GOVERNMENT TECHNICAL INSTITUTE

HANDOUT ODS/ ODSE

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE GENERAL CHEMISTRY YEAR ONE
UNIT: TEN Topic: Equilibria = Aim of Chemical Change
Prepared by: Mr. Akeem Wilson

Chemical equilibrium refers to the state of a system in which the concentration of the reactant
and the concentration of the products do not change with time, and the system does not display
any further change in properties.
When the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction, the state of
chemical equilibrium is achieved by the system. When there is no further change in the
concentrations of the reactants and the products due to the equal rates of the forward and reverse
reactions, the system is said to be in a state of dynamic equilibrium.

A graph with the concentration on the y-axis and time on the x-axis can be plotted. Once the
concentration of both the reactants and the products stops showing change, chemical equilibrium
is achieved.
Systems move to equilibrium because that is the point at which the reaction mixture has the
lowest free energy. The free energy depends both on the compounds (what are the reactants and
products) as well as the concentrations of the mixture. The Gibbs free energy change is zero at
equilibrium because there is no net change in the system.

In more detail, the Gibbs free energy (ΔG) is a thermodynamic potential that measures the
maximum reversible work that a system can perform at constant temperature and pressure. It is
used to determine whether a reaction will occur spontaneously or not. If ΔG is negative, the
reaction is spontaneous; if it is positive, the reaction is non-spontaneous; and if it is zero, the
system is at equilibrium.
At equilibrium, the forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate, meaning there is no net
change in the concentrations of reactants and products. This is why ΔG is zero at equilibrium.
The system is in a state of maximum stability, and no further work can be done. This is a
fundamental principle of thermodynamics.

The relationship between Gibbs free energy, enthalpy, and entropy is given by the equation
ΔG = ΔH - TΔS, where ΔH is the change in enthalpy, T is the absolute temperature, and ΔS is
the change in entropy. At equilibrium, ΔG equals zero, which implies that ΔH = TΔS. This
means that the energy available for work (enthalpy) is being used to increase the disorder
(entropy) of the system.

In the context of chemical reactions, the Gibbs free energy change provides valuable information
about the feasibility and direction of a reaction. A reaction will proceed in the direction that
lowers the Gibbs free energy of the system. At equilibrium, the Gibbs free energy of the system
is at its minimum, and the reaction will not proceed in either direction.

In conclusion, the Gibbs free energy change is zero at equilibrium because the system is in a
state of maximum stability and no net change is occurring. This is a key concept in
thermodynamics and is crucial for understanding the behaviour of chemical reactions.
At equilibrium, the concentration of reactants and products remains the same. The reaction
hasn't "stopped", it just means that the rate of the forward reaction and the rate of the reverse
reaction is the same. This is called dynamic equilibrium. The general form of an equilibrium
equation is:
A+B⇌C+D
Where:

● A and B are the reactants

● C and D are the products.

At equilibrium, either the reactants or products are "favoured". This means that there will be a
greater concentration of one or the other. This favouritism is measured using the equilibrium
constant.
The equilibrium constant (Keq) notes whether the reactants or products are favoured. The
formula for K for a general reaction is:
aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD
𝑐 𝑑
[𝐶] [𝐷]
𝐾𝑒𝑞 = 𝑎 𝑏
[𝐴] [𝐵]

Where the brackets mean "concentration of" and the lowercase letters (a, b, c d) are the
stoichiometric coefficients for each species.
If Keq < 1, then the reactants are favoured
If Keq > 1, then the products are favoured

As a reaction proceeds, the Free energy (G) is going to decrease. This is because the "available
energy" of the system is being used up. In experiments, we cannot measure the Free energy
directly, but we can only measure the change in Free energy, ΔG. The change in Free energy will
continue to decrease until it reaches a minimum, ΔG = 0. In order for the reaction to continue,
ΔG would have to increase, which isn't possible unless energy is being added to the system.

● At equilibrium, no net change occurs and there is zero change in the Free energy of the
system, ΔG = 0.

The blue portion of the graph is the forward reaction. The free energy will decrease as it
progresses until it reaches equilibrium. If we were following the reverse reaction (purple side),
the same thing happens. The reverse reaction will continue (and free energy will decrease) until
equilibrium is reached and the change in free energy is zero, ΔG = 0.

