilitate socialisation into both oral and
and writing skills. In addition, a weekly 45 written modes of communication
minute academic skills session, facilitated contextualised within the Population
by a learning adviser, was embedded into Health unit content.
the Population Health curriculum. The texts
and activities used by the learning adviser The socialisation process began through
all related to Population Health unit the implementation of various strategies
content. aimed at assisting students’ transition to
university and fostering a sense of
Socialisation through belonging. During the first four weeks of
communication semester, students were provided with in-
class opportunities to identify their
Alongside general study skills dominant learning style; complete an audit
development, the support program was of their academic skills; discuss their
based around a broad communicative focus reasons for being at university; document
which sought to encompass the multiple which factors might be barriers to
and varied aspects involved in academic achieving their study goals; and identify
socialisation. Such an approach can be university-level support systems. This
positioned within the constructivist school process was designed to encourage
of learning theory, which posits that the students to begin critically reflecting on
learning environment must provide their learning and the influence their own
students with adequate time to reflect and background has on their success at
participate in active knowledge university, and to establish an informal
construction through dialogue within dialogue between students and staff. Most
communities of discourse and practice of these activities were undertaken in pairs
(Fosnot & Perry, 2005). This theoretical or small groups to facilitate students being
stance is echoed by Zepke and Leach able to meet and interact with other
(2010) who place learning that is “active, students. This inter-student interaction
collaborative and fosters learning was also encouraged via the
implementation of informal mentoring on a Supporting assessment

weekly basis, whereby first year students
were grouped with students in second or Academic socialisation and literacy
third year and asked to engage in various development were also incorporated into
activities (see Lizzio & Wilson, n.d.). These all three assessment points in the
activities were informal in nature and Population Health unit and were structured
largely involved discussions between the to provide a progressive form of
first year student and their mentor centred cumulative assessment that scaffolded
on either preparation for assessment or student learning (Taylor, 2008). The first
revision. Through such discussions, the assignment therefore consisted of an early,
first year students began to develop social low-stakes online quiz about academic
networks within the class environment. referencing conventions. This assessment
was designed to familiarise students with
The academic advice students received was the online learning environment; provide
also complemented by regular early feedback on progress to students;
opportunities to give feedback on the relieve student anxiety; and as a trigger for
course throughout the semester. This form support intervention—students who
of feedback is perhaps one way of received less than 90% (10 students) were
facilitating the ongoing dialogue between contacted by the unit coordinator via
academic staff and students that Crisp et al. email. This first assessment alerted
(2009) argue is required in order to close students to the importance of avoiding
the gap between first year students’ plagiarism by correctly citing references,
expectations and the cultural conventions but its main purpose was to allow students
they encounter during their study. Bi- to reflectively identify areas of weakness
weekly informal anonymous written and open channels of dialogue with
feedback was collected from students academic staff.
throughout the semester.
The second assessment was designed to
The role online learning technologies play maintain the engagement generated by the
in the learning process is a crucial transition-related assessment and further
consideration when providing socialisation develop students’ academic skills and unit
support (Crook, 2005) and several content knowledge (Taylor, 2008). It
measures were implemented in the required students to locate scholarly
Population Health unit to encourage journal articles on a population health
communication both in the online and in- topic and write an academic essay
class environments. The on-campus classes containing correctly cited in-text and end-
were supported with online resources, and text references. As this was a first year unit,
students were provided with a tour of the students were asked to demonstrate lower
Blackboard (Learning Management rather than higher order cognitive skills—
System) site during the first class. Students for example, to describe rather than to
were asked to access the Blackboard site analyse (Forehand, 2005)—in order to
before the next class and post an ensure that expectations were adjusted to
introductory message on a discussion account for students’ level of familiarity
board. Students were also provided with with academic learning.
exemplars of the professional standards
and etiquette required for email General skills support was also integrated
communication. into the second assessment task for the
unit through collaboration between paper using the rubric provided. While less
academic staff and library staff. Research than 30% of students enrolled in the unit
has indicated that students entering attended the session, those who did
university study are often underprepared reported they found the exercise to be
when it comes to basic information literacy useful. Students were able to submit their
(Mittermeyer, 2005; Price, Becker, Clark, & paper to a Turnitin site prior to the due
Collins, 2011). Given this need to assist date and were educated on how to use the
students in sourcing relevant academic similarity index. Students also had the
information, the Faculty librarian ran an in- option of submitting a draft of their paper
class workshop to provide students with an to an academic staff member who provided
initiation into basic information literacy feedback prior to the due date. Although
practices, scaffold the use of scholarly only 27% took up the opportunity to
sources in their writing, and allow them to obtain formative feedback, those who did
locate appropriate references for their participate reported they found the
second assessment. exercise to be beneficial.
Socialisation into academic culture was The process of literacies scaffolding was
also emphasised throughout the completed by the third and final
assessment process, as students were assessment task, which comprised an
encouraged to participate in discussions achievement-related assessment (Taylor,
based on contextualised examples. Such a 2008) taking the form of a two-hour
literacies-based approach is similar to the multiple choice exam worth 40% of the
collaborative writing technique outlined by final grade. To familiarise them with the
Humphrey and Macnaught (2011) which structure of the exam, students were given
aims to give students an opportunity to a sample question and then in pairs were
explore how example texts are constructed. asked to create two exam questions using
Students were therefore provided with in- the same template. The student-generated
class opportunities to discuss and questions were collated, checked for
deconstruct an exemplar essay, and were relevance and accuracy and then made
able to download an essay template along available on the Blackboard site as a set of
with the marking rubric. practice questions for revision purposes.
In addition to such contextualised support Follow-up of at-risk students

surrounding aspects of writing, a focus was
also placed on developing oral The program was also designed to provide
communicative capacities while offering additional support to those students
further opportunities to develop social identified as at-risk. At the completion of
relationships. Past studies have indicated the semester, students who did not pass
that requiring students to engage in peer the second assignment and had not
evaluation of written tasks is an effective withdrawn from the unit (14 students)
way of breaking down the barrier of received an email from the unit
stigmatisation surrounding their reception coordinator. The students were
of lecturers’ feedback (Reese-Durham, encouraged to attend a series of academic
2005) and developing literacy skills writing workshops covering a diverse
(Murray, 2012). In one of the academic range of general study and writing skills,
skills sessions, students were provided and were also advised to make an
with an opportunity to grade a peer’s appointment to see a learning adviser who
offered them the opportunity to meet on an Conclusions

individual basis to discuss their feedback
and develop learning strategies. Students The challenges involved in supporting
who scored between 50-55% for the essay students who require assistance with their
(37 students) also received a similarly- transition into the tertiary academic
worded email recommending they seek environment are only likely to intensify
help with their essay writing skills. At the over the coming years, as universities seek
time of writing, only eight out of these 51 to meet new regulatory standards both in
at-risk students had sought individual Australia and overseas. This paper
assistance from a learning adviser, and demonstrates that embedding a program of
only two had attended an academic skills academic socialisation into the curriculum
workshop. is an ideal means of exposing a wide range
of students to support measures, as well as
Given this lack of student participation, delivering contextualised language support
additional follow-up measures were put in that takes into account the social
place to encourage further dialogue. complexities of initiation into academic
Students who fell into both of these discourse communities.
categories received a follow-up email to
determine the reasons why they may not Although the program was a success,
have chosen to receive support. At the time several limitations of the trial can be noted.
of writing, only seven students had More accurate data must be gathered to
responded. Their responses all emphasised assess the effectiveness of the support
the need to develop measures to assist program. Although students’ academic
students in their balancing of work and results are only one marker of success,
study commitments, especially for those future studies should include longitudinal
undertaking online study. quantitative analyses to measure student
performance and assess the impact of the
End-of-semester student program. Another way to obtain
feedback quantitative data and simultaneously
promote student reflection could be to
Student response to the program was administer an ‘adaptation to university’
generally positive, and indicated it had survey.
succeeded in providing a broad
socialisation experience. End-of-semester The issue of encouraging student
feedback collected via the ECU Unit and participation in academic support
Teaching Evaluation Instrument (UTEI) measures is a complex and ongoing
revealed an 80% overall satisfaction rate problem, especially where at-risk students
among students enrolled in the Population are concerned. As noted earlier, few of the
Health unit (ECU, 2012c) and 89% enrolled students took up the opportunity
reported having a clear understanding of to receive peer feedback, and few of the
what was required in the unit. The majority students who received an email outlining
of respondents (79.5%) agreed or strongly support options responded. Time
agreed that the unit had improved their constraints appear to be foremost in
general communication and writing skills, students’ minds as they face the challenge
and 84% agreed or strongly agreed that of negotiating commitments both within
the assessments in the unit had adequately and outside of their university studies. In
evaluated their learning. such a high-pressure environment,
students must prioritise, and often it is the socialisation experience. Despite the
activities that do not lead to immediate limitations they bring with them, online
measurable benefit that are sacrificed first. technologies can be utilised to incorporate
An academic culture which privileges a social dimension which can be further
success and fails to adequately stress the exploited in order to work towards a viable
importance of broader graduate outcomes academic socialisation model for the
also plays a large role in this student future.
mindset, so it is essential for institutional
discourse and priorities to remain closely
attuned to the needs of programs and References
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6
A participative evaluation model to refine

academic support for first year Indigenous
higher education students
Bronwyn Rossingh and Terry Dunbar
Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Australia
Abstract
This paper presents an evaluative approach designed to provide a cycle of continuous
improvement to retain Indigenous students during their first year of higher education. The
evaluation model operates in conjunction with a student academic enrichment program that
is premised on valuing and respecting each student’s background and life experience whilst
building capability for learning success. Data collected will be used for continual
improvement of a newly developed innovative academic enrichment program that caters to
the needs of Indigenous students. The defining mechanisms of the model for measuring the
first year experience are particularly meaningful for the Australian Centre For Indigenous
Knowledges and Education as it moves into its inaugural year of operation in 2012. This
preeminent time requires a flexible model to receive timely feedback in a reflexive
environment where students guide the process as they continue their journey of
accumulating knowledge and leave behind their contribution in shaping the landscape for
future first year Indigenous students.
A participative evaluation model to refine academic support for first year Indigenous... 61
Evaluation to strengthen such as skill development, mentoring and

tutoring. It is envisioned that this will
the student experience
foster confidence for these students to
continue in their chosen course of study
Retention and completion rates for with the aspiration of completing. To
Indigenous students in higher education provide further clarity for ACIKE in
continue to cause concern across Australia overcoming the existing issues and
and in particular the Northern Territory achieving retention of first year students,
(NT) of Australia where the Indigenous the following research question is posed:
population is around 30%. In light of this
concern and the pressing need for changes
What empowering practices will build
to be implemented to assure that future
capabilities for Indigenous students to
improvements to this state of affairs are
succeed in their first year higher education
realised, the Australian Centre for
experience?
Indigenous Knowledges and Education
(ACIKE) commences its journey in 2012.
The Centre’s focus is on establishing itself The Centre will utilise the existing unit and
as a culturally safe environment that course feedback mechanisms within
recognises and values student learning Charles Darwin University. Importantly,
styles and the need to build Indigenous the centre will seek further data from
student capability. The vision of this new students on a regular basis as part of an
and innovative centre aims to: “Create enriching feature of support that
presence, by respecting the past and complements existing academic services.
looking to the future. To empower and The intent is to have a process of early
inspire Aboriginal and Torres Strait intervention that is actioned at all times—a
Islander peoples to realise their full proactive process that encourages students
potential, aspirations and value within to communicate issues as and when they
Australian society” (ACIKE, 2012, paras 1- arise. This overcomes the issues of the
2). existing predetermined intervals of data
collection where the data tends to be
The Centre’s critical focus is on Indigenous enacted upon after the student has already
higher education students. Statistically, experienced difficulties or becomes at risk.
the NT has a poor record of retention and Enrichment staff will create an
completion for Indigenous students environment where students can readily
enrolled in higher education courses. Over access assistance such as mentoring,
the past ten years, the completion rates academic advice and tutoring to discuss
have been between 10-20% (DEEWR, ideas and options to arrive at solutions in a
2001-2010) with a high proportion of responsive manner. This creates a
Indigenous students becoming inactive or “presence of support” and a sense of
withdrawing from higher education study. familiarity between enrichment support
The priority for ACIKE is to improve upon staff, the student and the teaching staff.
these completion rates by retaining
students and supporting in ways that build This paper will focus on the above research
capabilities. To achieve this it is question by discussing an evaluation model
paramount to invest time and effort in first that maintains a cycle of continuous
year higher education students in areas improvement of the ACIKE Academic
Enrichment Program (AEP) to be support and referral for pastoral care, and
implemented in 2012. The next section providing outreach services and family
provides a discussion of some of the key involvement. Secondly, Value Indigenous
concepts of the enrichment program that knowledge incorporates the valuing of a
inform the discussion on the evaluation person’s place and identity; valuing and
process. The evaluation model is then recognition of student contribution; and
described in connection with existing providing a place for spirituality, language
evaluative practices that require further and culture. The third area, Teaching and
rigour to achieve positive outcomes for flexible methods includes: adopting
Indigenous students. Details regarding the principles and practices for culturally safe
role of the evaluation model to uncover and constructive engagement;
areas of improvement of the enrichment consideration of regional and remote
program are then discussed followed by students; the provision of cross–cultural
concluding and closing comments. and quality education; building a flexible
curriculum; providing flexible delivery
The ACIKE Academic approaches, and understanding the role of
Indigenous and non-Indigenous academic
Enrichment Program staff. The fourth area, Internal
infrastructure incorporates: visible and
Aims effective leadership and ethos; appropriate
performance measurement, and
The AEP is committed to providing a continuous improvement. The aims and
holistic learning and support environment features of the AEP are supported by a
that aims to retain Indigenous students in a priori literature and associated case studies
manner that enables completion of nationally and internationally with a
courses. The program provides principal focus on Australian Indigenous
personalised academic support and advice education. It is not possible to discuss all
at a course-focused level including of the features of the AEP for the purpose
mentoring and tutoring, study planning of this paper, however, some of the key
and customised skill development concepts are discussed in the next section
workshops. to outline the underlying principles.
The important aims and features of the Key Concepts within the
AEP are encapsulated in four key areas:
AEP
 Student support;
Cultural safety and competence are a key
 Value Indigenous knowledge; focus of the AEP and represent essential
 Teaching and flexible methods; principles that underlie the ethos of a
and multicultural university. To overcome the
 Internal infrastructure. barriers of existing attitudes and beliefs, it
is important for ACIKE to offer a culturally
Firstly, Student support mechanisms safe and empowering environment that
include: embedding a sense of cultural enables reflection on Indigenous history
safety; maintaining cultural competence; and recognises diversity. Teaching and
providing scholarship options and practical support staff need to have an awareness of
financial support, effective academic one’s own cultural reality and the impact of
this on others. There is also a need to give on how the faculty actually teaches the
legitimacy to Indigenous voices and be students. Youngblood Henderson
responsive to diversity for the fulfilment of emphasises that mentoring nourishes the
Indigenous students’ needs (Coopes, 2009). learning spirit and exists on continuous
The offering of relevant courses of study feedback. A case study undertaken by
that allow Indigenous input and direction Penfold (1996) reveals first year
provides a further element of cultural Indigenous law students aspire to become
safety. second and third year Indigenous law
students. This cycle creates a respect
Appraising of one’s own cultural attitude, system that enables a mentoring role for
life experiences and history to ensure other second and third year students for the
people’s rights and cultural ways are benefit of first year Indigenous law
supported underpins the concept of students.
cultural safety. Cultural safety in practice
ensures that receivers of services are the Family involvement is another factor that
definers of the service to incorporate a true is strongly supported in the literature.
sense of cultural appropriateness in service James et al. (2008), Rahman (2009),
relationships (Bin Sallik, 2003; Coopes, Aboriginal Education (2010), Department
2009; De Souza, 2008; Wood, 2010). of Education, Employment and Workplace
Relations (DEEWR) (2010) and Shah &
Cultural competence encompasses Widin (2010) support the knowledge that
awareness, knowledge, understanding of students from families where the parents
and sensitivity to other cultures. Measures understand and value the educational
need to be in place to ensure that pathways are more likely to go on and
standards are met that enable non- complete year twelve and pursue
Indigenous teaching and support staff to university courses.
recognise the impact of their own culture,
values and attitudes on their professional In relation to valuing Indigenous
practice. It is important that community knowledge, the work of Devlin (2009)
input is sourced and minority groups have explores the hidden curriculum in higher
opportunities to communicate effectively education that may have benefited
about how their needs are being met successful Indigenous students and the
(Dunbar & Scrimgeour, 2009). need for these elements to be articulated.
Sharing of knowledge between Indigenous
The AEP includes mentoring as a key peoples for the collective benefit allows for
element to support and foster first year an appreciation of culture and other
higher education students. It is envisaged knowledges so that it may be valued and
that the mentored first year students in developed into a cogent pedagogy that
2012 will become the mentors in future highlights and utilises these values
years. The benefits of mentoring is (Devlin). To ensure that the whole
supported by the work of Youngblood learning experience is culturally relevant,
Henderson (2009) concerning the there is a need for program development,
importance of mentors and how the pedagogy, learning and support for
mentors role should be to focus on how academics (Pearce, 2008).
well the students learn rather than focus
It is acknowledged that Indigenous year student. The formulation of the AEP

students have local knowledge, community considers many other viewpoints, reports
knowledge and other knowledges based on and important research and has been
historical, traditional or their own life developed with these in mind. The
experience and these knowledges are evaluative model to be discussed below is
important assets in terms of their enacted in a parallel manner with the
Indigenous standpoint and their potential enrichment program so that the program
contribution (Nakata, Nakata & Chin, itself synergises with the evaluative actions
2008). Smith (1999) contributes to this to result in a continuous cycle of
thought process through her reference to improvement that enables students.
“celebrating survival” which takes the
focus away from “demise” and “failure” and
Model development
directs focus on the positive elements of
survival and the retention of culture and
ways of being. Factors to evaluate
The AEP aims to accept and recognise that The evaluative model has been developed
all Indigenous students have valuable to channel feedback from the experiences
knowledge and skills to contribute to the of Indigenous students in their first year.
learning environment. It is both prudent This feedback is then fed into the
and paramount for the enrichment enrichment program through refinements
program to incorporate what Devlin to the program. This ensures that there is
(2009) refers to as the “what works” a constancy of endeavour towards helping
approach which balances the focus students towards positive achievements.
between success and failure to learn more The onus is on ACIKE to evaluate the
about Indigenous student challenges and enrichment program and design research
ways to move forward. Nakata et al. methodologies that tease out factors for
(2008) have identified the need for “tools improving Indigenous equity as well as
for engagement” to allow each Indigenous providing a pathway for student outcomes.
student’s important knowledge to be This process extends to successful students
represented in the disciplinary knowledge as well as those experiencing difficulties.
base. Ensuring that first year students are
immersed within a supportive To ensure that students are consolidating
environment that promotes their own skills and capabilities, it is necessary to
cultural and academic wellbeing is an establish what the ideal set of
integral element of the AEP. This supports achievements for Indigenous students in
the transitioning of Indigenous students in their first year should be. The list below
the university setting as core business and describes what an Indigenous student in
not just an add-on feature (Andersen, their first year should ideally experience:
Bunda & Walter, 2008).
 Sharing knowledge
The authors referred to above contribute  Sense of empowerment
important ideologies and practices that are  Culturally supported
integral to building a model of academic  Forming relationships
enrichment for Indigenous higher  Motivated and able to aspire
education students, in particular the first
 Value themselves and able to

contribute Teaching and support staff will play a
 Freedom and comfort in crucial role in obtaining evidence that
expression conveys student perceptions and attitudes
 Successful completion of first year from their experiences and the support
units mechanisms that they find relevant and
useful. To ensure that Indigenous student
These achievements are based on a priori experiences are positive there is a priority
literature including case studies and need for all university staff to have
Indigenous support models from other professional standards and strategies to
universities (Andersen et al., 2008; operate in a culturally safe manner. Within
Gallhofer et al., 1999; Nakata, 2006; Nakata a culturally safe system, Indigenous
et al., 2008; Penfold, 1996; Syron & students are empowered to be themselves
McLaughlin, 2010; White Shield, 2009). to express knowledge and emotion from
They also represent what the ACIKE AEP their own cultural realm. This will enable
seeks to achieve in accordance with the the development of new knowledge and
four aims and features discussed earlier in bolster existing skills and practices
this paper. (Department of Education, Employment,
Training and Youth Affairs [DEETYA],
The next section explains the basis of the 1998; Dunbar & Rossingh, 2012;
evaluation model that will enable Fredericks, 2008; Gunstone, 2008; Syron &
examination of these student experiences McLaughlin, 2010). The passage below
which are not often captured in the makes this point with reference to
university-wide formal student feedback proactive evaluative tools:
data collection.
The final ingredient for increasing
Indigenous higher education success is
Inclusive dimension of the to keep the institutions’ Indigenous
model support mechanisms constantly under
review. This means regular and ongoing
The evaluative model utilises a evaluation and invigoration of the
participative approach. Students, mentors, formal as well as the informal support
teaching and support staff work in a mechanisms provided by Indigenous
centres and those from within the wider
cohesive manner under an umbrella of
university. Support mechanisms need to
nurture and respect. This aids in the level stay responsive to current students’
of intimacy and regularity of the feedback needs and aspirations and be flexible
to be obtained from students. It is enough to be able to adapt to changing
proposed for the feedback process to be student circumstance. (Andersen et al.,
interwoven throughout the student 2008, p. 5)
experience in a fluid manner to yield an
open and honest system that is recorded It is necessary to have in place a cyclical
seamlessly within the course structure and evaluation process so that feedback gained
other support practices. This is an from students can be used to make
important feature so the students do not improvements that will effectively build a
feel overwhelmed with further monitoring stronger and compatible education and
processes. support process. It is anticipated that this
will assist in overcoming the present the university as well as their own
attrition rate and poor completions rate for personal confidence and abilities.
Indigenous higher education students. The
participative action-based cycle will
The model
contribute to a system that constantly
builds on its role to provide a foundation of
Figure 1 illustrates the evaluation model
legitimacy for empowering Indigenous
that is proposed for ongoing evaluation
students.
and continuous improvement of
Indigenous student experiences in the first
According to Greenwood and Levin (2005),
year. The model was developed through a
results from action research are only valid,
reflexive process with the aim of
credible and reliable if they are in fact
identifying areas of improvement that can
acted on. The evaluation model is designed
potentially enable Indigenous first year
to collect student and staff feedback to
higher education students to continue their
ensure that a participative environment is
study journey. It must be noted that the
established to liberate dialogue and build a
current system of data collection, which is
cycle of continuous improvement (Mertens,
helpful and informative to a point, tends to
2005). The refinement of course delivery,
be subject to time lags and risks data
support and other services should lend
redundancy. The ACIKE evaluative model
itself to a more relevant approach that
has been developed specifically to
captivates and retains Indigenous students
understand the usual data that is provided
through to completing stages.
internally but looking beyond this and
seeking more current and intimate data. A
Greenwood and Levin (2005) state that
reactive environment will then develop by
action research has a role to play in
keeping abreast of student issues and
universities in teasing out a shared
acting upon them to ensure the comfort
understanding of how collaboration can
and safety of Indigenous students. Hence,
work and how it forms the basis of
this is a proactive and responsive style of
mediated communication and action.
evaluation.
These authors contend that action research
builds robust foundations for universities
to confront challenges from internal as well
as external stakeholders in a natural
setting and results in a negotiated joint
understanding of what the problem in
focus should be. Through action research,
the teaching process starts to resemble the
action research process in a parallel
manner that comes about from the
problem owners—teachers and students—
linking in a mutual learning system.
Students gain from this experience due to
the inclusive nature that evolves from their
involvement. Their points of view are
absorbed in to the collaborative learning
arena to yield significant contributions to
Figure 1 Evaluation model for the first year student experience
The large arrow in the middle of Figure 1 layer of boxes represents the measures for
depicts the student experience. Each step successful delivery that will be used as
of the way is accumulative and progressive performance indicators to assess the
providing student growth towards setting university systems and surrounding
a vision of completing the course with the environments in relation to their ability to
potential to moving on to employment and provide appropriate support to students.
other activities thereafter. The upper layer
of boxes represents the criteria for ongoing The model self evolves through the action
evaluation which provide different modes research cycle and enables refinement to
of feedback that will be used as the criteria the evaluation measures for the next
for deriving relevant data. The bottom cohort of first year students. This allows
longer term flow on effects in preparing Economic indicators that arise out of
students for the second year. The model is higher education policy tend to measure
operative no matter what year Indigenous efficiency and effectiveness and reliance on
students are in. It is envisioned that the them fails to address Indigenous priorities
model circumvents the alarming inactive or perspectives of success (DEETYA, 1998).
and dropout rate that occurs during the Indigenous self determination1 and social
first year. There are many issues that the justice should be foundational factors for
AEP and the evaluation model will need to driving an inclusive agenda towards equity
be mindful of; such as a student who is the and appropriate outcomes for Indigenous
first in their family to undertake higher students. Matching Indigenous priorities
education, lack of family support, low with appropriate outcomes and balancing
socio-economic circumstances and the these with economic imperatives is
level of encouragement through their required to ensure that outcomes and
earlier years of schooling (Craven et al., indicators reflect important factors. These
2005). Overcoming these issues and factors include empowering a sense of
achieving independence and confidence to control, acquiring relevant knowledge,
operate in the system in their first year is developing skills and furthering capacity
the first and foremost step to empowering and enabling employment opportunities
Indigenous students for the rest of their (DEETYA).
study journey and beyond.
Evaluation and continuous
The focus of the model is on first year
Indigenous higher education students to
improvement
ensure that there is a constant progression
of skill development, knowledge building, Embedding the
comfort within the system and relevance in Indigenous attribute
education delivery. Patterns arising from
studies need to measure change through To achieve policy direction within the
consistent and relevant indicators and map University of Western Sydney, changes
students on a longitudinal basis. took place to emphasise the Indigenous
These longitudinal data sets will then “attribute” (Anning, 2010). This involved
provide relevant performance indicators the development of a comprehensive
for external data collection as well as for knowledge domain whereby cultural
internal use. This will enable university aspects were embedded within the system
policy direction to be respectful and so that graduates develop relevant
incorporate the Indigenous perspective knowledge and skills and Indigenous
(Syron & McLaughlin, 2010). It is proposed students maintain their own sense of
that data collection will entail focus groups, identity within an inclusive environment.
observations, discussions and interviews
with Indigenous students. In addition to
this, the second and third year student 1 Self-determination refers to the right for Indigenous
mentors in teaching and support staff will peoples to freely determine their political status and
freely pursue their economic, social and cultural
be included to provide the relevant system development (Calma, 2004).
data.
This in turn raises the level of academic evaluation systems that ACIKE will be
service delivery across the university. It is introducing as part of the enrichment
therefore paramount that performance process.
indicators are based on and support these
attributes. Anning discusses the need for The ACIKE evaluative model will provide
national policy development relating to data to determine if the existing
enhancing the status of Indigenous culture Indigenous attributes are effectively
and knowledge within the education achieved. ACIKE plans to use a
sector. There is a need for a reinvigoration participatory action research (PAR) inquiry
of evaluative frameworks that include and practice method. This is aimed at
cross-fertilisation of ideas and learnings to drawing out pertinent data arising from
advance and progress a cross-institutional ongoing feedback from students regarding
basis (Andersen et al., 2008). their learning and support experiences on
and off campus, externally or internally
Feedback strategies from enrolled. The action research process will
identify the issues and challenges faced by
Indigenous students
students that need addressing to then
Figure 2 illustrates the different methods inform the direction of the evaluation cycle.
of data collection which include the From this, a best practice model for the
university generic systems plus the further AEP evolves which then feeds in the
information arising such as the support
Figure 2 Student experience feedback opportunities
that students want and need to endure the process seeks to consolidate student skills
journey of study and complete their course in keeping with the research question
of study. presented earlier in this paper. The first
and formative year for Indigenous higher
DEEWR (2009) suggests that systematic education students needs to be structured
and regular action research based yet flexible to nurture students and foster
evaluation and reflection is required; their development towards successful
however it essentially remains limited in achievement. Continual improvement to
most tertiary settings today. Many of the the enrichment program through the
issues, features and factors discussed evaluation model is a key approach to
above in light of the literature remain as finding out exactly what it is that ACIKE
elements of an ongoing evaluative must do to build Indigenous student
environment. According to Munns, Martin capabilities for success in an action and
and Craven (2008), motivation and participative manner.
engagement need to be enduring and
utilise the strengths as key indicators to The ACIKE evaluation model encompasses
nurture and push forward successfully in university-wide mechanisms but
to the future. Such strengths can be recognises that these mechanisms alone
revealed through evaluative models that have not provided an enduring system for
are action research based and take a retention nor achieved acceptable levels of
participatory approach. completions. As ACIKE rolls out this model
in 2012, it will be the Indigenous students
In accordance with Andersen et al. (2008), in their first year that will effectively shape
higher education success is reliant on the model to ensure it has useful
continual review of Indigenous support application in improving the state of affairs
mechanisms requiring regular and ongoing for Indigenous higher education students
evaluation and invigoration of the formal and their complete journey in years to
and informal support systems. These come.
authors emphasise that support
mechanisms must remain responsive to
student needs and adaptable to the References
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7
A fourth generation approach to transition in the

first year in higher education: First year in higher
education community of practice (FYHECoP)
Sorrel Penn-Edwards
Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
Sharn Donnison
University of the Sunshine Coast, Sunshine Coast, Australia
Abstract
We propose that higher education institutions move beyond the third generation approach
to transition pedagogy (Kift, Nelson, & Clarke, 2010) to a fourth generation approach. We
argue that higher education institutions are, as Abraham Lincoln extols, of the people, by the
people, for the people and that all major stakeholders: educationalists; social groups; and
civic bodies should be involved in supporting the transition of the higher education first year
student. We suggest that university-community partnerships, specifically, those involving the
wider social/civic community, have an integral part to play at each point in the progression
of the student through undergraduate studies. Our fourth generation approach extends Kift’s
(2008) exhortation that the first year experience is “everybody’s business” by being
characterised and driven by a social and civic “community of practice” (Wenger, 1998).
Introduction the first year undergraduate’s transition is

enhanced when the student is validated
Considerable research has been through an “enabling, confirming and
undertaken on the First Year in Higher supportive process initiated by in- and out-
Education Experience (FYHE) over the past of-class agents that fosters academic and
40 years with a currently recognised interpersonal development” (Rendόn,
emphasis on the “importance and 1994, p. 44). Such agents include
centrality” of the transition experience to “classmates, family members, spouses,
undergraduate student success in tertiary children, partners” (Rendόn, 2002, p. 645).
studies (Nelson, Smith & Clarke, 2012, p. Thirdly, our proposal also addresses
185). Given this context and the student concerns about the relativeness of
considerable academic, administrative and their study within the wider social context
financial effort it represents, it is not which is acknowledged by researchers of
surprising that targeted measures and first year researchers as a strong indicator
approaches to assist students in their of retention (Crosling, Heagney, & Thomas,
successful and effective transition to higher 2009).
education have become embedded within
wider institutional practices. While acknowledging that institutions of
higher education have a history of
It is now accepted in FYHE research and community involvement, we suggest that
practice that higher education institutions this relationship has not extended to
have transitioned to enacting a third considering the role and expertise of the
generation approach labelled as transition wider community in co-supporting the
pedagogy (Kift & Nelson, 2005) which is student who is entering first year studies
predominately focused on achieving and transitioning into their academic
institution-wide adoption, dissemination studies especially in terms of formalised
and sustainability aimed at student communities of practice (Wenger, 1998).
engagement and retention (Nelson et al., While first year transition has been
2012). While third generation transition considered within the context of a
pedagogy has been invaluable in terms of community of practice (Donnison,
refining, amalgamating, and systematising Edwards, Itter, Martin, & Yager, 2009) we
disparate approaches and practices across argue that a community of practice within
the sector and has had a significant impact the domain of first year in higher
on the quality and success of the first year education, whose members include the
undergraduate experience, we contend wider non-education community, and
that there is a need for a less insular whose purpose is to develop shared
approach which moves beyond the practices and resources to facilitate first
boundaries of the higher education year students’ transition is rare.
institution.
In this paper, we present an argument for a
At the heart of our proposal is firstly, a more inclusive approach to the first year
formal acknowledgement that higher undergraduate experience that is
education institutions are “of the people, characterised by a proposed neoteric
by the people, for the people” (Lincoln, “community of practice” (Wenger, 1998)
1863, para. 3); that a society is comprised that is comprised of the higher education
of many communities, the higher education institution and the wider non-education
institution being only one. Secondly, that community, specifically social and civic
A fourth generation approach to transition in the first year in higher education: First... 75
aspects of society where social aspects refer need to return to a renewed emphasis on
to students’ informal and formal personal democratic public purposes for Australian
connections - family and friends, school, education” (p. 2).
local community and so on, and civic
society refers to community associations, Williams and Cherednichenko (2007)
organisations, and groups external to the suggest the use of Benson and Harkavy’s
university and independent from business (2002) phrase University Civic
and governmental organisations Responsibility Movement to embody the
(InnovateUs, 2011, para. 4). The proposed dimensions of higher education of the 21st
First Year in Higher Education Community century. This concept is similar to
of Practice (FYHECoP) comprises the Wenger’s (1998, 2011) new institutional
students, the higher education institution, social compact and locates responsibility
and the wider social/civic non-education squarely between the education institution
community in which that university is and the non-education community. Indeed,
situated. Sullivan (2000) states, forcefully, that
higher education will only be able to
To contextualise our proposal we discuss contribute to the general welfare of a
the relationship between higher education society if it is seen as “serving some larger
and the community, we then describe public purpose as a citizen within civil
several models of higher education and society rather than simply as a self-
community partnerships around three aggrandising creature of the market” (p.
student life stages, pre-enrolment, 25).
enrolment and graduation. The 4th
Generation Approach is then discussed as a These arguments lend support to our
means of consolidating the dichotomy of proposal for considering a 4th generation
the forms taken by a higher education approach to first year transition in higher
institution of the 21st century discussed education based around communities of
below. practice that encompass not only those
within the institution but also those from
Relationship between higher without. Higher education-community
education and the wider partnerships have been a part of the higher
education’s mission for many years and
community/society
have taken many forms. However, arguably
Higher education has a social compact with as a response to the current economic and
their communities to provide “public social justice discourses about the role of
benefits for a healthier present and future”; the university in sustaining an
be “genuinely committed to serving our economically viable and socially just
students and the larger society”; and society, they appear to be proliferating
promote a “more effective strategy to reach (Williams & Cherednichenko, 2007.
talented students from lower-income
families” (Faulkner, 2013, paras. 4-8).
Forms of higher education-
Similarly, Tight (2012) argues that higher community partnerships
education has a mission to consider “the
regional impact of universities on their A large body of literature is focused on
surroundings, in terms of employment, higher education-community partnerships
financial, and cultural benefits” (p. 142) with entire journals dedicated to this
and Reid (2010) stresses that “there is a research and practice: International Journal
of Community Research and Engagement Stage 1. Student pre-enrolment (Entry

and Australasian Journal of University Programs situated predominantly in a
Community Engagement, and professional community-school context in preparing
alliances, such as Engagement Australia students for entry; Access and Outreach
(formerly Australian Universities Programs);
Community Engagement Alliance). The
recent increase of such journals and Stage 2. Enrolled student (situated in a
professional alliances indicates the higher education institute context, albeit
timeliness, significance and scope of such some disciplines have necessary work
partnerships. experience - Work Integrated Learning -
within the professional community
In the above literature the external context); and
community is portrayed as diverse and
includes local businesses, industries, other Stage 3. Graduate (who moves fully into
educational providers such as schools and the community-employment context).
TAFEs, public agencies, local government
agencies, civic groups, diverse cultural Stage 1. Student pre-enrolment
groups (Tryon & Ross, 2012) and to a
lesser extent, and usually in conjunction In the pre-enrolment stage, there are many
with Community Colleges 1, parents and higher education-high school programs
families (Rendόn, 2002). How universities that encourage senior secondary students
engage with their communities is complex to undertake university courses while still
and variable, dependent upon unique at school, such as the GUESTS program
political, geographical, and historical (Griffith University, 2013), the UniSA
contexts (Spanier, 2004, p. 10). In general, Connect program (University of South
partnerships take the form of institutional- Australia, 2013) and Head Start programs
led joint collaborations around the three offered by 32 universities in Australia and
pillars of institutional work: research; many internationally.
service; and learning and teaching. In this
paper, we are specifically interested in In addition, most Australian tertiary
communities of practice around learning institutions offer general skills-based
and teaching as this is considered critical introductory courses and bridging
for first year transition (Tinto, 2012). programs to pre-enrolled students that
provide alternative pathways for tertiary
We propose that most higher education- entry. These programs are designed to
community partnerships focused on assist non-school leavers to successfully
learning and teaching exhibit a transition into undergraduate programs
chronological linear model centred on through assisting them to manage and take
three stages: responsibility for their own learning
(Huijser, Bedford & Bull, 2008). While
these types of enabling and pre-enrolment
programs have a high attrition rate (a
reported rate of 50% non-completion),
1 Community Colleges in North America students who do persevere, generally go on
typically offer a two year curriculum that to have a successful undergraduate
leads to an Associate Degree. Entry into a
Community College is open to anyone
experience (Muldoon, O’Brien, Pendreigh,
holding a high school diploma. & Wijeyewardene, 2009).
At the pre-enrolment stage, access and together academic staff, students and
outreach programs are also common and community members to focus multiple
generally take the form of scholarships and lenses on the issue or problem. Community
support programs for under-represented participation occurs through all stages of
minority students who may enter via ways the project. The findings are framed by
other than the normal direct-from-school social action goals and are given back to
entry (Perna, Walsh, & Fester, 2011). the community (Tryon & Ross, 2012).
Examples includes Auckland University of
Technology’s government-funded (ii) Tertiary students learning and
scholarship-style program, Pathways to working in the community
University that “covers tuition and course
fees for up to one year of study …, and It is common practice for tertiary students
provides pastoral care with administrative to engage in some form of community
support” (Terrell, 2004, p. 427) and based learning or work as part of their
Victoria University’s Access and Success in academic studies (Bradley, Noonan, Nugent
the West program that aims to improve & Scales, 2008) and is variously referred to
educational experiences for young people as work integrated learning (WIL), service-
in the low socioeconomic western suburbs learning (Eyler & Giles, 1999), community
of Melbourne, Australia “as well as engagement, experiential learning (Closson
increas[e] the capacity of their teachers & Nelson, 2009) and/or community service
and families to support this improvement” learning (Butcher et al., 2003). How
(Williams & Cherednichenko, 2007, p. 7). community service learning is
conceptualised and operationalised varies,
Stage 2. Enrolled student however Simon (as cited in Eyler & Giles,
1999, pp. 4-5) suggests that the goals of
Once enrolled, students may participate in community service learning include
institute-community partnerships where: understanding about and providing service
(i) the institution works on community to the community; learning through
based problems; (ii) the students work in engaging in community service; and using
the community for workplace learning; and community service to support learning and
(iii) individuals from the community vice versa.
contribute to program development, and
teaching and learning. In many disciplines service learning is
integral to learning and teaching, for
(i) Institutions solving community- example, first year medical students at the
based problems University of Rochester School of Medicine
and Dentistry visit The Deaf Strong
The European science shop model is a Hospital to develop multicultural
renowned example of higher education and sensitivity to deaf and non-English-
community working together to solve speaking patients (Thew, Smith, Chang, &
community-based problems and is, most Starr, 2012) and Donnison and Itter (2010)
notably, a partnership idea that originated report on the professional, personal,
within the community (Leydesdorff & academic and transitional benefits of
Ward, 2005). In this model, projects are community engagement for a group of first
initiated by the community based on their year Australian preservice teachers.
perceived needs and are generally
interdisciplinary in nature, bringing
(iii) Individuals and groups from the partnerships, in many forms, are
community collaborating with higher burgeoning across the world and will
education undoubtedly, be a significant attribute of
higher education in the 21st century.
Community involvement in learning and Nonetheless, these admirable
teaching in higher education is a developments are rarely utilised to
recognised and valued practice. It is specifically facilitate the transition of first
accepted practice to include industry year students once enrolled in the
partners as sessional academics and/or institution.
guest lecturers to engage students in
authentic learning and is particularly A 4th generation approach to
conventional in pre-service courses such as first year transition: Responsive,
business (Riebe, Sibson, Roepen, &
respectful, transparent
Meakins, 2013), teacher education
(Johnston & Rakestraw, 2013), and the Duderstadt (2000) suggests that a
health professions (Hawkins, Hertweck, university can “attract exciting, talented
Salls, Laird, & Goreczny, 2012). It is also, people, … stimulate economic growth, …
often, an externally mandated requirement serve as the cultural centre” and beyond
of many professional degrees such as this “assist the city in the development of a
nursing and education where external strategic vision of the future” saying that
advisory committees comprising key “universities should strive to be good
stakeholders and groups in the community citizens and to work with their
consult on program and course communities to improve the future quality
development. of life for everyone” (p. 59). The proposed
4th generation approach to first year
Stage 3. Graduate transition responds to this sentiment. We
present our proposal under three
During the last period of study, the soon-
headings: responsive; respectful and
to-be graduate may be wooed by the
transparent.
community with a view to employment and
commonly takes the form of informal
Responsive
information or promotional activities on-
campus. In Australia 11% of employed
The 21st century student has an
graduates found their employment through expectation that learning is relevant to
Career Fairs and visiting employers careers in the real world, be they local,
(Graduate Career Australia, 2012, p. 2). national and/or international. As
Most higher education institutions also mentioned earlier, higher education
arrange formal internships for their institutions are specialised communities
students with potential employers which within their society and should function as
provide the student with “an opportunity an active integrative component of that
to develop [their] skills beyond the society rather than independent of it. As
classroom and gain a competitive edge in Wenger (2011) says:
the job market” (University of Queensland,
2012, para. 1).
The school is not the privileged locus of
This brief review of the literature indicates learning. It is not a self-contained,
that higher education-community closed world in which students acquire
knowledge … but a part of a broader commence their studies. Yorke, who

