To negate something means to make it Truth table – is a tabular representation making a true a statement if i’m doing

the opposite or to deny its truth or
validity.
Logic: the science of reasoning is used in
proving theorems.
of all the combination of values for
inputs and their corresponding outputs.
both, so if i don’t eat one piece of lemon
or drink to liters of water everyday then
I’m making a false statement. Thus a
conjuction is only true if and only if both
statements are true, other wise it is
false.

So when we say P, which is either true

In our daily life, we just have to
remember that whenever we give a
statement, which is called n argument,
we just have to make sure that we have
a proof.
Validating Arguments: using binary
operations.
Proposition – a statement that is either
true or false.
Examples of proposition:
 Enrique loves liza that either
true or false so that is
proposition.
 Smoking is addictive also a
proposition because it’s
either true or false.
 Staying late at night
increases the risk of the brain
cancer, is true or false so
that is a proposition.
 When we say a “TWICE AN
INTEGERS” is always an
“EVEN INTEGER” is also true
or false so that
proposition.
Examples of Not a proposition:
 Where do you live?
 Thrice a number
 Listen!
 Catriona is beautiful that
either true or flase so that
proposition
 I am smart, that is also
proposition because that
either true or false.
or false. Then ~P is false and true,
respectively.
Compound proposition – which is
proposition formed by combining two or
mor simple propositions.
Examples:
I am student (p)
I enjoy reading books (q)
We may combine them to form a
compund proposition using a true statements will also give us false,
connectives, or what we call an
operation which is either “and”, “or”,
“if” and “then” or other operations.
is
Now a compound proposition may also
be true or false depending on the simple
proposition and their connectives.
Let us take a compound proposition,
which is formed by two or more
is propositions, seperated by “and”, we
is call this as a “CONJUCTION” and we use
this symbol ^.
a
Examples:
is
I eat one piece of lemon And Drink 2
liters of water everyday. Then i’m only
So if we were asked to construct the
truth table for ~p^~q, we may start with
a column which is ~p, which in this case
we’re just going to negate all the values
of p.
So T will become F and F will become T.
Likewise, we may add additional column
fo ~q, which stands for all the negated
value of q. So T will become F and F will
become T. And similarly T and F will
become F and T and since we we’re
looking for ~p^~q then all we have to do
is to take a look at the last columns, ~p
and ~q and using the operatot ^ which
tells us that this is only true when both
of these are true, thus false and false
statements will give us false, false and
and again both tru statements give us
true.
Now suppose we we’re asked to
construct the truth table for ~(p^q), so
we may add additional column which is
for p^q.
Again, which states that this is only true
when both statements are true. So the
first row will be true and the rest will be
false. And taking a look at the last
column, we just have to negate all the
vales of p^q. So true will be false, false
will be true, false will be true, and false
will be true.
Another compound proposition:
DISJUNCTION – and it is used to express
the word, “or” and we’re going to make
use of this symbol v.
Examples:
If i say that “tomorrow i will go to the
mall or visit my friend”, and if i was able
to do at least one of them then i made a
true statement.
Thus a DISJUNCTION is true, when at
least one proposition is true otherwise it
is false.
In other words, p v q is false when both
p and q are false. Otherwis, it is true.
Examples:
So suppose we’re asked to construct the
truth table for p v ~q which we may
begin with adding additional column
which is ~q. Which tells us that we just
have to negate all the values of q. So
true will be false, false will be true, true
will be false, and false will be true. And
to find p v ~q, we just have to take a
look at the columns of p and ~q, and
this operation tell us that this is false
only when both statements are false. So
false p and false ~q give us false in
which the rest are true.
Examples:
Similarly, if you’re asked to construct
the truth table for ~P v ~q, we may start
with the column which is ~p, which is Similarly, the truth table for ~(p ^ q) and
just the negation of all the responses of ~p v ~q are exactly the same, which
p so this true will be false, and this false indicates that ~(p ^ q) is exactly the
will be true. Likewise, we may add same as ~p v ~q. And this is what we call
addiional column for ~q which contains as the “DE MORGAN’S LAW.”
all the negated responses of q, so this
true will become false and this false will
become true. So we may proceed with
the next column whish is ~p v ~q, in
which we just have to take a look at the
last two columns in which this operator
tell us that this is false only when both
are false, so false ~p and false ~q is
false, and the rest are true.