ΔG° is the standard free energy change. It is the change in free energy that happens when a
compound is formed from its elements at 1 atm and 298 K (25° C). While the non-standard free
energy change, ΔG, changes over time, ΔG° is a constant.
The formula for the standard free energy change is given as:
ΔG∘ = ΔG∘products − ΔG∘reactants
A negative value for the ratio of the non-standard free energy change over the standard free
energy change, ΔG/ΔG°, means that the reaction is spontaneous and will proceed forward until it
reaches equilibrium. At equilibrium, the forward reaction can't continue to consume reactants
until there are no reactants left, since the equilibrium constant, Keq, would then be infinity! Even
though the reaction is "spontaneous" it will have a stopping point in terms of the non-standard
free energy change, ΔG.
The reaction quotient (Q) is the ratio of products to reactants not at equilibrium. Here is the
general formula for a gaseous reaction:
A+B→C+D
𝑐 𝐷
(𝑃) (𝑃)
𝑄 = 𝐴 𝐵
(𝑃) (𝑃)

Where P is the partial pressure of the species. At equilibrium, Q = Keq.

Assuming that the reaction is happening in the gas state. The change in free energy of species, A,
would be:

Le Chatelier’s Principle
Le Chatelier′s Principle is the principle when a stress is applied to a chemical system
at equilibrium, the equilibrium will shift to relieve the stress. In other words, it can be used to
predict the direction of a chemical reaction in response to a change in conditions of temperature,
concentration, volume, or pressure.
The principle is named for Henry Louis Le Chatelier. Le Chatelier and Karl Ferdinand Braun
independently proposed the principle, which is also known as Chatelier's principle or the
equilibrium law. The law may be stated:
When a system at equilibrium is subjected to a change in temperature, volume, concentration,
or pressure, the system readjusts to partially counter the effect of the change, resulting in a
new equilibrium.
While chemical equations are typically written with reactants on the left, an arrow pointing from
left to right, and products on the right, the reality is that a chemical reaction is at equilibrium. In
other words, a reaction may proceed in both the forward and backward direction or be reversible.
At equilibrium, both the forward and back reactions occur. One may proceed much more quickly
than the other.
In addition to chemistry, the principle also applies, in slightly different forms, to the fields of
pharmacology and economics.
Use of Le Chatelier's Principle in Chemistry
Concentration: An increase in the amount of reactants (their concentration) will shift the
equilibrium to produce more products (product-favored). Increasing the number of products will
shift the reaction to make more reactants (reactant-favored). Decreasing reactants favors
reactants. Decreasing product favors products.
Temperature: Temperature may be added to a system either externally or as a result of the
chemical reaction. If a chemical reaction is exothermic (ΔH is negative or heat is released), heat
is considered a product of the reaction. If the reaction is endothermic (ΔH is positive or heat is
absorbed), heat is considered a reactant. So, increasing or decreasing temperature can be
considered the same as increasing or decreasing the concentration of reactants or products. In the
temperature is increased, the heat of the system increases, causing the equilibrium to shift to the
left (reactants). If the temperature is decreased, the equilibrium shifts to the right (products). In
other words, the system compensates for the reduction in temperature by favoring the reaction
that generates heat.
Pressure/Volume: Pressure and volume can change if one or more of the participants in a
chemical reaction is a gas. Changing the partial pressure or volume of a gas acts the same as
changing its concentration. If the volume of gas increases, pressure decreases (and vice versa). If
the pressure or volume increase, the reaction shifts toward the side with lower pressure. If the
pressure is increased or volume decreases, equilibrium shifts toward the higher pressure side of
the equation. Note, however, that adding an inert gas (e.g., argon or neon) increases the overall
pressure of the system, yet does not change the partial pressure of the reactants or products, so no
equilibrium shift occurs.
Example
Given this reaction at equilibrium:
N2 + 3H2 ⇄ 2NH3
In which direction does the reaction shift if the equilibrium is stressed by each change?
H2 is added.
NH3 is added.
NH3 is removed.
Solution
If H2 is added, there is now more reactant, so the reaction will shift toward products to reduce the