learning system … they have to be in the specialises in higher education and
service of the learning that happens in employability as well as the first year
the world. (p. 5)
experience, encapsulates this when
referring to the inclusion of Somali refugee
As such, higher education should be
students in an inner London university:
responsive to and link with the student’s
social communities (family and friends, Isn’t there a way where you [institutions]
school, local community and so on) and can actually work on what they [students]
also to the wider non-education civic know and what they understand and the
community such as “professional groups, way they understand things and bring
labour unions, [and] religious associations, that to the curriculum rather than apply
organisations fighting for citizen rights” your curriculum to them? (Nelson, Clarke,
(InnovateUs, 2011, para. 4). It is clear that & Kift, 2011, p. 5)
connections exist between higher
In accord with Yorke’s plea, as family and
education institutes and social
friends intimately know the student, they
communities and are being further
also possess knowledge and social and
developed by higher education; it is the
cultural capital to assist with the first year
civic community that lacks a role,
student’s transition; as do civic bodies and
particularly with regards to the transition
local communities that have helped shape
of higher education first year students.
the student. To honour what the student
Respectful brings (Yorke, in interview with Nelson et
al., 2011) means valuing and utilising the
In Australia, rates of non-traditional students’ explicit understandings as well as
commencing undergraduates are their social and cultural connections. Our
increasing; 18% are from a low proposed 4th Generation Approach -
socioeconomic background; 40% are first FYHECoP would achieve this aim.
in family to attend higher education; 51%
are living at home and/or are financially Transparent
dependent on parents; and 16% are
To foster the higher education-non-
mature age (older than 25), with 10%
education communities of practice
having dependents (Australian Council for
discussed in this paper, institutions need to
Educational Research, 2010).
transform how they operate, including the
Higher education institutions have way they communicate with those outside
traditionally adopted assimilation the academic world. Principally, higher
principles where students and community education needs to become more
partners adjust to the institution’s ways of transparent in “opening up our institutions
working, however because of increasing to new audiences” (Spanier, 2004, p. 8) and
student diversity, there is a call for higher more communicative with the public
education to “adapt to changing student through knowledge sharing and listening
expectations [and student diversity]” to the wider community as a prerequisite
(Zepke & Leach, 2010, p. 169) by being to helping solve some of society’s and
respectful of the knowledge and social and higher education’s most pressing problems
cultural capital (Zepke & Leach, 2010, p. (p. 8). Higher education’s retention rates -
169) that students bring with them as they anchored in the First Year Experience, and
widening access to non-tradition students • Specifically use expertise from the

are two such problems. wider social and civic community
when planning strategies for
The proposed 4th Generation Approach is transition and engagement
not another pre-entry or enrolment project (Thompson, Head, Rikard, McNeil,
like current access programs or community &White, 2012, p. 100); and
work. It is an institutional approach to the
relationship between the institution and • Allow public access to summarised
the wider non-education social and civic program and course information, aims
society centred on being responsive, and expectations and work exemplars.
respectful and transparent. In many ways
we are placing the institution firmly within 2. To ensure adoption of good
the community. A community has many practice and ensure consistency the
professionals and experts; the higher institution ideally would:
education institution is just one collection
within the wider community that should • Explicitly and formally adopt a 4th
function in conjunction with the wider generation transition approach
community creating a jointly owned enacted in First Year policies and
professional education-social and civic practices; and
society community of practice where the
support of higher education students, • Identify points early in the first year
particularly new first year students is program where guests from the wider
everybody’s business (Kift, 2008). community can participate in sharing
knowledge of life experience, for
Recommendations example, resilience, health, balancing
work and study.
Although our aim in this paper is to
provide a direction rather than a blueprint, 3. To holistically support students
a number of practical recommendations the institution ideally would:
emerge from the literature review and the
attendant discussions. These • Acknowledge and incorporate
recommendations are not exhaustive and student’s prior knowledge, social and
assume that an institution already includes cultural capital in designing and
the practices reviewed in this paper, for administering learning and teaching
example, guest professional speakers, and and assessment;
early access programs. An institution
• Encourage social and civic members
adopting a 4th generation FYE model
to act as advisors and mentors for
would be seen to initiate and work with
students. Future career mentors, past
three foci: sectorial, institutional, and
graduates, and respected public
student-centred:
figures can have ongoing contact with
1. To assure community involvement students, possibly, via the web and
at all stages the institution ideally would: social media;
• Constitutionally rule that all planning • Actively engage families, friends,

bodies comprise equal institution and schools, youth and sporting groups in
community representation; the transition program. For example,
families of second year students can Closson, R., & Nelson, B. M. (2009). Teaching social
justice through community engagement.
mentor commencing students and
International Journal for the Scholarship of
their families; and Teaching and Learning, 3(1). Retrieved from
http://academics.georgiasouthern.edu/ijsotl/v
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contribute to the wider community, Crosling, G., Heagney, M, & Thomas, L. (2009).
such as volunteering, and value this in Improving student retention in higher
the program of study. education: Improving teaching and learning.
The Australian Universities’ Review, 51(2), 9-18.
Retrieved from
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education extends the pedagogical Z. (2009). Reflecting on improving our practice:
transition approaches of Kift et al. (2010) Using collaboration as an approach to enhance
by arguing that the university-community first year transition in higher education.
Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 34(3),
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Donnison, S., & Itter, D. (2010). Community service
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8
Exploring the disconnections: Student interaction

with support services upon commencement of
distance education
Mark Brown Mike Keppell

Helen Hughes Natasha Hard
Liz Smith
Massey University, Palmerston North Charles Sturt University, Bathurst
New Zealand Australia
Abstract
While provision of appropriate supports in the first year of study has been found to have
a positive effect on student success, supports targeting online and distance learners are
often applied in a “goulash approach.” Against this backdrop, the research investigated
the experiences of first-time distance learners with a view to informing the future design
of supports during the early stages of the study lifecycle. The study was framed around
Design-Based Research involving a mixed method approach over three phases: a
stocktake of services designed to support distance learning; a pre- and post-semester
survey of first-time distance learners; and a video diary phase that gathered the lived
experiences of 20 students upon commencement of their study. Triangulated results of
the three phases highlight a disconnection between institutional support services and the
majority of first-time distance learners who demonstrated a self-sufficient, lone wolf
approach to learning.
Exploring the disconnections: Student interaction with support services upon... 85
Introduction compared to 12.9 hours by campus-based

students; and 61% of distance learners
Online learning is the fastest growing spend at least one hour per week caring for
sector of tertiary education (Tennant, dependents, compared to 37% of campus-
McMullen & Kaczynski, 2010). This is based students (Poskitt et al.). According to
adversely juxtaposed with one Kember (1989), family circumstances
fundamental drawback – lower retention including the number and age of
and completion rates than conventional, dependents, housing conditions and the
face-to-face education (Boyle, Kwon, Ross, pressures of responsibilities such as
& Simpson, 2010; Simpson, 2008). Bart earning an income to support the family,
(2012) reports that attrition rates can be can all have a significant impact on a
as much as 20% higher in American online distance learner’s decision to drop out
classes; while Bourke and Simpson (2011) from their program of study.
report that, at lower qualification levels
and in particular disciplines, it can be In the battle to address online student
difficult for distance education programs to retention, Heyman (2010) proposed three
achieve 50% retention in New Zealand. In key themes, the first of which was labelled
the UK, a report from the Open University Student Support and Student Connection
reported that only 22% of distance with the Institution. This theme emphasises
learners commencing undergraduate adequate and ongoing institutional support
degrees completed their study within eight in a range of areas such as academic skills,
years (Higher Education Funding Council financial aid and counselling; to name a
for England [HEFCE], 2009). few. Many authors agree that students who
do not feel adequately supported by their
The decision to persist or drop out of an institution may be more likely to drop out;
online program is complex (Willging & especially in their first year of study (Kift,
Johnson, 2009) and cannot be ascertained 2009; Venstra, 2009). This type of support
from campus-based student data. The is described as cultivating a sense of
experiences of campus and distance belonging amongst first-time students
students are markedly different (Poskitt, (Thomas, 2012). Simpson (2008) has
Rees, Suddaby & Radloff, 2011). In the first consistently argued in favour of support
place, the majority of distance learners are services that meet the specific needs of
likely to be older than campus-based distance learners but cautions that they
students. In New Zealand, almost 80% of must not be simply applied in an ad hoc
all tertiary level distance students are over manner, which he describes as a “goulash
25 years of age (Ministry of Education, approach.”
2010). Furthermore, distance learners are
more likely to combine part-time study Heyman’s (2010) second theme is labelled
with employment and childcare Quality of Interaction between Faculty and
commitments. In Australia, 79% of external Students. One aspect of the teacher’s role is
students study part-time compared to 23% to make the connection with support
of internal students (Department of services. As Russo-Gleicher (2013) reports,
Employment, Education and Workplace teacher attitudes play an important role in
Relations [DEEWR], 2010). Meanwhile, online student retention in some part
data from New Zealand reveals that because teachers are in a central position
distance students commit an average of to identify online students at risk and make
17.6 hours per week to paid employment decisions about whether to make referrals
to student support services. Furthermore, very successful online interactions and

Jones (2010) found that academic caring is relationships with their colleagues. Among
important for male and female online the remaining students to whom digital
students, to an extent that matches confidence is not intuitive, this can be a
classroom students. Overall, online and motivating factor providing they receive
new digital forms of distance education can adequate institutional support. However,
be an impersonal exercise and teachers in the absence of support services, the
have an important role in preventing feeling of exclusion precipitated by lack of
students from feeling “eSolated” (Appana, ability to successfully form online
2008, p. 15). friendships may be equally, if not more,
powerful a reason than academic issues in
Heyman’s (2010) final theme is Student terms of why distance learning students
Self-Discipline. A lack of self-discipline has fail to progress.
been associated with a “dissonant”
approach to learning (Anderson, Lee, Against a background of pertinent yet
Simpson, & Stein, 2011), which has been limited distance-specific research into the
associated with poor student attainment issues regarding retention and completion,
(Entwistle, Tait & McCune, 2000). Intrinsic the current study set out to address an
motivation and possession of an internal important gap in the literature. The
locus of control are critical to distance objective was to investigate the
learner success (Simonson, Schlosser, & experiences of first-time distance learners
Orellana, 2011). Albeit based on a study with a view to informing the future design
among first-year campus students, Ashwin of strategies to support students upon
and Trigwell (2012) report that students commencement of distance study.
who are most motivated in the context of
learning and feel they can succeed in that Methodology
context are those who have an evoked
conception (based on past experiences) of The study involved a mixed method
learning that is more focused on approach over three phases. Design-Based
developing new knowledge; which in turn Research was chosen as a framework that
is characteristic of a deep approach to can guide the development of enhanced
learning (Anderson et al.). educational outcomes. Design-based
research has increasingly received
One theme that Heyman (2010) does not attention from researchers in education for
cover in depth is the issue of digital its interactive and integrative qualities
fluency. Jones, Ramanau, Cross and Healing (Reeves, 2006). It aims to make a grounded
(2010) caution that institutions should not connection between research and real-
assume distance students have the right world contexts. This methodology can be
skills or dispositions to be effective online thought of as “best practice” in complex
learners because, while many are truly learning environments thanks to the
engaged in a wide range of digital activity incorporation of evaluation and empirical
at frequent intervals, others rarely utilise analyses, from which multiple entry points
the digital resources at their disposal. for various scholarly endeavours arise
Baxter (2012) examined digital confidence (Anderson & Shattuck, 2012; Dede,
among distance students at the Open Ketelhut, Whitehouse, Breit & McCloskey,
University and concluded that some 2009).
students are able to initiate and sustain
Phase One involved a stocktake of current From among the 750 potential
institutional services and supports at two participants, 140 volunteered to
large-scale distance education providers in participate. Because more students
Australasia. The primary data collection volunteered than anticipated, for both
technique was document analysis. To ethical and methodological reasons, all 140
clarify questions related to specific services volunteers were invited to complete an
and resources, informal meetings were anonymous online survey before and after
hosted with pivotal staff from both Semester 2. This research activity became
institutions. A catalogue of initiatives were Phase Two. Both surveys comprised two
mapped against a conceptual framework sections: a reflective section followed by a
that was developed by Shillington et al. demographic section. The Pre-Semester
(2012) to support the design of different Survey was structured to gather student
interventions across the study lifecycle. perceptions of reasons for undertaking
The framework proposes six stages: distance study and to explore their
thinking about study; making choices; perceived approach to study drawing on
enrolment; first few weeks; progression, the concept of deep, strategic and surface
and completion. study orchestrations taken from the
Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for
The later phases of research involved the Students (ASSIST) used by Anderson et al.
participation of students from one (2011). It was also designed around the
university with permission from the Equivalency of Interaction Theory of
relevant Human Ethics Committee. student interaction with other students,
Enrolment data was obtained for 750 staff and content (Anderson, 2003). The
students studying via distance for the first Post-Semester Survey adopted the same
time in Semester 2, 2011. The primary structure and sought to explore
method of recruitment was by email respondents’ perceptions of their actual
invitation from the Project Leader to all approach to study throughout the
potential participants at the point when preceding semester. The overall objective
their enrolment had been approved. The of Phase Two was to enable the research
invitation included a Participant team to compare and contrast the pre-
Information Sheet which explained why semester and post-semester perceptions of
students might consider recording video respondents.
diaries for the purpose of research. The
greatest benefit for the student was likely Phase Three involved the purposeful
to be the activity of self-reflection, which is selection of 20 students from among the
an important factor in supporting student 140 volunteers. The intention was to
success. In addition, it was highlighted that broadly represent the demographic and
participant data would be disseminated geographic diversity of first-time distance
across the distance education community learners. The profile of diversity was
to help improve the learning experience for informed by a demographic analysis of the
future students. To compensate University’s distance students during the
participants for their time, the Participant 2010 academic year. Selection criteria
Information Sheet explained that a token of included: age, gender, ethnicity, geographic
our appreciation would be provided upon location, subject of study, level of study,
receipt of participants’ final diary episodes. entry qualification, along with prior or
current experience of tertiary study on-
campus.
Using Sony bloggie™ cameras, video A grounded strategy was applied to the
reflections were gathered using a diary process of thematic analysis, which is a
technique adapted from previous studies. technique for identifying, analysing and
Riddle and Arnold (2007) used the Day reporting themes within data. A theme
Experience Method to investigate everyday captures something important about the
life situations. They required participants data in relation to the research question,
to record written answers to specific and represents some level of patterned
questions sent at irregular intervals response or meaning within the data set
(between 30 and 90 minutes) between (Braun & Clarke, 2003). By following a
8am and 10pm on three separate days. In “realist” approach, the student voice was
contrast, Cashmore, Green and Scott retained at the forefront of the analysis. In
(2010) adopted a free-form approach to other words, the experiences, meanings
video diaries in a longitudinal study with and lived reality of participants were
undergraduate students at the University described as fully as possible to retain a
of Leicester. sense of context. Within the limitations of a
grounded theory, an inductive approach
The present study adopted an approach (“bottom-up”) was applied, which meant
that struck a balance between a structured that the major themes arose from the data.
and free-form approach. The initial Thematic analysis followed Braun and
expectation was for five minutes-worth of Clarke's (2003) six-step process: (1)
video footage per week; although this Familiarisation; (2) Generating initial
expectation waned given that the greater codes; (3) Searching for themes; (4)
issue was not one of duration but of Reviewing themes; (5) Defining and
“forthcomingness” and “insightfulness” of naming themes; (6) Reporting the content
information. A “reflective prompt” protocol of themes.
was designed to encourage “free-flow”
reflections whilst providing “fish-hooks” to Results
elicit targeted categories of information in
a lightly structured manner. Within 48 This section summarises findings from
hours of receiving a participant’s video file, each of the three research phases. For the
the Project Manager would respond via purpose of this paper, the findings focus on
email with a fresh set of reflective prompts data that relates to the interaction of
for the following week. students with learning support services.
Twenty-two hours of rich video data was Phase One

collected from all participants over the first
half of the Semester. During semester- In Phase One, document analysis took place
break, eight participants voluntarily chose under the umbrella of the six stage
to conclude, while twelve chose to continue framework proposed by Shillington et al.
until the end of semester. Although (2012): thinking about study; making
continuation of the video diaries beyond choices; enrolment; first few weeks;
the initial six weeks was not part of the progression, and completion. Findings
original plan, the research team was showed that a comprehensive suite of
mindful of any sense in which the students institutional services were available to
felt abandoned on conclusion of the study. support the diverse needs of distance
learners across all six stages. However, for
reporting purposes, audited services were
The Pre-semester Survey generated a 39%

• The path to enrolment encompassed a response rate (n=62). The majority of
range of online support tools that were respondents were female (78%, n=48),
designed to help students make wise over 25 years old (70%, n=43) and
study choices in light of their existing identified themselves as Pakeha/European
academic skills and life circumstances, decent (92%, n=57). They were mainly
including: How distance learning distance-only students (81%, n=50) as
works; Is distance learning for me?; opposed to a mix of study modes. Over half
Finding time for study; University IT of respondents studied only one distance
and academic skills. paper 1 (57%, n=35) while 26% (n=16)
studied two distance papers and 15%
• Study readiness was a stage that (n=9) three or four distance papers. In
existed during the variable period terms of other commitments on their time,
between enrolment and the official 75% (n=47) of respondents were
start of semester; and was essentially employed, with 45% (n=28) employed
an orientation phase. One institution more than 33 hours per week. The majority
provided a comprehensive distance- of participants (62%, n=38) had a partner,
focussed online orientation experience, while fewer (43%, n=27) had dependent
which included access to an award childcare responsibilities. The Post-
winning suite of short, preparatory semester Survey generated a 37% response
online courses. The other institution rate (n=57) from an almost identical group
provided online orientation support in of respondents, demographically speaking.
combination with a national road show
of regional orientation events for From before the start of semester,
distance students. respondents were divided in the way they
perceived the value of University support
• During the first few weeks and beyond, services. The majority of respondents
the online learning environment was (83%, n=51) lived less than a 60 minute
the portal for most support services at drive from a scheduled orientation event
both institutions. From here, students but only 36% (n=22) planned to attend,
were able to access distance library while 23% (n=14) were not sure. The
services, as well as learning majority (41%, n=25) did not plan to
development services that were attend an orientation event.
available both online and in person
with learning consultants. For niche After semester, on the basis of self-report
groups of students, distance-specific and retrospective recall, the sources of
services were provided by advocacy, most useful study-related information
athlete and cultural support teams. were perceived to be the Moodle online
Many courses at both institutions also learning environment, online library
provided residential schools that their services and the Internet. Notably, 70%
students were encouraged to attend. (n=40) of respondents perceived that the
Finally, distance student success was
monitored throughout the semester by 1 The New Zealand term for a semester-
centralised university campaigns that long teaching activity. It is synonymous with

responded to warning signs. unit, course and subject used in other
jurisdictions.
major advantage of Moodle was access to two hours of video diaries. Arising from the
content as opposed to interactive thematic analysis of video data was a
opportunities with staff (17%, n=10) or theme labelled, Making use of support. The
other students (13%, n=7). As many as theme examined the sources from which
61% (n=35) of respondents reported that students drew to support their academic
the value of their lecturer(s) was related to learning; as well as their life as a distance
“providing information” as opposed to student. After initial analysis and drawing
“offering feedback to go forwards” (30%, on the literature, the interpretation of
n=17) or “challenging their thinking” (9%, these data began with a distinction
n=5). In terms of the value that other between Support Seekers and Lone
students added to the learning experience, Wolves.
44% (n=25) of respondents perceived that
there was none, which suggests a highly Support Seekers
individualised approach to their learning.
Only around a quarter of participants were
In terms of the time committed to study, characterised by their interest in sourcing
only 35% (n=20) of respondents report support. Although the research was
they matched or exceeded the mindful of the validity of retrospective
recommended 10 to 12 hours of study per recall, several Support Seekers mentioned
week, per distance unit. Another 25% orientation events that had taken place
(n=14) reported they studied between before the commencement of data
eight and 10 hours; while 40% (n=23) collection. They also engaged early with
claimed they studied less than eight hours. the online learning environment via
Notably, only 24% (n=14) felt unsatisfied Moodle, which directed them to the
with the hours they had studied per website provided by the University's
distance unit; although only 17% (n=10) Centre for Teaching and Learning; the
wish they had studied fewer papers. When Online Writing and Learning Link (OWLL)
asked whether, during the course of their and the distance library website complete
studies, they were contacted by anyone with how to podcasts. Nathan was
from the University, the majority (52%, identified as a deep learner and a Support
n=30) reported to have been contacted by Seeker from the outset:
both their lecturer(s) and another person;
20% (n=11) by another person only; 17% Moodle is very useful – I've managed
(n=10) by their lecturer only; and 11% to work my way around it; as well as
(n=6) by nobody whatsoever. the library website and the online
tutorials.
Phase Three
Once semester began, Support Seekers
regularly contributed to online discussion
Twenty first-time distance learners
fora with fellow students via Moodle.
participated in this phase of the study: Maggie was a high performing
Andy, Beth, Chris, Deborah, Emma, Fiona,
undergraduate student with previous
Geraldine, Hannah, Ian, Jack, Kane, Libby,
campus-based experience and displayed a
Maggie, Nathan, Olivia, Penny, Rachel, particularly strategic approach to her
Susan, Tom. All names are pseudonyms distance paper, which included setting
and are presented alphabetically in
mobile phone alerts whenever someone
ascending chronological order. These posted a comment on a discussion forum.
participants submitted a total of twenty-
In Olivia's case, Moodle was not initially Olivia and Susan participated in campus-
used to support her course so she initiated based study groups and attended meetings
a discussion group via Facebook; while at the University’s Centre for Teaching and
Beth generated discussion in her private Learning. Olivia was impressed by some
Blog. learning strategies suggested by her
Learning Consultant and exclaimed, “old
Support Seekers were particularly dogs can learn new tricks!” In contrast,
interested in contact with lecturers for the Susan was a newbie in her late forties and,
purpose of discussion, reassurance and following a period of thirty years since high
feedback. Beth was employed full-time school education, wanted all the help she
whilst diligently studying four could get. She particularly valued the
undergraduate units by distance. Because combination of academic and pastoral
she cared about her interaction with support that the University was able to
lecturers, she was disgruntled when she provide:
sent an email to one tutor who responded
that her question was, "irrelevant"; while a I went to Uni and I saw a counsellor
second tutor took almost two months to and she was just awesome. She also
respond to Beth's email. A similar level of put me in touch with the Teaching &
Learning Centre. I came away from
disappointment was described by Support
Uni this morning feeling so much
Seekers whose lecturers’ contributions to more positive.
Moodle discussion forums were perceived
to be terse. Hannah was a Support Seeker Lone Wolves
with an active approach to learning but
was nevertheless intimidated by her As many as three-quarters of participants
lecturer:
adopted a self-sufficient, Lone Wolf
approach to study. They were identified by
My paper coordinator writes real
mean in the forums... and there's been
limited interactions with university
a couple of times I've wanted to write support services, lecturers and other
on there but I'm a bit scared of her students. Only a handful of so called Lone
reaction so I figure it out myself. Wolves mentioned phone calls from
university support services during the
Against this background, Support Seekers course of semester; but without evidence
appeared to enjoy the opportunity to make that these interventions had been received
a personal connection with lecturers at with anything more than ambivalence.
contact courses. For example, Olivia was an Chris was never contacted by the
experienced postgraduate student with an university. He already had failed papers on
exceptionally deep approach to learning his academic record, withdrew from his
and true appreciation for the value of her internal paper and anticipated failure in his
contact course. Nathan was unable to distance unit. He displayed a surface
attend his contact course due to prior approach to study and concluded,
engagements but suggested that future
sessions could be videoed and streamed I have no idea how to find support; I
online. wasn't good at asking for help.
Maximising the campus environment was Lone Wolves, regardless of their proximity,
common among Support Seekers for did not frequent campus; not even for their
reasons in addition to contact courses. contact courses. Libby was one participant
with extenuating family circumstances. generation. However, Ursula was not the
Caring for seven children and a terminally only Lurker whose good intentions to
ill mother-in-law, she had to put her travel become involved in Moodle forums did not
plans on hold — not to mention the four manifest. Nathan, who was typically a
undergraduate units that she was studying Support Seeker, was mid-thirties and
by distance. For others, the decision was digitally fluent but nevertheless explained
more associated with the level of priority that social confidence was a major factor:
attributed to study. Deborah, who had
chosen distance education because Moodle is available but people's base
previous campus-based undergraduate fears of putting something out there
units had not stimulated her sufficiently, and being wrong... it's very different to
was a self-confessed procrastinator and leaning over to a peer and checking
for immediate reinforcement.
reported:
I think one of my papers had a contact In the absence of substantial interaction

course during semester break but with university support services, lecturers
because of work and stuff like that I or other students, some Lone Wolves did
didn't go... I couldn't make the time. report seeking support from family and
friends. A couple of participants had
Kane was a diligent student but relied children who were also engaged in
solely on contact with his lecturer via tertiary-level studies. These children
email. Others, however, preferred to make extended support especially in terms of
no contact with their lecturers whatsoever. proof reading assignments and guidance
During a period of significant angst, Emma with technology. However, it was
resolved to schedule a meeting with her nevertheless reported that nothing was
postgraduate tutor. She later admitted that quite as effective as interacting with
she had felt lazy and had put off making the lecturers and other students in the physical
arrangement. By the time of Emma's final classroom. Among the Lone Wolves, Ian
reflection, she felt sure that her current was a rare high performer who displayed a
study path was the wrong one and felt deep and strategic approach to study but
uncertain about her future. he was quick to admit the reality of his
isolation:
Lone Wolves barely initiated contact with
fellow students. They had mixed views I’ve been trying to integrate my wife in
about the benefits of discussion forums on to talking about what I'm doing but it’s
hard as it can be sometimes quite
Moodle and the role that these played in
technical with writing essays and stuff.
their learning experience. Many therefore
preferred only to observe Moodle
discussion fora and can be described as Reflecting on the findings
Lurkers. Lurking came more naturally to
some than others and Ursula described In Phase One, the audit of interventions at
how she always had to take a deep breath two large-scale distance education
before reading the forums because she providers reinforced the importance of a
perceived them to be full of “waffle” and conceptual framework as a starting point.
often felt that she was “missing the point.” In concurrence with Shillington et al.
Ursula was the oldest participant and (2012), a framework can help institutions
attributed her lack of digital literacy to her to organise interventions across different
phases of the study lifecycle. However, the
problem still remains that patterns of and strategic approaches to learning were
learner needs are still not adequately most likely to be Support Seekers. In other
understood in the distance environment. words, it is thought that students who
demonstrated a strong inner locus of
Contrary to the “goulash approach” control and who were motivated to focus
depicted by Simpson (2008), the audit of their attention on what they could
interventions highlighted a relatively control—as opposed to what they could
comprehensive suite of carefully designed not—found an abundance of supports at
and targeted supports at both institutions. the centre of their circle of influence. This
However, Phases Two and Three revealed finding aligns with Ashwin and Trigwell’s
that the uptake of these supports was poor. (2012) conclusion that students who have
Regarding the path to enrolment and an evoked conception of learning that is
orientation stages, Phase Three of the more focused on developing new
research was limited because data knowledge report adopting deeper
collection began at the start of semester. approaches to learning and perceive that
That said, participants were given ample the learning environment is more
opportunity to reflect on all aspects of their supportive of their learning. However, it
learning journey and either they had not does not follow that Support Seekers knew
used these institutional supports or they how to be the most effective online
were no longer at the forefront of their learners, which supports the observations
minds. of Jones et al. (2010).
As the semester progressed, thematic Conclusion

analysis of video data revealed a
reasonably stark contrast relating to the In conclusion, this study suggests that the
utilisation of support services between success of many first-time distance
students termed Support Seekers and Lone learners is seriously at risk due to
Wolves. Lone Wolves were more likely disconnections between students and the
than Support Seekers to be syllabus-bound services provided by the institution.
and lack self-discipline, characteristics Despite the sophisticated design of
which are associated with a surface institutional supports available, upon the
approach to learning (Anderson et commencement of distance education,
al.,2011). To some extent, findings of the three quarters of students in this study
current study support Baxter (2012) in were adopting a self-sufficient, lone wolf
that the isolation of Lone Wolves was often approach to study. Arguably, the key to
precipitated by lack of ability to improving engagement, retention and
successfully form online relationships with success among first-time distance learners
peers, teachers and support services. can be found at the interface between
However, more typically, Lone Wolves student perceptions of what it means to be
simply had a low awareness of the value a distance learner and relevant support
that can be gained from sourcing support services across all three of Heyman’s
amid, as Kember (1989) described, the (2010) key themes. There is scope for
pressures of everyday life. further research at this key interface to
understand how to more effectively
Albeit based on a small sample, evidence entwine current disconnections.
from the current study strongly suggests
that students who reported the most deep
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9
Transition Pedagogy for an undergraduate, case-

based learning medical program
Lynne Raw, Anne Tonkin, Ray Peterson and Alison Jones
University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
Abstract
Transition Pedagogy provided a framework for a case-study of the first year experience of
students entering Medicine at the University of Adelaide. The first three dedicated areas of the
Transition Pedagogy Model were investigated for the 2011 first year cohort. A mixed-methods
research design was used with students, academic and administrative staff completing surveys
and participating in focus groups. Results revealed that international students experienced a
more positive transition to university than domestic students and investigation of strategies
explored differences in the first year experience of the two groups in the three areas.
International students participated in an International Program and, in comparison with
domestic students, received an extended orientation process, additional scaffolding to engage
in case-based learning and more consistent support in academic, administrative and personal
matters. Evidence from this study supports changes to the first year medical program at this
institution and others to improve student transition in the future.
Transition Pedagogy for an undergraduate, case-based learning medical program 97
Introduction carefully scaffolds and mediates the first

year learning experience” (Kift, 2009, p. 40).
The first year experience of students The model defines six generic First Year
transitioning to university is of interest to Curriculum Principles that provide a
all programs for both students and tertiary framework for a first year curriculum, and
institutions, with the transition process four dedicated areas where the design must
having an impact on “the cognitive, social ensure that students are being supported by
and moral development of students” key strategies that extend across these six
(McInnis, 2001, p. 105). In addition to the curriculum principles. The Transition
usual changes students experience in their Pedagogy Model places emphasis on the
academic and personal lives on first year curriculum and co-curriculum
commencing tertiary study, students design rather than on the experiences of
entering medical programs face further transitioning students. In this study, the
challenges. Workloads are higher than framework was used to explore an existing
most other university programs, and curriculum within a complex medical
students are required to deal with education environment, from the
emotionally charged topics, including perspective of students and their tutors.
exposure to anatomical specimens. In many The learning and teaching experiences of
courses they are also introduced to a small students and tutors were used to focus on
group problem-based (PBL) or case-based existing conditions and strategies in the
(CBL) learning approach which, as a first three of the four dedicated areas of the
student-directed approach based on the Transition Pedagogy Model. The following
principles of adult learning, is most likely to research questions were based on these
be very different from their previous way of three areas, and designed to explore the
learning. transition experience for students within
the context of an undergraduate, case-based
Past research on transition has considered learning (CBL) medical program: (1) How
program evaluation and institutional does the curriculum engage students in
assessment. The need for research to learning in the first year of a CBL medical
improve understanding of the transition program? (2) How proactive and timely is
experience from the student’s point of view the access for students to learning and life
has been advocated (McInnes, 2001). support? and (3) Is a sense of belonging
Research concerning transition into intentionally fostered amongst
medical programs has investigated the state transitioning medical students?
of being a first year medical student rather
than the transition process itself (Teunissen Method
& Westerman, 2011). Little research has
considered the impact on the transition into A case-study of the 2011 first year medical
a medical program of using a PBL or CBL student cohort at the University of Adelaide
approach. in Australia was conducted using a mixed
methods data collection strategy (Cresswell
This study reports on the transition into a & Plano Clark, 2011). The changes students
first year medical program using the experienced during transition were
framework of the Transition Pedagogy explored through triangulation of
Model, which has been described as “a quantitative and qualitative data from the
guiding philosophy for intentional first year students, their CBL tutors and medical
curriculum design and support that
students in higher years. The first year Learners and Faculty at Two Institutions
medical cohort (187 students) comprised about Small-Group Teaching Methods:
172 domestic (92%) and 15 international Problem-Based Learning and Case-Based
(8%) students. All students participated in Learning” (Srinivasan, Wilkes, Stevenson,
three two-hourly CBL tutorials per week Nguyen, & Slavin, 2007). Additional items
and in addition, international students were (9, 12, 13 and 15) were developed to
required to attend weekly, 90 minute investigate specific areas of learning.
sessions within the International Program. Participants rated their agreement with
The objectives of this program were to statements about CBL on a scale of 1
assist international students with their (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree).
academic language and learning and to The mean “CBL perception score” (range
provide support for the transition to 19-114) was calculated for the student and
learning in a CBL environment. Both tutor cohorts. Three items which could be
quantitative instruments and qualitative regarded as negative perceptions of CBL
approaches were used. (Items 17, 18 and 19) were re-coded so that
the most positive responses received the
The First Year Experience highest score. A linear mixed model, which
Questionnaire took into account clustering within CBL
tutorial groups, tested the differences
The First Year Experience Questionnaire between the means and the significance of
(FYEQ) (James, Krause, & Jennings, 2010) any differences between the means for
modified to fit the context of a medical individual items for students and tutors.
program was used, and allowed comparison Statistical analysis of data was performed
of the medical cohort with a general cohort using the Statistical Package for the Social
of first year students entering a variety of Sciences (SPSS20) with significance set at
courses at nine universities throughout p<.05.
Australia. Nine domains, identified by
grouping together items that describe Focus groups and interviews
underlying constructs of students’
transition experiences, were used for these A total of nine focus groups, containing
comparisons (pp. 80-81). Independent t- seven to nine participants per group,
tests were used to investigate the following explored the quantitative data that emerged
comparisons in mean domain scores: the from the questionnaires. Four focus groups
medical versus general cohorts, domestic were held with students from the whole
and international medical students cohort, two with international students, two
separately versus the general cohort, and with CBL tutors, and one with
domestic versus international medical administrative staff involved in the first
students. year medical program. Interviews were
completed with first year student
The CBL Perceptions representatives on the Year 1 Committee,
Questionnaire administrative staff, a representative from
the Students’ Medical Society and the
This survey investigated students’ and International Program Coordinator. Focus
tutors’ perceptions of learning and teaching groups and interviews, each lasting
and was developed from a previously between 60-90 minutes, were recorded and
validated instrument, “Perceptions of transcribed. Thematic analysis was
completed with NVivo9 software, using were compared with the general cohort,
themes defined by the theoretical results (Table 1) were identical with the
framework of the Transition Pedagogy comparison of the whole medical cohort
Model. with the general cohort. However,
international students were more similar to
Thus we compared the transition the general cohort, the only significant
experiences of a cohort of medical students difference being for the domain Academic
with a general cohort of students, and the Application, for which international
experiences of domestic and international students scored significantly higher than
students within the medical cohort. the general cohort (p=0.003). Unlike
domestic students, international students
Results and Discussion did not score significantly lower than the
general cohort on the Comprehending and
Quantitative results: Challenges Coping domain.
and experiences
A comparison of domestic and international
Results from the modified First Year students using the independent t-test (final
Experience Questionnaire (Table 1) showed column in Table 1) confirmed results from
that on four of the nine domains the medical the comparisons with the general cohort for
cohort scored a significantly higher mean all but two of the domains. For Sense of
score than the general cohort. These Purpose, domestic students, but not
domains were Sense of Purpose (Cohen’s international students, scored significantly
d=0.533), Student Identity (Cohen’s higher than the general cohort, although the
d=0.313), Course Satisfaction (Cohen’s comparison between domestic and
d=0.543) and Prepared and Present international students showed no
(Cohen’s d=0.455). However, for the significant difference. For the
Comprehending and Coping domain, the Comprehending and Coping domain,
mean score for the medical cohort was domestic students, unlike international
significantly lower (Cohen’s d=0.316). students, scored significantly lower than
Analysis of items within the the general cohort (2.75 vs. 3.01), but the
Comprehending and Coping domain difference between domestic and
showed that there were no significant international students did not reach
differences between the two cohorts in the statistical significance (p=.076), probably
number of students who found it difficult to because of the small number of
understand the material they were international students (n=15) resulting in
studying, in how often they felt inadequate statistical power.
overwhelmed by all they had to do, nor in
finding it difficult adjusting to the style of The total mean score (max score 114) on
teaching at university. However, the CBL Perceptions Questionnaire (Table
significantly more of the medical cohort 2) was significantly higher for CBL tutors
found the workload too heavy (52.5% vs. than for the students (91.4 vs. 83.9, p=.012).
32.6%, χ2=43.9, p<.001), and found it To understand the differences between the
difficult to keep up with the volume of work perceptions of CBL tutors and their
(41.5% vs. 32.0%, χ2=9.49, p=.009). students, the responses to the individual
items of the questionnaire were
As expected, when domestic students (who investigated. For all the positive items,
comprised 93.4% of the medical cohort) students and tutors were in general
Table 1: Comparing mean scores (M) of domains in the First Year Experience Questionnaire.
General Cohort Medical Cohort
Domains (n=2422) Whole Medical cohort (n=187) Domestic students (n=168) International students (n=15)
Indep
(in order of Indep. Indep.
Indep. t-test.
mean score of M M M t-test M t-test
SD SD t-test SD SD domest. vs.
General Cohort) /5 /5 /5 GC vs. /5 GC vs.
GC vs. MC internat.
domest internat.
1. Sense of
p<.001
purpose 4.04 0.81 4.42 0.60 4.42 0.61 p<.0001 4.45 0.52 p=.059 p=.825
2. Course
3.94 0.84 4.33 0.57 p<.001 4.34 0.58 p<.0001 4.26 0.44 p=.154 p=.608
satisfaction
3.Student
3.82 0.93 4.08 0.72 p=.001 4.12 0.70 p<.0001 3.82 0.75 p=.999 p=.127
identity
4. Teaching 3.52 0.70 3.50 0.52 p=.344 3.48 0.54 p=.480 3.79 0.32 p=.149 p=.033
5.Academic
orientation 3.51 0.87 3.63 0.62 p=.672 3.62 0.63 p=.109 3.86 0.53 p=.133 p=.168
6. Prepared &
3.36 0.89 3.73 0.73 p<.001 3.76 0.75 p<.0001 3.48 0.50 p=.614 p=.175
present
7.Peer
3.05 1.07 2.97 0.96 p=.326 2.98 0.97 p=.412 3.00 0.83 p=.862 p=.940
engagement
8.Comprehendi
3.01 0.79 2.77 0.73 p<.001 2.75 0.73 p<.0001 3.11 0.68 p=.637 p=0.076
ng & coping
9.Academic
application 2.95 0.90 3.06 0.84 p=.585 3.01 0.81 p=.403 3.68 0.64 p=.003 p=.003
agreement (i.e. both groups with scores 17 that there was ‘an unrealistic quantity of
>3.5) but the degree of agreement of the work outside tutorials’.
tutors was higher than students for these
items. For the three negative items (items This outcome was consistent with findings
17, 18, and 19), tutors showed from the First Year Experience
disagreement (scores <3.5) and students Questionnaire that students perceived the
were close to neutrality (scores close to course workload to be too heavy and found
3.5). Items 17 and 19 both related to the it difficult to keep up with the volume of
nature and quantity of work for students work during their transition into Medicine.
outside CBL tutorials. While tutors Better alignment between tutors’ and
disagreed that the quantity and nature of students’ perceptions of the workload for
work in developing understanding placed students outside tutorials is needed, as
unrealistic demands on students, students more effective learning has been shown to
were close to neutral on these statements, occur when students’ and teachers’
even showing slight agreement with Item expectations and understandings of the
learning process are completely aligned
(Crisp et al. 2009).
Table 2: Comparing items of CBL Perception Questionnaire for students and their tutors.
Items Mean score out of 6*