The DE MORGAN’S LAW – simply states
that the negations of ~(p v q) is identical
to ~p ^ ~q. And likewise, the negations
of ~(p ^ q) identical to ~p v ~q. In which
you must notice that when the
negations is applied to both
Examples: propositions p and q this operations will
be just reversed. Likewise, this is
Then if we we’re asked to construct the negation when applied to the
truth table for ~(p v q), we may just propositions p and q , this operation will
proceed with p v q which again tells us be reversed.
that this is false when both are false. So
this is true, this is also true, this is true
and this is false. Then we all have to do
is to take a look at this column (p v q), in
which this tell us that we just have to
negate this column. So this will be falsle,
this will also be false, this is also false,
and this is true.
EXCLUSIVE CONJUNCTION (exclusive-or
) – which is only true when the exatly
one of p and q is true, otherwise it is
Examples: false.
Now what you must notice that the
truth table for ~p ^ ~q and the truth
table for ~(p v q) have the same results.
So this indicates that ~p ^ ~q is exactly
the same as ~(p v q).
Examples:
Examples:
So if we we’re asked to construct the
truth table for ~p  q, we may begin
with additional column which is ~p,
which contain all the negation of p. In
which true will become false, and false
will become true. Then all we have to do
is to take a look at ~p and q columns to
determine what is ~p  q, in which this
is true if exactly one of the two
propositions is true. So this indicates
that this is true, this is false, this is also
false, and this is true.
NOT AND (NAND) – symbolize as |, so
we say that p | q is false, when both
statements are true, otherwise it is true.
Examples:
So if we we’re asked to construct the
truth table for p | ~q then we may start
with a column which is ~q which
contains all the negation of q and taking
a look at the columns p and ~q we may
find p | ~q in which this | operation
implies that this is only false when both
statements are true. And the rest are
true.
Examples:
Construct the truth table for ~(p ~q) ^r,
we may begin with an additional column
which is the ~q, which is simple the
negation of q in which all true will
become false and all false will become take a look at these last two columns,
true.
And remember that this operation tells
us that this is only true when both of
them are true so since both of these are
Next is we may add additionnal column true this become true, and the rest are
which is p  ~q, in which this operation false, so that’s how we arrive with the
implies that this is only true when last column here.
exactly one of them is true. So since this
is true and this is false this become true,
both of them are true so this is false,
these are both false so this is false, this
is exactly one true so this is true,
likewise this is true and false so this is
true, both of these are true so this is
false, both of these are false so this is
false, and exactly one of thm is true so
this is true.
NOT OR (NOR) – symbolize as , and
this is a proposition which is true when
both p and q are false, otherwise it is
false.
Next is we may add additional column
for the negation of this ~ (p  ~q). So
negating p  ~q, so all the true here will
become false and all the false here will
become true. Which lead to this
column.
Examples:
Construct the truth table for ~p  q, tthe
first thing we have to do is to add
additional column for ~p, which
contains the negation of p, so all true
here will become false, and these false
will become true.
And finally we may add additional
column which is r, which is iether true
or false. And adding a last column fir
this proposition all we have ti do is to
And taking a look at the last columns
here to find (~p and q column) in which
this operation tell us that this ~p  q
true when both statements here are
false, so this will be true andd the rest
are false.
Examples:
Now is this compound propostion (p v
q) ^ r , and this compound proposition
(p ^r) v (q ^ r) are identical? To answer
this we may provide a truth table for
this (p v q) ^ r and another table for this
one p ^r) v (q ^ r). And if we arrive at
the same truth table, then they are
identical. So we may begin with p v q in
which this operation implies that this is
false when both p and are false. So this
is false, and the rest are true.
Next we may add additional column for
r, which of course r may be true or false.
And having additional column for (p v q)
^ r in which this operatio here implies
that this is true when both of these are
true, so since these are true this is true,
and the rest are false.
Now we may check if we’re going to
arrive with the same truth table using
this operation (p ^ r) v (q ^ r) we may
start with p ^ r, which concerns these
two columns (p and r) here. Remeber
taht this operation ^ tell us that this is
true when both of them are true. Since
both of these are true we know that this
is true and the rest of these are false.
We may also add another column for q
^ r, which again states that this
operation (q 6 r) tells us that this is true
if and only q and r are both true. So
since these are both true we know that
this is true and these are both true so
this is true, and the rest are false.