added H2.
If NH3 is added, there is now more product, so the reaction will shift toward reactants to reduce
the added NH3.
If NH3 is removed, there is now less product, so the reaction will shift toward products to replace
the product removed.
Activity
Given this reaction at equilibrium:
CO(g) + Br2(g) ⇄ COBr2(g)
In which direction does the reaction shift if the equilibrium is stressed by each change?
Br2 is removed.
COBr2 is added.
Answers
toward reactants
toward reactants
It is worth noting that when reactants or products are added or removed, the value of the Keq does
not change. The chemical reaction simply shifts, in a predictable fashion, to reestablish
concentrations so that the Keq expression reverts to the correct value.
Example
What is the effect on this equilibrium if pressure is increased?
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇄ 2NH3(g)
Solution
According to Le Chatelier’s principle, if pressure is increased, then the equilibrium shifts to the
side with the fewer number of moles of gas. This particular reaction shows a total of 4 mol of gas
as reactants and 2 mol of gas as products, so the reaction shifts toward the products side.
Activity
What is the effect on this equilibrium if pressure is decreased?
3O2(g) ⇄ 2O3(g)
Answer
Reaction shifts toward reactants
Because temperature is a measure of the energy of the system, increasing temperature can be
thought of as adding energy. The reaction will react as if a reactant or a product is being added
and will act accordingly by shifting to the other side. For example, if the temperature is increased
for an endothermic reaction, essentially a reactant is being added, so the equilibrium shifts
toward products. Decreasing the temperature is equivalent to decreasing a reactant (for
endothermic reactions) or a product (for exothermic reactions), and the equilibrium shifts
accordingly.
Example
Predict the effect of increasing the temperature on this equilibrium.
PCl3 + Cl2 ⇄ PCl5 + 60 kJ
Solution
Because energy is listed as a product, it is being produced, so the reaction is exothermic. If the
temperature is increasing, a product is being added to the equilibrium, so the equilibrium shifts to
minimize the addition of extra product: it shifts back toward reactants.
Activity
Predict the effect of decreasing the temperature on this equilibrium.
N2O4 + 57 kJ ⇄ 2NO2
Answer
Equilibrium shifts toward reactants.
In the case of temperature, the value of the equilibrium has changed because the Keq is dependent
on temperature. That is why equilibria shift with changes in temperature.
A catalyst is a substance that increases the speed of a reaction. Overall, a catalyst is not a reactant
and is not used up, but it still affects how fast a reaction proceeds. However, a catalyst does not
affect the extent or position of a reaction at equilibrium. It helps a reaction achieve equilibrium
faster.
In class Activity
1. Given this equilibrium, predict the direction of shift for each stress.
H2(g) + I2(s) + 53 kJ ⇄ 2HI(g)
decreased temperature
increased pressure
removal of HI
2. Given this equilibrium, predict the direction of shift for each stress.
H2(g) + F2(g) ⇄ 2HF(g) + 546 kJ
increased temperature
addition of H2
decreased pressure
3. Given this equilibrium, predict the direction of shift for each stress.
2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇄ 2SO3(g) + 196 kJ
removal of SO3
addition of O2
decreased temperature
4. Given this equilibrium, predict the direction of shift for each stress listed.
CO2(g) + C(s) + 171 kJ ⇄ 2CO(g)
addition of CO
increased pressure
addition of a catalyst
5. The synthesis of NH3 uses this chemical reaction.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇄ 2NH3(g) + 92 kJ
Identify three stresses that can be imposed on the equilibrium to maximize the amount of NH3.
6. The synthesis of CaCO3 uses this chemical reaction.
CaO(s) + CO2(g) ⇄ CaCO3(s) + 180 kJ
Identify three stresses that can be imposed on the equilibrium to maximize the amount of CaCO3.
 Acids and Bases
There are several definitions for acids and bases. In this unit we will examine two such
definitions.
Activity
(1) Write the acids for these bases? Write the formula and give the name for each.
(a) OH- (b) CO32- (c) NH2-
(2) Write balanced equations for the dissociation of H2SO4, HSO4- and H3O+ in water
 Dissociation of Water and pH

Water (H2O(l)), has a permanent dipole due to the electronegativity of the oxygen atom. The
oxygen draws the two pairs of shared electrons closer to it and slightly away from the hydrogen
atoms, creating a slightly negative charge around the oxygen atom.