Statistical
(in order of Mean Scores of students) Students (n=183) CBL tutors (n=16)
The CBL process results in:
Mean S.D Mean S.D Wilcoxon p
(strongly disagree=1 to strongly agree=6)*
1. ....opportunities to explore a single case in depth 5.19 0.77 5.38 0.50 p = 0.489
2. ....an emphasis on students being able to work on
5.12 0.84 5.25 0.86 p = 0.487
their own (independent learning)
3. ...an environment that enhances learning 5.05 0.71 5.37 0.62 p = 0.070
4. ... productive work that enhances learning 5.02 0.78 5.50 0.63 p = 0.010
5. ....opportunities to explore topics related to the case 4.97 0.78 5.13 0.62 p = 0.537
6. ...opportunities for the application of clinical
4.84 0.87 5.37 0.62 p = 0.012
reasoning skills
7. ...students being encouraged to decide what is most
appropriate to learn for the next session, how they will 4.80 0.93 5.07 0.46 p = 0.384
learn it (self-directed learning)
8. ...quiet students being encouraged to participate 4.49 1.09 5.06 0.77 p = 0.047
9. ...tutors and other staff helping students to
4.48 1.10 5.06 1.00 p = 0.009
understand what the process of CBL involves
10. ...opportunities to use knowledge/skills from
4.44 0.92 5.13 0.50 p = 0.002
Resource Sessions
11. ....the efficient use of time during CBL tutorials 4.43 0.99 4.62 1.03 p = 0.240
12. ...students being helped with answers to questions
for which they have been unable to find satisfactory 4.34 1.00 4.00 1.46 p = 0.442
answers
13. ...students being helped to work out the depth of
4.18 1.24 4.62 1.20 p = 0.144
learning that they need for different concepts
14. ...small group tutors asking direct questions 4.05 1.08 4.31 1.37 p = 0.169
15. ...students being given helpful suggestions about
3.98 1.07 4.56 0.96 p = 0.036
resources
16. ...a manageable workload between sessions 3.87 1.06 4.50 1.10 p = 0.018
17. ...unrealistic quantity of work outside tutorials 3.57 1.26 2.75 1.07 p = 0.013
18. ...the group being side-tracked unproductively
3.39 1.10 2.69 1.01 p = 0.020
down blind alleys
19.... unrealistic demands on students in developing
understanding of concepts and principles associated 3.35 1.21 2.19 0.91 p <0.001
with the case, outside tutorials
Mean of the Total CBL Perception Score (/114) 83.9 10.33 91.4 11.22 p=0.012
Therefore both students and their CBL students could feel in a tutorial situation.
tutors would benefit from making explicit One student commented: “The lectures
the work expected of students outside seemed to teach students very little about
tutorials. the CBL process itself” (Student FG2).
Orientation has been described as a process
Qualitative results from exploring rather than an event (Clarke, Kift, & Nelson,
three dedicated areas of the 2010), and one “…in which the learner
Transition Pedagogy Model engages, facilitated by structured learning
opportunities. An orientation prepares the
Differences emerging from the quantitative learner for an approach to learning that may
data comparing the transition experiences be new to her/him and which may involve
of domestic and international students changes to established habits and
were investigated further through the expectations of learning” (Taylor & Burgess,
Transition Pedagogy Model. The model 1995, p. 2). International students, through
facilitated an orderly exploration of the additional weekly sessions in the
components of the complex educational International Program, experienced
environment of the medical program. orientation as a process extending
Comments from students and tutors are throughout first semester, which provided
identified according to the Focus Group them with structured learning
they participated in (Student Focus Group opportunities to support development of
1=Student FG1, Tutor Focus Group 1=Tutor both their knowledge base and process
FG1). Results of these investigations skills for CBL.
provided the following answers to the
research questions: First year students described encountering
three main difficulties with CBL, requiring
How does the curriculum engage changes from their previous ways of
students in learning in the first year of learning. These were: difficulties in
a CBL medical program? determining the depth of study for
themselves, finding that rote learning did
Students generally found that the case- not help them with elaboration of
based approach helped them to engage in knowledge and clinical reasoning skills, and
learning through its use of clinical cases: adjustment to actively participating in CBL
tutorials where the role of their tutor was
I don’t think I could just sit down and read that of a group facilitator rather than a
about the heart and remember it all. But provider of knowledge, which had been the
when you have a patient (case) in front of main role of their secondary school
you, you can relate it to them …. It’s not
teachers.
just completely abstract … you can
actually put it into context (Student
Students reported spending a great deal of
FG2).
time working out the depth at which to
study: “You were given the information [in
Orientation to the CBL approach, involving
Year 12] so, whereas here you have to sort
two introductory lectures with the whole
of find it yourself and as there’s an endless
first year medical cohort before students
amount of information out there, it’s like
began working in small groups, did not
‘Where do I stop’?" (Student FG3). By
reflect the reality of CBL tutorials as they
did not convey how confused and pressured Semester 2, students employed a variety of
strategies, either self-discovered or learned
from their tutors or peers, to discern the as one student found “…you know you’re
depth of knowledge required. These not going too much or too far”
strategies included looking at the big (International student 6).
picture and not going into too much detail,
Rote learning, which many students had
comparing their level of detail with other
relied on in Year 12, was found to be
students, and consulting repeating
appropriate in some areas of anatomy and
students. Students reported great variation
physiology, but did not provide sufficient
in support from their CBL tutors, with some
understanding for elaborating on their
tutors providing useful strategies such as
knowledge in CBL tutorials, nor for
students initially consulting their text book
developing clinical reasoning skills:
rather than journal articles. One tutor
advised students that “When you’re I really like it (learning for
reading, you must have a question in mind understanding) I prefer it. I don’t like to
and if you don’t know what question you’re rote learn and I don’t like Anatomy
answering, stop, and think ‘Okay, what am I because you have to learn all of these
trying to find out here?’ and then go back to things and it’s just no context, but with
it” (Tutor FG1). Some tutors believed that clinical reasoning it’s a lot easier, you
allowing students to discern the depth of understand (Student FG2).
understanding required for themselves
Two important processes in CBL tutorials
enhanced their self-directed learning skills,
that help students with their knowledge
whilst others seemed uncertain as to how to
base and clinical reasoning are the
guide students, with one tutor commenting:
development of learning issues (knowledge
“I need actually more guidance in how much
needing to be researched between tutorials
depth they [students] need to know about
and elaborated on in subsequent tutorials)
things, because I have no idea” (Tutor FG2).
and mechanisms (diagrams to illustrate the
International students described how sequence of events in a pathological
additional scaffolding through the process). Students reported great variation
International Program helped them to in the guidance from CBL tutors for students
discern the depth of study by providing in both these processes and even by
extra notes on the cases, guidance as to Semester 2, some students felt they needed
what resources to use, where they could more guidance in these areas:
locate resources and the depth at which to
We’d end up spending at least like an hour
study these resources. One international on learning issues and then this semester
student explained: our tutor, we don’t do the learning issues at
all unless there’s problems, there’s like a
In the prompts given during CBL tutorial, massive difference between what we’ve
they are usually like websites given and been doing in the two different tutes
some of them are really hard to find and (Student FG4).
so she (the International Program
Coordinator) will provide us with International students reported that the
materials which are from the links
provision of extra scaffolding resulted in
provided in the prompts, so it saves us
quite a bit of time (International student them spending less time than domestic
3). students in investigating learning issues.
They were given opportunities to practise
This scaffolding helped international writing mechanisms in sessions held before
students with time management because their CBL tutorials, and “When we did have
problems [with mechanisms], the everybody can discuss it” (Tutor FG2).
International Program Coordinator would Without a safe environment, participation
also get us to discuss it all together until we in CBL tutorials was stressful for some
could get to something that we all agreed students:
on” (International student 8).
I’ve had two fantastic tutors so far and
Medical students reported difficulties in really good groups and other people dread
adapting to the role of the CBL tutor as a CBL but I have a friend who doesn’t sleep the
night before ‘cos that person’s so worried
group facilitator rather than a provider of
about what’s going to happen (in next CBL
knowledge, yet evidence shows it is tutorial) (Student FG1).
important for students to understand this
role if they are to successfully adapt to CBL Tutors saw giving feedback to individual
(Hmelo-Silver & Barrows, 2006) Tutors students as an important strategy for “…
should provide a major source of highlighting their strengths and using
scaffolding for engaging students in strategies to help overcome their
curriculum by discerning whether further weaknesses”, but some reported difficulties
questioning is required to help students with giving feedback and maintaining a
confirm their content knowledge, and good relationship with the group: “I mean
providing timely, honest and specific I’m guilty of being too nice ... maybe
feedback to the group and individual confusion here that you can't be nice and
students. Active participation in CBL give effective feedback at the same time”
tutorials was a requirement of students (Tutor FG2). Students desired consistent
from the third week of Semester 1, and was feedback rather than inconsistency
assessed on a formative and summative between verbal feedback during the
basis. Many students reported that their semester and the grade at the end of
tutors varied greatly in the frequency and semester: “I got positive feedback every
quality of feedback they provided. feedback session and yet I failed both
Reflecting on feedback can help students to assessments in my CBL” (Student FG1).
improve how they learn and tutors to
improve their facilitation skills. (Sandars, For international students, active
2009). The inability or unwillingness of participation in CBL tutorials was
some tutors to facilitate these key features particularly important. The International
of learning through the CBL process could Program Coordinator (IPC) gave high
have contributed to students studying priority to scaffolding the actual processes
inefficiently outside tutorials, with the of CBL for students by encouraging them to
resulting perception of a heavy workload practise the participation skills required.
and difficulties in keeping up with the Students learned to recognise prompts
volume of work. Many students struggled from their tutors about the case, and how to
with lack of direction early in the course and respond to these prompts. They practised
looked for more consistency and structure. oral responses to their CBL tutors’
questions, thus helping with elaboration of
Some tutors believed that it was important their knowledge: “She [the IPC] gets us to
to create a “safe environment” for active talk about what we know and what we don’t
student participation: “I tell them it’s going and try to understand certain things
to be a safe environment where they can say together, so it kind of helps you with the
whatever they want to say, and even if it’s CBL process.” (International student 1).
wrong, it’s important to say it so that
Students were given strategies for speaking from their tutor mainly when everything
up in tutorials and for holding the attention else fails” (Schmidt & Moust, 2000, p. 40).
of other group members. They were guided Peer help was often sought informally, but
on how to give case presentations and was also available through programs run by
provided with opportunities to practise this the Medical Students’ Society. Whether
skill: students sought help from tutors depended
on their perception of the tutor’s knowledge
In every session she made everyone do a case base: “Sometimes when I had a CBL tutor
presentation so we got more chance to who was a doctor, she was really good at
practise. At the beginning of the year she
answering questions for us” (Student FG4).
gave us notes on how to do case
presentations properly, so this actually
International students felt confident in
helped a lot (International student 7).
accessing administrative staff and
The provision of feedback by the IPC was participating in peer support programs. In
timely and specific, enabling students to addition, the IPC took on the role of mentor,
improve their skills where needed: “The with students confident to approach her
good thing is that she’s really honest with us with any problem: “I think knowing that
so when there is something that goes wrong she’s [the IPC] there if anything goes wrong
she tells us straight so we know” .... there’s someone you can fall back on.”
(International student 5). Thus (International student 6). This additional
international students received additional support contributed to a more positive
scaffolding for engagement with the learning experience for international
curriculum to assist their activation of prior students; as one student commented “…it
knowledge, elaboration of learning and allows you to enjoy the [learning] process
learning in context. much more.” (International student 6).
How proactive and timely is the access Is a sense of belonging intentionally

for students to learning and life fostered amongst transitioning medical
supports? students?
Students were expected to be proactive in Fostering a sense of belonging is an

seeking access to learning and life supports. important element of the Transition
When they sought assistance, both Pedagogy Model (Nelson, Creagh, Kift, &
international and domestic students found Clarke, 2010) as it has been identified as an
that it was accessible and timely and important factor in helping students engage
provided by peers, administrative staff, and in the first year experience (Krause &
academic staff. Administrative staff Coates, 2008). The Student identity domain
described how transitioning students often in the First Year Experience Questionnaire
needed support in the areas of enrolment showed that first year medical students had
and relocation from interstate or overseas a significantly stronger sense of identity
in the first few weeks of the year. Students than general first year students (p=.001,
found that help with learning was more Table 1). They identified strongly with
readily accessible from peers than from CBL other students in the medical program:
tutors and this is consistent with previous
It’s a community and [in] other courses you
findings that “the tutor can be considered a
have different subjects and different people
last-resort device. Students seek guidance
and different buildings and all that. But in
Med you’re doing all the same stuff with all (as experienced by domestic students).
the same people. There is a real ‘These are Secondly, additional scaffolding provided
the people that you’re going to be spending through the International Program was
the next six years of your life with’ sort of effective in facilitating adaptation to self-
thing (Student FG3). directed learning required for CBL. Thirdly,
this Program provided a more consistent
Students attributed this sense of identity to source of help for international students in
the nature of the medical program where all academic, administrative and personal
students in a year level study the same matters, than was accessible to domestic
courses, and to academic and social students. We conclude that these three
activities organised by their peers in the differences explain why, compared with
Medical Students’ Society. An early sense of domestic students, international students
identity with the medical profession was did not find the workload too heavy, nor
also evident and students attributed this to were they struggling to keep up with the
the very close medical fraternity modelled volume of work.
to the students by those lecturers who were
also clinicians, both in their teaching and These results suggest that to improve the
their clinical roles (interview with student experience for transitioning medical
representatives). For international students, orientation, scaffolding and
students, the support provided by the IPC training of CBL tutors need careful
fostered a sense of belonging through consideration. Changes to the medical
helping them to develop friendships with program at this institution will address
other international students, and by giving these differences, with small group CBL
them confidence to contribute during other tutorials and assessment of student
group activities outside the International performance not commencing until
Program. Domestic students did not Semester Two. In Semester One, students
attribute their strong sense of belonging to will be introduced to the CBL process in a
their CBL tutors. large-group, lecture situation, and
participate in small group activities within
Conclusions the lecture. Throughout the semester, the
process of working through a case,
Quantitative data indicated that including the development of learning
transitioning domestic medical students, issues and mechanisms, will be modelled to
but not international students, experienced the whole group, thereby providing an
significant difficulties with coping with the extended orientation and consistent
workload they perceived to be required. scaffolding in the CBL process for all
Investigation of this difference using the students. With ongoing revisions of the
Transition Pedagogy Model to guide medical program, the opportunity exists to
enquiry showed no differences in relation to apply a Transition Pedagogy incorporating
a sense of belonging, as both groups of the principles and strategies espoused by
students experienced strong and positive Kift (2009), in order to provide an optimal
fostering in this area. Three differences first year experience. With commitment at
emerged that may be contributing to the both the policy and practice levels, a
smoother transition experienced by curriculum specifically designed to promote
international students. Firstly, international the transition to first year, distinct from
students had a more extensive and longer other years of the program should enhance
orientation process, rather than an event
the first year experience for students Nelson, K., Creagh, T., Kift, S., & Clarke, J. (2014).
Transition Pedagogy Handbook. A good practice
entering Medicine.
guide for policy and practice in the First Year
Experience (2nd ed.). Retrieved from
http://eprints.qut.edu.au/76333/1/Transition_
Pedagogy_Handbook_2014.pdf
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10
Focusing on first year assessment: Surface or deep

approaches to learning?
Sharn Donnison
Sorrel Penn-Edwards
Abstract
This paper investigates the assessment and learning approaches that some first year
students employ to assist them in their transition into their first year of study and
extends our previous work on first year student engagement and timely academic
support (Penn-Edwards & Donnison, 2011). It is situated within the First Year
transition and student engagement literature and specifically speaks to concepts of
learning within that body of literature. In this paper we argue that while students are
in the transitional period of their studies, the use of assessment as a motivator for
learning (surface approach) is valid first year pedagogy and forms an initial learning
stage in the student’s progress towards being lifelong learners.
Focusing on first year assessment: Surface or deep approaches to learning? 109
approaches to learning in the transition

Introduction period, timing and provision of teaching to
facilitate deeper learning, and assessing
This paper argues that the “current student learning is under-researched. This
innovations in university curricula [that] paper addresses this area of need.
concentrate on shifting students towards
deep approaches” to learning (Entwistle & Learning approaches in higher
Peterson, 2004, p. 423) may be premature education
when applied to commencing first year
students. We focus on the relationship
The literature on learning in higher
between first year transition in higher
education, in general, is premised on a
education, assessment and student
belief that higher education is about
approaches to learning to propose that
students undergoing conceptual change
assessment as motivation for learning is a
(Biggs & Tang, 2007; Entwistle & Peterson,
critical stage in the first year transition.
2004; Gamache, 2002) and learning how to
learn (Wingate, 2007). Learning to learn in
There is an established body of literature
higher education is said to occur in two
on transition and engagement in the first
areas: understanding learning processes
year in higher education (Penn-Edwards,
and becoming an autonomous learner; and
2010; see also reviews of the literature by
understanding discipline knowledge and
Evans, 2000; Harvey, Drew, & Smith, 2006;
becoming competent in constructing that
Kuh, Kinzie, Buckley, Bridges, & Hayek,
knowledge (Wingate, 2007, p. 394).
2006; Prebble, Hargraves, Leach, Naidoo,
Essentially, these two areas describe a
Suddaby, & Zepke, 2005). This literature
deep approach to learning. Marton, Säljö,
recognises the importance of institutional,
and Svensson in the 1970s (Entwistle &
academic, and social support for successful
Peterson, 2004) were the first to categorise
student transition and engagement with
approaches to learning as surface or deep; a
learning (Masters & Donnison, 2010;
recent addition to this field of study
Wingate, 2007). It also notes that
includes a strategic approach to learning,
successful engagement with learning is
or more accurately, to study (Entwistle &
dependent upon students dealing with new
Peterson, 2004).
academic requirements and an
understanding that a range of social,
economic, and physical factors may impact Surface approach to learning
on their successful transition (Tinto, 1993).
The surface approach to learning is about
There is some research focusing achieving course requirements with the
specifically on learning in the transition minimum of effort, “the terms ‘cutting
period into higher education (Burton, corners’, and ‘sweeping under the carpet’
Taylor, Dowling, & Lawrence, 2009), convey the idea: the job appears to have
although it is scant. Most transition and been done properly when it hasn’t” (Biggs
learning literature focuses more generally & Tang, 2007, p. 22). Early descriptions of
on the importance of engagement with surface learning highlighted reproduction
learning for successful student transition of content (rote learning) rather than
(Kuh, 2003). More specific issues about seeking meaning. Refining these
descriptions, Entwistle and Peterson correlate with lower grade point averages
(2004) describe the surface approach as over the first semester of study (Burton et
treating the course as unrelated bits of al., 2009, p. 72).
knowledge, routinely memorising facts and
carrying out procedures, focusing narrowly Deep approach to learning
on the minimum syllabus requirements,
seeing little value or meaning in either
A deep approach to learning is a “complex
course or set tasks, studying without
personal development process involving
reflecting on either purpose or strategy,
the change of perceptions, learning habits
and feeling undue pressure and anxiety
and epistemological beliefs” (Wingate,
about work (p. 415). Given these
2007, p. 395). It is also about meaningful
characteristics, McCune and Entwistle
engagement in tasks, focusing on
(2000, p. 2) propose that it would be more
underlying meanings, main ideas, themes
appropriately labelled as the Surface
and principles, refining ideas, using
Apathetic Approach as it is essentially
evidence and applying that knowledge
characterised by lack of understanding and
across contexts (Biggs & Tang, 2007;
purpose, syllabus dependency, and a fear of
McCune & Entwistle, 2000).
failure.
The terms “first year student” and “deep
Surface approaches to learning are
learning” are not necessarily contradictory.
considered, in the main, to be ineffectual
Some first year students use a deep
and commonly associated with poor
approach to learning although this is
academic performance. However, some
limited by their inexperience (McCune &
surface approaches to learning such as
Entwistle, 2000); incapacity to “go beyond
memorisation are seen as having a place in
basic understandings of the course
certain areas of study such as languages,
material” (p. 5); inability to show all
mathematics, and the sciences (Biggs &
characteristics associated with deep
Tang, 2007; Chan, 2004; Entwistle &
learning, to engage in deep learning
Peterson, 2004) and, as Ryan and Louie
continuously or to consistently engage
(2007) suggest, can be a precursor to
even within a specific task (p. 13); and they
deeper learning in these areas.
show little development of their deep
approach to learning over the year (p. 6).
Many first year students, regardless of
their area of study, adopt surface
approaches to learning. Wingate (2007) Strategic approach to studying
explains that this is because they arrive
“with epistemological beliefs that stem A strategic approach to studying is also
from their previous learning experience at referred to as an achieving approach (Biggs
school; [and] they see learning as the & Tang, 2007) and is about “putting effort
‘passive absorption’ of external knowledge into organised studying” (Entwistle &
that is owned by authorities such as their Peterson, 2004, p. 415) with an intention of
tutors or their textbooks” (p. 395). fulfilling assessment requirements while
Commencing school leavers are more likely enhancing self esteem through competition
to adopt surface approaches to learning (Burton et al., 2009). It is characterised by
than mature age students and a surface organised study, time management,
approach to learning was found to
students monitoring their own first year student engagement stages. The
effectiveness and motivation for model was informed by survey and
achievement (McCune & Entwistle, 2000). interview data that indicated that student
engagement with academic resources and
The literature on learning in higher services was predominately led by
education concludes that apart from assessment submission, for example, as
obvious exceptions where rote-learning is early engagement upon receiving a
needed (Biggs & Tang, 2007; Chan, 2004; description of the task in the course
Entwistle & Peterson, 2004), deep learning outline; or as crisis-response engagement,
is preferable. However, paradoxically, the preparing at the last minute. Further, poor
research literature also indicates that first results at the individual assignment level,
year students, whether using a surface course, semester, or year level also
approach or a deep approach to learning, prompted active student engagement.
adopt certain surface strategies to studying
and require academic intervention (Biggs, Our engagement model demonstrated that
1990). Biggs (1990), studying second first year students operate in a cycle of
language learners, suggests that using engagement prioritised by study unit needs
survival strategies “cut[s] across the (preparation, activities, and assessment)
notions of surface and deep [strategies]” rather than semester or year programs. It
(p. 25) and students using these might is a personalised cycle where a student
actually “bypass the usual approaches to might simultaneously engage at different
learning” (p. 27). Chan (2004) argues that levels for different course requirements,
some surface strategies, for example reengaging as they feel necessary. For
memorisation, “can be used to deepen and instance, a student may be at a pre- or
develop understanding” (p. 14) and that early engagement point with one course
students can adopt “an approach which but at a crisis-response engagement point
combines aspects of both deep and surface with another course.
learning” (p. 14) citing Kember and Gow
(1990) who explained this as a “survival To test our engagement model, we
strategy to learn - with understanding, but conducted focus group interviews with
highly focused and selectively, in order to first year primary preservice teachers on a
be able to cope” (p. 14). Simpson (2003) regional campus of a metropolitan
concurs, suggesting that for a “complete Australian university. One male and 13
education” we should aim for a balance females were involved in small focus
between “survival” and “fulfilment” (p. groups (two or three students), which
102). That is, there is a place in higher lasted for approximately 1 hour. The male
education for a surface approach to to female ratio in the program is
learning. approximately 1 to 10 which is
representative of the participant pool.
The study
Data collected in this current study focused
In a previous study, we proposed a model on students’ identification of critical points
The Cycle of Academic Support Engagement in their first semester and their adoption of
in Higher Education (Penn-Edwards & learning strategies at these critical points.
Donnison, 2011) as part of a proposal of Interviews were conducted at the end of
first semester after students had received
Semester 1 results. Data were coded using findings that critical points were tied to
Nvivo 8 where categories and themes were assessment: “critical for me was [sic] the
identified and each student de-identifed. assessments because you needed them to
Aliases are used in this paper. pass …” (Karen) and “[critical points]
means assessment to me” (Cindy).
In the semi-structured interviews, the In addition, as this cohort had attended
small focus groups were asked to discuss teaching practicums in week 3 of Semester
their preparation and presentation of 1, they included this as a critical point in
assignments undertaken in four first their academic career:
semester core courses — a small group
oral presentation on teaching and I think your first lot of Prac [is a critical
assessment practices, a scaffolded essay point]. Like when you’re actually going
reflecting on their own acquisition of out into the school and that’s a real
decider of whether or not you actually
language, a digital portfolio for an ICT
want to be a teacher. I find a lot of the
course, and a content exam in language and courses we do, like obviously they’re
literacy—as well as significant or critical helpful, but a lot of people say don’t
points in their first semester of study at worry about how you feel about your
university. They were then shown The courses, like if you’re not coping with
Cycle of Academic Support Engagement in them, but as long as you’re enjoying
Higher Education model (Penn-Edwards & Prac and you feel confident in that,
Donnison, 2011) charting the different you’ll be fine. Obviously as long as you
stages of engagement and asked to pass everything, but I really enjoyed
Prac and that really helped me decide
comment and elaborate. Although the
oh yeah, I really do want to be doing
transcripts provided rich data on a number this. So I think that’s really important
of topics, the area of interest for this report for a lot of students. (Cindy)
is the students’ perceptions of learning and
the role of course material in this process. Given the students’ concerns about
Three themes related to student concepts assessment and teaching practicums, it
of learning were identified; assessment and would seem evident that they would value
critical academic points, the relationship teaching and learning that is applicable to
between learning and assessment, and these two concerns. This is apparent in the
learning support and assessment. data where learning is most valued for its
applicability to immediate needs.
Data presentation
The relationship between
Assessment and critical academic learning and assessment
points
The link between learning and assessment
In the previous study, we proposed that is such that learning is valued if it
there are critical academic points in first facilitates the students’ immediate
year students’ first semester of study and assessment or practicum needs. In the
that these critical points were tied to following excerpt, Rose and Sue clearly
assessment (Penn-Edwards & Donnison, articulate the relationship between
2011). The students interviewed in this learning and assessment:
second study confirmed the previous
And then as the weeks went on it was assessment or future professional needs is
more like focusing on OK you’ve got to not highly valued; this especially applies to
get to know this stuff so you can pass learning to learn or learning for learning’s
your exams. So that was pretty much the
sake. The following excerpt exemplifies
focus. (Rose)
this belief. Students do not value learning a
new computer program as it does not
You’re certainly more conscious of the
information in a course knowing you’ve appear to have any relevance to current
got an exam and having to re-fresh assessment:
yourself on that at the end of the
semester. I certainly feel confident During our tute time they were teaching
about running records now whereas if it us how to use stuff like Movie Maker
wasn’t in an exam would I perhaps have and this weird sound thing, which
taken that same interest in it? Perhaps personally I didn’t see as relevant
not. (Sue) because we had this huge assessment to
do and they were more concerned with
Learning is also valued if it is related to teaching us how to use stupid programs.
(Susan)
practicum and the student’s perceived
future professional role. This is evident in
That’s how it was – it was literally
the following where Anne believes that she playing around with things like ‘Movie
has learnt more through her teaching Maker’ and just taking photos and
practicum than at university and that the cropping them – which didn’t essentially
purpose of learning at University is to gain seem relevant to the assignments that
a degree, its relevance to teaching, at this we were doing. (Helen)
point in time, being vague:
. . . I still don’t think it was a necessary
This is probably completely off the track thing to do. I don’t know what how I am
but I learned a lot more on our going to benefit from using it. (Cindy)
Practicum, through that Practicum, than
I have through lectures and tutes, Interestingly, the main aim of this course is
everything. I learned a lot more from to develop generic skills for teaching 21st
actually teaching than from anything century learners and computer skills are
else . . . Well for me the most important
critical for completion of assessments in
parts of each semester were the, easily
in my mind, the Pracs. As I said before I second semester; neither of which are clear
don’t really care about the exams until to the students.
the end when they’re there, but the
Pracs that’s what we’re going to be The data also revealed that students value
doing after we finish the course, so learning support and particularly learning
that’s what we’re actually learning to do. support that assisted them to complete
That’s why I don’t understand why we assessments. They were also clear about
don’t have more of them. But to me the type of support and when that support
that’s the most important part. We’re should be available.
learning to actually be teachers and
we’re getting the experience to be
teachers. (Anne) Learning support and assessment
Anne’s belief about the purpose of learning The students value learning support when
is common. Learning that does not relate to it clearly assists them to complete current
assessment rather than as an aid to data support and reinforce findings of our
engagement in learning. This is particularly previous study (Penn-Edwards &
evident in Susan’s comment where she Donnison, 2011) that investigated the
values tutorials that focus on completing provision of timely and individualised
the assessment. learning support in their first year of
higher education; that students equate
Learning Theories was all about the critical points in the first semester with
assignment and how to write it and assessment. That students are assessment-
what was expected and where to find
driven is not new. However, conversations
the information and what they wanted
written and how to write it and how it around the relationship between learning
all fits together. But we actually got and assessment in the transition period—
time to write it and to ask questions namely, the role of assessment in first year
and could get one-on-one help. That’s learning and the role of surface learning in
the first tute I’ve ever been to where I the transitional first year experience
felt like it was worthwhile. (Susan) period—are lacking. The following
discussion considers these relationships.
The students recognise that scaffolded,
appropriate and timely learning support Discussion
for assessment is important for their
academic success. This is evident in the
Assessment in higher education is often
following where Vicky notes that
regarded as distinct from teaching and
scaffolding and the timing of learning
learning where “it is seen as something
support is critical:
tacked on, punitive, discriminatory, and all-
At the start they really, really look
too-rarely designed to help students to
after you make you feel so welcome, come to grips with their own learning
happy as anything. They go through processes, their own understandings, their
things clearly and then I think it kind own strengths and weaknesses” (Candy,
of drops off and obviously it’s because Crebert & O’Leary, 1994, p. 149). Most
we’re expected to know . . . So at the commonly, assessment in first year is
start it was so clear and we were being summative and used to assess how much
daily fed. . . I’d also add Semester 2 is students have learnt or what they have
quite an anticipation. There’s such a
learned (Biggs & Tang, 2007). It is less
big gap of holidays and it feels like you
haven’t even been to university and
commonly viewed as integral to teaching
you come back and you’ve forgotten a and learning, especially in terms of being
lot of things and that’s why I think essential scaffolding for ongoing learning
they need refreshers on everything. or learning-to-learn (Candy et al.). This is
It’s like it hasn’t really happened – and partially because of a preoccupation with
as first years I feel like we’ve been at measurable outcomes in higher education
uni for a couple of weeks. (Vicki) (Biggs & Tang). A learning-to-learn
approach moves away from a Biggs and
The data show that students are Tang tangible and measureable (hard)
assessment-driven and that they value outcomes approach to intellectual and skill
teaching and learning and learning support development by advocating for soft
that facilitates their successful completion outcomes or outcomes that focus on
of assessments and field experience. These
developmental stages (Zepke & Leach, While acknowledging the academic,

2010) as an ongoing process of learning. intellectual, and developmental value of
deep approaches to learning, we propose
Unfortunately, institutional assessment that there is a need to rethink how we
practices often discourage soft outcomes or understand surface and deep approaches
learning-to-learn. This is partially due to to learning in the first year in higher
wider institutional requirements that education particularly in terms of the
encourage assessment-driven curricula as valued goals of higher education and the
academic staff workloads increase while role that assessment can play in achieving
face-to-face class time, number of those goals.
assessment items, and marking time
constantly diminish. The drive to lessen the Firstly, we suggest that there is a need to
number of Pass/Fail courses and remove reframe how we understand surface
zero-weighted experiential courses, such approaches to learning in the first year of
as learning support courses, impacts on the study. Arguably, one of the purposes of
types and motivations for assessment and undergraduate education is to develop
arguably leads academics to focus on students’ lifelong learning skills and
teaching to measurable outcomes and attitudes (Candy et al., 1994) and to
students to focus on “learning for the test.” progress them towards deeper approaches
to learning. Kift (2009) argues that the first
We know from our data, wider reading, year “should be designed to be consistent
and personal experience that first year and explicit in assisting students’ transition
students’ motivation for learning is from their previous experience to the
assessment-driven. The discourse around nature of learning in higher education and
motivation for preferred higher education learning in their discipline as part of their
learning favours intrinsic motivation, lifelong learning” (p. 1). To expect first year
characteristic of a deep approach to students to consistently engage with deep
learning, where the student engages in learning is unreasonable. As indicated in
learning for interest or learning sake our previous study, students move
(Kyndt, Dochy, Struyven, & Cascallar, between deep and surface approaches to
2011). Extrinsic motivation, such as being learning dependent on critical points in
assessment-driven, is less desired their transitional year that are tied to
academically as it is associated with a assessment (Penn-Edwards & Donnison,
surface approach to learning (Biggs & 2011). We propose that, rather than being
Tang, 2007; Entwistle & Peterson, 2004). demonised, surface learning should be
Assessment-driven surface approaches to considered a necessary and critical initial
learning have been somewhat demonised phase in a cycle of learning in higher
in teaching and learning. Biggs and Tang education. How first year courses can best
argue that surface approaches to learning achieve this with first year students and
should be discouraged and deeper academically justify their program of study
approaches encouraged. However, we directs our ongoing research.
question whether such a belief supports
best practice in the transitional first year to Secondly, we suggest that there is a need to
higher education. reconsider how we view assessment in the
first year. If, as our data suggests, students
engage with learning because of
assessment demands then using because of failure in assessment than

assessment to leverage learning (Rawson, because they fail to engage at a deeper
2000) would seem appropriate. Rather level. Persisting students have found
than be seen as determining student strategies which allow them to pass
achievement against hard outcomes, we assessment items – from studies
argue that assessment practices in the first mentioned in this paper this appears to be
year can be an effective pedagogic strategy a mix of strategically applied surface and
in moving students from an initial deep learning. We suggest that persistence
instrumentalist approach to learning to (Kuh, Cruce, Shoup, Kinzie & Gonyea,
developing the attributes of a lifelong 2008), or staying the course through the
learner. This would mean focusing, as transitional first year, be accepted as a
Zepke and Leach (2010) maintain, on soft priority for first year in higher education
outcomes as a bridge towards post- and that assessment-driven surface
transitional deep learning. Such an learning be seen as having a valuable role
approach, where assessment is used as in this.
scaffolding, is especially important in the
transition period as a foundation to References
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11
MAPs to Success: Improving the First

Year Experience of alternative entry
mature age students
Liana Christensen and Sarah Evamy
University of Western Australia
Abstract
Successfully supporting wider participation in higher education requires a coherent blend of
administrative, social and academic support. Access is a necessary but insufficient element
of equitable participation. This is a vital distinction given the outcomes of the Bradley
Report and the expectation that higher education institutions will significantly increase the
enrolment and participation of equity target groups. Our project, MAPs to Success, was
designed to achieve the best possible outcomes for underprepared mature age students who
have been granted alternative entry to the University of Western Australia through the
Mature age Access Pathway (MAP). This alternative entry pathway was first offered in July
2008. In late 2009 we secured a Learning Teaching Performance Fund Grant to provide
support for the original and subsequent cohorts. This paper outlines the theoretical
perspectives underpinning this project’s social and academic components, and evaluates the
impact this project has achieved after its first year of operation.
Introduction program at the University of Western

Australia [see
http://www.transition.uwa.edu.au/welco
Since the landmark report A Fair Chance
me/aspire_uwa] and the Compass - find
for All (Department of Education,
your way to higher education program at
Employment and Training [DEET], 1990)
the University of Sydney
was released in February 1990, there has
[http://sydney.edu.au/compass/]).
been increasingly sophisticated analyses of
effective policies to increase the
Another kind of outreach is addressed to
participation of underrepresented groups
those who for a wide variety of reasons did
in higher education (Atweh & Bland, 2007;
not pursue higher education as school
Gale & Tranter, 2011; James, Baldwin,
leavers. There is a corresponding rise in
Coates, Krause, & McInnis, 2004). Given the
the number of mature age students who
recent recommendations of the Bradley
see, often for the first time, the opportunity
Review (Bradley, Noonan, Nugent, & Scales,
to study at university level. Schuetze and
2008), the sector is poised for further
Slowey (2002) conceptualise this as
expansion in this direction. Over the same
paradigm shift from an elitist educational
period, major long-term studies of the first
model to a more equitable one that is
year experience (Krause, Hartley, James, &
characterised by an emphasis on “lifelong
McInnis, 2005) clearly document a
learning.”
significant rise in the number of
undergraduate students of any age who
Many of the more recently established
are—through necessity—employed for
universities, for example Murdoch
more than sixteen hours a week. The
University, were founded on this
students reveal that this level of working
commitment to the principle of lifelong
hours has a detrimental effect on both their
learning, and had as part of their original
statistical chances of success (retention,
charter, a mission to provide opportunities
passing units) as well as their subjective
for mature age students. Founded in an
enjoyment of the study experience. It is
earlier era where the older education
quite clear that all Australian universities
paradigm dominated, the University of
are facing the challenge of creating
Western Australia (UWA) is a relative
workable solutions for higher numbers of
newcomer in regard to provision for
under-prepared students who are also
mature-age students. As a member of the
even more likely to be obliged to work long
Group of Eight, UWA is one of eight
hours to meet essential needs. It is a
research-intense Australian Universities,
similar story in most OECD countries
all of which are long-established,
(Schuetze & Slowey, 2002).
prestigious and pursue high standards of
excellence. Of all Australian universities,
One response to the challenge of widening
UWA has traditionally had the highest
participation in higher education is to focus
population of school leavers at around
on encouraging more school students to
90%) (Skene, Broomhall, Ludewig, & Allan,
consider the option of university. This has
2009). Until recently, the remaining
resulted in several successful programs
10%—mature age students, defined at
designed to increase school leaver
UWA as those aged 20 years or above—
enrolments from underrepresented
gained admission through one of the
schools and regions (e.g. the ASPIRE
MAPs to Success: Improving the First Year Experience of alternative entry mature... 121
standard pathways. Although in broad MAP-specific activities to ensure that the

brush terms, mature-age students have academic and support needs of these—and
been found to have several key advantages subsequent MAP students—were
(McKenzie & Gow, 2004), nonetheless they adequately met. The project is designed to
also face unique and specific challenges, enable MAP students to adapt to the
particularly when entering a Group of Eight culture and academic requirements of
University such as UWA. Most of these UWA, to make the move from provisional
challenges are exacerbated when entrants to full enrolment, and ultimately to
are underprepared for university studies graduate in their chosen field. Its specific
by any previous education experience, aims are twofold: to enhance student
come from low socio-economic status retention by providing ongoing academic
(LSES) backgrounds (Tones, Fraser, Elder, and social support in a flexible and
& White, 2009) or are a person with a personalised manner; and to reduce the
disability (Aird, Miller, van Megen, & Buys, potential harm of underprepared students
2010). Needless to say, none of these incurring a personal and or financial cost
descriptors are mutually exclusive, so the through over-enrolling or failing to
barriers not only can be complex, but also withdraw before the HECS Census Date.
can compound one another (Willems, MAPs to Success offers a comprehensive
2010). suite of activities and advice both pre- and
post-enrolment. This paper examines what
Skene et al. (2009) investigated the Student Support Services and Admissions
barriers faced by the mature age students staff have learned from the MAPs to Success
enrolled in the Faculty of Arts, Humanities Project at the end of its first year.
and Social Sciences at UWA. This was
timely, given that in mid-2008, the Project outline
university initiated a non-traditional
pathway—the Mature age Access Pathway During the second semester of 2009, a
(MAP)—that would allow students with no project submission was developed seeking
formal entry requirements the opportunity the funds to provide formal, targeted
to qualify for entry through the process of support for current and future MAP
studying in one of a restricted selection of entrants. In December, the MAPs to Success
degree courses and passing four Project was awarded a grant from the
undergraduate units. The first MAP University’s Learning Teaching
entrants were given provisional entry to Performance Fund. Staff from different
the university a simple orientation and sections of Student Support Services, under
information about existing student support the leadership of the Associate Director of
services. Some of the original cohort Student Support, worked closely with the
thrived but from a Student Support Manager of Admissions to design and
Services’ perspective it was no surprise implement a series of events and activities
that there was a high attrition and failure to provide a smooth transition from first
rate. entry, together with ongoing support
throughout first year. Being designed by a
Consequently, the MAPs to Success Project small cross-sector group ensured a
was devised to make more explicit links to coherent approach that simultaneously
existing services as well as developing addressed administrative, social and
academic needs. It is common knowledge runs for one and a half hours, is held twice,
that the first encounter with university once in the evening to provide for those
culture can be bewildering even for the who are working during the day, and once
most well prepared (Evans, 2000; in the late morning to provide for those
Lawrence, 2002), and this is often who have children in school or day care.
exacerbated in a cohort of students of This may seem a small point, but it marks a
variable and unpredictable levels of significant shift in a university more
preparedness for university. A detailed accustomed to providing for full time
description of the various elements of students who have enrolled straight from
MAPs to Success is given below. school. The first twenty minutes is a
welcome and presentation from the
Pre-semester Manager of Admissions detailing the steps
necessary to accept an offer online, and the
Twice a year—in May and October—calls dates and requirements for the on-campus
for applications are advertised across faculty advice and enrolment sessions. The
Australia. People aged 20 years and over second twenty minutes is a welcome and
who have no formal qualifications for presentation from the Coordinator of
university entry or less than one UniSkills, UWA’s first year transition
semester’s prior experience of university program, outlining some of the challenges
are eligible to apply. Applications are facing mature age students and giving a
processed in Admissions and invitations brief overview of the many support
are sent to those who meet these criteria, services available to help students
an average of around 100 eligible successfully navigate these challenges.
applicants each semester. Everyone who
meets the requirements for this scheme The remaining part of the information
has thus far received an offer, as the session is given by a member of the
maximum Equivalent Full Time Students STUDYSmarter Team, Student Support
(EFTS) limit has not been reached. Services’ Learning Skills Advisers. It
Inevitably, some people misread the comprises a mini lecture of 20 minutes and
information and just assume that because a short assessment task. The content of the
they are 20 or older they have to apply via lecture is based on the ten year study of the
MAP. However, the applications are well First Year Experience given by Krause et al.
screened, and if there are any people who (2005). The topic was chosen in order that
are eligible through the standard pathway, the content be relevant and useful whilst
their MAP applications are removed. also providing material with which to
assess the listening, comprehension and
Initially MAP entrants were simply invited writing skills of the students. Following
to attend an Information Session in order the mini lecture, they are given 30 minutes
to be given details of how to move through in which to answer five multiple choice
the enrolment process and to undertake a questions and complete a longer writing
small assessment task which is detailed task. This diagnostic exercise is assessed
below. In December 2010, attending the and used to decide the level of support
Information Session became a formal necessary to give each student the best
requirement in order for a letter of offer to chance of success.
be issued. The Information Session, which
After the diagnostics have been assessed, (Eggens, van der Werf, & Bosker, 2007;
the students are issued with a Learning Krause et al., 2005). It addresses issues of
Action Plan comprising a list of time and study management, reinforcing
recommended and optional actions and the idea initially tabled in the Information
activities. The entire list is identical, but Session that it is preferable if possible to
the division between recommended and enrol less than full time. Some
optional activities varies according to the introductory learning skills and knowledge
whether the student requires low, medium of university culture are covered. There
or high levels of support. The Learning are sessions on library skills and an
Action Plans serve two purposes: they introduction to the university’s IT Systems.
provide the students with a particular Student Support Services staff members
program of support; and at the same time, from Careers, Housing, Chaplaincy,
they also provide faculty advisers with UniAccess (Disability Services) and
some guidelines to use when advising Counselling are briefly introduced, and
students about subject choice and level of they subsequently stay for lunch and
enrolment. For instance, a student engage informally with any students who
requiring a high level of support would be wish to ask questions. Evaluation of the
strongly encouraged to enrol in only one or Study Essentials both immediately and at
at most two units in first semester. One the end of the semester indicated that the
exception to this is when the student must students considered the workshop
enrol full time in order to be eligible for worthwhile. Feedback on the first sessions
Centrelink benefits, but even then they was used to make minor modifications for
would be advised to take a qualifying three, the next iteration. Details are given in the
rather than four units. Another rare section on evaluation below.
exception occurs when the results of the
diagnostic indicate that the potential An optional pre-semester activity that
student is likely to face multiple challenges many MAP students take advantage of is
in achieving study success. Every semester the Mature Age Welcome session—a
there is a MAP intake of around 80-100 longstanding orientation that pre-dates the
students. Of these, only two or three MAP alternative entry pathway. It is a
students per year may be offered welcome day for all mature age students,
admission only into a single unit in their regardless of their mode of entry. From
first semester of study on the basis of the the perspective of supporting MAP
diagnostic. entrants, it is useful both for its intrinsic
content, and also for broadening the
One of the primary pre-semester activities networks and connections with other
recommended to all students is a full day mature age students beyond the MAP
MAPs to Success Study Essentials, which is cohort.
run twice. This workshop is taught by two
members of the STUDYSmarter Team of During semester
Learning Skills Advisers, and is designed to
meet several needs. It provides a forum for There are pastoral, academic and
students to begin networking with their administrative elements in the support
peers, which is known to be a factor package offered to all MAP students. MAPs
contributing to success and retention to Success has a required one-on-one
consultation with all new MAP students, Clearly, this is an intensive use of staff
and any who fail one or more units in resources during those five weeks, with
subsequent semesters. All other MAP three members of Student Support Services
students are offered the option of a one-on- team conducting the interviews and a
one interview in their second semester if fourth fully engaged with scheduling them.
they wish to have one. Social activities are Nonetheless, it is a highly effective
run through the UniSkills program, as are investment that can pick up small
Study Groups for specific units. Six MAP- problems—and sometimes large ones—
specific Getting Started study skills and minimise the chance of them escalating
workshops are complemented by the at considerable personal and financial cost
availability of individual consultations with for individual students, and concomitant
a MAP-dedicated Learning Skills Adviser, costs to the university. For example, it may
and access to the generic workshops run be that a student has a diagnosis of ADHD
each semester by the STUDYSmarter Team. but is unaware that UniAccess has a set of
Each of these elements is elaborated on protocols and strategies that can assist
below. students with learning disabilities. If a
student has an unrealistically low estimate
It is recommended on all Learning Action of the amount of out of class study required
Plans that the individual attend an to successfully complete a unit, this can be
interview that takes place in the first five addressed at a time when the maximum
weeks of semester, prior to the HECS benefit is possible. It is early enough in the
Census Date. Early individual intervention semester for a student to revise that
has already proved very effective in estimate upwards, or alternatively do a
existing UniSkills support programs “reality audit” of the competing demands
offered to all students who have come into on their time and decide to withdraw from
the university through flexible entry a unit or two without attracting a financial
pathways. Drawing from this experience, penalty.
and the first round of the MAPs to Success
Project, it has now become an established There is unequivocal evidence in the
protocol to schedule the earliest interviews literature (Davig & Spain, 2004, Krause et
with new students whose Learning Action al., 2005; Skene et al., 2009) that forging a
Plan indicates a need for the highest level university identity through social networks
of support, as well as existing students who is a crucial aspect of increasing student
have failed one or more units in the retention. This research underpins UWA’s
previous semester. During this 30 minute longstanding UniSkills first year transition
interview, students are taken through a program which conducts weekly social
checklist to make sure they are aware of all activities, scheduled on different days and
the services that are available to them. It is different times to maximise the chances of
also the opportunity to discuss an students with varying timetables being
individual’s particular situation and any able to attend. These activities are
other factors that have the potential to available to all eligible students enrolled in
negatively impact on their study success. first year units across the university. They
These may range from financial or family are widely promoted, particularly through
issues to disabilities or medical conditions. the UniSkills e-newsletter which is
available free of cost to those who sign up
for the program. In addition, there are two introduction of the MAPs to Success Project
social catch ups per semester specifically in 2010, there was a small but definite
for mature age students. Students may improvement in the outcomes for these
choose to attend just one or two or all of students. Admittedly, with only three years
these events, but either way, most find of operation the statistics for this group of
them a highly effective way of networking students are particularly difficult to
in a low-stakes situation. This is evident in analyse as these students tend to change
the feedback provided in the outcomes from full time to part time and back again
section of this paper. depending on their other commitments.
The general trend, however, has been
In terms of academic support, the students towards not only a higher number of MAP
have access to all of the STUDYSmarter students taking up their offers and
Learning Skills Advisers, but know that one remaining enrolled, but also a higher
of the team has a particular responsibility number who are passing all of the units
for MAP students. Students have access to they have attempted.
individual consultations and can sign up
for GET Smart, STUDYSmarter’s e- For example, Figure 1 shows that fewer
newsletter which provides time-relevant students are withdrawing during their first
study tips and notifications of current semester, which is an indication that the
workshops. Many MAP students take full support offered is making a difference.
advantage of the generic workshops run by
STUDYSmarter, but the MAPs to Success Another indicator of performance is the
Project has a series of six study skills rate at which the MAP students are
workshops that have been developed completing their 24 points (four units),
specifically for the MAP students. Although thereby fulfilling their provisional status
the traditional model of teaching hours obligation. Figure 2 shows the percentage
from 9.00am-5.00pm still largely prevails of students who completed their 24 points
at UWA, the MAPs Getting Started in their first and second semesters. In first
Workshops are offered on a Saturday semester, the completion figures range
morning in order to provide a better from 10-12.5%. However, when the
chance for mature age students to attend, completion of 24 points after their second
as we are aware that ”[m]ost important for semester is considered, a much higher rate
lifelong learners is a greater degree of is observed, with 30.6% of the Semester 2,
flexibility of higher education learning 2010 cohort completing their 24 points.
opportunities designed to meet the needs Two positive trends are notable here: the
of adult and other non-traditional learners” first is that those who commenced their
(Schuetze & Slowey, 2002, p. 323). study in Semester 1 are much more
successful with their completion of 24
Outcomes at one year points within 12 months. The second is a
general upward trend in the rate of
Since the introduction of MAP in mid-2008, completion regardless of which semester
there has been a steady and marked they commenced. Whilst the improvements
increase in the number of students are not statistically significant, and we
admitted each semester through this need to continue to monitor academic
alternative entry method. After the performance and attrition rates, it is still a
Figure 1 Attrition rates during first semester of study
promising indicator. Over the next 5-10 assume that the evolving MAPs to Success
years, we hope to see this upward trend Project is itself successful in its dual aims of
continue, although the increase is likely to a) Enhancing student retention by
be more incremental than dramatic. providing ongoing academic and social
support in a flexible and personalised
We will continue to compile quantitative manner and b) Reducing the potential
feedback to gauge our progress and guide harm of underprepared students incurring
our future development as part of a robust a personal and/or financial cost through
evaluation cycle that also includes over-enrolling or failing to withdraw
qualitative data. Qualitative evidence in the before the HECS Census Date.
form of student feedback, both formal and
informal, is also a valid form of evidence, We will continue to compile quantitative
and one that provides a depth and richness feedback to gauge our progress and guide
that is often unavailable in more our future development as part of a robust
standardised evaluative surveys (Spark & evaluation cycle that also includes
Trimble, 2001). Therefore, we contend qualitative data. Qualitative evidence in the
that the positive trend in retention and form of student feedback, both formal and
passing in enrolled units—taken together informal, is also a valid form of evidence,
with some qualitative data from ongoing and one that provides a depth and richness
evaluations—means that it is reasonable to that is often unavailable in more
standardised evaluative surveys (Spark & (26/30) of the respondents were either
Trimble, 2001). Therefore, we contend “very satisfied” or “mostly satisfied” with
that the positive trend in retention and the level of support offered in their first
passing in enrolled units—taken together semester, and 77% (23/30) were either
with some qualitative data from ongoing “very satisfied” or “mostly satisfied” with
evaluations—means that it is reasonable to respect to their study experience. Typical
assume that the evolving MAPs to Success comments include:
Project is itself successful in its dual aims of
a) Enhancing student retention by Good to touch base with people who
providing ongoing academic and social care about your progress. Working full
support in a flexible and personalised time means you don't hang around
between or after lectures to socialize
manner and b) Reducing the potential
and experience “Uni life.” The early
harm of underprepared students incurring contact with people who appear
a personal and/or financial cost through interested in your well being was
over-enrolling or failing to withdraw reassuring.
before the HECS Census Date.
Everyone I approached was very helpful
Of the 91 students enrolled in MAP in and made me feel special in spite of
Semester 1 2010, 30 (33%) responded to their need of having to deal with
the on-line evaluation. Overall, 87% hundreds of students.
Figure 2 Students completing 24 points in their first and second semesters of study
It was everything and more I had ever through the MAP project withdraw on time
hoped it would be. I am especially if needed (before Census date) when
grateful for the very first information compared with the standard entry
evening when Dr Christensen explained
students. Whether or not these
about the “invisible” unit of getting used
to the whole new culture. I often
withdrawing MAP students are LSES, it
reflected on that when I felt I was seems that the ongoing advice and regular
getting overwhelmed and felt a bit reminders about key dates have enabled
better telling myself it was just the them to make a decision that limits both
”invisible” unit. financial and personal cost of withdrawing
from studies. In turn, of course, this means
There were 52 MAP students in total who that re-entry at a later date is not
signed up for a study group in 2010 across unnecessarily compromised, either
a range of 37 different study groups. administratively or through the student
Around 25-30 attended one of a series of feeling a sense of failure or shame.
six Getting Started Workshops, covering
some basic learning skills, that were held Finally, on a very positive note, a major
on Saturday mornings and repeated during milestone was reached this year when two
the week, although the second session was students from the original cohort
less well attended and has subsequently (Semester 1 2008) completed their degrees
been dropped in favour of podcasting. in July 2011, both within the standard
Also, many of the MAP students who attend three year period.
classes during the week take advantage of
STUDYSmarter’s generic workshop Conclusion
program. Those who did attend the
workshops commented on their Schuetze & Slowey (2002) reviewed how
usefulness: educational policy either inhibited or
contributed to equitable participation in 10
I find the conversational aspect of the countries. They make a strong argument
units beneficial. I find this a better way
that the key is not simply increasing
to learn than to have someone in a
“teaching” role. numbers, but rather a shift of culture to a
lifelong learning model. One of their
I attended as many as I could timetable strongest recommendations is that policy
allowing. They were very beneficial as and institutions should provide “the
they allowed me an opportunity to ask opportunity for individuals to be able to
some questions as well as receive info, gain access to higher education over the
also to meet up with other mature entire life-course” (p. 325). By providing
students. support over and above a specific entry
pathway, the MAPs to Success project
Fantastic workshop. I wish I had more
free time to come to more! contributes to this goal. One example of
the specific provisions is the Saturday
Another small positive outcome of the morning study skills workshop series. This
ongoing information and support supplied MAPs to Success initiative departs from the
by the MAPs to Success Team is that the traditional school-leaver, full time student
Admissions Office staff have observed that culture at UWA in order to provide flexible
a larger percentage of students enrolled options for lifelong learners.
Atweh & Bland (2007) detail a series of they are about to hear is from a
barriers to equitable participation in longitudinal study, and this concept is
higher education. Some of these barriers, decoded. Again it is explicitly pointed out
such as poverty, are large and systemic. As that this is what academics do—academic
they acknowledge, having a major impact judgement is based on research. Finally,
on such systemic issues is beyond the they are told that the data is derived from
scope of individual institutions and the experiences of many Australian
programs. In a small way, however, the students and therefore is deeply relevant
UniSkills component of the MAPs to Success for successfully navigating their own first
project tackles the problem by alerting year experience. As well as answering five
students to the existence of various multiple choice questions, students are
scholarships, bursaries and financial aid, then asked to write 250 words or more in
and encouraging them to apply for relevant response to the question: “Identify one or
sources of funding. As previously more of your motivations for studying at
mentioned, great care is also taken to University. Discuss the potential strengths
ensure students are aware of the how to and challenges you face as a mature age
avoid incurring an unnecessary HECs debt. student and indicate any strategies you
From the very first pre-enrolment may use to overcome the challenges.” This
information session, the MAPs to Success both tests their ability to listen,
project openly challenges another of the comprehend and write, while
barriers mentioned by Atweh and Bland: simultaneously reinforcing the research-
“myths about university”—specifically, in based best practice strategies.
this case that real students are full time
students. Incoming MAP students are The imperative to demystify the nature of
strongly encouraged to study part time, at University culture also underlies the
least initially, and reassured that this is a provision of the pre-enrolment MAP Study
legitimate as well as strategic approach to Essentials one day seminar. During this
study success. seminar students are encouraged to form
networks with each other, and at the same
The work of Krause, et al. (2005) is the time they are exposed to a wide range of
most comprehensive longitudinal study of University systems and terminology. As
the First Year Experience in Australian Davig & Spain (2004) discovered: “If a
Universities. Their data is explicitly student did not have exposure to study
incorporated into the pre-enrolment MAP skills, advising information, curriculum
Study Essentials session as part of the planning, group activities, and campus
diagnostic. By drawing on Krause as the tours, they were less likely to re-enroll” (p.
basis for the mini-lecture, the MAP 305).
students are triply exposed to the culture
of University. Firstly, they are specifically MAPs to Success provides all this
told at the beginning: “This is a lecture information in a timely and targeted way
theatre, if you come to University this is for mature age students. The project
where you will be spending a significant specifically aims to ease the culture shock
portion of your time as it is a classic most strongly felt by those entering
university activity.” Secondly, they are without prior access to or experience of
informed that the basis of the mini-lecture this culture via family of origin. It also
follows many of the recommendations of experience. Widening participation in

Skene et al. (2009) who assessed ways to higher education is not simply a matter of
overcome the barriers faced by mature age increasing the numbers of students
students in the Arts Faculty at UWA. These enrolled. The satisfactory experience of
included providing information sessions, studying and completing a university
building community and social networks, degree, particularly when students are
peer mentoring and flexible options. diverse in their identities, their level of
preparation for higher studies, and their
Of course, clarifying the nature of the entry pathways, requires a level of support
existing culture is only a part of the that is both timely and individualised as
necessary work. In the concluding words of much as possible. This is what the MAPs to
their paper, Gale and Tranter (2011) Success Project has been able to achieve.
provide a succinct statement of the more
difficult part of creating equitable References
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12
First year students negotiating professional and

academic identities
Kate Wilson
University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia
Linda Devereux and Paul Tranter
University of New South Wales, Canberra, Australia
Abstract
As they make the transition to tertiary study, first year students adopt complex new identities.
In professional courses, this entails both academic and professional identities. This paper
reports on a study of the first year experience at UNSW Canberra (the Australian Defence
Force Academy). UNSW Canberra aims to provide a quality liberal education for future
military officers. With on-going military training and supervision, students develop a strong
sense of professional identity as members of the Defence Forces. But what of their identity as
scholars? This paper discusses the question of academic identity in an institution with a
specific professional goal and reflects on the implications for learning advisers and lecturers
in professional courses at other universities. Using a framework of social identity complexity,
our findings suggest that students who manage these dual identities effectively are more likely
to succeed than those who are unable to reconcile their professional and academic selves.
First year students negotiating professional and academic identities 133
Student identity and why it social identity complexity. The paper uses a
matters model of social identity complexity
proposed by Roccas and Brewer (2002) and
Identity has long been recognised as a argues that students who are unable to
central factor in student learning, closely reconcile their dual identities as both
related to key determinants of student professionals and students may experience
learning such as engagement, motivation difficulty in coping with first year.
and self-efficacy. Students’ understandings
of “Who am I as a learner?” are intimately Identity formation is profoundly social,
interrelated with the extent to which they formed both from within and without.
choose to “invest cognitively, emotionally Students see the world through their own
and actively” (Zepke, 2013, p. 5) in their eyes and position themselves accordingly,
study. However, learner identities also but they are also acutely aware of the world
jostle up against other aspects of students’ looking on at them. As Ivanic (1997) argues,
identities—how they see themselves in identity is not determined but constructed –
terms of gender, religion, class, and as individuals adopt identities in social
future professionals. Negotiating these contexts in terms of the identity
multiple identities is complex, and possibilities available to them. Family,
especially so for students coming to study teachers, colleagues, supervisors and peers
straight from school, who may have little all provide potential role models and
experience beyond the zone of school and possible identities in different spheres.
family (Orbe, 2004). While identity
Identity formation is also interconnected
formation is always dynamic and fragile, for
with the experience of learning. As students
first year students entering the world of
learn new knowledge and practices, they
tertiary learning, there are particular
become new people. Dean and Jolly (2012)
challenges. As they experience new lives,
suggest that learning is at root “a process of
interact with new people, and meet new
recognising and adapting one’s different
disciplines and new ways of constructing
identities” (p. 228). As Wortham (2004)
knowledge, they are simultaneously
puts it, learning is not just epistemological
working out how they position themselves
in the sense of gaining new knowledge, but
in terms of this new academic community.
also ontological in the sense of taking on
Thus, first year students may experience
new ways of being (p.716). Transformation,
“crises of confidence, conflicts of identity,
a goal espoused more recently by
feelings of strangeness” (Ivanic, 1997, p. 7).
constructivist educators, has long been the
For students in professionally-oriented aim of education in western universities.
courses, the situation is more complex still. Academics in the liberal, western tradition
Not only are they entering the new world of have aimed to shape their students into
academia, they are also setting out on new individuals who are open-minded, broadly
career paths as future teachers, health educated, responsible citizens, familiar with
workers or journalists, for example. This the canon of knowledge in their discipline
paper reports on a study of first year and able to form well-reasoned and
university students in Australia’s military principled opinions.
academy, UNSW Canberra (the Australian
However, this liberal view of education is
Defence Force Academy). It explores the
somewhat at odds with the growing focus in
ways in which first year students manage
our universities on professional education.
For many first year students, new academic researchers aimed to develop students’
identities are also interrelated with their sense of identity as social workers, as well
aspirations for future careers. Students as students, by inviting guest speakers from
appear to be increasingly instrumental in the profession and arranging internships
their approach to tertiary education. In a (p.118). Martin, Spolander, Ali and Maas
national survey of the first year experience (2014) argue that students who do not
in higher education in Australia, conducted develop a strong sense of identity in their
by James, Krause and Jennings (2010), 96% discipline lack the perseverance to do well
of students said that studying in a field that in their studies and to develop deep
really interests them was important in learning practices. Similarly, Dean and Jolly
making their choice to study. Furthermore, (2012) explain how some “anti-learning
86% of respondents also said that behaviours” (p. 228) can arise from
improving their job prospects was an students’ social identity construction.
important reason for undertaking tertiary Indeed, the link between identity and
study and 75% said that it was important to learning outcomes has been demonstrated
get training for a specific job. This was a empirically by Yopyk and Prentice (2005)
small but significant increase on previous who found that student athletes who were
years. Thunborg, Bron and Estrӧm (2012) primed with their student identity before
found that this pragmatic approach to study completing a Maths test performed much
is particularly evident for “non-traditional” better than when primed with the athlete
students, who are the first in their family to identity.
study at university. Previous research
suggests that non-traditional students also Social identity complexity theory
are less motivated and less likely to have a
sense of belonging: they may feel One theoretical framework which can be
“disengaged or alienated” (Zepke & Leach, used to tease out the formation of multiple
2010, p. 172). and possibly conflicting identities of first
year students has been proposed by Roccas
The tension between the professional and and Brewer (2002). Their model of social
the purely academic is increasingly identity complexity can help to account for
apparent on many university campuses. the ways in which individuals incorporate
The tradition of knowledge-seeking and memberships of multiple in-groups in their
pure research in universities exists in overall social identity (see Figure 1).
counterpoint to professionally-oriented
courses which aim to prepare students to a. Compartmentalisation
participate in a specific career by
developing professional knowledge, skills Some individuals compartmentalise their
and attributes. Some researchers have social identities, treating each quite
theorised that academic performance will separately and isolating the identity to
be improved if students have a strong sense separate occasions and locations. Thus, a
of connection to their future profession, and Greek Australian might feel predominantly
that this can be enhanced by fostering the Greek with her Greek relatives, while
students’ sense of professional identity. In behaving and speaking quite differently
the specific context of social work education with her Australian work colleagues.
for example, Kaighin and Croft (2013) note
that students’ sense of connection is key to
engagement and academic success. These
b. Intersection the Greek-Australian who identifies

confidently as such and sees both groups as
Others define themselves more narrowly. their in-group no matter what the situation.
Someone who identifies very specifically as
a Greek-Australian would see both Greeks This paper uses Roccas and Brewer’s model
and Australians as members of outgroups, to analyse the emerging identities of first
while his/her ingroup might be very year students at UNSW Canberra, the
specifically other Greek-Australians. Australian Defence Force Academy, a
context in which military and academic
c. Dominance identities interact in complex ways. We
argue that this framework offers insights
Some individuals see themselves as into the ways in which first year students,
belonging predominantly to one particular especially in professionally-oriented
social group, while their membership of courses, negotiate identity as they cross the
other social groups is less significant. boundaries into new social and academic
Migrants, for example, may espouse contexts.
membership of the host group very
vigorously, while rejecting their home Australia’s military academy: A
culture, or vice versa.
unique study environment
d. Merger
UNSW Canberra prepares students for a
The most balanced and, Roccas and Brewer particular career (in this case, the
argue, also the most inclusive, is the merger profession of arms). Its charter is to provide
identity. This is characteristic of individuals a balanced and liberal undergraduate
who encompass multiple identities education that will give graduates the
seamlessly, so that both identity groups are knowledge, skills and aptitudes they need in
important in both situations: for example, their military profession
Figure 1: Social identity complexity (adapted from Roccas & Brewer 2002, p. 90)
(http://info.unsw.adfa.edu.au/). This Students at UNSW Canberra are more likely

education occurs within a military to have moved from a different state or
environment. territory, and thus have left behind their
close friends and family. However, UNSW
In some ways, first year students’ Canberra is also different in that it offers
experience of transition to study at UNSW considerable support, in the sense that the
Canberra is similar to students elsewhere. Divisional Officers and non-commissioned
Like all first year students, they are officers (NCOs) take a close interest in the
adapting to a new learning environment, cadets’ performance. It also has the highest
with new modes of study, new resources, staff-student ratio in the country (9:1).
and new cultures of learning. Like other first Nevertheless, there is considerable
year students, many of whom have been pressure on students to succeed: those who
highly successful in their previous study, fail a course may have their leave cancelled,
they may find that they are not achieving and will have to overload in subsequent
the high grades that they are accustomed to. semesters. They may even lose their
Like other students, new technology is commission. Most significantly, students at
making an impact on the ways in which they UNSW Canberra are also trainee officers. By
learn. As at other universities, a growing enlisting in the armed services, they are
proportion of students are “non- committing to a life under the authority of
traditional”. For example, at UNSW the military, and to a long tradition of
Canberra, 46% of students are the first in military culture in which obedience and
their family to undertake a university loyalty is demanded.
degree.
UNSW Canberra, however, is a civilian
In other ways, however, UNSW Canberra, as institution, although located on military
the only university within a military premises. Thus students move between two
environment, offers a different learning spheres on a daily basis: their classes take
environment to the majority of universities place in the civilian “academic side”, while
in Australia. Undergraduate students they live on the “military side” under
undertake a university degree while military authority. They are simultaneously
simultaneously preparing to be officers in studying and undergoing military training.
the armed services. First year students They wear uniform to class, but carry
participate in intensive military laptops, text-books and folders like any
preparation in the five weeks before their other student.
course commences, and then continue their
military training in the following semesters. So the question arises: For first year
The student cohort is unusual in its students, to what extent does their military
homogeneity: although students are drawn identity conflict with, or challenge, their
from all over Australia, there are very few identity as students in the civilian academy?
international students or mature-age Our research asked the following questions:
students in comparison with other
universities. Furthermore, UNSW Canberra 1. Do UNSW Canberra students identify
is predominantly male (>80% in first year). primarily as students (scholars) or as
Unlike most students, undergraduates at members of the Defence Force
UNSW Canberra are also paid a salary while (soldiers)?
they study. Nearly all students live on the
campus and receive their meals there.
2. How does their sense of identity authors were all academics at UNSW
compare with other students around Canberra, the interviews were conducted
Australia? with students who had no direct
relationship with the authors.
3. Is there any conflict between their
identity as scholars or soldiers? Analysis of survey data: A sense
of belonging … but low
4. What lessons can be learned from this
exploration of identity of students in a motivation
military academy that can be
Analysis of the survey data revealed some
extrapolated to other contexts in which
interesting differences between the UNSW
students are developing both
Canberra data and the national survey by
professional and academic identities?
James et al. (2010), In particular, the UNSW
The mixed method design Canberra students reported a greater sense
of belonging to the university community;
The survey used for this study was based on they worked together with other students
the national survey of first year experience much more frequently; and yet they
reported by James et al. (2010). The struggled much more with motivation.
research was conducted according to the These findings appeared to be somewhat
requirements of ethics approval from contradictory as motivation is often
UNSW. The survey was distributed online, positively linked with a sense of belonging
using Qualtrics software, to all 320 first year in the literature on tertiary learning (Cohen
students in week three of the second & Garcia, 2008; Meeuwisse, Severiens, &
semester, 2013. Ninety responses were Born, 2010; Walton & Cohen, 2007).
returned, a response rate of 26% which is
In comparison with the students surveyed
similar to that of the James et al. study
by James et al. (2010), the UNSW Canberra
response rate of 24%. Questions included
students had a much higher sense of
themes of their university experience, their
belonging to the University: 66% agreed or
sense of belonging, motivation and time
strongly agreed to a sense of belonging in
pressure (see James et al. for details). The
comparison to only 50% of the students
survey was followed by semi-structured
nationally. This is perhaps not unsurprising,
interviews with eight student volunteers,
as the UNSW Canberra students nearly all
who self-selected on completion of the
live on campus, they are sharing
survey. Interview questions were based on
experiences of transition to both university
the areas identified in the survey where
and military life, and have undergone a
UNSW Canberra student responses differed
period of intensive military training
from those in James et al. These volunteers
together. While the UNSW Canberra
included two women, two students who
students had a strong sense of belonging to
spoke a language other than English at
the university, their sense of belonging to
home, two mature age students, students
the Defence Forces (at least for some) was
from all four broad discipline areas in the
even greater: 24% of students strongly
university and students from all three
agreed to a sense of belonging to Defence,
services. Each interview lasted about 35
while only 12% of students strongly agreed
minutes. The interviews were recorded, de-
to a sense of belonging to the university.
identified and transcribed. Pseudonyms are
used throughout this paper. While the
The survey also revealed a strong culture of higher proportion (49%) said that they had
collaboration among the Defence Force difficulty getting motivated, in comparison
students. In comparison to the responses in with 36% of the students in the James et al.
the national survey, students at UNSW (2010) study.
Canberra were much more likely to work
with others on areas of difficulty: 66 per The findings of the UNSW Canberra study
cent of UNSW students said that they appeared to provide somewhat
frequently worked with other students, in contradictory evidence. On the one hand,
comparison to only 17 per cent of the students had a strong sense of belonging
students surveyed by James et al (2010). and a strongly collaborative culture
Earlier research has indicated that suggesting that they identified strongly
collaborating students not only perform both as students and as members of the
better, but have deeper approaches to Defence Forces. Such a sense of belonging
learning (Tang, 1993). should have meant that students were also
engaged and motivated to perform well in
Despite this strong sense of belonging and their studies. However, this did not seem to
culture of close collaboration, the survey be the case: both the surveys and the
indicated that the UNSW Canberra students interviews pointed to a prevailing “Ps get
were less committed to continuing in their degrees” attitude among first year students
studies than their counterparts in other (whereby students aim only for a bare
universities. Twenty-seven per cent of pass). These findings concur with an earlier
students had considered discontinuing, as study of first year at UNSW Canberra
compared with 23 per cent in the James et (Connor & McDermott, 2013) which
al. (2010) study. Most students in the identified a “grey man” syndrome: students
survey who had considered discontinuing generally did not want to be noticed either
cited issues related with identity. For for doing well, or for doing poorly.
example, one student put it succinctly:
Confusion as to whether I wanted to enter Analysis of the interview data
directly in the forces or do the degree. Some
wanted to concentrate on their military role Analysis of the interview data, using the
(e.g. Considered becoming a commando); social identity complexity model proposed
others they felt that their military role by Roccas and Brewer (2002), shown in
interfered too much with their academic Figure 1, sheds some light on the apparent
studies: contradiction in the survey data between
students’ high sense of belonging but
I felt I was studying the degree for the wrong relatively low motivation, by exploring how
reasons, not what I planned to do when I different students managed their dual
was in year 12 but instead I was accepting a identities as both scholars and soldiers.
lower emphasis on academics and
passionate subjects just because of ADFA Compartmentalisation
and the military. (Survey, open-ended
response)
The interview data showed that some
In comparison with the national survey, students dealt with their complex lives by
students were less likely to be enjoying keeping their military selves and their
their course, to be satisfied with their academic selves quite separate. This
university experience or to like being a seemed to be easier for the few mature
university student. In particular, a much
students in the study, particularly those arise for the students who positioned
who lived off campus. As Bruce put it: themselves predominantly either as
military or as academic. In other words,
Essentially I just keep the whole thing these students had difficulty managing their
separate. I’m doing university and I’m in dual identity.
the military. [...]. When I’m at a lecture, I’m
a student. When I move out of the lecture
On the one hand, one of the interviewees
[...]. I’m a soldier again and then when I’m
doing academics, I’m a student. (Bruce)
was more interested in being a good student
than in succeeding in the military. As she
Intersection said:
A few students seemed to have a very My passion definitely lies in academics

more than military and I’ve found that’s a
specific identity – neither fully committed to
minority here. (Abby)
the military, nor to academic life, but living
in a very specific zone at the intersection After two semesters of struggling to cope
between the two. For example, Jake saw with balancing military and academic life,
himself quite specifically as an Air Force extra early morning duties and doing
engineer: without adequate sleep, she had finally
given up and decided to leave at the end of
I want to be an engineer in the Air Force
and I want to work with planes ... the year:
computing, programming, electronics,
that’s what I enjoy..... an electrical People like me [...] they end up wanting to
leave because they do like academics but
engineer in the Air Force [...] that’s pretty
this environment doesn’t promote good
much my identity. (Jake)
academics[...].It’s just the culture of this
Merger place. It’s great, but at the same time
absolutely horrendous. (Abby)
Some students, who radiated an enormous
The tension between the military and the
enthusiasm for both their study and the
academic was talked of by some students
military, identified equally and seamlessly
who perceived that, although the institution
with both roles. For example:
as a whole was supposed to prioritise
So now I’m doing Arts and loving it [... ] academic over military activities, this was
Naval training? It was fantastic –loved it. often not the case.
(Sally)
That’s the big rivalry between the
If I get to rate it, it’s 5 out of 5, university side and the military side ...
incorporating military and civilian some of the staff not understanding ...
university. It’s very good. (David) saying it’s [the academic] our priority but
they’re not acting as though it is. (George)
I enjoy my sport and doing a Bachelor of
Business. You get to do everything I enjoy. “Academics comes first” is just a catch
It’s very good. (George) phrase, it is rarely put into practice, the
military still has complete control over
Dominance how you think, pressure they put on you to
finish your military paperwork and tasks
In stark contrast with students who fitted first. (Survey, open-ended response)
the “merger” category, problems seemed to
On the other hand, some students Discussion

prioritised their military lives over their
academic lives. For these students, studying The study suggests that some students
at university was predominantly a pathway handle identity complexity more effectively
to their chosen career. And as they are than others. In particular, the students in
guaranteed a job at the end, the grades did the “merger” group, who were equally at
not seem to be relevant: ease in both their academic and their
military identities radiated a sense of well-
I think here, because you have a job being, and were coping well with their
guaranteed at the end, sometimes it’s “P’s- study. The students in the
get-degrees”, you know? (Ray)
“compartmentalisation” group and the
Everyone has a guaranteed career, as long “intersection” group had also developed
as we can pass, and [...] they make it pretty effective coping strategies. However, the
hard to fail here. I’ve heard a lot of people students in the “dominant” group were less
say that there’s not much incentive to do able to cope. Those like Abby, who favour
well. (Brian) the academic side, report feeling frustrated
by the military demands on their time.
Brian also explained how dull studying However, those who favour the military
seemed in contrast to his military training: side seem to take a performative approach
to study, doing the minimum to scrape
You get really excited about your future
career in the army and then you come back through their courses. It should be stressed
here and you’re just another uni student that this study included first year students
going through the motions and stuff. only, and it is possible that as students
(Brian) progress to later years they become more
engaged. Further research is needed here.
This feeling of demotivation was further
compounded by the perception that a Although this study was conducted in a
degree would not necessarily be valued military academy, the findings may be
when they graduate, as their commanding applicable more widely to other
officers might well be younger than them professionally-oriented courses. The study
and not have university qualifications. raises the question of how universities can
Surprisingly, some students thought that most effectively help students to develop
their knowledge would not be applicable, at strong dual identities both as students and
least for some years, in their future jobs. As as future professionals. For Martin et al.
one Engineering student said: (2014), the key is to develop a deep
approach to learning by valuing reflection
Chances are, depending on my posting, for and critical debate within the course.
the first two or three years I won't have to Students in our study also spoke of the
do anything about Engineering..... I think
benefits of bringing in practitioners to
...expecting someone to - to get a high
standard in academics is not really
explain the relevance of university study to
beneficial from our point of view because of their future careers. O’Donovan, Price and
what you're going to do afterwards. ... And Rust (2004) propose that this is a teaching
you can see the number of hours they're strategy which could be usefully integrated
spending trying to nut something out that into every aspect of tertiary learning,
you end up forgetting in six or seven months particularly into assessment practices.
time or not using it for the next years, it's a
bit disheartening, you know. (Ray)
Student identity is a key factor in tertiary First Year in Higher Education, 4(1), 95-107. doi:
10.5204/intjfyhe.v4i1.161
learning. First year students are at a time of
transition in their lives, negotiating a raft of Martin, L., Spolander, G., Ali, I., & Maas, B. (2014). The
evolution of student identity: A case of caveat
new possible identities. Those who are able emptor. Journal of Further and Higher Education,
to build a strong student identity and merge 38(2), 200-210. doi:
it successfully with their imagined future 10.1080/0309877X.2012.722200
identities as professionals in their chosen Meeuwisse, M, Severiens, S., & Born, M. (2010).
field will be able to thrive academically and Learning environment, interaction, sense of
professionally. This study indicates that belonging and study success in ethnically
diverse student groups. Research in Higher
Roccas and Brewer’s (2002) model of social Education, 51(6), 528-545. doi:
identity complexity provides a useful 10.1007/s11162-010-9168-1
perspective which can stimulate lecturers O’Donovan, B., Price, M., & Rust, C. (2004). Know what
to consider more deeply how they can I mean? Enhancing student understanding of
support their students in developing strong, assessment standards and criteria. Teaching in
merged identities. The effective merging of Higher Education, 9(3), 335-355. doi:
10.1080/1356251042000216642
identities can enhance their experience of
Orbe, M. (2004). Negotiating multiple identities within
first year in professional education courses multiple frames: An analysis of first generation
and will stand them in good stead college students. Communication Education,
throughout their university careers and 53(2), 131-149. doi:
beyond. 10.1080/03634520410001682401
Roccas, S. & Brewer, M. (2002). Social identity
complexity. Personality and Social Psychology
Review, 6(2), 88-106. doi:
10.1207/S15327957PSPR0602_01
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doi: 10.1177/1469787410379680
13
What is student-centredness and is it enough?
Janet Taylor
Southern Cross University, Coolangatta, Australia
Abstract
Student-centredness is a central concept in the literature and practice associated with

the first year in higher education. The location of the concept is so commonplace that
it is often used without definition or clarification. Yet in recent years, student-
centredness has been questioned on a number of levels including its implications for
the role of the teacher, the student as consumer metaphor and the role of others in the
teaching/learning partnership. This paper reviews pertinent literature on student-
centredness and its place in the first year in higher education and presents an
argument to refocus emphasis away from students alone back to their learning.
Introduction perspective of the first year in higher