Because the electrons are nearer the oxygen atom, a hydrogen atom can actually ‘pivot’ away
from the rest of the molecule and reorient itself in solution, either towards the oxygen atom in
another water molecule, associate with another anion, or combine with a hydroxide ion to form a
new water molecule. While these reactions are transient and continuous, they are significant
enough to be of relevance. Simplified, as:
 The pH of a Solution

In the term pH, the H refers to the concentrations of protons, H+. The p is a mathematical
shorthand, referring to the negative base-10 logarithm. So,

pH = -log[H+]

in addition the term ‘pOH’:

pOH = -log[OH-]

Note: pH + pOH =14

Because Kw is an equilibrium constant, we can always relate pH and pOH, or [H+(aq)] and
[OH-(aq)].

The pH Scale
pH is a measure of how acidic/basic water is. The range goes from 0 - 14, with 7 being neutral.
pHs of less than 7 indicate acidity, whereas a pH of greater than 7 indicates a base. pH is really a
measure of the relative amount of free hydrogen and hydroxyl ions in the water.
Activity
Calculate the pH of: (i) spinal fluid [H3O+] = 4.0 * 10-8 M and (ii) Bile with [OH-] = 8*10-8 M. A
solution has a pH of 4.1. Calculate the concentration of H3O+ and OH- in the Solution.

Electrochemistry
Electrochemistry is the subdiscipline of Chemistry that deals with the study of the relationship
between electrical energy and chemical changes. Chemical reactions that involve the input or
generation of electric currents are called electrochemical reactions. Such reactions are broadly
classified into two categories:

1. Production of chemical change by electrical energy, i.e., the phenomenon of electrolysis

2. Conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy, i.e., the generation of electricity by
spontaneous redox reactions.
Electricity can be produced when electrons move from one element to another in certain types of
reactions (such as redox reactions). Typically, electrochemistry deals with the overall reactions
when multiple redox reactions occur simultaneously, connected via some external electric current
and a suitable electrolyte. In other words, electrochemistry is also concerned with chemical
phenomena that involve charge separation (as seen commonly in liquids such as solutions). The
dissociation of charge often involves charge transfer that occurs homogeneously or
heterogeneously between different chemical species.

Electrochemical Cell
A spontaneous chemical process is one which can take place on its own, and in such a process,
the Gibbs free energy of a system decreases. In electrochemistry, spontaneous reaction (redox
reaction) results in the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy. The reverse process
is also possible where a non-spontaneous chemical reaction occurs by supplying electricity.
These interconversions are carried out in equipment called an electrochemical cell.

Types of Electrochemical Cell

Electrochemical cells are of two types: galvanic cells and electrolytic cells

Galvanic Cell
The galvanic cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy, i.e., electricity can be obtained
with the help of a redox reaction. The oxidation and reduction take place in two separate
compartments. Each compartment consists of an electrolyte solution and a metallic conductor,
which acts as an electrode. The compartment containing the electrode and the solution of the
electrolyte is called half cells.
For example, the Daniell cell is a galvanic cell in which zinc and copper are used for a redox
reaction to take place.

Zn(s) + Cu+2(aq) → Zn+2 + Cu(s)

At anode (oxidation half),

Zn(s) →Zn+2 + 2e–

At cathode (reduction half),

Cu+2(aq) + 2e– → Cu(s)

Salt bridge: The salt bridge is usually an inverted U-tube filled with a concentrated solution of
inert electrolytes. It is used to maintain the charge balance and to complete the circuit by
allowing the flow of ions through it. It contains a gel in which inert electrolytes like KNO3 or
K2SO4 are mixed. Through the salt bridge, negative ion flows towards the anode and positive ion
flows to the cathode, and the charge balance is maintained, and the cell keeps on functioning.

Electrode potential: In a galvanic cell, when two-electrode are dipped in their respective ion,
there is a tendency for one of the electrodes (anode) to undergo oxidation, whereas the ion of the
other electrode (cathode) has the tendency to gain an electron. This tendency of losing of
electrons (oxidation) or gaining of electrons (reduction) is called electrode potential.

Standard electrode potential (E0): Standard electrode potential is defined as the electrode
potential of an electrode relative to a standard hydrogen electrode under standard conditions. The
standard conditions taken are as follows:

● 1 molar concentration of each ion in the solution.

● A temperature of 298 K.
● 1 bar pressure.
Electrochemical Series

A series of the standard electrode has been established by measuring the potential of various
electrodes versus standard hydrogen electrodes (SHE). When the electrodes (metals and
non-metals) in contact with their ions are arranged on the basis of the values of their standard
reduction potential or standard oxidation potentials, the resulting series is called
the electrochemical series.