education. It argues that there is much
Student-centred learning and other more to student-centredness than is
student-centred practices have been usually perceived and that this can present
growing in influence in the first year difficulties when programs aim to support
experience literature for number of years. and advance student learning.
Nelson, Clarke, Kift and Creagh (2011)
report that between 2004-2007 previous What is student-centredness?
work was “overshadowed by a dominant
second generation literature that reflected The concept of student-centredness and its
a student-centred philosophy” (p. vi). partner learner-centredness have been
While in a recent overview from the United around for over two hundred and fifty
Kingdom, it was stated that “academic years. Smith (2010, p. 30) in a review of
programmes and high-quality student- key thinkers in education argues that the
centred learning and teaching must be a work of French and Swiss philosophers
primary focus for effective student Rousseau (1712-1778) and Pestalozzi
retention and success” (Thomas, 2012, p. (1746-1827) are early examples of
6). student-centredness. Both advocated that
the student (in their case the child) rather
Student-centredness has been a significant than content should be at the centre of
strategy for the first year in higher education and promoted children being
education as both academic and actively involved. Dewey (1859-1952) has
professional staff strive to support and also been linked with this view, but his
advance student learning in the challenging position is thought to be somewhat more
transition years. As a result, student- controversial (Westbrook, 1993, p. 3).
centredness is currently the reigning Various authors have defined student-
paradigm of transition pedagogy (Kift, centredness since these very early
2009) and is routinely used by first year concepts (e.g. Brandes & Ginnis, 1986;
practitioners and researchers assuming Gibbs, 1995; Rogers, 1983; Tuckman,
that all readers have a shared 1969) but this paper does not aim to
understanding of its meaning. It is now an present a full historical map of the
approach that is so commonplace that few concept’s development.
have questioned its underpinning theory or
meaning, its continuing relevance or its Lea, Stephenson and Troy (2003) have
impact on practice. However, student- synthesised these many definitions to
centredness and student-centred learning present seven tenets upon which student-
are diversely defined and interpreted. Its centredness is founded. These tenets
colloquial interpretations may not be included:
enough to clearly articulate what programs
aim to achieve and may lead to practices or • the reliance on active rather
student expectations that are counter to than passive learning;
effective learning. • an emphasis on deep learning
and understanding;
This paper presents an overview of • increased responsibility and
interpretations of student-centredness and accountability on the part of
student-centred learning from the the student;
What is student-centredness and is it enough? 145
• an increased sense of student-centred concept has been linked

autonomy in the learner; with:
• an interdependence between
teacher and learner; • a student-as-consumer
• mutual respect within the perspective leading to flexible
learner-teacher relationship; scheduling and delivery of
and services in community colleges,
• a reflexive approach to the vocational and continuing
teaching and learning process education;
on the part of both teacher and • instruction that is
learner. (p. 322) individualised through the use
of interactive, computer
These tenets are a first step in delivered materials;
understanding the complexity of the • a state-wide standards-based,
student-centred construct. In a similar multi-measure assessment
review of definitions, O’Neill and McMahon system;
(2005) have repeated the above tenets (p. • teaching approaches described
28) and built on these and other work to in opposition to those that are
claim that three dimensions can be used to content focused;
describe student-centredness (p. 29). The • interactive learning
first dimension is associated with students’ experiences as opposed to
choice. An example of this is seen in individual student work; and
Burnard’s (1999) description which states • teaching that simultaneously
that “students might not only choose what incorporates student voice and
to study, but how and why that topic might choice and focuses on meeting
be an interesting one to study” (p. 244). content standards. (p. 572)
The second dimension incorporates the
active nature of student learning A snapshot of student-centredness from
exemplified by Gibbs’ (1995) description, the 2012 First Year in Higher Education
in which he asks all to “emphasise learner Conference further reinforces the diversity
activity rather than passivity” (p. 1). The of interpretations. Although no definitions
final dimension revolves around the power are included, the term has been used in
relations between students and teachers reference to peer mentoring as a just-in-
displayed in Cannon and Newble’s (2000) time, just-for-me approach to meet student
description which says student- needs (Townsend, Schoo & Dickson-Swift,
centredness “has student responsibility 2012), inter-professional learning as a
and activity at its heart, in contrast to a teaching method to develop active learning
strong emphasis on teacher control and (Davis & Jones, 2012) and as a way of
coverage of academic content in much engaging students online through social
conventional didactic teaching” (p. 16). media to again meet student needs
(Jenkins, Lyons, Bridgstock & Carr, 2012).
Paris and Combs (2006) claim that this Mostly these interpretations and those
proliferation of definitions is “staggering used elsewhere in the first year literature
and dangerous” as many are “idiosyncratic appear to incorporate components of
and incompatible” (p. 572). They cite six accepted definitions, but do not clearly
examples of the diverse meanings that the state their purpose. Principally,
interpretations appear to view student- for too long we have built education on
centredness as a way to look through the models focused on teachers and
students’ eyes and to put students’ needs institutional need. Reversing the
priority to an exclusive focus on
above other needs such as content or
learners may have equally negative
administrative. An example of this effects. Formal learning is a partnership,
interpretation is voiced by Parker (2012) negotiated between and among learners
when he writes that in the future “the and teachers. Focusing on only one side
university will be fundamentally organised of the partnership obscures necessary
around student-centred principles. input from others. (p. 240)
Students will want education à la carte:
education when they want it, how they In teaching and learning situations,
want it, where they want it” (para 5). student-centredness is often juxtaposed
with teacher-centredness, as if practices
What is the concern about could only be one or the other. Teacher-
student-centredness? centredness and its perceived close
companion—the didactic lecture—are
The drive to ensure the first year often judged to be lesser than student-
experience is centred on the student has centred approaches in which teachers have
shifted thinking and practice in the first the role of facilitator (Cousin, 2010).
year of study so that by 2010 first year However, the term facilitator can
students’ experiences have enhanced undervalue the role of the teacher, and
significantly (James, Krause & Jennings, Carlile and Jordan (2009) say that “the
2010). However, since the beginning of 21st teacher is not just a ‘facilitator of learning,’
century, there has been growing body of she is more like an orchestral conductor
literature in which the use of student- who knows both the nature of the music
centredness has been questioned. In 2004, and the styles and abilities of the
two prominent higher education performers” (p. 8).
researchers raised concerns about the
focus on the student rather than on their McWilliam (2009) is also concerned about
learning or the wider learning the facilitator only role and writes that
environment. Boud (2006) reflected that facilitating or guiding “can become an
excuse for passivity on the part of the
the discursive strategy of focussing teacher” (p. 287). This presumed
attention on learners was by no means disempowerment of teachers and what
an unreasonable move given their they bring to the learning experience has
previous neglect. However, an excess prompted Cousin (2008) to ask: “Is it time
of attention to this dimension can to swing the pendulum back to teachers,
draw attention away from many other not as lone sages on the stage but to
potentially important concerns such strongly position them with their students
as the total learning environment, and educational researchers/developers as
emotional and cultural demands on
partners in an inquiry into disciplinary
students, or indeed, what we are
seeking to produce. (p. 29) concerns?” (p. 268).
While Anderson (2004) from the Students also are not completely convinced
perspective of online learning believed that about the benefits of a student-centred
approach. In one study, students raised
concern about “educators achieving a professionals who are involved in

balance between an approach that was too enhancing student learning in the first
teacher-driven on the one hand and overly year. Students meet and learn along with
student-centred on the other. They researchers in undergraduate research
expressed anxiety about an approach that projects, with community members in
lacked structure, guidance and support in work integrated learning programs, with
the name of being student-centred” (Lea et other professional and academic staff in
al., 2003, p. 331). In another study, embedded student academic and library
students were reported as believing that skills programs, with fellow students in
“student- and teacher-centeredness seem peer assisted learning strategies and with
to be mutually reinforcing features of high career development staff. No longer is
quality education” (Elen, Clarebout, learning a partnership between only the
Le’onard & Lowyck, 2007, p. 105). student and the teacher, there is often
quite a crowd.
In reality, just like all teachers at
university, teachers of first year are much As ideas about placing students at the
more than facilitators of learning. Hattie centre of teaching, and indeed all practices
(2009) reports that the quality of teachers undertaken in the first year of university,
and their teaching contribute significantly have grown, practitioners have
to students’ learning success. He writes increasingly focussed on the learning and
that teaching must be explicitly visible and non-learning needs of students. Certainly,
describes “teachers as activators, the definitions presented by Black (2007)
deliberate change agents, and as directors and McCombs (2000) ask us to focus on
of learning” (p. 25). Similarly Goodyear individual learners, “their heredity,
(2005) and Ellis and Goodyear (2010) view experiences, perspectives, backgrounds,
teachers in online, technology-enhanced talents, interests, capacities, and needs”
environments as active designers of coupled with learning (p.186). There is a
architectures for learning which include growing perception that student-
experiences, habitats, strategies and centeredness revolves around meeting
tactics. A view of student-centredness that students’ needs.
delegates teachers to the role of facilitators
does not depict their actual roles. Cousin This focus on meeting students’ needs has
(2010) and the author have experienced been linked with a growing move to
staff development sessions with university consider students as customers or clients
teachers who strongly object to being to be satisfied. Schwartzman (1995) has
relegated to the role of facilitator of questioned the cost of that metaphor. He
learning. These teachers believe that this claims that although it has some
undervalues their discipline knowledge advantages—especially if used by
and that a “facilitator” of learning is passive administrators—when used in teaching
and does not reflect the reality of teaching and learning contexts, it compromises the
and learning at university. goals of education, defines “customers” too
narrowly, confuses the short-term
Today, first year teaching is different from satisfaction with long-term learning and
the types of university teaching apparent insufficiently accounts for the students-
when student-centredness first became teacher interaction. In support of this
popular. The teacher is only one of many concern, Finney and Finney (2010) and
Finney, Finney and Spake (2010), in US- example mathematical preparedness is an

based studies of students’ perceptions of issue for science- and engineering-based
themselves as customers and their courses (Rylands & Coady, 2009). When
“entitlements,” found that students who faced with such challenges, it is essential
viewed themselves as customers were that students and their views continue to
more likely to hold attitudes and to engage be considered, but using student-centred
in behaviours that were not conducive to as a catch-all for a diverse range of
success. Similarly, Carlile and Jordan practices may not be enough to support
(2009) is UK-based work proposed that learning of diverse students. This paper
while students demand speed and has presented an argument not against the
convenience, evidence suggests that “deep spirit of student-centred but for a
knowledge can only be acquired over a reconsideration and clarification of the
long time with much inconvenient work” term and its use. The question is what form
(p. 90.7 1). Clearly, satisfying students’ should this clarification take?
needs is not a simple act of responding, and
requires significant professional judgment Today the changing nature of students’
on the part of the teacher and supporting first year experiences means that many are
staff to ensure that meaningful student involved in student-centred learning and
learning does occur and provide students when this is accompanied by the growth of
with opportunities to acquire the a consumer-focused culture, this reinforces
necessary skills to progress. the need for all in the first year of
university to be clear on the nature of
Conclusions effective learning. Ellis and Goodyear
(2010, p. 25) describe six principles that
The first year of university study is a characterise effective student learning at
challenging time for students and for the university:
staff who teach and support them. In
Australia, the first year is characterised by Learning is individual as each learner
high levels of diversity across student constructs their own knowledge in a
populations, making the challenges even unique way, using past experiences and
greater. This is especially the case in existing knowledge to make sense of new
regional universities where universities in information. This of course does not mean
the Regional Universities Network (RUN) that learning is always an isolated process;
each report enrolling over 20% of students what one can achieve with others is often
from low SES backgrounds (My University richer than what one can do alone. Such
Website, 2013) and together enrol 15 per learning can take place in formal, non-
cent of Indigenous students, 32 per cent of formal and informal situations.
students in enabling courses and 36% of all
distance education students (RUN, 2013, Learning is challenging as each learner
para. 7). Many of these students are also steps into an unknown space of new
first in the family to study at university. knowledge, concepts or skills. This space
Further, regional and other universities can be unstable, uncomfortable or even
have raised concerns about the academic stressful as the learner oscillates between
preparedness of first year students. For old and emergent understandings (Cousin,
2008, p. 4). Challenge is essential for
1 Paper 90, page 7
learning, but strategies need to be put in towards the complete learning process,
place so as not to overwhelm. acknowledging the attributes and active
roles of learners alongside those of
Learning is active as each learner has to teachers, learning support staff,
undertake mental effort to understand a researchers and the community.
new task or concept. It takes some effort to
learn. In practice, this would mean that first year
teaching and practices that followed a
Learning is self-regulated as each learner learning- centred approach would
needs to be aware of what they know, what acknowledge:
they do not know and have the ability to
take action based on this awareness. • the attributes that students bring to
Effective learners will have knowledge of learning including diverse prior
how they learn, and are able to use that knowledge, diverse approaches to
knowledge to monitor and adjust their learning and diverse learning needs;
approach. As such learning can last beyond • the active role and responsibilities
the university experience. of the learner;
• the significant role and
Learning is situated as learners will find responsibilities of the teacher
it difficult to transfer what is learned in one (and/or learning support staff) as
context to another. Yet learning at the designer and/or activator of
university does require use of knowledge learning; and
abstracted from specific contexts and the • the role of researchers, communities
ability to work with different way of and disciplines in shaping and
knowing. activating learning.
Learning is goal-oriented as learners The term student-centred is so entrenched

need explicit goals for learning to be in the first year in higher education that it
effective. These goals may be set by the is unlikely that its use will stop. Yet this
learner, by the teacher, through a paper shows that it has been diversely
community or through a process of used and interpreted, and calls for all
negotiation. practitioners to use the term with care,
defining what in fact their practice actually
Although these principles bear a strong believes about student learning, teaching
resemblance to the tenets of Lea et al. and support in action.
(2003) discussed previously, the focus here
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14
Institution-wide peer mentoring: Benefits for

mentors
Susan Beltman
Curtin University, Perth, Australia
Marcel Schaeben
RWTH-Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
Abstract
Extensive research has shown the benefits of mentoring, including peer mentoring, for
higher education students, especially in their first year. However, few studies have
focussed exclusively on the outcomes for the mentors themselves. This paper reports
the findings of data gathered over three years about a university-wide peer mentoring
program. Benefits identified by 858 mentors were coded inductively and four major
categories emerged: altruistic, cognitive, social and personal growth. The findings
have implications for the promotion of mentor programs to administrators and to
prospective mentors. The study provides evidence that university-wide peer mentoring
programs offer multiple positive outcomes for the mentors involved, and potentially
for higher education institutions administering and supporting such programs.
Introduction benefits, especially for mentees, there is

limited research on the benefits for the
This paper reports on an institution-wide mentors themselves. This paper aims to
co-curricular approach to supporting first address this gap through examining a large
year students where all new students are scale, university-wide mentoring program.
offered a peer mentor who has already
completed the first year of the same Mentoring is a well-established, evidence-
course. Supporting students in their first based social support strategy that can
year in higher education has become even enhance academic, social, personal and
more of a priority with the Australian career outcomes of recipients (MacCallum
Government’s commitment to expanding & Beltman, 2003). Those being mentored
the university sector and increasing the are typically called a protégé or mentee. A
number of graduates (Australian mentor, in the traditional sense, is “any
Government, 2009). The expansion focuses caring, mature person who forms a one-on-
on attracting and retaining students from one relationship with someone in need"
underrepresented groups who may (Dondero, 1997, p. 882). Peer mentoring
“require higher levels of support to has been defined as “a helping relationship
succeed, including financial assistance and in which two individuals of similar age
greater academic support, mentoring and and/or experience come together, either
counselling services” (Australian informally or through formal mentoring
Government, 2008, p. 27). While such schemes, in the pursuit of fulfilling some
supports may be provided by institutions combination of functions” (Terrien &
“from above,” this may be perceived as Leonard, 2007, p. 150). According to
“imposed” and first year students may Haggard, Dougherty, Turban and Wilbanks
prefer to access networks that include (2011) in their recent comprehensive
“peers or family and intimates” (Morosanu, review of literature, one of the core
Handley, & O'Donovan, 2010, p. 675). attributes of mentoring is that “mentoring
Interventions based on peers mentoring requires a reciprocal relationship,
first year students partly address such involving mutuality of social exchange as
concerns. opposed to a one-way relationship” (p.
Peer mentoring programs have assisted 292). Both mentor and mentee contribute
first year students to successfully to and benefit from the relationship.
transition to university and be retained, to
gain a sense of belonging, and to develop Although mentoring is conceptualised as a
communication and organisational skills mutually beneficial relationship involving
(Glaser, Hall & Halperin, 2006). Programs reciprocity between the mentor and
with an academic focus have positively mentee, most research has focused on
influenced achievement and approaches to outcomes for mentees rather than for the
learning (Dearlove, Farrell, Handa & mentors, leading to comparatively less
Pastore, 2007; Fox, Stevenson, Connelly, understanding of mentors’ experiences
Duff & Dunlop, 2010). There is evidence (Haggard et al., 2011), including outcomes
that mentor programs also benefit the for university student mentors (Hughes,
university, coordinating staff and the Boyd, & Dykstra, 2010). In their literature
mentors (Elliott, Beltman & Lynch, 2011). review, Ehrich, Hansford and Tennent
Whilst studies have shown a variety of (2004) found that “the most commonly
cited mentor outcome was that of
Institution-wide peer mentoring: Benefits for mentors 155
collegiality and networking” (p. 523). their transition to university life, and link
Studies have shown personal outcomes them to appropriate sources of support
such as a sense of satisfaction and (Elliott et al., 2011). Students interested in
achievement through helping others being a mentor complete an application
(Shrestha, May, Edirisingha, Burke & and send it to the local staff member who
Linsey, 2009), and increased self- coordinates the program in their school or
awareness and confidence (Heirdsfield, department. They state their beliefs about
Walker, Walsh & Wilss, 2008). Social what they can contribute to, as well as gain
outcomes have included an enhanced sense from, the role of a mentor, and provide the
of connectedness (Terrion, Philion & name of an academic staff member as a
Leonard, 2007), and inter-cultural referee (Curtin University, 2011b).
friendships (Devereux, 2004). Mentors Mentors are selected by the local mentor
have also reported an improvement of coordinator with one mentor for every 10-
their professional and organisational skills 15 new students.
that they have begun developing in their
courses (Calder, 2004). A centrally managed training and
preparation program is run by an overall
The aim of this study was to examine in university Mentor Coordinator who then
more depth benefits for the mentors in an communicates with school or departmental
Australian university-wide peer mentoring local mentor coordinators. Mentors are
program for first year students. Of the required to participate in a one-day
literature reviewed for this paper, those training workshop prior to Orientation
studies examining mentor benefits had Week (Curtin University, 2011c) and then
small numbers of participants, with the to support students for their first semester.
exception of Glaser et al. (2006) with 164 They are provided with information about
participants. The present study aimed to the role of the mentor and the structure of
expand the understanding of benefits the program, as well as insights into
perceived by mentors through the analysis student development and transition. They
of a large data base of evaluations. This are familiarised with the key sources of
study specifically focussed on the research help for new students and learn how to
question: What benefits do mentors of first communicate with the mentees in meetings
year students report from their as well as by email and mobile phone.
participation in this program? Additionally, matters of cultural diversity
and sensitivity are addressed. Mentors are
Methodology provided with a Mentor Handbook and
various printed and online resources
(Curtin University, 2011d). They are
Program structure required to complete an online evaluation
in order to receive their final payment and
The centrally organised mentoring certificate.
program was introduced at Curtin
University in 2008, and expanded to The Mentor Program is designed as an opt-
include every new undergraduate student out program. Every new student is
(Curtin University, 2011a). Students who assigned a mentor from the same course
have successfully completed the first year but can choose not to respond (Elliott et al.,
of their course assist new students with 2011). Mentors and mentees have an initial
meeting during Orientation Week and are number of mentors from each faculty over
encouraged to schedule a second meeting the three years of data available for this
in the first week of the semester. It is then study. The total number is greater than 858
left to individual groups whether to because of those mentors who undertook
schedule further group or one-to-one the role more than once. As the aim of the
meetings. Ongoing contact is continued study was to gain an understanding of the
throughout the semester, mainly via email. nature of the benefits perceived by
The Mentor Coordinator provides mentors, rather than provide specific
suggested email templates, and, along with information for the program itself, all
the local staff mentor coordinators, available data were included from all
provides ongoing support to the mentors. semesters, all faculties and all mentoring
Mentors are formally recognised by the occasions.
University through an honorarium
payment, presentations, and comments on As seen in Table 1, the numbers of mentors
their academic transcript (Elliott et al., varied across the semesters, depending on
2011). how many schools were involved in the
program, and how many students were
Participants enrolled each semester. Second semester
numbers were small, as fewer new
The participants were 858 individual students enrol mid-year and Semester 2
mentors (female: n=599, male: n=259) who data were not available for all years.
gave consent to their data being used for Overall, Health and Humanities were more
research. Most (n=708) were in a mentor highly represented than Business and
role for one semester, 119 for two Science and Engineering that joined the
semesters, and some for three (n=26) or program later.
four (n=5) semesters. Table 1 indicates the
Table 1: Number of mentors per semester in each faculty
Faculty 2009 Sem 1 2010 Sem 2010 Sem 2011 Sem Missing Total (%)
1 2 1
Humanities 138 114 21 87 360 (34.48)
Health 78 116 19 120 333 (31.90)
Business 0 128 30 70 228 (21.84)
Science and 18 34 7 58 117 (11.21)

Engineering
Missing data 6 6 (0.57)
Totals 234 392 77 335 6 1,044 (100)
Surveys researchers was reached. To check these

categories, one researcher coded another
The program coordinators centrally collect set of 50 responses. Further discussion and
evaluation data every semester, including a refinement occurred until agreement
compulsory mentor survey. A number of occurred and a detailed coding system was
questions are asked in the evaluation, such developed.
as views of training, of communication
with school mentor coordinators, of To verify the coding system, a single new
frustrations with the program, and of set of 50 responses was assigned to both
perceived benefits for the mentors researchers who coded them individually
themselves. Room is provided for then met to compare and discuss the
additional comments. Mentor response coding. The iterative process of comparing
rates ranged from 88.5% to 94.9%. and refining categories continued once
more with a further set of 50 responses
In 2009 and 2010, mentors were until a detailed coding system was
specifically asked: Comment about the developed, and included sub-categories
things you have enjoyed or found beneficial within major categories (see Table 2).
about being a student mentor. What have Krippendorff’s Alpha coefficient (Hayes,
you gained and/or found really satisfying 2005; Hayes & Krippendorff, 2007) was
from this role? In 2011, only one question used to determine inter-rater reliability. As
was used, asking for general comments this was satisfactory (Krippendorff’s Alpha
about the program. Evaluation data from > 0.7), one researcher coded the remaining
Semester 1 2009, Semesters 1 and 2 2010, responses.
and Semester 1 2011 were aggregated in
order to gain a broader understanding of Results
positive outcomes perceived by the
mentors for themselves. The majority of the 1285 responses fitted
into four major categories: Altruistic
Data analysis (47.0% of all benefits), Cognitive (17.8%),
Social (14.7%) and Personal Growth
Answers containing multiple benefits were (14.0%). Within each major category, there
split and coded separately so the number were several sub-categories. Table 2a and
of benefits (1,285 separate benefits coded) Table 2b indicate the frequencies and
was greater than participants. Several percentages (within each major category)
samples of 50 responses were of all sub-categories in the four major
independently coded by two researchers categories. The most frequent major
using an inductive-deductive approach. category was Altruistic (47.0% of all
First, each researcher divided a set of 50 responses) which included responses that
responses into groups of similar benefits. mentioned enjoyment and satisfaction
Each researcher assigned descriptions to from helping people. An example of a
the groups, closely resembling the response was one female art student who
language used by participants. Then, the wrote in 2009: It is genuinely rewarding to
groups and their descriptions were know that someone feels more able to
compared and the categories refined and appreciate an experience because of the
adjusted until agreement between the support you have offered. Similarly, a female
Table 2a: Frequencies of major categories and sub-categories
Percent
Major
Sub-category Frequency within each
Category
category
Social Enjoyed getting to know/interacting with new students 119 63.0
Developed friendship/stayed in touch/rewarding 37 19.6
relationship with mentees
Networking with other mentors 27 14.3
Social benefits in general 3 1.6
Enjoyed coordinating between mentees and staff 3 1.6
Total 189 100.0
Personal Would have liked a mentor themselves / reflected on own 54 30.0
Growth experiences as new uni student
Developed confidence 33 18.3
Developed empathy with students/aware of/ appreciate their 29 16.1
issues/inspired by mentees/“eye opener”
Sense of involvement with / contribution to university 27 15.0
Being role model / inspiring others 14 7.8
Pride / sense of achievement 11 6.1
Sense of responsibility 8 4.4
Personal growth in general 4 2.2
Total 180 100.0
business student in 2010 said: I feel really female media student in 2009 commented:
happy knowing I'm making at least a small There were a lot of things about the
impact on someone's integration into uni. university and services that I wasn't aware
of until I did the training for the mentoring
The second most frequent group of program.
responses, Cognitive (17.8% of all
responses), included acquiring new skills The third most frequent category was
or information (e.g. developing Social (14.7% of all responses). Many
communication skills; learning about participants mentioned social benefits such
resources of the university), or gaining as interacting with new students or
experience in skills the mentors already developing friendships with them. For
had, thus enhancing them (e.g. leadership example, a male physiotherapy student in
experience). In 2011 a female pharmacy 2010 wrote: It has been extremely fun just
student wrote: The mentor program has to socialise with the mentees. In 2009, a
helped define myself as a leader, and I look female education student wrote: I enjoyed
forward to taking part in many other meeting the first years - it is always good to
leadership and mentoring roles in my meet new people. Networking with fellow
immediate future and during my career. A mentors was also mentioned. A female
Table 2b: Frequencies of major categories and sub-categories
Percent
Major
Sub-category Frequency within each
Category
category
Altruistic Enjoyed / satisfied as helped new students with 316 52.3
difficulties / problems / settling in
Passing on own experience and knowledge 130 21.5
Enjoyed / appreciated positive feedback / response from 85 14.1
mentees
Making a difference / having an impact 37 6.1
Being available if needed 33 5.5
Pride in achievements of mentees 3 .5
Total 604 100.0
Cognitive Leadership skills / experience 84 36.7
Communicaiton skills 32 14.0
Learnt about university resources 29 12.7
Helpful training 21 9.2
Organisational skills / experience 21 9.2
Professional development / career development / CV material 20 8.7
Learnt skills / gained knowledge in general 9 3.9
Interpersonal skills 8 3.5
Social skills 5 2.2
Total 229 100.0
Other Other 50 60.2
No response from mentees 22 26.5
No benefits 11 13.3
Total 83 100.0
Overall Total Benefits 1285
architecture student said in 2009 she most frequent sub-category reflected

benefitted from meeting the other student developing self-awareness where mentors
mentors. reflected on their own experiences and
growth. For example, a female occupational
Finally, the fourth major group of benefits therapy student wrote in 2009: It enabled
was Personal Growth (14.0% of all me to reflect on my own learning
responses). Responses related to self and experiences, as it was very similar to some of
personal development (e.g. developing the mentees' situations I've encountered - it
confidence; gaining a sense of pride or was a bit like deja vu at times. Several
responsibility; developing empathy). The reported that they would have liked a
mentor in their first year when feeling with new students in their field, which
confused such as the female accounting built rapport between students from
student in 2010 who said: If I could have different years. Some stayed in touch with
asked another student, I think i [sic] would their mentees, and some developed
have had a better first year at uni. An friendships. Mentors also got to know
interesting comment made by several other mentors through the training and the
students was that, through getting to know meetings with the staff coordinator,
and assisting first years, they could see expanding their social networks. The
their own growth. experience of mentoring contributed to the
mentors’ emotional and personal growth
It has made me think back to when I first as they gained confidence, taking pride in
started uni and the emotions that I felt their role as a mentor and being a role
back them, as well as my journey from model for their mentees. Many mentors
them to now. [female education student, reflected on their own experiences as a
2010]
first year and subsequent progress. By
getting insight into their mentees’ issues,
The process really reminds you of how
overwhelming uni can be at first and that mentors developed empathy with their
by 3rd year you have come a long way. mentees and were made aware of the
[male public health student, 2010] problems of first year students from
different backgrounds.
Also in the category of Personal Growth,
mentors reported that they had gained Relation of findings to previous
confidence through the activities of the research
program such as the male art student who
wrote in 2009: I found that my confidence Overall, the findings from this large sample
in contacting people and communicating via of mentor responses were consistent with
email has increased greatly. Responses not benefits reported in previous studies. By
fitting any of the major categories were far the most common benefits reported by
categorised as Other. mentors in this study were altruistic.
Mentors enjoyed passing on their
Discussion knowledge and experience to new students
and appreciated positive feedback from
Summary of findings mentees. Shrestha et al. (2009) also found
such benefits to be important. According to
In summary, mentors primarily reported a Heirdsfield et al. (2008), mentors felt
sense of achievement and satisfaction in rewarded as “mentees often expressed
their role of assisting new students. They gratitude for their mentor’s support” (p.
also developed skills for their personal and 117).
professional lives, and appreciated the
opportunity for leadership experience and The importance of cognitive benefits in this
development. In a practical sense, they study is also consistent with the literature.
learnt about resources and services For example, Calder (2004) said that
available in their university that they were mentors “appear to relish the opportunity
not aware of before. Mentors also enjoyed to demonstrate or refine the skills that they
the opportunity to get to know and interact have learnt in other aspects of their
university study (p. 12). In their review of (2009) found that mentors reflected upon
mentoring in education and other and so were able to improve their
professions, Ehrich et al. (2004) indicated performance, and Heirdsfield et al. (2008)
that mentors experienced an increase in that mentors reported greater self-
their knowledge about their own awareness. An interesting finding in the
university or institution. Drew, Pike, present study was that mentors, through
Pooley, Young, and Breen (2000) found their interaction with new students, could
that psychology student mentors gained not only recall how they themselves had
information and knowledge about their felt as new students, but also could see how
university and specific school. far they had progressed over time. Such
findings offer universities validation for the
Social outcomes were the third most strategy of supporting first years as well as
frequently reported benefit by mentors in evidence for ongoing student development
this study. Ehrich et al. (2004) found through their courses. Mentors working in
networking and collegiality the most different contexts have reported that
common outcomes for mentors. Other reflection on this role leads to new
studies have also reported such benefits. understandings of the self and one’s
For example, acting as a mentor provided profession (Ehrich et al., 2004; Gilles &
“increased opportunities for socialising” Wilson, 2004).
(Shrestha et al., 2009, p. 119). Terrion et al.
(2007) reported “increased social capital” Limitations of the study
(p. 53) as an important outcome for
mentors, being defined as “the sense of There were some limitations to the study
connectedness with others in the and these also provide direction for future
university (other students, professors, research. The evaluations completed by the
other mentors, and resource people)” (p. mentors were developed by the program
50). Building friendships and lasting coordinators. In response to university
relationships with people they would not priorities, the actual questions were not
have met otherwise was also an important identical across year groups. The 2011
part of the mentors’ experience in some group was not specifically asked about
programs where some students formed benefits and perhaps they would have
“their first real intercultural friendship” reported differently had they been. For
(Devereux, 2004, p.6). Mentor programs 2012, the more specific questions will be
appear to enhance connections between reintroduced to facilitate future
students and different aspects of their comparisons. The analyses reported in this
university in various ways. paper are quite global. Differences between
years, genders or faculties are not
The final major category of benefits for examined. This is partially due to the fact
mentors in this study was Personal Growth. that over the period of data collection,
These outcomes revealed enhanced self- different faculties have taken up the
awareness and self-development, reflecting program, resulting in different amounts of
the reciprocal nature of the mentoring data from different faculties. There may
relationship as suggested by Haggard et al. well be differences between genders or
(2011). The mentoring literature reports faculties and this is an area for further
gains in self-esteem and confidence of investigation. Although the program is run
mentors. For example, Shrestha et al.
centrally, each school or department has its payment! For the mentors in this study, it
own methods of selection and support. would appear that intrinsic rewards were
Case studies of how the program is more important, but there were no data
implemented and the impact of this on the available regarding the mentors’ initial
outcomes for the mentors would be a motivations for becoming a mentor and
fruitful area of further examination. further research could compare initial
Similarly, differences between first time motivation to engage in mentoring with
and more experienced mentors have not perceived outcomes.
been examined or separated out in the
analysis. The aim was to provide a broad This study has only focussed on the
understanding of types of benefits. Given positive outcomes of the program for
mentors’ comments about their own mentors. Frustrations or negative
development, in-depth interviews of outcomes reported by mentors have yet to
mentors with different levels of experience be analysed. For example, a scan of the data
would enable a greater understanding of revealed that many mentors were
the ongoing role as a mentor and how this frustrated at the lack of response from
contributed to their personal development. their mentees, both in replies to emails as
Finally, the response rate for the survey well as in attending face-to-face meetings.
was very high as the mentors had to Glaser, et al. (2006) found a “significant
complete this in order to gain their positive correlation between the
payment. Although this could indicate proportion of mentees attending the
some coercion, students did not necessarily meetings for each mentor and the total
complete all sections and it was possible to self-reported benefits rated by mentors”
log in and not provide any responses, and a (p. 13). As the program in the present
few students took this option. study was structured differently in
different schools, comparing the types of
Suggestions for future research communication (e.g. online or face-to-face,
individual or groups) and the related
When the mentor program was developed, positive and negative perceptions of the
it was thought that extrinsic rewards of mentors (and indeed of the mentees)
payment and recognition on an academic would be helpful information for program
transcript would be important to attract developers.
mentors. Interestingly, only two mentors
(females in the Humanities faculty) Haggard et al. (2011) indicated that a
mentioned the payment in all the fruitful area of research that has received
responses about benefits. Both had been little attention is the motivation of mentors
mentors previously and the payment was to take on their role and suggested that
reduced after 2009 as more schools self-determination theory may provide a
undertook the program. One commented useful conceptual framework to
that she had enjoyed getting the previously understand motivation for mentoring. Self-
greater amount, and the other said: I determination theory proposes three basic
received a message from a mentee yesterday psychological needs of competence,
saying I was extremely helpful and there relatedness and autonomy (Ryan & Deci,
should be more people like me! That was 2000) and the findings of this study
worth even more than the upcoming indicate the potential relevance of this
interpretive framework. In the present
study for example, mentors reported from

www.deewr.gov.au/he_review_finalreport.
developing competence in various skills
and increased feelings of relatedness or Australian Government. (2009). Transforming
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16. Retrieved from
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Conclusions x?id=7436
Curtin University. (2011a). Outline of the Mentor
The findings have the potential to be used Program. Retrieved from
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attract mentors as well as to indicate to Curtin University. (2011b). Recruitment. Retrieved
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are broader than just for the first years http://mentoring.curtin.edu.au/staff/recru
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university-wide co-curricular peer Dearlove, J., Farrell, H., Handa, N., & Pastore, C. (2007).
mentoring program have the potential to The evolution of peer mentoring at the
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the Australia and New Zealand Student
commencing university students, but also Services Association, 29, 21-35.
such programs provide positive outcomes
Devereux, L. (2004, July). When Harry met Sarita:
for the mentors involved. Using a peer-mentoring program to develop
intercultural wisdom in students. Paper
Acknowledgements presented at the Higher Education
Research and Development Society of
Australasia Conference, Miri, Curtin
The authors thank Dr Jim Elliott and Ms University, Sarawak Campus, Malaysia.
Ebonee Lynch for their assistance in Dondero, G. (1997). Mentors: Beacons of hope.
providing the data for this study and Adolescence, 32(128), 881-886.
providing feedback on the interpretations Drew, N., Pike, L., Pooley, J., Young, A., & Breen, L.
offered in the paper. (2000, July). School of Psychology Peer
Mentoring Pilot Programme. Paper
presented at the The Fourth Pacific Rim
First Year in Higher Education Conference:
Creating Futures for a New Millennium,
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15
The hero’s journey: Stories of women returning to

education 1
Sarah O’ Shea
University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
Cathy Stone
Open Universities Australia and University of Newcastle, Newcastle, Australia
Abstract
This paper draws upon the metaphor of the “hero’s journey” to further analyse seven stories
of women returning to education. These stories have formed the basis of a recent book
publication by the authors (Stone & O’Shea, 2012) and are derived from two complementary
but separate research studies (O’Shea, 2007; Stone, 2008). None of the women featured in
this article have a parent who went to university and all have a number of competing
demands in their lives including families, partners and employment. This paper aims to both
frame the richly descriptive nature of these stories within a heroic metaphor and also to
indicate how these stories, whilst unique, share common thematic elements and turning
points. The paper foregrounds these commonalities capturing a universal narrative and also
explores how this mythical framework could be used by both educators and students to
conceptualise movements within this environment.
1 The article was an invited presentation at the 16th International First Year in Higher Education
Conference in Wellington, New Zealand in 2013. The article has since undergone peer review and
is published here.
Introduction We were both struck by this metaphor and

the applicability of it to the very powerful
The challenge of contemporary stories to which we had been privileged to
education is to regain a sense of have access. The collective wisdom of
shared purpose and to recognize, all mythic legend and metaphor does indeed
over again, the power of the learning provide one way to open up these stories.
process in transforming lives. In exploring the women’s individual stories
(Brown & Moffett, 1999, p18) from this perspective, it has become
obvious to us that common thematic
The transformative power of education is episodes associated with heroic endeavour
not a new concept but as Brown and and transformation run across the
Moffett (1999) point out, the need to narratives.
continually remind ourselves, as educators,
of the impact education can have on This paper will explore the women’s
personal lives and identities is vital. stories drawing upon the hero’s journey as
Highlighting this transformation in a metaphorical lens. In doing this, the
powerful yet innovative ways can be context for both studies will firstly be
challenging for researchers, a challenge we, outlined and an overview of how metaphor
the authors of this paper, faced when, in can be applied within narrative inquiry. A
conducting separate pieces of research, we detailed explanation of the thematic
had interviewed women who had decided elements associated with the hero’s
to come to university after a significant gap journey will then provide the background
in formal learning. The thematic analysis of to the analysis of the narrative data
these interviews and the deeply personal, derived from research. The concluding
yet powerfully significant narratives that discussion will focus on how educators
these conversations produced, necessitated might draw upon this metaphor within the
an alternative approach to exploring their higher education sector.
experiences.
Background to the research
In reviewing our analysis of these stories,
seven of which we collected together for a
Separate pieces of research were
book on the experiences of women
conducted by each of the authors of this
returning to education (Stone & O’Shea,
paper during 2006 - 2007 (O’Shea, 2007;
2012), we were prompted by the words of
Stone, 2008). At the time of undertaking
a colleague to consider these stories from a
the two studies, both researchers/authors
different perspective. Commenting in an
were professionally engaged in university
email to us on the often poetic nature of the
student support positions. These roles
women’s stories, our colleague observed
brought them into contact with many first
how each of the women “were expressing a
year students, enabling the authors to
mythic experience. Women are rarely
witness the challenges and the celebrations
considered in the hero myth but these
of these first year students. Such exposure
stories spoke to me of the hero's journey.
provided the impetus to the research
They had each been in a dark place and
outlined in this article. Within the two
emerged with new or recovered selves” (J.
studies a combined total of 37 students
May, personal communication, December
were interviewed about their experiences
11, 2012).
of being at university. From these 37
The hero’s journey: Stories of women returning to education 167
individual stories, seven were chosen as research to be doing. A postmodern

illustrations of the experiences of mature feminist perspective (Olesen, 2005;
age students, and used as case studies for a Yeatman, 1994) was used to deconstruct
book entitled Transformations and self- the women’s stories, revealing “the
discovery: Stories of women returning to practices, discourses and implications for
education (Stone & O’Shea, 2012). All seven control of women’s lives” (Olesen, p. 247)
women were enrolled in undergraduate that are ever-present when women,
degree programs at a large regional particularly those with children and/or
university in Australia and each was asked male partners, choose to take an
to reflect on their journey into higher independent path such as going to
education. None had a parent who had university, which impacts upon their caring
been to university, all but one of them had responsibilities as wives and mothers.
Table 1: Details of the Participants

Name Age Attend Marital Children / Ages Entry pathway* Bachelor of Year
Status
Nicki 33 F/T Single One (2 yrs) HSC / TAFE Teaching / Arts 1
Mandy 38 P/T Married Five (15,13,10,8,6) AC Architecture 2
Fiona 35 F/T Single One (7) AC Social Science 2
Katrina 42 F/T Widowed Two (11,7) AC Teaching / Arts 2
Nerida 49 F/T Married Three (26,23,22) AC Grad Dip of Education 4
(Primary)
Simone 34 F/T Married Four (8,9,3&18) Enrolled in AC N/A Access
Susie 38 F/T Married Two (3&6) AC Social Science 1
*HSC= Higher School Certificate; TAFE: Technical and Further Education; AC= Access Course
entered university through an access

course for mature-age entry and all Women and higher education
presented as Anglo-Australian. Table 1 participation
provides further details about each of the
women.
Wakeling and Kyriacou (2010) point out
that the gender divide in the numbers of
A narrative method (Polkinghorne, 1988;
male and female enrolments in higher
Riessman, 1993; Elliott, 2005) was used to
education has virtually closed in most
interview the students, to analyse the data
countries internationally. Indeed in
and to describe the student journeys, based
countries such as the UK and Australia,
upon each student’s individual narrative
statistics indicate that women are choosing
about their experiences. With mature age
to pursue higher education in greater
students now forming at least 40% of the
numbers than men. Reporting on a decade
higher education population and with
of data, the Australian Bureau of Statistics
women outnumbering men by almost two
(2010), highlights how the proportion of
to one in the over-35 age group at
people aged 15-64 years with a Bachelor
university (Centre for the Study of Higher
degree or above increased by 5.1% for
Education, 2008), this seemed like timely
males and by 8.3 % for females. The
number of females with a Bachelor degree this challenges dominant discourses

or above has continued to increase, around women’s position within the
reaching 21% for males and 25% for domestic sphere (p. 190). The particular
females at May 2009. However, the constraints experienced by women
increasing number of female students does returners prompted the focus on female
not necessarily mean that this educational students within this study.
landscape is characterised by equality.
Rather female educational participation Despite the difficulties faced by women in
continues to be gender biased, with women returning to study, other research has also
continuing to be significantly indicated that going to university or college
overrepresented in traditional female provides a significant impetus for change
caring professions such as health and in women’s lives. The choice to return to
education (Wakeling & Kyriacou). education can initiate a sense of
empowerment, an increase in confidence
Research and literature on female and an improvement in employment
returners also highlights the unique issues opportunities. Quinn (2005), for example,
faced by both older females when they highlights how university provided her
return to higher education and younger participants with an “imagined” space,
women from working class or low socio- where the dominant discourses shaped by
economic backgrounds. Both groups are “supermarkets, call centres and lonely train
often restricted in their choice and stations” (p. 11) could be resisted and
aspirations relating to higher education indeed reframed. Instead, the women in
(Evans, 2009; Gorard et al., 2006; our research described university as means
Walkerdine, Lucey, & Melody 2001). For to re-imagine and legitimate self in relation
example, much research has demonstrated to other members of the community—a
that care for others continues to be truly transformative experience. The
overwhelmingly seen as women’s work. As mythical hero’s journey supports and
Gouthro (2006) highlights, the patterns of highlights the concept of choosing the path
women’s learning are frequently of hardship and challenges in order to,
“coordinated around domestic and ultimately, achieve transformation and
childrearing responsibilities” (p. 8). This is growth. It resonates particularly aptly
an echo of Carol Gilligan’s much earlier with many of the journeys of mature age
work (1987), which argued that the women in higher education.
decisions that women make tend to be
defined by an overarching sense of Why the hero’s journey? A
responsibility towards others. As Gilligan conceptual framework
explains: “Women not only define
themselves in a context of human A metaphor or a fiction might open a
relationships but also judge themselves in door that cannot be opened by
terms of their ability to care” (p. 67). approaches that are too weighted
Britton and Baxter (1999) also identified down by duty to literal truth (Bakan,
how the women in their study were more 1996, p. 7).
inclined to define their academic pursuits
in terms of selfishness and guilt rather than The journey metaphor is ubiquitous in
self-fulfillment. These authors suggest that narratives whether oral, visual or textual,
if women prioritise their personal needs, and the hero’s journey has been previously
used to consider and understand a range of
educational experiences (Follo, 2002; in the Wizard of Oz and Harry Potter, to

Goldstein, 2005; Randles, 2012). However, name but a few contemporary heroes.
drawing upon the hero’s journey to analyse
the stories of students returning to However, the concept of the hero is not
education and negotiating their transition without its limitations. Frequently
to this environment, is largely novel. While associated with male protagonists often
Seary and Willans (2004) have applied this existing in isolation, the hero may not seem
construct to stages that students an appropriate term to associate with
encountered whilst proceeding through a women returning to education. Robbins
university access program, we have (2005-2006) recommends a broader
extended the metaphor to assist interpretation of the word hero, noting that
understanding of the transition into we in the western world tend to be “fed on
university for students who are older a steady diet of ‘warrior’ champions who
and/or come from backgrounds where are traditionally males, and quite often
attending university deviates from cultural Caucasian” (p. 777). She encourages us
or social norms. The structure of this instead to view “hero... as a gender-neutral
mythic story can assist in further and racially blind word to designate a
understanding the journeys that these person who is in the process of
students take and also, assist in explaining individuation... as creators, scholars,
the nuances of this journey on a deeply pioneers, lovers, caregivers or wise
personal level. prophets” (p. 777).
Campbell’s (1949) foundational work The Polster (2001) perceives female heroism as
Hero with a Thousand Faces explores the essentially different to male heroism,
hero’s journey as a series of interconnected arguing that for women, heroism is “rooted
stages which begin with a state of in the particular circumstances and values
innocence or unknowing. This state is of women’s lives” (p. 13). For Polster
disrupted and leads to the decision to (2001), this positionality means that the
embark on a journey of adventure where characteristics of the woman hero are
the hero encounters trials and tests; if stated in less “adversarial terms” (p. 13)
these are overcome then the hero brings a and may be linked to family and
“gift” to their origins, which may in itself community connection:
lead to transformation (Brown & Moffett,
1999). The story at its simplest follows the Women’s heroic choice differs from
theme of “separation-initiation-return” that of the classic male hero, who
(Randles, 2012, p. 11) where an individual has throughout legend physically
leaves the current world to travel within a separated himself from home and
family in order to follow his heroic
special world and encounters unexpected
path.…Women’s quest is to balance
adventure. The journey has been perceived her independence with her
in terms of light and dark; as the hero sensitivity to relationship and
travels there is a movement from dark to connection. (p. 14)
light, perhaps relative to a new enlightened
state. We can all think of many examples of According to Polster (2001), this pull of the
the hero metaphor in literature and film— family may actually mean that women have
from Jason and the Argonauts, to Dorothy greater struggle to contend with initially in
their journey but at the culmination of this
journey, she emerges as “an independent these stories also reflect “cultural messages
person who chooses the way she will be about society” (Muller, 1999, p. 224). When
involved and what her contribution will participants are asked to reflect on past
be” (p. 187). This acknowledgement of events and narrate these, not only are
family also recognises that unlike the these stories presented in an
typical mythic male hero, solitude is not a organisationally coherent way but also,
necessity and instead this definition of such renditions reveal the significance of
heroism recognises the importance of these for the narrator. By placing events in
social and familial networks. Both the need a temporal sequence and creating a plot,
for social networks and the pull of the the narrator is essentially highlighting the
family are themes that emerged in all the significance of some occurrences over
women’s stories in this research and will others as well as “shaping” these into
be explored in more detail in the data “meaningful units” (Polkinghorne, 1988, p.
section of the paper 160). As Polkinghorne highlights: “The
humblest narrative is always more than a
Using metaphor in narrative chronological series of events: it is a
inquiry gathering together of events into a
meaningful story” (p. 131).
Using metaphor can assist in opening up
Applying the metaphor of the hero’s
narrative accounts and perhaps better
journey to each of women’s stories enables
assist the reader to “enter empathetically
insight into the wider cultural implications
into worlds of experience different from
of these stories. Drawing on an existing
their own” and enable a level of self-
literary metaphor can facilitate the
analysis and identification whereby
generation of ideas, which can then be used
“readers become co performers, examining
to elaborate upon the data; these types of
themselves through the evocative power of
“sensitising concepts” (Blumer, 1954) can
the narrative text” (Ellis & Bochner, 2002,
assist the researcher in exploring diverse
p. 748). Structurally, narratives can be
facets of the data. However, to do justice to
defined as stories, which move from one
the material, reading should extend beyond
“equilibrium” to another, in this way a
disciplinary boundaries and include
narrative may commence with a “stable”
sources from a diversity of discipline fields.
situation, which is then destabilised by
Literary metaphor should be used in a
factors or forces (Czarniawska, 2002, p.
creative manner to open up narrative
735). The resulting state of disequilibrium
accounts and thereby, explore alternative
is then addressed by a differing set of
or unusual interpretations of the material.
circumstances to create a new equilibrium,
As Noble (1994) argues “the hero is a
this may relate to the initial state but it is
universal ideal that helps people think
not exactly the same (Czarniawska, 2002).
about their lives in a more profound and
Generally, these stories are chronological
creative way” (p. 8).
in that they have a start, some type of plot
development and then an ending of sorts.
However, the significance of narratives
Findings
exists beyond the structure; narratives are
also situated within a cultural context. There are many variations of the hero’s
While stories told may at one level refer to journey narrative and whilst each shares
events within one person’s life equally, common elements, the particular nuances
of plot lines do diverge. For the purposes of studies, so I found it all very
this paper, we have drawn upon Follo’s frightening for the first six weeks and
(2002) work, which uses the hero’s was close to giving it all away.
(Katrina)
journey metaphor to describe the process
by which young women enter and succeed
in a traditionally male educational setting. The women also all responded to some
Follo (2002) highlights how “the myth type of call to awakening which initiated
gives a coherent frame for the... crucial this journey. For some this was a result of a
elements of the female students’ stories” major development or crisis in their
(p. 296). Follo lists these crucial elements existing life, for others it was a long held
as being: travelling in a foreign country; dream that seemed out of reach before but
meeting with many trials but also some then became a possibility. Once the women
helpers; and becoming stronger, wiser and had decided to embark on the journey, the
more self-confident than they had been almost alien nature of the university was
before they started the journey (p. 296). described; again this was reminiscent of a
Focussing on the myth of the hero’s foreign land:
journey, and borrowing these three crucial
It’s hard to work out exactly what the
elements from Follo, we can represent the lecturers want and that’s a very steep
journeys of the female mature aged learning curve. (Barbara)
students featured in our research, in the
following terms. Nothing can prepare you for an
academic essay - it was like trying to
Travelling in a foreign country learn a foreign language. (Nerida)
Being the first amongst one’s families and This lack of understanding about
friends to enter university can indeed be institutional expectations was not solely
likened to being “a stranger in a foreign limited to the level or type of work
land” (Mann, 2001, p. 11). None of the required. Many of the participants revealed
women who participated in our studies a lack of clarity or knowledge about quite
had a parent who had been to university. fundamental institutional processes; for
Most did not have any other family example, enrolment procedures, financial
member, or even any friends who had been requirements, timetabling. Overall, in the
to university. Entering university was, for first year of study there seemed to be an
each of them, much like travelling in a assumption of knowledge on the part of the
foreign country, where a new language, institution, leading to Susie describing her
new customs and new expectations had to arrival as a “culture shock”. For Mandy,
be learnt, with no one to teach them. The these initial struggles were clearly related
anxiety associated with this is clearly to her first in family status as she keenly
expressed in their stories; when reflecting felt the disadvantage of not having a
on her first year of study, Katrina significant other who could be relied upon
highlighted the fears associated with for advice:
making the decision to “travel”:
None of my family has ever studied
and they don’t understand what it is
The first six weeks were a nightmare...
about. (Mandy)
very overwhelming... I had worked for
a long time as an admin assistant, and
admin work is nothing like academic
Despite encountering initial difficulties, the were all sick, and we had lots of
seven women all continued their journey financial problems. (Mandy)
beyond these initial stages, each obtaining
support and assistance from a variety of For a number of these participants, the
sources. home or community were not the “safe
spaces” as described by the female
Meeting trials but also helpers academics interviewed by Alfred (2001),
which provided the support and strength
There are both allies and enemies on this needed to operate in the higher education
journey and each of the women reflected environment. Instead, the home was often
upon significant trials, which they had to perceived as constraining both the
overcome, particularly in the early days of women’s desires and success. To succeed
their studies. These included the academic in the first year of university required
trials of learning how to meet the academic some of the women to keep family and
requirements such as essay writing, university life quite separate, such as
studying for exams, time management and Katrina who explained how “…as soon as
so on. However, the trials that were most my children are in bed I’m in front of the
challenging were the personal ones—how computer or I’m reading uni books and
to successfully combine their studies with articles”. However, such separation was not
their family responsibilities, including necessarily viewed negatively, Mandy
caring for children, partners, ageing rejoiced in “having something” just for
parents—as well as with paid work to help herself explaining “… for the first time in 15
support the family financially. For many years I can just get in the car and drive up
women, the gendered role of “carer” can and get lost in books and research
still be inescapable, resulting in a great …independence. And it’s something of mine. I
deal of internal conflict and constant don’t have to necessarily share it with Mike
juggling. The women in this study also [husband] and the children”.
struggled to achieve their academic goals
without neglecting their family The women’s stories also clearly indicated
responsibilities. that without helpers along the way, the
trials might have proved too much for
I was either at work or had the kids them. All had learnt to rely on help from
pressuring me for time with them. I others in a number of different ways.
just wanted them to leave me alone Brown and Moffett (1999) highlight how
and let me do what I needed to do. initiation is a core to any hero’s journey:
(Simone) This relates to being “tried and tested” (p.
16) by individuals or a being that seems to
Often I have to miss tutorials be more powerful than the individual
because of other commitments, with
competing the journey. To overcome these
the children and so on. (Katrina)
powerful forces, the use of “amulets” is
I’ve got a lot of guilt with having proposed and like the mythic heroes, our
Michael in day-care five days, and student participants also had to recourse to
it’s really hard, especially in the more tangible amulets often in the form of
morning when he bawls. (Barbara) the available support systems and social
groups. Key helpers included supportive
I had a big breakdown during the lecturers, university support services,
first semester, because the children other friendly and supportive campus staff
and, above all, friends, both on and off Returning stronger, wiser and
campus. more self-confident
If I need help with my studies and so
As in Follo’s study (2002), the women in
on, first off I go to my friends. If we
don’t understand something we talk this study all indicated that they are feeling
among ourselves. (Fiona) stronger, wiser and more self-confident
than they did before they began the
When I got to the point that I wanted journey. The space offered by university
to give it up I spoke to student provided the means for growth and change
support... and I had some and for a sense of “empowerment” and
counselling and ... that was excellent, control in their personal lives. Mezirow
releasing fear and anxiety. (Katrina) (2003) has written extensively on the
transformative possibilities of learning,
When you get to uni and you get
friends, that makes it a bit better. arguing that educators can provide
(Susie) opportunities for adults to develop skills to
be “critically reflective” (p. 62) and thereby
The lecturers and tutors are better open up possibilities for personal change
than good – they’re approachable, or transformation. For the learners in this
you feel confident with them. study, this transformation was both
(Nerida) emotional and intuitive, reflecting “a shift
of consciousness that dramatically and
Randles (2012) also draws upon the hero’s irreversibly alters our way of being in the
journey to explore the acquisition of a world” (O’Sullivan, 2003, p. 203). When the
teacher identity for apprentice music stories of these women are examined in
teachers. The author suggests that the terms of a hero’s journey, the impact of this
hero’s journey can be used to demystify decision on their lives and the significance
this process, and that a series of tests are of this on so many levels becomes
applied to the individual to strengthen apparent. For some of the women, the
their character and make them “stronger in changes were manifested in terms of self-
person” (p. 15). For the women in this confidence or self-belief but for others like
study, it was often the assignments that Nicki, a sole parent with a very young child,
literally provided these “tests” of character the changes were far more fundamental. At
– good grades on assignments provided a the end of her first year at university, Nicki
concrete basis for belongingness and their described how she:
ability to complete the journey. Nicki
explained how her initial confusion turned …feel[s] like a different person. I feel
to elation after she received the results for like a better person, and I feel like I
her first set of assignments: could be a better mum to Michael
[son], and I feel like I am happy, and
I actually got a bit upset ‘cause for my that is a really good feeling… it is
first assignments I got two D’s, and I giving me back my sense of self-
said to Mum, “Ohhh, I got two D’s!”. prowess, it’s definitely not just an
And then a girlfriend explained, that’s educational experience. It’s like a life
a Distinction, and I went “Ohhh! That’s learning experience too.
all right!” Yeah that took a bit of
getting used to… As Polster (2001) points out, the women
heroes in these stories largely remained
within the family unit but often their new weeks or months of study. These critical
student status resulted in different moments are not limited to the first year of
relationships with family members. For study but rather are more obvious at this
example Nerida outlined the differences in stage. Students do not experience
how her children perceive her. At the transition as a time-bounded phase but
beginning of her studies she explained instead the year is characterised as a series
how: “…people were a bit patronising – pat of highs and lows, distinguished by a
mum on the head, she’ll be right” whereas period of building up, often accompanied
towards the end of the degree, the children by some sort of emotional high, a possible
“started to see me not just as a mother, but low and then the whole process repeats
more of a person”. Equally, changes in itself. This undulating landscape resembles
relationships with partners and husbands a hero’s journey which may include initial
were recorded, as Simone so eloquently arrival, adjustment to learning,
described: “He has come to realise that I am acculturating to a new social environment,
a person, I do have a direction I want to go forming a student identity, navigating
in. I don’t want to spend the rest of my life assignment due dates, recommencing the
doing something I don’t want to do. I want new semester or academic year,
to be happy…”. participating in exams and so forth. There
may be some consistency across student
Discussion and recommendations cohorts and institutions but ultimately the
level of importance and emotions
In our collective heroic journey in attributed to these various facets of the
education, facing chaos and complexity journey will differ according to the
involves supreme truth telling. It requires individual and the program choice.
that we recognise, without flinching, the However, making the repetitive and
dragons at our gates and the serpents in ongoing nature of these moments explicit
our gardens. (Brown & Moffett, 1999, p. to students is necessary so that individuals
16) are better prepared for the somewhat
volatile and changing nature of the
The hero’s journey provides a metaphor university experience. With such
for understanding the quest for knowledge knowledge and understanding, students
and learning and provides a framework for may become better equipped to persist in
understanding how these women moved this environment.
through this educational environment,
particularly as they made the adjustment Whilst universities cannot predict or
to their first year at university. control the external circumstances of
students’ lives, the increasing numbers and
The normalisation of the stages of this
diversity of university populations does
journey is required in the higher education
require a rethink about taken for granted
sector, particularly as more and more
aspects of this learning environment.
people from diverse backgrounds enter the
Despite institutional rhetoric, there
university sector. By recognising the
remains a lack of commitment to
various stages of university study as a
accommodating the needs of diverse
series of critical stages in a hero’s journey,
students at the most fundamental level. For
the process of adjustment is negotiated as
example, the most recent report of
an ongoing facet of this experience rather
University Student Finances (Bexley,
than something that occurs in the initial
Daroesman, Arkoudis & James, 2013) structure of the hero’s journey as a

indicates a continued reliance “on a conceptual metaphor for the process of
traditional model of a higher education development can make these struggles
student as a ‘middle-class school leaver seem more manageable for clients and can
living at home’ an anomaly which help the counsellor lead them through a
contributes significant “dysfunction” to the journey of personal growth” (p. 144).
sector (Thomas, 2013, para 19). As Similarly, educators have a significant role
educators and professional personnel to play in leading students through a
working in university environments, one journey of transformation. Brown and
change we can all make is to Moffett (1999) refer to the “heroic
reconceptualise the challenges that mature educator” (p. 156) who recognises the
age students face through the lens of the transformative power of education and
hero’s journey. This alternative perspective seeks to “respond to the needs of an
can assist us to focus on the strength and increasingly diverse student population”
wisdom of these students. Viewing their (p. 161). In so doing, the rewards for both
transition into the first year of university student and teacher are immense and
and their journey beyond as a heroic tangible, as Brown and Moffett explain:
endeavour, inevitably brings about a shift “Good teaching and good leading are heroic
in perception. Requests for assignment journeys to self-knowledge” (p. 158).
extensions, for example, are much more
likely to elicit empathy than irritation Conclusion
when such students are perceived as
embarking upon a hero’s journey. As the above discussion has illustrated, the
Ultimately, the student will experience the hero’s journey metaphor provides an
university environment as supportive and alternative story by which to view and
the educators within it as friends and allies, understand the student role. This
rather than foes along their journey, if the alternative story opens up the possibility
heroic nature of their journey is for mature age students in particular to
understood as such. Robbins (2005-2006), reconceptualise themselves as successful
in encouraging lawyers to better travellers rather than as individuals
understand the heroic nature of the pummelled by forces beyond their control.
journeys of many of their clients, points out Making the nature of this journey explicit
that “heroic journeys provide one to first year students may assist them to
possibility for conceptualising the client’s continue travelling rather than abandoning
story” (p. 801) and that “casting the client this journey. Stories and metaphors offer
as the hero is the option, then, that allows the opportunity to “help us understand and
the client to have flaws” (p. 780). Similarly, interpret our ‘past and present worlds’ so
in casting the mature age student as the that we can speculate about the future”
hero, we give her “permission to be (Randles, 2012, p. 17). It is certainly the
imperfect” (p. 776). case that the women’s stories illustrate the
challenges, the trials, the losses, the gains,
Lawson (2005), in talking about the use of the joys and the triumphs, which so many
the hero’s journey metaphor in counselling mature age women experience through
clients for a range of personal difficulties their educational journey, particularly
and life stresses, provides us with another those who are also first in family to enter
example of the potential for self-growth higher education. Drawing upon such
that this metaphor can facilitate. “Using the stories and metaphors in teaching settings
can also assist those contemplating or Czarniawska, B. (2002). Narrative, interviews and
organisations. In J. Gubrium & J. Holstein (Eds.),
commencing higher education. For those
Handbook of interview research, context and
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16
First year mathematics at a regional university:

Does it cater to student diversity?
Robert Whannell and Bill Allen
Abstract
This study examines the academic performance of students in a first year

undergraduate mathematics course at a regional university. A custom designed
questionnaire which assessed study behaviours, staff support and peer and family
relationships and the levels of mathematics efficacy and anxiety was completed by 162
students. The study established a wide range of mathematical efficacy based upon the
number and type of mathematics courses completed at the secondary level of
education and identifies this as the primary factor in student failure in the course. The
need for institutions to acknowledge the diversity of student preparedness in
mathematics at the first year undergraduate level and respond through the use of
academic staff with appropriate educational training and a caring and supportive
teaching pedagogy is described. The capacity of a single one-size-fits-all mathematics
course in the first semester of undergraduate study to meet the needs of all students is
discussed.
First year mathematics at a regional university: Does it cater to student diversity? 179
Introduction required to serve all students was suitable

and gave students the best opportunity for
The challenges experienced by students as success in their university study. The
they transition into the first year of study paper also explores the influence that one
in Australian universities has been course may have on the overall attrition
extensively researched and received rate of the university.
particular attention in the Bradley Report
into higher education (Bradley, Noonan, Theoretical background
Nugent, & Scales, 2008). The particular
challenges associated with the study of first An Australian longitudinal trend study
year undergraduate mathematics has been (Krause, Hartley, James, & McInnis, 2005)
described both in Australia and of the first year transition into university
internationally (e.g. Hourigan & identified a number of generic factors
O’Donoghue, 2007; Kajander & Lovric, which were hypothesised to influence the
2005; Keeves, 1973). quality of the outcomes achieved, including
the amount of time spent on campus,
The regional university where this study whether studying full or part time and
was completed offers one first year gender. Factors external to the university,
undergraduate course in mathematics. including the number of hours of paid work
Each cohort comprises about 250 students completed and the quality of family
and in recent years has recorded a failure support, were also described. A study at
rate of approximately 45%. The course is the University of Victoria (Cao & Gabb,
compulsory in many undergraduate 2006) identified gender, age, enrolment
programs and is a pre-requisite to allow status, socio-economic status and the
many students to be able to progress in quality of academic achievement as being
their program of study. The course is only involved in the first year attrition
offered in the first semester each year. phenomenon.
Failure to pass the course imposes a
substantial penalty on students who must A number of factors have been identified as
wait until the next year before the course is being relevant to the quality of outcomes in
able to be attempted again and who must introductory university mathematics
also be able to continue their study in the courses, including the quality of previous
face of a course failure, which for many has mathematics achievement and the amount
occurred in the first semester of their of secondary school mathematics
tertiary education. Some students with a completed (Peard, 2004). The factors
low level of preparedness who encounter identified depend on whether the source is
such a failure have previously been the teaching staff or students (Anthony,
demonstrated to completely disengage 2000) where teaching staff identify
with mathematics at the tertiary level student-oriented factors such as the
(Varsavsky, 2010). amount of study, insufficient mathematical
background and lack of previous
The purpose of this quantitative study was performance and lack of effort and
to examine the student experience in a first motivation. Students orient their
year undergraduate mathematics course comments more towards aspects relating
and to determine if the availability of a to the delivery of content, academic
single first year mathematics course support and teaching pedagogy. The
importance of an appropriate mathematics shown to include the students’ ability

background is identified by other perceptions and performance expectancies
researchers (Hourigan & O’Donoghue, (Meece, Wigfield, & Eccles, 1990) while
2007; Kajander & Lovric, 2005; Peard, females and older students have been
2004). demonstrated to experience higher
mathematics anxiety (Balog lu & Koçak,
Students’ attitudes towards the study of 2006). Higher levels of mathematics
mathematics have also been demonstrated anxiety have also been identified in
to influence the outcomes achieved students with lower levels of existing
(Hackett & Betz, 1989; McLeod, 1994; mathematical knowledge (Cates & Rhymer,
Reyes, 1984) and have continued to be the 2003) and have been associated with lower
focus of much research relating to levels of achievement (Ma, 1999).
mathematics education (Leder & Norwood (1994) suggested that “students
Grootenboer, 2005). In particular, the with high mathematics anxiety are more
problem solving which is inherent in the comfortable with a highly structured,
study of mathematics has been algorithmic course than a less structured,
demonstrated to strongly influence conceptual course” (p. 248) such as that
students’ attitudes, both positive and which would be encountered at the tertiary
negative (Debellis & Goldin, 2006; Hannula, level of education.
2002). Liljedahl (2005) examined the
influence of what he described as the aha Secondary school mathematics
experience in undergraduate mathematics study
students and established that such
experiences have “a transformative effect
In Queensland, where this study was
on ‘resistant’ students’ affective domains
conducted, there are three different
creating positive beliefs and attitudes
mathematics courses studied in years 11
about mathematics as well as their ability
and 12: Mathematics A, Mathematics B and
to do mathematics” (p. 219).
Mathematics C. Students intending to
Supportive and higher educated families study mathematics at tertiary level are
have been identified as playing a role in recommended to study Mathematics B.
improving the outcomes for students Those who will be completing courses
studying mathematics (Ercikan, McCreith, which have a very high mathematics
& Lapointe, 2005). A similar positive effect requirement, for example engineering, are
has been identified where supportive also recommended to study Mathematics C
academic staff (Midgley, Feldlaufer, & in addition to Mathematics B, although
Eccles, 1989) and peer relationships most Australian universities do not require
(Eccles & Jacobs, 1986) have been this course as a pre-requisite to gain
established. A positive staff-student access. The major areas of study which are
relationship has also been demonstrated to included in Mathematics B and C which are
reduce the level of anxiety experienced by not addressed in Mathematics A are
students when undertaking mathematics algebra, trigonometry and calculus.
courses (Clute, 1984), particularly where Students who complete Mathematics A
the teacher takes on a counselling role normally do not complete Mathematics B
which targets the students’ anxiety (Furner or C. While student diversity is often
& Duffy, 2002). The primary predictors of associated with students from non-
anxiety in mathematics students have been traditional backgrounds, this secondary
school context gives rise to a wide diversity both Mathematics B and C, followed by
of mathematics preparation in students those who had completed Mathematics B
entering tertiary study direct from school. only.
The second section of the questionnaire

The research questions which directed the comprised a number of Likert-style items
research project were What factors which utilised a five-point scale ranging
influence the achievement and/or failure of from Strongly Disagree, scored as 1, to
students in first year mathematics? and Strongly Agree, scored as 5. These items
What strategies are available to cater for were intended to be used to develop
student diversity and thereby reduce course summated scales to measure constructs
failure in first year mathematics? identified during the literature review as
being relevant to the participants’
Method performance in mathematics.
A custom-designed questionnaire was Of the 255 students enrolled in the course,

developed commencing with an the questionnaire was completed by 162
introductory section which obtained participants giving a 63.5% response rate.
demographic and study behaviour The questionnaire was completed in the
information. The result from the first on- week 3 lecture of the mathematics course.
line assessment task completed in week 3 The gender composition was 101 (62.3%)
of the semester and the final overall result male and 61 (37.7%) female with a median
were included. The week 3 task comprised age of 19. This composition was
15 multiple-choice items targeting basic representative of the cohort as a whole. A
algebra skills which were typical of what Principal Components Analysis using direct
would be expected at year 10 and 11 at oblimin rotation and Kaiser normalisation
secondary school. was completed using the Likert-style items.
A six factor solution was identified which
Participants reported the mathematics accounted for 65.3% of the shared variance
courses which were being completed at the in the factor items. The six scales
end of secondary school. To differentiate comprised a total of 31 items giving a 5.2:1
between participants based upon the response-to-item ratio. Factors were
amount of mathematics preparation at named based upon their constituent items
secondary level, participants were grouped and are summarised in Table 1.
into
All items loaded on their respective factor
 Other; with a minimum of .544 with all inter-item
 Year 10; correlations for a given factor being
 Mathematics A; statistically significant ( ). The
 Mathematics B only; and Cronbach’s alpha values indicate a high
level of internal reliability for each scale.
 those who had completed both
Mathematics B and C. The Staff Support scale included items
which specifically targeted the
Thus, the level of mathematics mathematics support which was available
preparedness would be expected to be from academic staff, and included items
highest for students who had completed such as I discuss my mathematics problems
Table 1: Questionnaire scales
Scale No Items Cronbach’s Alpha Scale Range

Staff Support 6 .868 6 – 30
Family Relationships 8 .880 8 – 40
Peer Relationships 4 .842 4 – 20
Mathematics Efficacy 6 .877 6 – 30
Mathematics Attitude 4 .837 4 – 20
Mathematics Anxiety 3 .763 3 – 15
with academic staff and Academic staff are mathematical ability and included items
supportive of my work in mathematics. The such as I feel that my mathematical
Family Relationships and Peer background is sufficient to allow me to cope
Relationships scales measured the wider with university mathematics and The
nature of the relationships between the mathematics tutorial exercises have been
participant and his/her family and peers in easy. The Mathematics Attitude scale
the mathematics course and included items measured aspects of the participants’
such as I like to get my family’s point of view attitude towards and emotional experience
on things related to my university study, My of mathematics and included items such as
family are supportive of my desire to attend I get a sense of satisfaction when I solve
university, I have positive relationships with mathematics problems and I consider
other students in the mathematics course mathematics an important aspect of my
and I can go to other students for support in tertiary study.
relation to my work in the mathematics
course. Three items assessed the level of anxiety
associated with the participants’ study of
The Mathematics Efficacy scale measured mathematics. The items in the
the participants’ perception of their Mathematics Anxiety scale were I find
Table 2: Secondary school mathematics studied and course outcome
Secondary school mathematics Frequency Percent Passed Failed

Other 14 8.6 10 (76.9%) 3 (23.1%)
Year 10 Mathematics 11 6.8 5 (45.5%) 6 (54.5%)
Mathematics A 48 29.6 33 (71.7%) 13 (28.3%)
Mathematics B Only 56 34.6 42 (75%) 14 (25%)
Mathematics B and C 32 19.8 26 (81.3%) 6 (18.8%)
Missing 1 .6
Total 162 100.0 116 (73.4%) 42 (26.6%)
mathematics a confusing area of study, I feel backgrounds were not known. In each case
anxious knowing I have to go to outliers identified by reference to the box
mathematics lectures/tutorials and I find plot were removed from the analysis.
studying mathematics stressful.
The analysis indicates that statistically
Results significant differences existed for the
Mathematics Efficacy, Mathematics
Participants reported the type of secondary Attitude and Mathematics Anxiety scales
mathematics course being studied at the and for the overall result achieved for the
time of leaving secondary school with the course. It is also apparent that the level of
results shown in Table 2. The table also Mathematics Efficacy is strongly negatively
includes the pass/fail result for each group associated with the level of Mathematics
on the current university mathematics Anxiety experienced (
course. ). The participants’ sense of
Mathematical Efficacy is substantially
Note that the numbers shown for Pass/Fail higher if Mathematics B and Mathematics C
in each group do not total to the number were completed. Conversely, the level of
who completed the questionnaire in week Mathematics Anxiety experienced was
3 due to some of the participants lower where the participants had
withdrawing from the course with no completed these courses. The level of
grade being awarded. Participants who Mathematics Anxiety also demonstrated
chose the Other option included those who significant negative associations with
had attended secondary school in a Mathematics Attitude (
different state or country and those who ) and Staff Support
had been home-schooled. ( ).
A one-way ANOVA was performed on each While there was very little difference in the
of the summated scales and the overall overall achievement in the course between
course result using the type of secondary participants who completed either
schooling as the control variable. The Mathematics A or Mathematics B only, the
results are shown in Table 3. Participants quality of result for those who only
categorised as Other were removed from completed Mathematics to year 10 level is
the analysis as their secondary school very low with a mean of only 50%. The
Table 3: One-way ANOVA analysis
Mean Result
Scale Year 10 Maths A Maths B Maths B & F Sig.
C
Staff Support 23.5 21.4 21.3 23.1 2.415 .069
Family Relationships 31.4 33.0 31.9 32.5 0.515 .673
Peer Relationships 15.2 15.1 15.4 15.9 0.752 .523
Mathematics Efficacy 18.3 19.7 23.3 26.2 27.994 .000
Mathematics Attitude 17.0 15.2 15.7 17.0 3.606 .015
Mathematics Anxiety 8.3 8.8 7.2 5.7 12.752 .000
Course Result (%) 50.0 63.5 62.5 72.2 3.070 .030
50 | The International Journal of the First Year in Higher Education, 3(2) August, 2012
mean result for those who completed Mathematics B and C who achieved at a
Mathematics B and C is high at 72.2% and substantially higher level. It should be
is significantly higher than those who did noted that these participants report the
Mathematics A only ( lowest number of hours of weekly study.
).
A binary logistic regression analysis was
A Kruskul-Wallis test was conducted on the also completed to identify those variables
number of hours of weekly study, hours of which could be used as predictors of
weekly paid work, the number of classes course failure at week 3 of the semester.
absent and the result on the first This would give the opportunity to identify
assessment task completed in week 3 of the risk factors which could be utilised in
the semester to identify any significant the future to identify students at risk of
differences based upon the type and course failure. The variables included in
number of secondary mathematics courses the model were those which indicated
completed and are shown in Table 4. The reasonable differences on the independent
non-parametric test was used as the samples t-test and Mann-Whitney U test:
datasets demonstrated extreme violation Mathematics Efficacy, Mathematics Anxiety
of normality. and the result on the first assessment task
in week 3. Cases with a Cook’s influence of
Table 4: Kruskul-Wallis Tests
Mean Rank
Scale Year 10 Maths A Maths B Maths B & Sig.
C
Hours Weekly 119.23 79.31 68.02 58.84 18.937 3 .000
Study
Weekly Paid 109.86 70.07 74.79 61.27 11.727 3 .008
Work
Week 3 Result 65.65 66.05 56.17 81.98 8.796 3 .032
It is apparent that the number of hours of greater than 1 and with standardised
study completed each week varies residuals of greater than 2 were removed
substantially depending on which from the analysis as recommended by Field
secondary mathematics courses were (2009). This resulted in 121 cases being
completed. A particular issue which included in the analysis. A test of the full
appears from this data is that the model with all predictors against a
participants who completed only year 10 constant-only-model was statistically
mathematics appear to complete a much reliable (
higher number of hours of weekly work. ) indicating that the predictors reliably
The week 3 results demonstrate very little distinguished between the participants
difference, with the exception of those based upon their failure of the course.
participants who had completed both Nagelkerke’s R2 value of .570 indicated a
moderate relationship between the
predictor variables and course failure different from zero ( ).

while the Hosmer and Lemeshow test The variables which were found to
( ) indicated a contribute significantly to the model were
good match between the predicted and Staff Relationships ( ),
observed probabilities. The overall Mathematics Anxiety ( )
prediction rate was moderate at 83.5% and age ( ). The
with 58.8% of the participants in the quality of Family Relationships was just
failure group correctly identified and outside the cut-off for significance at the
93.1% in the passing group correctly 95% confidence level. The model
identified. According to the Wald criterion, accounted for 59.4% of the variance in
the predictor variables which made a Mathematics Efficacy
statistically significant contribution to the ( ).
model were the level of Mathematics
Efficacy ( ) and the The assumptions of the regression were
result on the first assessment task tested with an examination of the
( ). The variables table distribution of standardised residuals,
from the regression analysis is shown in which were observed to be very close to a
Table 5. normal distribution, while the plot of
residuals versus predicted value indicated
The analysis at this point indicates that the homogeneity of variance. The beta values
Table 5: Binary logistic regression analysis
Scale B S.E. Wald df Sig. Exp(B)
Mathematics Efficacy -.285 .098 8.364 1 .004 .752
Mathematics Anxiety -.131 .130 1.004 1 .316 .878
Week 3 Result -.979 .208 22.169 1 .000 .376
Constant 17.274 4.388 15.499 1 .000 3.178E7
primary indicators at week 3 of the indicate that the major positive influence
semester of student failure in the course on mathematical efficacy is the quality of
are the level of Mathematics Efficacy and Staff Support provided to the participants
the result on the first assessment task. A ( ), while the major negative
linear regression was then performed to influence is the amount of anxiety
determine the factors which were associated with the study of mathematics
associated with the participants’ ( ).
Mathematical Efficacy. Table 6 shows the
Pearson’s r correlations for Mathematics Discussion
Efficacy.
The data analysis has demonstrated the
A standard linear regression was diverse nature of the mathematics
performed using all variables which were preparedness and efficacy of the
significantly correlated with Mathematics participants. While only 18.8% of
Efficacy. The multiple correlation participants who had completed
coefficient ( ) was significantly Mathematics B and C failed the course,
Table 6: Pearson’s r correlation coefficients – Mathematics Efficacy
Staff Family Peer Mathematics Mathematics Hours Classes

Support Relationships Relationships Attitude Anxiety Study Missed Age
Mathematics Correlation .376** .294** .319** .434** -.706** -.080 -.038 -

Efficacy .376**
Sig. .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .345 .652 .000
N 144 142 144 144 144 143 143 144

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
54.5% of those who had only completed achievement negatively (Ma, 1999; Meece
mathematics to year 10 failed in spite of a et al., 1990).
significantly higher number of hours of
weekly study being completed. A similar There are two contrary approaches which
pattern is seen in respect of the level of are available when interpreting these
perceived Mathematics Efficacy where findings. The first, and perhaps more
participants who had completed common, is to describe the diverse nature
Mathematics B and C demonstrated of the student cohort in terms of the lack of
substantially higher results. An associated mathematics preparedness of students
issue for the participants who entered the (Varsavsky, 2010) and the falling
course with a low level of Mathematics standards in mathematics preparation
Efficacy was significantly higher levels of provided by secondary schools (James,
Mathematics Anxiety. The logistic Montelle, & Williams, 2008; Otung, 2001;
regression analysis identified the primary Taylor & Morgan, 1999). When it is
risk factors for course failure at week 3 of considered that the course completed is
the semester as the participants’ level of essentially a consolidation of year 11 and
Mathematical Efficacy and their result on 12 mathematics, this view appears to be
the first assessment task. Considering that supported due to the high percentage of
the first assessment task targeted participants who failed the course who
mathematics only at the years 10 and 11 completed Mathematics B (25%) or
level, it is concluded that course failure is Mathematics B and C (18.8%). The
largely dependent upon the level of solution when this approach is adopted is
preparedness gained through to develop strategies which aim to improve
mathematical exposure at the secondary the preparedness of students. One strategy
level of education. This supports the to improve preparedness and provide
findings in previous studies (Hourigan & additional support and used at the
O’Donoghue, 2007; Kajander & Lovric, institution where this study was
2005; Peard, 2004). The lack of conducted, is through the provision of a
preparedness and Mathematical Efficacy of tertiary enabling course in mathematics.
the participants was also strongly This course, which addresses the same
associated with a high level of content and does not provide credit
Mathematical Anxiety which previous towards a degree, has been available for a
studies have shown to influence number of years and is normally done by
students in the same semester. This
strategy, to date, does not appear to have and reducing anxiety would also assist in
made a substantial impact on the failure reducing failure in these courses.
rate. The findings suggest that where such
a course is completed concurrently, its As described, the regional university where
capacity to improve preparedness and this study was conducted only provides
Mathematical Efficacy and reduce anxiety one first year mathematics course which is
is limited. An alternative option would be completed by all students who require
the completion of such a course prior to mathematics in their degree program. This
commencement. requires that the course be presented at a
level to support the high level needs of
A second approach is to address the issue students undertaking programs such as
from an institutional perspective where the engineering, and includes topics such as
manner in which the course is presented matrices and vectors, while still being
and the personnel involved are examined. presented at a sufficiently low level so that
The multiple regression demonstrated that students with limited background and
the factors significantly associated with the preparedness are able to cope with the
level of the participants’ Mathematical content. When the diverse nature of the
Efficacy were the nature of the student cohort is considered, it seems that
relationships with academic staff and a one-size-fits-all approach of offering only
family and the level of Mathematics one course may not be appropriate. High
Anxiety. This indicates that one method of failure levels in a compulsory first year
improving the student’s Mathematical course which serves a number of degree
Efficacy, and in turn reducing the potential programs will also have a detrimental
for course failure, is through the provision effect across the wider institution. It is
of a supportive student-teacher proposed that, from an institutional
relationship which specifically targets the perspective, the opportunity would exist to
issue of mathematical anxiety (Furner & offer two strands of mathematics at first
Duffy, 2002). It will be remembered that year level to cater to the diverse needs of
the level of Mathematics Anxiety was the student cohort. It is also proposed that
negatively associated with Staff Support offering the course two semesters per year
( ) giving would also reduce the seriousness of
additional support for this stance. course failure.
Mathematics Anxiety was also negatively
associated with Mathematical Attitude Conclusion
( ). This
study supports the existing literature This study has revealed factors that are
(Clute, 1984; Furner & Duffy, 2002; important to reducing the failure rate in an
Midgley, et al., 1989) which identifies a role introductory mathematics course. But it
for academic staff in improving the should not be considered in isolation.
outcomes in mathematics education Because of the importance of this course as
through the use of appropriate social and a pre-requisite for later courses and its
supportive teaching pedagogies. The completion in the first semester of study
choice of academic staff in introductory for many students, the impact of its failure
tertiary mathematics courses who utilise on wider institutional attrition cannot be
social and caring teaching pedagogies ignored. In a small regional university,
directed at improving students’ achieving the balance between providing
perceptions of their mathematical efficacy an appropriate introduction to tertiary
mathematics for students with a wide Education Centre, Victoria University,