Elements reduction reaction

Cell potential or emf of a cell: In the galvanic cell, there are two half-cells, the oxidation
half-cell (anode) and the reduction half-cell (cathode). Due to the difference in the potentials of
these half-cells, the electric current moves from the electrode of higher potential (cathode) to the
electrode of lower potential (anode). The difference between the electrode potential of the two
half-cells is called cell potential or emf of a cell.

Eocell= ECathode– Eanode

ECathode= standard reduction potential of the cathode.

Eanode= standard reduction potential of the anode.

If Eocell is positive, then the reaction is feasible.

If Eocell is negative, then the reaction is not feasible.

Electrolytic Cell
The electrolytic cell converts electrical energy to chemical energy. Here, the electrodes are
dipped in an electrolytic solution containing cations and anions. On supplying current, the ions
move towards electrodes of opposite polarity, and simultaneous reduction and oxidation take
place.

For example, in the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride, sodium chloride is melted (above
801oC), two electrodes are inserted into the melt, and an electric current is passed through the
molten salt. The chemical reaction that takes place at the electrodes is as follows:

● Sodium-ion migrates to the cathode, where sodium ion gains one electron and reduces to
sodium metal. Na+ + e–→ Na

● Chloride ions migrate towards the anode, where it loses one electron and gets oxidised to
chlorine gas. Cl–→1/2 Cl2 + e–

The overall reaction is the breakdown of sodium chloride into its elements

2NaCl→ 2Na(s) + Cl2(g)

Preferential discharge of ions: When there is more than one cation or anion, the process of
discharge becomes competitive in nature. For example, in the electrolysis of NaCl solution, apart
from Na+ and Cl–ions, the solution of sodium chloride also contains H+ and OH– ions due to the
ionisation of water. When the potential difference is applied between the two electrodes, Na+ and
H+ ions move towards the cathode and Cl– and OH– ions move towards the anode. At the
cathode, H+ ions get reduced in preference to giving hydrogen gas because hydrogen has a higher
reduction potential than sodium. Similarly, at the anode, Cl– ions are oxidised in preference to
OH– to give chlorine gas.
Faraday’s Law of Electrolysis
The relationship between the quantity of electric charge passed through an electrolyte, and the
amount of substance deposited at the electrodes was given by Faraday in 1834, in the form of the
law of electrolysis.

Faraday’s First Law

When an electric current is passed through an electrolyte, the amount of substance deposited is
proportional to the quantity of electric charge passed through the electrolyte.

If W is the mass of the substance deposited by passing Q coulomb of charge, then according to
this law:

W∝Q

Now, Q = I ✕ t

W∝I✕t

W=z✕I✕t

Where Z is a constant, known as electrochemical equivalent and is characteristic of a substance

deposited.

Faraday’s constant (F) – It is the charge possessed by 1 mole of electrons, and it is equal to
96500 coulombs (approx.). In terms of Faraday’s constant, the number of gram equivalent of
electrolyte discharged at an electrode is equal to Faraday’s passed, W = E X Q / 96500

Faraday’s Second Law

When the same quantity of charge is passed through different electrolytes, then the mass of
different substances deposited at the respective electrodes will be in the ratio of their equivalent
masses.

Mathematically, it is represented as,

W1 / W2 = Z1 / Z2

Where, W1 and W2 are the weight of two substances which are deposited at their respective
electrodes, and Z1 and Z2 are their respective equivalent weight.

Solved Problems
1. Given that,

Fe2+/ Fe = -0.44 v, Ni+2/ Ni = 0.25 v

Ag+ / Ag = 0.80 v, Cu+2/ Cu = 0.34 v

Which of the following reactions under standard conditions will not take place in the
specified direction?

(a) Ni+2(aq) + Cu(s) → Ni(s) + Cu+2(aq)

(b) Cu(s) + 2 Ag+(aq) → Cu+2(aq) + 2 Ag(s)

(c) Cu(s) + 2H+(aq)→ Cu+2 + H2 (g)

(d) Fe(s) + 2H+(aq)→ Fe+2 (aq) + 3 H2

Solution:

Options a and c.