Melbourne, Australia.
range of mathematical preparedness and
providing the staff and financial resources Cates, G., & Rhymer, K. (2003). Examining the
relationship between mathematics anxiety
required to do so will not be a simple task. and mathematics performance: An
However, in the post-Bradley era (Bradley instructional hierarchy perspective. Journal
et al., 2008), where universities respond by of Behavioral Education, 12(1), 23-34. doi:
continuing to widen access to tertiary 10.1023/A:1022318321416
education to non-traditional students, they Clute, P. (1984). Mathematics anxiety, instructional
must accept and meet the responsibility to method, and achievement in a survey
course in college mathematics. Journal for
provide an educational experience which Research in Mathematics Education, 15(1),
recognises and caters for the students’ 50-58. doi: 10.2307/748987.
identified lack of preparedness. This Debellis, V., & Goldin, G. (2006). Affect and meta-
responsibility is further heightened by the affect in mathematical problem solving: A
current attention being given to problems representational perspective. Educational
of improving the uptake and success of Studies in Mathematics, 63(2), 131-147. doi:
110.1007/s10649-10006-19026-10644.
students in the study of Science,
Eccles, J., & Jacobs, J. (1986). Social forces shape math
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Scientist, 2012). Tinto’s (2008) view that Factors associated with mathematics
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mathematics courses: An examination of
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17
Increasing student performance by changing the

assessment practices within an academic writing
unit in an Enabling Program
Keith McNaught and Sophie Benson
The University of Notre Dame, Fremantle, Australia
Abstract
The production of high quality academic writing often represents a challenge for students in
bridging courses. Often, students lack frequently assumed background skills and knowledge,
and may have completed secondary school subjects where extended writing tasks were less
common. At the University of Notre Dame Australia, Fremantle Campus, staff responded to
concerns about student progress with academic writing within the Enabling Program. It was
determined that a trial of scaffolded assessment may be of benefit to students in the acquisition
of the necessary skills and knowledge. Scaffolded assessment intentionally breaks a single
assessment task into sub-components and attempts to teach the students to replicate the same
process on future tasks. Data tracking over three Semester 1 entry cohorts demonstrated the
approach was of benefit in both the unit and the overall course when scaffolded assessment
was utilised. The benefits and reservations regarding the use of scaffolded assessment are
outlined.
Increasing student performance by changing the assessment practices within... 191
Preamble (ATAR) score. Those students in the

minority 10% who have chosen to complete
First-year university students often these courses, often face enormous peer
underestimate the demands of writing an pressure, limited options and fewer subject
essay to the standard required by choices within their schools. Fewer subject
undergraduate students (Gross, 2004). options may necessitate students choosing
Many are unaware of the concepts and skills alternatives which they would not normally
required, such as academic integrity, the have chosen, or commuting between other
use of peer-reviewed publications as school campuses, as well as even
sources, and the use of standard referencing completing some subjects by distance
systems (e.g. APA, Chicago) (Briguglio & education, all of which are disadvantageous
Howe, 2006). With instruction and for the less academically capable students.
feedback, most first-year students learn to
master the necessary skills, and over time, Some students specifically choose to enter
become proficient and confident as writers university via an Enabling pathway to avoid
of the required genres. Most entrants to rigorous subjects in Years 11 and 12. This
Enabling Programs are students who have can be a combination of school counsellor
been unsuccessful in achieving the advice, parent advice, parent advocacy, or
minimum entry requirements for direct student self-selection. At times, this is well
entry into their chosen undergraduate justified, for example, a student who is
course of study. Enabling Program students unlikely to be successful at that particular
are in this position for a wide range of time in those ATAR bound courses may well
reasons. Many students enter Enabling be better to choose non-ATAR bound
Programs because subjects chosen in their courses, and use an Enabling Program to
final years of schooling were inappropriate enter university. However, it can also be
for their final study destination; in some disadvantageous if students are directed
cases, students have been ill-advised on away from courses they have the capacity to
subject selections. Student maturity, a complete, which would better prepare them
factor at the time of choosing upper school for future undergraduate success
subjects, can impact on decisions which (Goodrum, Druhan & Abbs, 2012).
result in limited opportunities for direct
undergraduate entry to university courses. Students who use bridging courses to
At least some entrants to Enabling progress to undergraduate studies may be
Programs have experienced significant particularly disadvantaged, often having
educational, social, personal, health and less exposure to extended writing tasks in
financial disadvantage during their upper their final years of schooling, mainly due to
secondary years (Gale, 2009; James, 2002; their subject selections (Reed, Kennett,
Pancer, Pratt, Hunsberger, & Alisat, 2004). Lewis & Lund-Lucas, 2011). Likewise, in
bridging courses many are “first-generation
In some cases, students in Enabling students” to university and may lack the
Programs have attended schools with a family support structures to assist with the
non-aspirational culture (Thomson & necessary skill development (Gofen, 2009,
Hillman, 2010). In some schools, as many as p. 3). Whilst bridging course students are
90% of Year 12 students have chosen to eminently capable of mastering essay
complete courses which do not generate an writing, they may benefit from an explicit
Australian Tertiary Admittance Rank approach. This research considered the use
of scaffolded assessment with a core unit on
academic writing within a bridging course. would complete four units from the School
The implementation of this was the result of of Education, which include: Introduction to
staff dialogue around their perceptions and Teaching the Curriculum Framework;
concerns, based on both their interactions English 1 – Functional Literacy; Introduction
with students and also detailed data to Mathematics Teaching and Learning; and
tracking of student performance. Aboriginal People. Each stream has a
discipline-specific set of three units and
The Foundation Year as a Aboriginal People, an interdisciplinary unit,
Bridging or Enabling Program at is common to all streams.
The University of Notre Dame
The University requires, through approved
Australia, Fremantle Campus, Course Regulations, an institutional
Australia benchmark of 65% for the successful
completion of the four EP coded units,
The Foundation Year is an alternative entry undertaken in the first semester of studies.
enabling pathway (a bridging course) to It is not uncommon for students to be
undergraduate studies offered at The required to repeat an EP unit, which they
University of Notre Dame Australia, have passed (i.e. achieved equal to or
Fremantle Campus in Western Australia. greater than 50%) and yet not achieved the
Through successful completion of the institutional benchmark of ≥65%. In the
Foundation Year, students may gain entry second semester of the Foundation Year,
to undergraduate studies in the Schools of: undergraduate units require the standard
Arts & Sciences, Business, Education, Health university benchmark of ≥50% in order to
Sciences, and Nursing & Midwifery. The first be considered satisfactorily completed.
semester of the Foundation Year (Part 1) is
focused on academic reading, writing and The institutional benchmark (i.e. ≥65% in
research skills. This semester is common to the four EP-coded units) has developed and
all streams of the Foundation Year and been modified over the years, but is
involves the completion of four, 25 credit designed to ensure that students who are
point units: EP001 Learning skills; EP002 progressing through to undergraduate
Literacy Competency; EP003 Academic studies are well prepared for future success.
Writing; and EP004 Information Literacy The institutional benchmark was
and Research Skills. Whilst academically determined on the basis of detailed data
challenging and rigorous, these four units tracking of student progress.
are not intended to be the academic
equivalent of standard undergraduate An Overview of EP003 Academic
units. EP001 is delivered in an intensive Writing
block prior to the start of semester and the
remaining three units are completed as EP003, Academic Writing, is designed to
standard semester-long 13 week units. provide the knowledge, concepts and skills
needed to write effectively for academic
In the second semester of the Foundation purposes. That is, students who undertake
Year program (Part 2), students undertake an English for Academic Purposes (EAP),
four units in their chosen stream, with the are very likely to benefit from their learning
units eligible for future advanced standing in EP003 and apply these skills equally well
in an undergraduate degree. For example, to other disciplines (James, 2010; Zarei &
Foundation Year (Education) students Rahimi, 2014). The emphasis is on skill
development in the areas of: analysing learner to focus attention thoughtfully

essay questions; strengthening the ability to (Lipnevich & Smith, 2009). Hattie (2003)
collate ideas from a variety of sources; demonstrated that feedback was one of the
planning, drafting and writing essays and most significant factors likely to improve
assignments; and, determining appropriate student achievement over time. Effective
text types. Through Academic Writing, assessment practices can move average
students should develop their capacity to students to achieving in the top third of
write an academic essay appropriate to a their cohort (Black & Wiliam, 1998). To
university-level standard. Intentionally, a achieve this, timely feedback on
highly structured approach is employed performance, and targeted follow-up, is
with an essay structure, with students at essential. Scaife and Wellington’s (2010)
least initially using a formulaic approach. research demonstrates that students are
Additionally, students should deeply vitally interested in specific feedback, not
understand the importance of academic just a grade or mark. Lecturers have the
integrity, and the related sub-skills (e.g. opportunity to interact with students on a
paraphrasing, use of direct quotations, micro level and are able to encourage
referencing from a range of sources, using students to evaluate their own work
peer-reviewed publications). (Wharton, 2013). Formative assessment is
primarily assessment for learning purposes
The semester-long unit is delivered as a (Tierney, 2006). Colburn (2009) proposes
weekly, three hour workshop, in classes of that formative assessment is diagnostic,
20, paired with EP002, also a three hour suggesting the metaphor of a medical test.
workshop, both delivered by the same staff He adds that it is designed to “understand
member. Prior to Semester 1, 2013, what a student knows or can do in order to
Academic Writing required three figure out what should come next” (p. 10).
assessment points; two essays and a final Yorke (2003) argues that assessment
exam. Academic staff teaching the unit should have an impact on assessors so that
deemed that this was problematic for a they “learn about the extent to which
wide range of reasons, but two key reasons students have developed expertise and can
emerged from the collegial discussions. tailor their teaching strategies accordingly”
Firstly, Enabling Program entrants are (p. 482).
typically underprepared for the demands of
academic writing tasks within the Embedded assessment refers to activities
university environment. Secondly, it was which are part of regular teaching and
deemed essential to break the tasks down to learning activities (Earl, 2003; Wilson &
make them more manageable for students Scalise, 2006). Academic staff working in
and to teach the specific skills within each Academic Writing were keen to modify their
task, in order to develop effective writing immediate teaching and learning plans for
skills. the workshop based on embedded
assessment. However, the highly-
The value of feedback structured nature of higher education units
(Boud & Falchikov, 2007), and the limited
Feedback provided to learners is designed flexibility which is allowed both
to increase their awareness of the gap systemically and organisationally, made
between their current knowledge and skills, this complex. For example, unit outlines,
and their goals (Boston, 2002). The more which are institutionally required to be
specific feedback is, the more it enables a provided to students prior to the
commencement of teaching, are heavy with 396). For example, in Academic Writing,
content and highly prescriptive. The use of students submit an essay outline (plan)
this formative information both to learners prior to commencing their essay work. The
and to teachers is of potential significant expectation is that they will develop the
benefit (Irons, 2008). This is particularly skills to produce an essay plan when
true during the first year of higher working independently, namely, that this
education “when students are trying to action will be normalised behaviour.
adjust their behaviours to the new academic Breaking tasks into smaller and more
and social demands of college or university manageable chunks increases the likelihood
life” (Tinton, 2012, p. 5) Academic staff of students engaging with the task (Leese,
working in Academic Writing determined 2010). When the task appears daunting, for
through collaborative consultation that example, writing a whole essay, at least
adopting a scaffolded approach to some students will procrastinate and lose
assessment would possibly address the valuable time. Other students will
issue. The scaffolded assessment approach underestimate the time required and
within Academic Writing was designed to commence with insufficient time to
connect assessments as routine teaching complete the task to the required standard
and learning activities (Black & Wiliam, (Solomon & Rothblum, 1984). Scaffolded
1998). assessment is potentially time efficient
(Murtagh & Webster, 2010); it helps
Scaffolded assessment students to choose the most effective and
efficient path in the beginning rather than
Scaffolded assessment modularises losing time, particularly with a research
components within an overall assessment, cycle phase of writing and planning. In this
and overtly breaks a large task into smaller model, the unit co-ordinator determines the
chunks (Gipps, 1994). Scaffolded specific elements of scaffolded assessment
assessment provides support to a novice to ensure consistency (Black & Wiliam,
learner by the experienced teacher 1998).
breaking down a large task into manageable
sub-parts (Wood, Bruner & Ross, 1976). The strength of scaffolded assessment
Scaffolded assessment is designed as a depends on timely and valuable feedback
temporary support mechanism ideally from academic staff to students (Lea &
suited to Enabling Program units whilst Street, 1998). Accordingly, it is essential
skills are developed (Kozeracki, 2002). For that students receive detailed feedback
learners, as their proficiency increases, (Biggs & Tang, 2011) on their essay outline
support is systematically reduced; students prior to commencing writing the essay.
accepts incrementally increased This necessitates a timely return of
responsibility for their own learning. The assessments to students and therefore
“gradual release model” (Fisher & Frey, creates a significant impost for staff
2003, p. 396) is also an example of a process teaching in the units. Conversely, if
where the teacher scaffolds instructions to scaffolded assessment is productive, the
enable students to become successful marking of the final product (an essay),
independent learners. The gradual release should be less time-demanding. Scaffolded
model, with responsibility being assessment is counterproductive if it results
increasingly undertaken by the learner, in students being rewarded for
“may occur over a day, a week, or a term” (p. inappropriate or unscholarly behaviour. It
is designed to assist hard-working and well-
intentioned students to develop and For some Enabling Program students, this
enhance their skill set. Staff need training to transition can present a number of
use scaffolded assessment (Murtagh & challenges as a highly-structured approach
Webster, 2010) so that it will not (Murtagh & Baker, 2009) can be of
inadvertently result in inaccurate or particular benefit to less academically able
distorted student marks for a particular students (Ilich, Hagan & McCallister, 2004).
task. On the basis of maturity levels within school
leavers, this would appear to have more
From pedagogy to andragogy potential impact on some male learners,
who can be less mature than their female
The years of formal schooling are premised counterparts of the same age at that
on pedagogy, whereas higher education particular time (Jackson & Hilliard, 2013;
utilises andragogy, the principles of adult Liu & Nguyen, 2011). Helping students
learning (Knowles, 1980; Merriam, 2001). understand that universities focus on
For many students who transition directly andragogical principles for teaching,
from school to university, this is a learning and assessment, needs to be
challenging shift (Wright, 2010). They are embedded into the early phases of
often used to a highly-structured teacher- instruction within Enabling Programs. The
centric controlling focus, which is well use of scaffolded assessment provides a
aligned to pedagogical principles. At bridge between pedagogy and andragogy
university level study, andragogical principles (Delahaye, Limerick, & Hearn,
principles reposition students to be 1994) for students as they transition
independent, self-directing, self-selecting between sectors.
and having the readiness to learn
(Kozeracki, 2002; Roberson Jr, 2002). Most Students’ results for EP003
undergraduates warmly embrace the Academic Writing
change and welcome being treated as adult
learners (Noor, Harun & Aris, 2012). Student results over three cohorts were
Although there are critics of andragogical compared to review the effectiveness of
principles, the principles are “timeless and scaffolded assessment within the unit. Two
appl[y] … to adult education in a cohorts, Semester 1, 2011 and Semester 1,
multicultural world” (Roberson, 2002, p. 2). 2012, had completed the unit without
Table 1: Academic Writing assessment outline in 2013
Assessment
Item Type Weighting (%)

1 In-class paragraph 5
2 Essay 1: In-class essay 10
3 Essay outline for Essay 2 5
4 Essay 2 15
5 Essay outline for Essay 3 5
6 Essay 3 20
7 Final Exam - Essay 40
Semester 1, 2011
≥65% 70%
50-64% 21% Percentage of Students
≤49% 9%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80%
Figure 1: Semester 1, 2011 students’ results for Academic Writing
scaffolded assessment, whereas Semester 1,

2013, had been taught with the new
Three categories were identified to record
scaffolded assessment model in place.
final unit results: less-than or equal to forty-
In Semester 1 of 2011 and 2012, Academic nine per cent. (≤49%), fifty to sixty-four per
Writing had three assessments – cent. (50-64%), and greater-than or equal
Assignment 1 (Essay 1) with a weighting to sixty-five per cent. (≥65%). In Semester
25%, Assignment 2 (Essay 2) with a 1, 2011, 245 students completed Academic
weighting of 35%, and a final exam, with a Writing (Figure 1). Enabling Program
40% weighting. In Semester 1, 2013, the students are required to meet the university
principle of scaffolded assessment was benchmark of 65% for successful
implemented with an increase from two completion, and for this unit, in Semester 1,
assessments to six assessments. Table 1 2011, 172 (70%) students reached the
details the structure of the assessment benchmark. Students who were
outline for Academic Writing in 2013. unsuccessful in obtaining the benchmark,
Semester 1, 2012
≥65% 68%
≤49% 11%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80%
Semester 1, 2013
≥65% 79%
≤49% 11%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
namely 30% (73 students), were required

to repeat the unit the following semester.
Scaffolded assessment was implemented by
In Semester 1, 2012, 298 students the unit coordinator in Semester 1, 2013
completed Academic Writing (Figure 2). and 318 students completed Academic
The results for 2012 are similar to 2011, Writing – refer to Figure 3. For that
with 203 (68%) students successfully semester’s cohort, 252 (79%) students
reaching the university benchmark and 95 reached the university benchmark and 66
(32%) students were recorded with (21%) students were recorded with
unsatisfactory progress. The pedagogical unsatisfactory progress. There was a
approach and unit content remained statistically significant shift of the number
unchanged in both 2011 and 2012. of students within the category of 50-64%
to ≥65%, with an additional 11% (35
Comparison of Results for Semesters 1 for 2011-2013

100%
79%
80% 70% 68%
60% Semester 1, 2011

Semester 1, 2012
40%
21% 21% Semester 1, 2013
20% 9% 11% 11% 10%
0%
≤49% 50-64% ≥65%
Figure 4: Comparison of students’ results for Semesters 1 for 2011-2013
students) now meeting the university Students who obtained the institutional
benchmark. benchmark of ≥65% for Academic Writing
from Semester 1, 2013, 88% (n=221), went
The student results for Semester 1, 2013, on to complete Part 1 of the Foundation
Figure 4, were in contrast to the previous Year program satisfactorily. Students who
two semesters, wherein there was a achieved the benchmark in Academic
significant increase in successful Writing were able to meet the benchmark
completion of Academic Writing. In 2013, for the other three units, which then
79% of students achieved the benchmark allowed them to transition successfully to
(>65%) compared to 2011 – 70%, and 2012 Part 2 of the Foundation Year program.
– 68%; a 10-12% variation respectively. In
the 50-64% range, 10 (31%) students did Student Comments
not meet the benchmark, an 11% variation
for both 2011 and 2012. There was Student feedback, via the University’s Unit
minimal/no change in data results across Content Evaluations, indicated that the
the three semesters for the category ≤49% majority found Academic Writing to be the
(2011 – 9%, 2012 – 11% and 2013 – 11%). most rigorous and academically challenging
of the units within the first part of the
A one-way ANOVA test was performed to Foundation Year program. Student
determine whether the differences in mean feedback for the new model included:
Academic Writing scores were statistically
significant (Table 2). The p-value produced • The structure of the assessments were
helpful in organising and assembling an
was .04, which confirms that there is
academic essay;
evidence to conclude that the mean
Academic Writing score achieved by • Receiving lecturer feedback in a timely
students was different for at least one group manner assisted in the next assessment;
of students based on the semester in which • The assessments are broken down and
they studied. Post-hoc testing showed that makes it easier to comprehend the
the most significant differences in Academic information being taught; and,
Writing scores were between Semester 1,
• The unit was challenging at times, but
2013 and Semester 1 and Semester 2, 2012 overall it was beneficial to my learning.
respectively.
Table 2: ANOVA Test for Semesters 1 for 2011-2013
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p
Between Groups 2147.165 2 1073.583 3.240 .040
Within Groups 283928.085 857 331.305
Total 286075.250 859
The feedback from students indicates the assessment item before a higher-weighted
new scaffolded assessment was practical, (10-20%) assessment item. The rationale
improved learning outcomes and, was to encompass both formative (feedback
indirectly, reinforced the benefits of to improve future performance) and
scaffold assessment. Furthermore, Unit summative (marks and grades) assessment
Content Evaluations for Item 5—The domains as feedback. One of the noted
content and instructional activities of the advantages of the use of scaffolded
unit were interesting and stimulating— assessments in the early phases of Academic
revealed benefits of the new model. Item 5 Writing is the capacity of a lecturer to
scored 4.36 for the previous semester, and provide students with feedback which will
4.45 for the semester with scaffolded help them identify immediately the
assessment. The Unit Mean Rating also likelihood of them developing the necessary
increased from 4.20 for the previous skills and abilities. Students would receive
semester to 4.31 the following semester. feedback from the lower-weighted
assessment before progressing to the
Lecturer Comments higher-weighted assessment item. This
proved beneficial as students were guided
A qualitative analysis of lecturer comments to start the essay in advance and avoid any
was conducted to provide another negative study strategies, such as
dimension for the use of scaffolded procrastination and lack of time
assessment. Lecturers noted that a number management skills for producing an
of students had used the same structural academic essay. For these students,
elements within the assessment task within scaffolded assessments will assist them to
the examination, for example, identifying realise the complexity of writing an
their opening paragraph, thesis statement, academic essay and receive effective
essay structure, and prior planning to write feedback for reflection and future growth.
the essay. One lecturer noted in the These support mechanisms will assist
invigilated assessment of the examination students for successful completion of the
of the unit, the preparation techniques used unit as well as effective strategies for
throughout Academic Writing, were undergraduate study.
apparent in the students’ work (A. Scriva,
Personal Communication, July 8, 2013). Anecdotally, lecturers found this to be a
That students were able to transfer their powerful tool with students, many of whom
knowledge and skills to an invigilated task had progressed through the formal years of
is certainly a positive outcome of the schooling without the experience of failure,
process, albeit, it was not anticipated in the which is effectively denied by many of the
planning of the unit. It confirmed for the reporting mechanisms that they have
staff that at least some students were encountered. Failing an item has the
capable of transferring the knowledge of potential to be of significant value to
scaffolded assessment and applying it to learning, and helps these incoming students
their future work. to create a benchmark for themselves of
where they need to be in comparison to
Discussion where they are, and to realise the level of
work effort and determination that will be
Scaffolded assessment appears to have required of them in order to achieve
been central to changes to Academic Writing progress. Again, the results were only
through introducing a lower-weighted (5%) anecdotal, but in talking with students
throughout the semester, staff reported that program. The content in Academic Writing
those for whom they had used this strategy, is structured so that students will be able to
reflected that it had been of great benefit to transfer these skills to the other two units
them, despite its apparent harshness. completed at the same time. EP002
Literacy Competency, and EP004
The use of specific feedback also addressed Information Literacy and Research Skills
the issue of a well-intentioned student depend on the knowledge and information
spending time on work which was that students gain in Academic Writing for
fundamentally flawed. For example, the success. Conversely, the sub-skills and
feedback enabled students to respond to micro skills within EP002 and EP004, help
their opening paragraph or to their thesis students to develop the necessary essay
statement and to address a fundamental writing skills which are promoted though
issue in the very beginning of an essay. The Academic Writing. Data have indicated
incorrect use of a thesis statement or the students who achieve greater than 65% for
absence of a thesis statement in an essay Academic Writing also improved their
have previously been common issues for performance in EP002 and EP004. Prior to
poor performers within the academic the use of scaffolded assessment, the
writing tasks. The timeliness of feedback assessments in Academic Writing were far
takes on a whole new dimension when it larger than the assessments in EP002 and
serves to hold progress in order to address EP004, and therefore, Academic Writing
a problem, which will remain an inherent was more likely to be a unit linked to
issue in an assignment. student attrition.
Commonly, students had underestimated Scaffolded assessment appears to have an

the time involved in writing an essay to the unintended and positive impact on student
necessary academic standards. The due retention with the Enabling Program. Much
dates for the first assessment in Academic of the feedback on the use of scaffolded
Writing correlated to a spike in students assessment came through organic and
seeking to take a period of leave of absence spontaneous discussions with staff teaching
from their course. Semester 1, 2013, had a this unit. Through that dialogue, one of the
higher rate of attendance than previous clearest benefits for both staff and students
semesters with ≥90% on average within was the increased feedback being provided
sampled groups. Students received from lecturers on assessment items. Staff
individual and collective feedback on reported that students demonstrated a
assessments in-class, which appears to have perception that this created a more open
been linked to their increased participation. dialogue between themselves and their
The previous spike of absences in weeks lecturer. Because the tasks were very
when Academic Writing assessments were specific within the scaffolded assessment, it
due all but disappeared. It was also noted allowed the feedback to be correspondingly
by staff that students participated more specific and directive, which appeared to be
frequently with in-class discussions and of increased benefit to future student
were more engaged with the content outputs. It was noted that students were
material, which may be a by-product of willing to respond to the feedback, and the
simply increased attendance. staff perception was that their students
responded more than they had previously
Academic Writing is deemed an essential to all-encompassing feedback, which was
unit in Part 1 of the Foundation Year more common prior to the use of scaffolded
assessment. That is, staff felt that students assessment being implemented and, then
were able to embrace the smaller more with scaffolded assessment implemented
specific feedback than the feedback that had on later cohort groups, to determine
been previously provided, when giving it on whether this concern represents an issue
the whole essay. Pedagogically, staff that needs to be addressed.
understood the importance of high quality
feedback for student improvement to occur, In the 2013 iteration of Academic Writing,
but many reported that the use of scaffolded the assessment outline included a
assessment enabled them to see this in breakdown of the tasks and their weighting.
action. It may be that this approach has With hindsight, the unit also needed a
modified their teaching approach to student detailed rubric or marking guide, which
assessment in other units and other would help the students explore each of the
assessments. This topic warrants further dimensions of the tasks quite specifically.
investigation. This was provided on a lecture-by-lecture
basis within the tutorial groups. However,
Students who have completed Academic having this clearly set out in the unit outline
Writing may well become reliant on would have been advantageous for all
scaffolded assessment and expect the same students.
assessment strategy for undergraduate
units. This may inadvertently affect In terms of the lowest band of performance,
students when they commence namely students finishing the unit with a
undergraduate study. If the use of fail grade, there was minimal change in the
scaffolded assessments results in students data across the three semesters. As the data
being dependent on the approach, rather demonstrated, there is no upward trend
than being up-skilled by its use, then it across the whole group. The weakest
potentially has a negative long-term impact, students were not more likely to pass the
albeit a very positive short-term impact. unit through the addition of scaffolded
Lecturers at the end of the semester may assessment. The impacts were seen within
need to inform students of the the students who had the capacity to pass
implementation of scaffold assessments the unit, but had not previously met the
and, more importantly, the proposed institutional benchmark (equal to or
guidelines of assessments for greater than 65%). Students failing the unit
undergraduate units in the following were most often those who had a significant
semester. The rationale for this strategy lack of skills, or failed to demonstrate the
would be to alleviate the potential risk of necessary academic self-discipline needed
students becoming dependent learners and to be successful (e.g. having poor
reliant on low-weighted assessments. performance; less engagement in class).
Whilst it is always desirable to see fewer
In the context of the gradual release model students fail a unit, none-the-less, the
(namely, independence) the scaffolding contention remained that lecturers
within this unit should reduce over time, involved did not want implementation of
and students should specifically understand scaffolded assessment to result in an
the rationale for its use. The University of inappropriate grade inflation across the
Notre Dame Australia, Fremantle Campus unit. Potentially, such an approach may
has begun a detailed long-term tracking result in a short-term advantage, where the
process on Enabling Program students who less able students were inadvertently set up
completed the unit prior to scaffolded to fail in subsequent undergraduate units
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18
Inclusive pedagogy in Australian universities: A

review of current policies and professional
development activities
Danielle Hitch, Susie Macfarlane and Claire Nihill
Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia
Abstract
This article reports on activities undertaken by Australian universities to support academic
staff to provide inclusive teaching. The findings of two lines of inquiry are reported - a
desktop audit of the presence of inclusive teaching or universal design for learning (UDL) in
publically available policies and procedures documents, and a survey of the methods adopted
to build staff capacity to provide inclusive teaching and learning. Just over a third (34.21%)
of Australian universities referred to inclusive teaching or UDL in their policies and
procedures. A wide range of current practices in professional development for inclusive
teaching was reported, with the most frequent being one-off workshops focussing on
accommodating specific groups of students. Improved institutional support through policies,
procedures and professional development would enable Australian higher education
teachers to provide quality inclusive teaching to all students.
Introduction norm is a deficit to be addressed. This view

problematises difference and potentially
Curriculum, assessment and teaching marginalises and stigmatises the students
practices informed by socially inclusive involved, leaving unexamined any practices
pedagogies have the potential to meet the and policies that discriminate, exclude,
needs of all learners (Barrington, 2004). In create inequity or prevent access,
the context of universal participation in participation and success for all students.
higher education (Clarke & Nelson, 2014) An egalitarian approach to learning
and enabling student equity, universities provides all students with the same
are attracting higher numbers of students opportunities to reach their potential
with diverse backgrounds and levels of (Smith & Armstrong, 2005, p. 11).
academic preparedness. These
developments have led to a stronger focus An inclusive pedagogy is particularly
on the pedagogical strategies and important to support first year students in
institutional approaches that universities making their transition to higher
can deliver to support all students in their education. There is considerable evidence
studies (Gale, 2010; Kift, Nelson & Clarke, for the importance of the first year
2010). Universities have a responsibility to experience in determining how students
examine the way they teach for inclusion feel about and approach their learning
and diversity, by moving widening (Krause & Coates, 2008). Academic success
participation “from the margins to the is enhanced when students feel they belong
mainstream” (Thomas & May, 2005). at university, have a sense of purpose and
are socially connected to at least one other
Inclusive teaching and learning are the student (Lizzio, 2006). Inclusive teaching
methods by which “pedagogy, curricula approaches engage students and create a
and assessment are designed and delivered sense of belonging by fostering social
to engage students in learning that is connections and providing opportunities to
meaningful, relevant and accessible to all” connect, collaborate and share their
(Hockings, 2010, p. 1). Most of the work to learning (Kift, 2009).
date around mainstreaming inclusive
practice in higher education has focused on The principles of inclusive teaching and
identifying and addressing issues learning call for institutions to be “just,
particular to students with a disability or inclusive and engaging of all by
other forms of disadvantage (Adams & understanding the nuanced experiences of
Brown, 2006). Disadvantage is viewed as all students within highly diverse student
resulting from personal difference, and the groups” (Hockings, 2011, p.192). It is
cause of the “problem” is attributed to the therefore the learning environment rather
individual (May & Bridger, 2010). The goal than the individual that requires
of traditional approaches to disadvantaged examination and adaption. This shifts the
students has been to integrate them into deficit model” of difference to a more
existing practices and minimise any sophisticated understanding of diversity
differences—an approach that is now that incorporates a number of
understood to create and perpetuate characteristics, including previous
disadvantage. The focus on individual education, personal disposition, current
students’ backgrounds, circumstances and circumstances and cultural background
needs” creates the view that the person is (Thomas & May, 2010). From this
the problem, and that divergence from the perspective, differences between students
Inclusive pedagogy in Australian universities: A review of current policies... 207
are valued as a resource that enriches the strategic approach to confronting these
classroom and enhances others’ learning, questions and moving towards an inclusive
rather than being viewed as problems to be pedagogy (Devlin, Kift, Nelson, Smith &
overcome (Griffiths, 2010; Hitch et al., McKay, 2012; Thomas & May, 2010).
2012; Hockings, 2010). However, the extent to which Australian
universities are engaging in these activities
Providing inclusive education that removes has not yet been established. This paper
barriers to participation and acknowledges seeks to address this gap by reporting on a
and harnesses learner diversity requires survey of Australian universities’
engagement with an “anticipatory approaches to fostering and building
approach to curriculum design” (Hockings, capacity in inclusive pedagogy.
2010, p. 4), so that curricula, assessment
and classroom activities meet the learning Method of enquiry
needs of all students. Gale and Mills (2013)
identify three dimensions of pedagogy— Two methods of inquiry were used to
belief, design and action—and propose observe and describe the current
three principles that underpin an inclusive institutional supports available to higher
pedagogy: the belief that all students offer education teachers around inclusive
value to the learning environment, the teaching / Universal Design for Learning
design of a pedagogy that values difference, (UDL) - desktop audit and survey. Both of
and actions that work with students rather these methods are descriptive, in that they
than impose predetermined actions upon outline the amount of data available and its
them. This contrasts with traditional general characteristics (Davis, 2013). This
curriculum design and teaching practices approach was appropriate given the
that are generally informed by the present lack of information regarding the
assumption that all students arrive with extent to which Australian universities are
the same levels of knowledge, academic engaging with capacity building, induction
preparedness and motivation, learn the and professional development around
same content at the same rate, and employ inclusive education, and need to
the same strategies to acquire and understand current practice as a basis for
demonstrate their learning. recommending change and further
development. The use of two separate
These questions of how institutional methods of inquiry enabled a more
policies, curriculum design, and teaching comprehensive picture to emerge of
practices interact with and value students’ current practice, with responses sought
beliefs, knowledge and experiences, raise from all Australian universities in both
significant questions at the level of the cases.
institutional, program and individual
teaching academic. According to Haggis Desktop audit
(2006), “many of the problems experienced
by learners are at least partly being caused A desktop audit of publicly available
by the cultural values and assumptions policies and procedures at Australian
which underpin different aspects of universities was completed in August
pedagogy and assessment” (p. 533). 2014. This audit encompassed all 38
Capacity building, induction, communities national universities, and utilised the
of practice and professional development search function on the policy pages of their
initiatives are key components of a websites. Two key terms were used to
locate relevant policies and procedures: There was no suitable existing instrument,
“inclusive teaching” and “universal design”. so a mixed methods survey was developed
A Microsoft Excel database was based on themes identified in the literature
constructed to extract data, and the review. An email invited participants to
following variables were recorded: complete the survey, including a link to it
presence/absence of each search team, online if they wished to continue. The first
location of search term if present, and page of the survey included a plain
presence/absence of specific policy or language statement, and a question asking
procedure addressing inclusive participants to confirm their consent to
teaching/UDL. Descriptive statistics were participate in the survey. The survey
used to analyse the outcomes of this audit. consisted of ten questions (two closed
questions, two open questions and six
Survey mixed questions), and took approximately
10-15 minutes to complete. The survey
This part of the study received approval was available for a period of 14 days in late
from the Faculty of Health Human Ethics 2012. Minimal demographic information
Advisory Group of the university in which was collected to maintain anonymity and
it took place. A list of equity and diversity encourage participants to complete the
staff and Deans or Associate Deans of survey.
Teaching and Learning or equivalent
teaching and learning leaders at every Quantitative data derived from the survey
Australian university (n=270) was created was analysed descriptively, using means,
by a search of each institution’s online staff frequencies and percentages. Not all
directory, and all were invited to participants answered every question so
participate by email to complete the online valid responses only are reported below.
survey. Participants were also recruited Qualitative analysis was undertaken by
from the Australian Tertiary Education three researchers, with each researcher
Networks email lists, Edequity and Austed. independently coding and categorising the
Members of this list—a total of 307—were data. The researchers met to identify
invited by email to complete the online patterns and themes in the data and to
survey. In total, 88 participants entered the formulate a set of agreed codes and
survey; however, only 42 went on to categories. These categories were then re-
provide their responses. The reasons so analysed in light of themes identified in the
many participations entered but did not literature review to ensure no themes in
start the survey are unknown. It may be the data were missed and to adjust any
that respondents were curious about the overlapping categories.
nature of the survey questions but did not
wish to participate. The majority of All of the participants who commenced the
respondents (78.57%, n=33) identified survey chose to nominate the state in
themselves as members of the teaching and which their university was located.
learning leadership at their university. A Participants originated from all Australian
small percentage identified as belonging to states and the Australian Capital Territory,
equity and diversity departments (11.92%, with Victoria (33.3%, n=14) and New
n=4), with the remainder nominating South Wales (23.8%, n=10) having the
miscellaneous academic roles or preferring highest numbers of participants.
not to disclose. Participants were also asked to nominate
which of four Australian University
networks their university belonged to, as procedures, across 13 Australian

identifying their university could Universities (34.2%). In the majority of
potentially have revealed their identity. cases, inclusive teaching was the preferred
term, with only the University of South
The Australian Technology Network of Australia using UDL instead. These terms
Universities (ATN) includes five were most often located within disability-
universities located in mainland states. The related policies (47.37%, n=9), or general
Group of Eight (G08) is a coalition of equity and diversity policies (21.05%,
universities that are research intensive, n=4). However, references to these
and provide general and professional concepts were also found in teaching and
education. Innovative Research learning policies and guidelines,
Universities Australia (IRU) is a group of assessment policies, program review and
seven universities that focus on research of re-accreditation procedures,
national and international standing. The internationalisation responsibility policies
Regional Universities Network and as principles in course administration
encompasses six universities outside major guidelines.
cities, and the other category
Table 1: Alignment of universities
State /Territory Number of Participants (%)
Unaligned 16 (38.1)
Innovative Research Universities 8 (19.0)
Australian Technology Network Universities 7 (16.7)
Group of Eight 7 (16.7)
Regional Universities Network 4 (9.5)
Total 42 (100.0)
(encompassing the remaining thirteen Three Australian universities have policies

Australian universities) is unaligned. Table or procedures which specifically address
1 displays the number of participants from inclusive teaching. The Australian Catholic
universities in each group. University (2008) has a policy which lists
the principles of inclusive curriculum,
Institutional support for while Central Queensland University
teaching staff around inclusive (2012) has embedded specific inclusive
teaching at Australian teaching goals within its Inclusive Practices
Universities Disability Plan. However, the University of
Newcastle (2013) has the most
Policies and Procedures comprehensive inclusive teaching policy,
with guidelines which outline the
The concepts of inclusive teaching and UDL
were present in 19 policies and
knowledge and skills which lecturing staff teaching and learning department was
should bring to bear in this area. “somewhat esoteric and poorly attended.”
Survey Findings The full range of practices identified by

participants is included in Table 2, but
there were often multiple responses from
The findings of the survey found a
the same participant. In a few cases (n=3,
comprehensive range of current practices
7.1%), no practices were identified, and in
for professionally developing inclusive
the words of one participant, “No idea.
teaching in Australian universities. The two
Inclusive teaching would be a new kid on
most frequently reported were induction
the block as far as my institution is
for new staff (n=13) and professional
concerned.”
development workshops (n=13). Many of
these initiatives related to specific aspects Participants in the survey identified two
of inclusion, such as “occasional staff main professional development formats –
training in themed areas e.g. teaching embedded in existing teaching and
visual impaired students.” Respondents learning professional development
described some general development (44.19%, n=19) and single workshops
programs that provide an inclusive sporadically attended (44.19%, n=19). The
teaching component, but some barriers to degree to which this professional
and limitations of this approach were also development was embedded within
identified. One participant cited “limited university processes varied widely. Some
financial assistance to attend,” while participants reported no embedding at all,
another stated that such training from a while others indicated professional
Table 2: Current inclusive education professional development practices in Australia