Ni+2(aq) + Cu(s) → Ni(s) + Cu+2(aq)

Eocell= 0.25 – 0.34

= -0.11v

The reaction is not feasible (negative Eocell)

Cu(s) + 2 Ag+(aq) → Cu+2(aq) + 2 Ag(s)

Eocell =0.80 – 0.34 = 0.46 v

The reaction is feasible (positive Eocell)

Cu(s) + 2H+(aq)→ Cu+2 + H2 (g)

Eocell = 0 – 0.34 = – 0.34 v

The reaction is not feasible (negative Eocell)

Fe(s) + 2H+(aq) → Fe+2 (aq) + 3 H2

Eocell = 0 – (-0.44) = 0.44 v

The reaction is feasible (positive Eocell)

2. The solution of metal of atomic mass X was electrolysed for 1 hour with a current of 0.25
ampere. The mass of the metal deposited was 0.295 g. Find the metal X if its valency is 2.

Solution:

Given, I = 0.25 ampere, t= 1 hr = 60 x 60 = 3600s

Q=I✕t

Q = 0.25 ✕ 3600

= 900 coulombs

Therefore, 900 coulombs of electricity deposit = 0.295

96500 coulomb of electricity deposit = 0.295 X 96500 / 900 = 31.63g

Valency of metal = atomic mass / equivalent mass

Atomic mass of metal X = 31.63 X 2 = 63.26g

Therefore, the metal X is copper.

Worksheet
Law of mass action, reaction quotient, Le Chatelier’s Principal, free energy change
1. Write the equilibrium equation for each of the following reaction:
(i) 2SO3(g) ↔ 2SO2(g) + O2(g)
(ii) CO2 (g) + C (s)
Write the equilibrium constant expression for Kc and Kp: 2Fe(s) + 3H2O(g) ↔ Fe2O3(s) + 3H2(g)
2. The equilibrium constant Kc for the reaction 2NO(g) + O2(g) ↔ 2NO2(g) is 6.9 * 105 at
500K. A 5.0L reaction vessel at this temperature was filled with 0.060 mol of NO, 1.0mol
of O2 and 0.80mol of NO2. Is this reaction mixture at equilibrium? If not, which
direction does the reaction proceed?
3. Consider the equilibrium for the water- gas shift reaction: CO(g) + H2O(g) → CO2(g) +
H2(g). Use Le Chatelier’s principal to predict how the concentration of H2 will change
when the equilibrium is disturbed by: (a) adding CO (b) adding CO2 (c) removing H2O
4. Consider the decomposition of gaseous N2O4: N2O4(g) →2NO2(g) ∆𝐻° = + 57. 1𝑘𝐽;
∆𝑆 = + 175. 8𝐽/𝐾 (a) Deduce weather the reaction is spontaneous at 25℃. (b)
Estimate the temperature at which the reaction becomes spontaneous.
5. Calculate the standard free energy change for the oxidation of ammonia to give nitric
oxide (NO) and water. Is it worth trying to find a catalyst for this reaction?
[4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) → 4NO(g) + 6H2O(l)
Concept of weak and strong Acid and Bases; Concept of pH
1. Write a balanced equation for the dissociation of the following Bronsted-Lowry acid in
water: HSO4-. Identify the conjugate base of the acid.
2. Consider the mixing of equal concentrations of reactants and products; which of the
following reactions will proceed to the right and which will proceed to the left?
(a) H2SO4(aq) + NH3(aq) → NH4+ (aq) + HSO4-(aq)
 (b) HCO3-(aq) + SO42-(aq) → HSO4-(aq) + CO32-(aq)
3. At 50℃ the value for kw is 5.5*10-14. Calculate the concentration of H3O+ and OH- in a
neutral solution at 50℃.
4. Calculate the pH of a substance that has a [OH-] = 1.58*10-6M. (ii) A solution has a pH of
7.40. Calculate the [H3O+] in this solution.
Simple Electrochemistry
1. Predict the half-cell reactions that occur when aqueous solutions of the following salts are
electrolyzed in a cell with inert electrodes: (a) LiCl (b) CuSO4.
2. Complete the following table:
Reaction Type E ∆𝐺 Cell Type
Equilibrium 0 0 Dead Battery
Electrolytic
3. A galvanic cell is constructed from Zn/Zn2+ half cell (anode) and C2/Cl- half-cell
(cathode). (i) Sketch the cell, indicating the direction of electron and ion flow. (ii) Write
balanced equations for the electrode and overall cell reactions. (iii) Give the shorthand
notation for the cell.

END OF HANDOUT 😊😊😊