Practices Number of Responses
Induction for new staff,

13
Professional development workshops
University awards 5
Curriculum initiatives 4
Formalised courses (i.e. Grad Cert) 3
Retention and transition positions,

3
Education developers
Other practices
(i.e. blended learning, Course monitoring and review,
SETU (Student Evaluation of Teaching and Units)
completions, Inclusive teaching KPIs, eNewsletters, 1
Networking, Project funding, Student experience
working groups, Disability action plan, Resources for
staff and students, Policy revisions)
Table 3: Four levels of implementation of professional development for inclusive

teaching
No current implementation
Ad hoc activities
Individual practitioners
Individuals opt in, limited uptake
One off workshops
Student services division offers workshops on request
Systemic initiatives: limited uptake or application
Individuals opt in to professional development, wide engagement
Systemic professional development for continuing staff only
Inclusion issues widely discussed, but not applied to teaching practice
Programs with inclusive elements that are not identified as ‘inclusive’
Programs target specific disciplines, issues or student cohorts
Systemic initiatives: University-wide participation
Compulsory equity and access training
Institutional Inclusive teaching models progressing from disability focus to diversity focus
Inclusive teaching and learning embedded in curriculum design and staff development
development was fully embedded within activities are summarised in Table 3.

curriculum design and staff development; Survey participants were also asked to
“All new academic staff must attend describe the subject and content of the
teaching and learning foundations program professional development in inclusive
(unless exempt).” Between these two teaching provided at their university. In
extremes existed a range of professional many cases, the reported content was not
development activities that varied in specific to inclusive teaching, but rather
quality, frequency, degree of systemic general teaching and learning topics such
“embeddedness,” uptake, and continuing as curriculum development (n = 5, 11.9%)
and sessional staff participation. These and assessment (n = 5, 11.9%). Many of the
inclusive education professional sample. These drivers included greater

development initiatives related to teaching emphasis on online and blended learning,
specific sub-groups of students, including changes in institutional strategic plans,
those with a disability (n = 7, 16. 7%), curriculum models, structure and
students from a low socio-economic leadership, reaccreditation, availability of
background (n = 2, 4.8%) and indigenous funding opportunities and changes in
students (n = 3, 7.1%). Cultural diversity overall professional development
training, cultural/linguistic awareness, programs. Only one respondent indicated
specific content around interactions their institution intended to reduce their
between local and international students offerings in professional development in
and cultural competence was recognised inclusive teaching, suggesting its presence
by a relatively small number of in higher education is potentially
participants (n=11, 26.2%). Other content increasing.
identified by more than one participant
included inclusive spaces (n = 2, 4.8%), Discussion and conclusions
general awareness raising (n = 3, 7.1), This study has found that a minority of
inclusive teaching online (n = 2, 4.8%) and Australian universities refer to inclusive
specific methods to support inclusivity (n = teaching or UDL in their policies and
3, 7.1%). procedures, and that the majority of
professional development for inclusive
Many survey participants in this study, teaching in higher education consists of
however, when asked who undertook one-off workshops focussing on
professional development for inclusive accommodating specific groups of
teaching, nominated both permanent students. Universities have historically
(n=29, 69.0%) and casual (n=21, 50.0%) problematised student diversity and
academic staff. Permanent professional or addressed learner differences by
general staff were also offered these identifying and addressing students with
development opportunities (n=13, 30.9%), particular ”needs,”, leaving untouched the
but not as frequently. One comment institutional policies and inflexible
indicated the reasons for undertaking this teaching and assessment methods that
professional development may vary across generated the problems in the first place.
staff type and circumstance: “As material is While there are signs of greater activity
online it is available to all staff, however around inclusive teaching in Australian
specific training is required for promotion universities, it is not widely embedded into
and key positions but is not curriculum either policy or professional development.
specific.“ Significantly, respondents from
19.0% (n=8) of participating institutions The current ad hoc and fragmented
reported either that there was no approach has significant implications for
professional development in inclusive the inclusion of all students in higher
teaching at their university, or that they education. The ongoing association of
were unaware of any. inclusive teaching with “other” students
characterises it as a specialist activity,
Survey participants identified a broad rather than as the foundation for quality
range of drivers of professional teaching in general. It also reduces the
development and other activities diversity of students to a set of “categories”
supporting inclusive teaching, but none such as disability and cultural background.
was consistently nominated across the
Perceptions of inclusive teaching must The development of policies, procedures

evolve to embrace the multiple forms of and professional development to embed
diversity present in contemporary student inclusive teaching in Australian
cohorts including academic preparedness, universities must also address the
motivation, expectations and patterns of organisational culture and resourcing
student participation (Clarke and Nelson, issues that are potential barriers to its
2014). Recent resources around inclusive implementation. Enhancing academics’
teaching in higher education such as the literacy in UDL practices and ways of
UDL on Campus website thinking requires the establishment of a
(http://udloncampus.cast.org/) include a culture that values them, supported by
wider range of case studies and materials, professional development activities and a
suggesting this shift is beginning to occur. strong policy framework to sustain and
Hockings, Cooke and Bowl’s (2010) embed UDL across the institution (Thomas
description of Connectionist pedagogy & May, 2010). While the costs associated
suggests some principles to focus these with retrofitting inclusive practices is well
efforts: flexible, student-centred teaching recognised as a barrier to the adoption of
that connects learning with students’ lives UDL (Stanford, 2009), this may be the only
and developing identities and encourages viable course of action in the current
them to share their beliefs, knowledges and context.
experiences.
This study found that currently there are Collaboration between Australian
inconsistent levels of awareness and universities could yield significant benefits
understanding of inclusive teaching and in the understanding and practice of
the principles of UDL, and little evidence of inclusive pedagogy through sharing
institutional policies, procedures, activities perspectives, experiences and examples of
and strategic planning to drive and sustain good practice. A national initiative to share
inclusive pedagogy. Where inclusive case studies, best practices and resources
teaching professional development is would prevent the ad hoc approach that
provided, its availability for continuing currently prevails, and make best use of
contract and sessional staff is not each institution’s relatively limited
guaranteed, and the most common resources. For example, through
approach is to offer sporadic, opt-in collaboration, a nationally available online
workshops that are unlikely to lead to professional development module could be
systemic changes in culture and practice. developed for all university staff, and
Teaching for inclusion for all students communities of practice established to
entails embedding the practices of UDL meet ongoing needs for networking and
within the classroom, curriculum and lifelong learning. The infusion model of
assessment methods (Burgstahler & Cory, inclusive pedagogy (Larkin, Nihill & Devlin,
2008; Hockings, 2010; Rose & Gravel, 2014) is one recently developed
2010). It also requires the creation of framework for embedding inclusive
inclusive learning environments, and of practice and UDL in higher education. In
integrated curricula, assessment and this model, teaching academics are
learning activities that operate across unit, encouraged to define inclusive pedagogy
program and institutional levels (Skelton, for themselves, and design and evaluate
2002; Larkin, Nihill & Devlin, 2014). the inclusive learning outcomes they aim to
achieve. This then not only meets the needs
of students, but also supports educators to
be learners and members of a community Devlin, M., Kift, S., Nelson, K., Smith, L., & McKay, J.
(2012). Effective teaching and support of
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backgrounds: Practice advice for institutional
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19
Engaging, supporting and retaining academic at-

risk students in a Bachelor of Nursing: Setting risk
markers, interventions and outcomes
Marion Tower
University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
Rachel Walker, Keithia Wilson, Bernadette Watson and Glenyss Tronoff

Abstract
Student attrition from nursing programs impacts on sustainability of the profession. Factors
associated with attrition include: lack of academic capital, extracurricular responsibilities,
first generation tertiary students, and low socio-economic or traditionally underrepresented
cultural background. Successful Australian government reforms designed to advance equity
in higher education have increased student population diversity, which is accompanied by a
rise in the incidence of risk factors for attrition (Benson, Heagney, Hewitt, Crosling, & Devos,
2013).This prospective study examined commencing nursing students in their first semester
to track critical risk markers associated with attrition, and implemented timely
interventions to support subject completion or enrolment perseverance in the event of
subject failure. Students who attended orientation, accessed blended learning, attended early
tutorials, submitted and passed first assessment items, and studied part-time were
significantly more likely to pass the subject overall. Interventions based on good practice
principles for student engagement and support resulted in increased retention.
Engaging, supporting and retaining academic at-risk students in a Bachelor... 217
Introduction based performance indicators, namely:

target group access, participation,
Student attrition from university nursing retention and success (Gale & Tranter,
degrees is a global concern, which attracts 2011; Nelson, Clarke, Stoodley & Creagh,
much attention in nursing and higher 2014). Non-traditional students are
education literature. Degree non- defined as individuals who come from
completion has adverse outcomes for both socially, culturally or educationally
the university and the student. For the disadvantaged backgrounds characterised
university, there are associated and by their LSES, use of English as a second
significant financial losses if student language, gender (mainly female), age
enrolments are not achieved and retained, (usually older adults) and/or limited
resulting in pressure to recruit students experience in formal educational contexts
who may be less academically prepared for (Gale, 2012). These students typically have
university. Diminished admission carer and employment responsibilities that
standards impact on organisational reduce both time spent on campus and
reputation and rankings of tertiary time engaged with study (Munro, 2011).
education providers. For the student, there Nursing degrees attract a large number of
are also likely to be negative economic and non-traditional students (Salamonson et
social consequences related to non- al., 2012) which is seen as critical for
completion (Crosling, Heagney, & Thomas, nursing to meet the cultural needs of
2009; Taylor, 2005), and for nursing diverse patient groups (Jeffreys, 2012).
students’ specifically, non-completion
impacts upon the sustainability of the Some non-traditional students require
profession. Ultimately, this contributes to specific and additional support in order to
the burden of workforce shortages in engage effectively in their studies and to
healthcare facilities, which can influence achieve success. Further, it is
the quality of patient care (Mulholland, acknowledged that students from
Anionwu, Atkins, Tappern, & Franks, 2008; disadvantaged backgrounds have equal if
Taylor, 2005). not better academic outcomes over time
when compared with traditional student
The Australian Government’s agenda for peers (Whiteford, Shah, & Sid Nair, 2013).
widening participation in higher education Therefore, university-wide approaches that
(Australian Government, 2009) has seek to enhance engagement and retention
increased representation of non-traditional for all students are recommended (Nelson
students in undergraduate nursing et al., 2014). Transition pedagogy is crucial
programs (Jeong et al., 2011; Salamonson, for an effective first year experience and is
Everett, Koch, Andrew, & Davidson, 2012). defined by Kift (2008) as “a guiding
Within this policy, the Australian philosophy for intentional first year
Government has determined that by 2020, curriculum design that carefully scaffolds
at least 20% of undergraduate students in and mediates the first year learning
higher education must come from low experience for contemporary
socio-economic (LSES) backgrounds (Gale heterogeneous cohorts” (p. 5). The study
& Parker, 2013). The response by higher site has adopted the work of Lizzio as an
education institutions (HEIs) to overarching theoretical approach to
successfully operationalise these targets transition programming. Lizzio (2011)
has been strengthened by funding discusses student success in terms of the
incentives that are contingent on equity- “coordinated integration of both curricular
and co-curricular activities and a expansion in higher education to attract

consistent and mutually reinforcing set of students from diverse backgrounds with
messages and values” (p. 7). His lifecycle- non-traditional qualifications, and then
informed program design acknowledges failing to appropriately support students
that as students mature through their (Jeong et al., 2011). There are however
tertiary experience, they encounter a series challenges in engaging with and supporting
of transitions characterised by different non-traditional students to successful
identity-related tasks and needs requiring completion and which relate to nursing
a corresponding match in the design and students, most notably: lack of academic
culture of the learning environment (pp. 1- capital (Jeffreys, 2012; Mulholland et al.,
2). Lizzio’s (2006) Five Senses of Success 2008; Pitt, Powis, Levett-Jones & Hunter,
(evolving identity in relation to academic 2012; Salamonson & Andrew, 2006; Wray
and professional culture, capability, et al., 2012), mode of enrolment (full or
connection, purpose and resourcefulness) part-time), employment commitments
integrates with the lifecycle framework to outside of study, first in family to attend
provide a focussed, intentional and university (Jeffreys, 2012), carer
practical strategy which responds to and responsibilities and LSES background
promotes student maturity. (Cameron, Roxburgh, Taylor & Lauder,
2011; Willcoxson, Manning, Johnston &
This paper reports on a two-part pilot Gething, 2011). It has been suggested that
study aimed at engaging, supporting and the university experience for non-
retaining a cohort of non-traditional traditional students is similar to culture
Bachelor of Nursing (BN) students in shock (Krause, Hartley, James & McInnis,
Queensland, Australia. 2005).
Literature review Some authors suggest there are additional

factors that play a significant role in degree
Retention in tertiary and hospital-based completion for nursing students. These
nursing programs, has been a challenge for include English as a second language and
more than 60 years (Taylor, 2005; Wray, cultural diversity (Porter, 2008; Taylor,
Barrett, Aspland, & Gardiner, 2012). In the 2005), inapproproprate degree choice and
United Kingdom (UK), estimates for some personal issues (Barrett, Aspland, & Wray,
universities have reported attrition rates of 2014; Bowden, 2007; Halliday-Wynes &
up to 50% in some programs with a Nguyen, 2014; Hamshire, Willgoss, &
national average of around 20% across Wibberley, 2013). Nursing students also
nursing degrees (Mulholland et al., 2008). cite workload, particularly around
In the Australian context, attrition rates in independent study expectations, as having
nursing degrees are similar. In 2008, it was a major impact on their decision to leave
estimated that between 9.7% and 41.8% of (Hamshire et al., 2013; Wray et al., 2012).
students would be lost prior to completing This is particularly true of students’ first
their nursing degree (Gaynor et al., 2008). year experience in university.
Researchers have sought to investigate In contrast, emerging research has found

why students leave university prior to that nursing students who are
degree completion (Tinto, 2009; Yorke & conscientious, have high degree of self-
Longden, 2004). The predominant theme efficacy and have a supportive family are
in the literature is associated with more likely to remain enrolled and
complete their program (McLaughlin, Informed by the literature on student

Moutray & Muldoon, 2008; Rudel, 2006; engagement and retention (Lizzio &
Shelton, 2012). However Tinto (2006) Wilson, 2013) and as part of a university-
points out that integration of academic led initiative, this study aimed not only to
systems and particularly a supportive track critical risk markers believed to be
academic team, is also an important factor associated with failure and risk of attrition,
in the successful completion by non- but also to implement timely interventions
traditional students (Bowden, 2007; to support nursing students and provide
Hamshire et al., 2013; Shelton, 2012). academic skills and study guidance to
Additionally, the ethos, culture and remain in, and successfully complete their
tradition of universities are important for BN.
non-traditional students to understand in
order to enhance a sense of cultural Method
connection (Jeong et al., 2011). The
availability of support networks for non- Research has identified effective student
traditional students is also important, retention interventions that enhance
although students are often reluctant to students preparedness to study, create an
utilise these (Barrett et al., 2014; Jeong et effective orientation experience, increase
al., 2011), as they may view them as an personal communication with and advice
admission of failure (Cameron et al., 2011). to students, provide early detection and
Jeffreys (2012) and Pitt et al. (2012) also intervention for students at risk, enhance
highlight the important role of academic the quality of the learning experience, and
staff in students’ decisions to remain increase student engagement and quality
enrolled. Whilst students often find it of the campus experience (Scott et al.,
difficult to reach out for support, Cameron 2008; Tinto, 2006). Through the use of
et al. (2011) report that students Lizzio’s lifecycle-informed approach to
appreciate academics who make student transition, Griffith University
themselves available to help. (2012) implemented a coordinated
institution-wide retention strategy. This
Yorke (2008) asserts that more work strategy built on the earlier successful trial
needs to be done to facilitate students’ involving embedded student academic
successful transition into university to success advisors (SSA) in first year
drive their potential for success. There is programs (Wilson, 2009) which
ample evidence to suggest that engaging in demonstrated enhanced student
supportive activities such as orientation engagement and retention. Six key risk
and skills building are key to retaining markers were identified for early detection
nursing students and building academic and early intervention of students at risk of
capital (Crosling et al., 2009; Yorke & attrition: attendance at orientation;
Longden, 2004; Zepke, Leach & Prebble, accessing the subject blended learning site
2006). Indeed, early engagement of by week 2 of semester; attendance at on-
students that aims to develop academic campus tutorials in the first 2 weeks of
capital (such as literacy skills workshops) semester; first assessment submission;
and social capital (such as orientation and passing first assessment item; achieving a
mentorship programs) (McIntyre, Todd, final pass grade for the subject.
Huijser & Tehan, 2012), is considered
crucial to supporting transition into This prospective study involved 223
university (Tinto, 2006). nursing students who commenced into the
first semester of the first year of the BN in 15% of students identify as coming from
2012. Data collection included: hard copy LSES backgrounds.
and electronic attendance lists, ”retention
centre” feature on Blackboard for In stage 1, data were collected around
automatically identifying student access to three core subjects related to
Communication, Health Assessment and
Cohort characteristics
100
% 50
Figure 1: Cohort characteristics for BN program students (First in family status not
available)
online resources; and online ”Marks

centre” results posted by academic staff via Psychosocial Care, to examine the
Blackboard in order to examine the five relationship between critical risk markers
critical risk markers. The data collection and student failure. A fourth subject was
strategies are further outlined below in a not included as it was subject to review
discussion of the staged implementation. and evaluation at the time of the study.
Table 1 provides an overview of the
Figure 1 presents the demographics of the subjects. Each subject was supported by
cohort of students. Of note, there are a on-line materials and all had early, low-
significant percentage of students who stakes assessment items (for example, one
have high overall position (OP) scores 1, subject required students to complete an
and study full-time. Around 30% of on line academic writing tutorial worth
students have carer commitments outside 10% of overall grade), plus two other
of university, speak a language other than assessment items that contributed to
English at home, and work in paid overall grading.
employment during study, while more than
Table 2 describes the enrolment status of
the cohort. Almost 78% of students were
enrolled in a full-time study load (3
1 An OP is a student’s position in a state-wide
(Queensland, Australia) rank order based on subjects).
overall achievement. Students are placed in one
of 25 OP bands from 1 (highest) to 25 (lowest). In stage 2, interventions were developed
Forty-eight percent of students achieve an OP
of >10 (see around the risk markers for students who
https://studentconnect.qsa.qld.edu.au/downlo were believed to be at risk of failure. These
ads/about/qsa_op_fast_facts.pdf)
were based on good practice principles for
Table 1: Subject overview
Subject Teaching strategies Assessment Weighting %

Communication Lecture to 1. Written 40
provide assessment
theoretical item 40
content 2. Written
Tutorials and assessment 20
laboratories item
focussing on 3. Role play
developing assessment
skills through
role play
Blended
learning
support
Health assessment Lecture to 1. Written 20
provide assessment
theoretical item 30
content 2. Mid semester
Laboratory examination 50
focussing on 3. End of
developing semester
clinical skills simulated
Blended clinical
learning examination
support
Psychosocial care Lecture to 1. Examination 20
provide 2. Group 40
theoretical presentation
content 3. End of 40
Tutorials to semester
further examination
develop
understanding
of concepts
Blended
learning
support
Table 2: Enrolment status of study cohort
Number of Subjects Taken Number of Student Percentage

1 28 12.6%
2 22 9.9%
3 27 12.1%
4 146 65.5%
Total 223 100.1%*

* - Error due to rounding
first year engagement and retention (Kift, non-attendance at tutorials in the first two
2009; Dumbrigue, Moxley, & Najor-Durack, weeks of study, non-submission and/or
2013; Yorke & Longden, 2004) and failure of first assessment items, and/or
included non-attendance at orientation, no overall subject failure. Data were recorded
access to the blended learning platform, onto an excel spread sheet for the duration
Table 3: Critical risk markers
Marker Activity
1 Attendance to orientation
2 Accessing blended learning platform
3 Early tutorial attendance
4 First assessment item submission
5 Passing first assessment item
6 Overall academic outcomes
Notes:
Marker 1: This one day session is held prior to commencement of semester and orients students to academic and
social aspects of university education.
Marker 2: Every subject delivers critical support through blended learning – for example lecture notes and
recordings, tutorial activities, subject readings, on line activities and learning resources.
Marker 3: All subjects have an associated small group tutorial of 1–2 hours face-to-face contact.
of students’ first semester. For orientation, students deemed to be at risk of non-

data were collected using sign on lists on completion.
entry to the venue and names cross-
matched with enrolment lists. Access to the Interventions were designed around these
blended learning site was tracked via the critical risk markers and delivered by
on-line platform which has the capacity to subject coordinators, the BN first year
record students’ activity and usage of coordinator 2 and student success adviser
blended learning. All academics developed whose roles were to support commencing
attendance lists of students enrolled in students with academic advice and
tutorials and were completed each week to guidance. Support was given via individual
identify if students had attended. consultation and support as well as group
Assessment submission was tracked using activities (Table 4).
the on-line platform. On completion of
marking and uploading of results, Results
academics forwarded students’ results to
the program director and inclusion onto Results were analysed using SPSS version
the spread sheet. At the end of semester, on 21 personal computer version. Collected
ratification of results, students’ overall data was reviewed for completeness and
outcomes were entered into the spread consistency and screened for normality
sheet. This was cross-checked by two and outliers using the Kolmogorov
academics to ensure completeness and Smirnov test. Results were normally
accuracy of data. distributed for each subject indicating that
a parametric analysis approach could be
Risk markers at various critical points over used. Standard multiple regression
the course of first semester were analyses were used to determine if there
developed, based on the university
retention strategy (Griffith University, 2The first year coordinator is an academic role,
responsible for engagement and support of
2012) (Table 3) to enable identification of commencing students.
Table 4: Risk markers and interventions
Marker Activity Intervention Responsibility Timing
1 Attendance to Students who did not attend orientation were Student Academic End of
orientation contacted by telephone and invited to an Success Advisor (SSA) orientation
alternate orientation session. If unable to and first year coordinator week
attend students were directed to essential
information and / or information was posted
or emailed.
2 Accessing blended Data was tracked weekly regarding students Subject coordinators End of week
learning platform who had not accessed the blended learning (emails) 1
platform. Students were emailed, encouraging SSA (telephone calls)
them to make contact and explaining the
importance of accessing the blended learning
site. This was followed up with a telephone
call to offer support.
3 Early tutorial Attendance records were monitored for the Subject coordinators and Weeks 1 & 2
attendance first 2 weeks of each subject. Students who tutors (monitoring)
did not attend were contacted and offered Subject coordinators
support and individual academic guidance. (emails to offer support
and guidance)
SSA (follow up telephone
calls to offer support and
guidance)
4 First assessment item Low stakes assessment was introduced into all Subject coordinators Between
submission first year, semester one subjects. Students developed assessment weeks 1 - 4
who failed to complete the first assessment schedule
task were contacted and offered support and Subject coordinators
individual academic guidance. (emailed students who
failed to submit to offer
support and guidance
guidance)
5 Passing first Students who failed to achieve a passing mark Subject coordinators Immediately
assessment item in the first assessment task were contacted (emailed students who following
and offered support and individual academic failed to achieve a mark
guidance. passing mark to offer finalisation
support and guidance for subject
guidance)
6 Overall academic Students who did not achieve a passing grade First year coordinator End of
outcomes in one or more subject were contacted and (email and call to offer semester
offered support and individual academic progression advice)
guidance. SSA (follow up telephone
guidance)
was a significant predictive relationship Significance was determined via an alpha

between the independent variables level of .05 or less for all tests.
(critical markers 1-5) and the dependant
variable (critical marker 6) and include an Table 5 presents an overview of data for
assessment of the mean differences each risk marker.
between critical markers 1-6 to assess the
overall fit of the linear model using ANOVA. Results indicated critical marker 4 (First
assessment item submission) and 5
(Passing first assessment item) were
significantly related to overall academic correlation (p = .002, r = -.209) between

outcomes (p = <.001) for all three first the number of subjects a student was
semester, first year subjects examined: enrolled in and the probability of failing as
Communication, Psychosocial Care and least one subject.
Health Assessment.
Table 5: Percentage of student cohort with successful risk marker completion
Critical risk markers Overall Communication Psychosocial Health

Care Assessment
Percentage of student completion

N=232 N=180 N=172 N=188
1.attendance at orientation 87.9%
2.accessing blended learning 43.2%
3.early tutorial attendance Week1 85.9% 87.6% 93.7%
Week2 71% 96.7% 94.7%
4.first assessment submission 93.3% 95.9% 87.2%
5.passing first assessment 56.9% 77.2% 89.9%
6.overall positive academic outcome 88% 88.4% 81.4%
For subject Communication, attendance to

tutorials in the first few weeks of At the end of the study intervention, the
commencing university (particularly in retention rate was again examined and
week 1) was an important indicator for compared to the retention figure of the
overall academic outcomes (p = .031). same time in the previous year (cohort
demographics are similar across years).
Critical markers 1-5 (attendance to Retention had increased from 80.57% to
orientation, accessing the blended learning 83.82% over the course of one year. That
platform, early tutorial attendance, first is, there was a 3.25% increase in the
assessment item submission and, passing number of students who returned to year 2
first assessment item) predicted 61.4% of of study in the BN. Although not significant,
the dependant variable (critical marker 6 – this result suggests a positive trend which
overall academic outcome) for subject warrants further longitudinal examination.
Communication (F(4, 105) = 421.47, p <
.001, R = .614), 58.0% for Health Discussion
Assessment (F(4, 181) = 659.75, p < .001, R
= .580) and 40.6% for subject Psychosocial Tracking the cohort of nursing students
Care (F(4, 83) = 936.56, p < .001, R = .406). across several risk markers revealed
particular points at which academic and
A full-time study load was also associated professional staff might intervene in order
with the predictor of failure of at least one to support and retain students. A
subject. Correlation analysis examined if significant finding was that nursing
there was the strength of the relationship students who submitted and passed their
between the number of subjects a student first assessment item were significantly
was enrolled, and the rate of failure and more likely to pass a subject overall. The
identified an, association significant importance of assessment cannot be
underestimated as it has a profound effect identify a relationship between the subject

on student motivation (Grainger, Purnell & content and the role of the nurse.
Zipf, 2008) and is a powerful predictor of
student performance and program With regard to Communication, nursing
effectiveness (Bennett, 2010; Brown & students who attended orientation,
Knight, 1994). An important intervention accessed the blended learning resources,
in the study was the introduction of early, attended early semester tutorials and
low stakes assessment items into all year submitted and passed their first
one, semester one subjects. Early, low assessment items were significantly more
stakes assessment, scaffolded to ensure likely to pass the subject than students in
students’ continued academic success, is Health Assessment or Psychosocial Care
discussed in the literature and receives who also engaged with these activities.
widespread support as an important factor This may be due to the structure of the
in building students’ academic capital and Communication subject which has an early
self-belief (Crosling et al., 2009; Kift, 2009; and very strong emphasis on academic
Sambell & Hubbard, 2004; Wilson & Lizzio, writing, nurse-patient interactions, and
2008). When setting assessment, student from week 1 engages with the first
characteristics such as culture and assessment item. It also requires students
diversity are important factors to consider to connect with blended learning resources
(Forbes & Hickey, 2009; Leathwood, 2005) in order to complete the first assessment
and requires academics to consider item. Likewise, the subject Health
students’ experiences of learning as well as Assessment may be viewed as important for
their outcomes (Bennett, 2010). Bennett nursing students as it relates directly to
emphasises that assessment achieves the gaining the psychomotor skills associated
best outcomes when it is ongoing and with being a nurse, and students are
cumulative rather than episodic and assessed on their competency with these
highlights the importance of tracking the skills. Added to this, the blended learning
performance of individual students, and platform is focussed on supporting those
cohorts of students, from assessment item skills in a focussed way with videos and
to assessment item and subject to subject. supporting resources.
A second major finding was that nursing There is ample evidence to suggest that
students who collectively attended developing supportive activities that
orientation, accessed the blended learning engage learners in their learning and
resources, attended early semester enable them to ‘fit in’ is key to retaining
tutorials and submitted and passed their students (Crosling et al., 2009; Yorke &
first assessment items were significantly Longden, 2004; Zepke et al., 2006).
more likely to pass. This was particularly Successful strategies to develop academic
true for students enrolled in the and social capital include orientation and
Communication and Health Assessment mentorship programs and literacy skills
subjects. This suggests two things. First, workshops (McIntyre et al., 2012; Nelson &
the more engaged a student is with their Kift, 2005; Yorke & Longden, 2004).
learning, the more likely they are to pass a
subject. The second is that nursing Finally, students’ enrolment status (full or
students may see these subjects as relevant part-time enrolment) was found to be a
to their professional selection and significant predictor of potential success.
therefore find it easier to engage if they Although 80% of students were enrolled in
full-time study, a full-time study load was a counselling through subject coordinators
predictor of failure of at least one subject. and /or the SSA, and progression advice
This is significant given that the through first year coordinators.
demographics of the student cohort are Additionally, strategies are put in place
complex with interwoven factors such as during orientation week to engage with
paid employment outside of study, carer non-traditional nursing students. Whilst
commitments, age and gender. In this orientation is associated with social
study, 30% of students worked more than activities, for non-traditional students
17 hours per week and more than 30% of there is value in including activities that
students had carer commitments. Both focus on professional identity, study skills
factors are well recognised in the literature and academic achievement (Moreau &
as impacting on students’ ability to be Leathwood, 2006). Such activities can
successful at university (Munro, 2011; minimise the distance between academics
Salamonson et al., 2012). Indeed, and students which might encourage non-
employment of more than 9 hours per traditional students to feel more confident
week outside of university has been found to seek help (Wilson, 2009). For example,
to negatively impact on the likelihood of a orientation into the BN now includes
student progressing into year two of study advice on forming study groups, managing
at university (Moreau & Leathwood, 2006). potential academic problems, developing
For nursing students with carer information technology literacy and
commitments, the challenges are academic writing skills, developing
numerous as they attempt to manage the professional identity as well as campus
demands of family with subject tours and student mentor support.
requirements. This often results in some
students only being able to attend Conclusion
compulsory components of the subject
considered essential to pass (Hockings, Student attrition from university nursing
Cooke & Bowl, 2007). degrees is a major professional concern
which contributes to the burden of
Also of note is the high percentage of workforce shortages and influences the
female students (more than 80% of the quality of patient care. Increasingly,
student cohort) and mature age students nursing students have been recruited from
(65% of the student cohort). Hockings et non-traditional backgrounds. These
al., (2007) describes the experience for students are culturally diverse,
mature aged students commencing at academically unprepared and socially
university as traumatic and isolating and isolated with considerable carer and/or
suggests that the challenge may be employment responsibilities, in addition to
exacerbated for mature age students who the requirements to successfully complete
cannot build the same social and academic a degree.
lives around their study experience and
therefore lack support. This paper reported on a two-part pilot
study aimed at engaging, supporting and
At this university, students in the BN are retaining a cohort of non-traditional
tracked routinely and any nursing student Bachelor of Nursing (BN) students in a
identified at risk of failure within the Australian university. Risk markers were
semester is contacted by email or by identified that indicated academic points at
telephone and offered academic which students struggled to complete
successfully and supportive strategies Education Scholarship, 6(1). 16-27. doi:

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Permissions
All chapters in this book were first published in FYHE/Student Success; hereby published
with permission under the Creative Commons Attribution License or equivalent. Every
chapter published in this book has been scrutinized by our experts. Their significance has
been extensively debated. The topics covered herein carry significant findings which will
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The publisher and the editorial board hope that this book will prove to be a valuable piece
of knowledge for researchers, students, practitioners and scholars across the globe.
List of Contributors
Andrea Adam, Jane Skalicky and Natalie Sharn Donnison
Brown University of the Sunshine Coast, Sunshine
University of Tasmania Coast, Australia
Andrew Harvey and Michael Luckman Sorrel Penn-Edwards

La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
Nadine Adams, Clinton Hayes, Antony Liana Christensen and Sarah Evamy
Dekkers, Sherie Elliott and Jinx Atherton University of Western Australia
Central Queensland University, Mackay,
Australia Kate Wilson
University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia
Jill Lawrence
University of Southern Queensland, Linda Devereux and Paul Tranter
Toowoomba, Australia University of New South Wales, Canberra,
Australia
Shelley Beatty, Ashok Collins^ and Maureen
Buckingham Janet Taylor
Edith Cowan University and the Southern Cross University, Coolangatta,
^University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
Australia
Susan Beltman
Bronwyn Rossingh and Terry Dunbar Curtin University, Perth, Australia
Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Australia
Marcel Schaeben
Sorrel Penn-Edwards RWTH-Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
Sarah O’ Shea
Sharn Donnison University of Wollongong, Wollongong,
University of the Sunshine Coast, Sunshine Australia
Coast, Australia
Cathy Stone
Mark Brown and Helen Hughes Open Universities Australia and
Massey University, Palmerston North New University of Newcastle, Newcastle,
Zealand Australia
Mike Keppell, Natasha Hard and Liz Smith Robert Whannell and Bill Allen
Charles Sturt University, Bathurst Australia University of the Sunshine Coast, Sunshine
Coast, Australia
Lynne Raw, Anne Tonkin, Ray Peterson and
Alison Jones Keith McNaught and Sophie Benson
University of Adelaide, Adelaide, The University of Notre Dame, Fremantle,
Australia Australia
232 List of Contributors
Danielle Hitch, Susie Macfarlane and Claire Rachel Walker, Keithia Wilson, Bernadette
Nihill Watson and Glenyss Tronoff
Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
Marion Tower
University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
Index
A F
Academic Achievement, 131, 179 First Year Assessment, 108
Academic Capital, 216 First Year Mathematics, 178-179, 181, 187
Academic Identity, 37, 40, 132 Fourth Generation Approach, 73
Academic Learning, 4
Academic Performance of Students, 178 H
Higher Education (he), 38
Academic Success, 25
Academic Writing Unit, 190
I
Adult Learning, 25 Inclusive Pedagogy, 205
Altruistic, 153 Increasing Student Performance, 190
Approaches to Learning, 108 Independent Learning, 101
Indigenous Students, 60-64, 66, 68-72
B Interdisciplinary Collaborations, 39, 48
Bachelor of Arts (ba) Degree, 14
Benefits and Reservations, 190
L
Benefits for Mentors, 153 Learning Independence, 25
Brainstorming Exercise, 41 Learning Management System (lms), 41
C M
Carpe Diem Process, 41, 45 Maps to Success, 119, 121-130
Case of Scholarly Soldiers, 132 Mathematics Support Services, 25
Cognitive, 11, 153 Mature Age Students, 38, 45, 119-123, 125, 129
Coherent Approach, 1, 121 Medical Program, 96
Commencement of Distance Education, 84
Communication Skills, 38, 40 N
Computing Skills, 38 Nursing Course, 37-38, 48
Conceptual Framework, 49 Nursing Program, 37-39, 48
Critical Risk Markers, 216
Cultural Safety, 62-63, 71-72
O
Online Learning, 45-46, 50
Curriculum Delivery, 42
Outcomes, 2-3, 10-11, 40-41, 44, 62, 64, 68, 119,
Curriculum Design, 38, 40, 48-49 125, 153, 179-180, 187, 216
Curriculum Development, 41
P
D Participative Evaluation Model, 60
Digital Literacy, 46-47 Pedagogical Reinforcement, 38
Dissemination, 10 Peer Advisers, 4
Peer Assisted Study Sessions (pass) Program, 13
E Peer Learning Programs, 1-3, 9-10
Extracurricular
Peer Mentoring, 2, 130, 153
Responsibilities, 216
234 Index
Peer Writing Tutors, 4 Skill Development, 61-62, 68, 70

Personal Growth, 153 Social Capital, 40
Portfolio Reflection, 41, 45-47 Social Identity Complexity, 132
Post-entry Language Assessment (pela), 50 Standards Agency, 40
Powerful Learning Tool, 2 Student Diversity, 38-39, 178, 180-181
Practice Model, 1, 10, 12-13, 69 Student Learning Mentor Program, 1
Predicting Student Attrition, 14 Student-centredness, 143
Professional Demands, 40
Professional Development Activities, 205 T
Teaching Guidance, 38
Project Outline, 121
Tertiary Education, 2, 10, 40, 179
R Tertiary Education Quality, 40
Refine Academic Support, 60 Tertiary Education Sector, 2
Regional University, 178-179, 187 Theoretical Framework, 1
Research-informed Learning, 37 Transition Pedagogy, 40, 48, 73, 96
Review of Current Policies, 205
U
S University of Tasmania (utas), 1-2
Scaffolded Assessment, 190 University-community Partnerships, 73
Scaffolding, 11, 25, 39, 41, 49-50, 96
Secondary School Mathematics, 179-180, 182 W
Workplace Relations, 63, 71
Self-assessment, 25
Setting Risk Markers, 216

Curriculum Development Principles and Practices

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Curriculum Development Principles and Practices

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Curriculum Development

Principles and Practices

Edited by Enzo Archer

Copyright © 2017 College Publishing House

Curriculum development : principles and practices / edited by Enzo Archer.

Chapter 1 Planning sustainable peer learning programs: An application

Chapter 2 Beyond demographics: Predicting student attrition within

Chapter 3 Obtaining learning independence and academic success through

Chapter 4 Designing and evaluating an empowering online pedagogy for

Chapter 5 Embedding academic socialisation within a language support

Chapter 6 A participative evaluation model to refine academic support

Chapter 7 A fourth generation approach to transition in the first year in higher

Chapter 8 Exploring the disconnections: Student interaction with support

Chapter 9 Transition Pedagogy for an undergraduate, case-based learning

Chapter 10 Focusing on first year assessment: Surface or deep approaches

Chapter 11 MAPs to Success: Improving the First Year Experience of

Chapter 12 First year students negotiating professional and academic

Chapter 13 What is student-centredness and is it enough?.............................................................143

Chapter 14 Institution-wide peer mentoring: Benefits for mentors...............................................153

Chapter 15 The hero’s journey: Stories of women returning to education...................................165

Chapter 16 First year mathematics at a regional university: Does it cater to

Chapter 17 Increasing student performance by changing the assessment

Chapter 18 Inclusive pedagogy in Australian universities: A review of

Chapter 19 Engaging, supporting and retaining academic at-risk students

Planning sustainable peer learning

Andrea Adam, Jane Skalicky and Natalie Brown

Introduction This is unsurprising in the context of an

Questions to inform practice SLM case study

Reflection there is the potential to jump in a-

learners1 rather than a community of continuing transmission and secondary

of setting up an effective community of There are a myriad of considerations for

Beyond demographics: Predicting student attrition

Introduction First, we examine the correlation between

The Bachelor of Arts is the largest degree Methodology

Palmer, N., Bexley, E., & James, R. (2011). Selection and

Obtaining learning independence and academic

Introduction tertiary level. “The increasingly weaker

and the principles in the use of computer- learning. Accordingly, study

• It is a normal aspect of maturation • Provision of mathematics resources.

• Provision of individual assistance This model ensures that the services

Forty-four students participated in the interested in reasons why individual

Table 1: MLS survey questions

Date: Course(s): Program: Study Mode: FT PT Internal Flex

I learnt about the MLC through:

A Recommend by Lecturer/Tutor E Previously failed assessment item or course

B Recommended by a fellow student F Didn’t want to ask the lecturer

C Needed help with an assignment question(s) G Low confidence in my mathematics ability

D Didn’t understand a concept/topic/problem in a lecture/tute/text and needed help

75% (33/44) attended the MLC on a MLCs increased their mathematical

Figure 1: Students views on sharing MLC space

Figure 2: Independent learning and self-study

are available for students to use and keep Embedding in undergraduate

To address the growing mathematical Conclusion

3 A semester-long teaching activity with

synonyms of “subject” or “unit.”

References Entwhistle, N., & Ramsden, P. (1983). Understanding

entrants. International Journal of

Designing and evaluating an empowering online

Introduction and student—used to assess the

Interdisciplinary collaborations approaches to skills courses are less

awareness of the skills and knowledge students. It is important, in addition,

interpersonal and team work capacities Carpe diem provides a structured

checkers continued to assist the design an accompanying online tutor. The

Figure 1: Sample of an e-tivity