Further we may add additional column
for this one in which this operator (p ^ r)
v (q ^ r) tells us this is false if and only if
both of these are false. And since all of
these have both false propositions then
all of these will be false, and these are
true.
And what we must notice is that these
two columns (p v q) ^ r and (p ^ r) v (q ^
r) are exactly the same. Thus, we may
say that these two compound
propositions are identical.
CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS – in this
statements ‘if p then q’ (p q), p is
what we call the hypothesis, antecedent
or a premise. And q here is what we call
the consequence or the conclusion.
Examples:
If i am a k-pop, then i understand
Which is read as ‘annyeong haseyo”.
And given these examples we have two
propositions, which are “iam a kpop”,
which we may use P. And i understand
, which is q.
“I am a kpop” here is a hypothesis.
And , is what we
call a conclusion.
Note that ‘if p then q’ is also called as
the IMPLICATION, and this is also the
same as p is SUFFICIENT for q, q if p. Q is
NECESSARY for p, q only p. Q when p
and q follows p.
In the conditional statement pq,
which is also called as the implication, q
here asserts that it is true on the
condition tthat p holds. Thus, if the
hypothesis is true and the conclusion is
true, then the statement is true. If the
hypothesis is false but the conclusion is
true, still the statement is true. If both
statements are false, still the statement
is true. But if the hypothesis is true and
the conclusion is fale, then the
statement is false.
Thus, we can say that an implication
pq is false ifand only if the hypothesis
is p is true and the conclusion q is false.
Examples:
So suppose we’re asked to construct a
truth table for ~p~q. We may begin
with a column which is ~p, which
contains again all the negation of p, in
which this true will become false and
this false will become true.
additional column which is ~q, which
again impies all the negation of q. So
true will be false, and false will be true.
We may add also additional column for
~q, in which all true will be false, and all
false will become true.
And taking a look at these columns ( p
and ~q) and applyingthis operation 
which states that this is only true if anf
only if both statements are the same (p
and ~q). So since both of these are true
then this is true. Likewise, these are
both false so this is true. And the rest
And proceeding with this column are false.
~p~q which implies that this is false
when ~p is true and ~q is false which
applied here, this gives us false and the
rest are true.
Examples:
Next is we’re going to construct a truth
Note that ‘if q then p’ (qp) is what we
table for (p ^ q)  (p q). So we may
call the converse of pq. ‘if not q then
start with additional column for p ^ q,
not p’ (~q ~p) is what we call the
which again implies that this is only true
contrapositive of pq. And ‘if not p
when both statements are true. So this
then not q’ (~p  ~q) is what we call is true, and these are false.
the inverse of pq.
BICONDITIONAL STATEMENT () –
which is only true when the both
statements are the same.
And proceeding with pq, in which this
operation  implies that this is false
only when this is true p and this false q.
So this statement is false, and the rest
are true.
Examples:
So if we we’re asked to construct a truth
table for p ~q, we may begin with
And proceeding with the last operation
 here which is an implication, which
implies that this is only false when this is
true (p ^ q) and this is false (p q) and
since none of the statements p^q here
is true, and then false pq here, then
none of the statements (p ^ q)  (p 
q) here is false. So all of these are true.
Consider that if a compound proposition
is always true, it is called a tautology. If
a compound proposition is always false,
we call it contradiction or absurdity.
And the compound proporistion is
called CONTIGENCY if it is not a
tautology nor a contradiction. And the
argument is said to be valid if it is a
tautology.
Examples: is this a valid argument?
If you smoke, then you have lung
cancer.
You have a lung cancer.
Therefore, you smoke.
Note that this arguments has two
propositions. One is ‘you smoke’ and
another one is ‘you have lung cancer’ in
which assigning p for ‘you smoke’ and q
for ‘you have lung cancer’.
Then we may transform this argument
as pq for the first statement, q for the
second statement and therefore p for
the conclusion. And since we have a
‘therefore’ here, this indicates that
these two are hypothesis and this one is
conclusion, which indicates that we
have an implication.
Now given this hypothesis and
conclusion,
We may combine all the hypothesis with
the conjunction operation. And since
again pq ^ q is a hypothesis and p is
conclusion, we’re going to make use of
the implication operation. Now, all we
have to do is to construct a truth table
for this argument (p q ^ q)  p.
In which we may begin with if pq in
which this operator again implies that
this is false if this p is true and this q is
false. So this is false and these are true.
Next is we may add additional column
for this one ^ in which this implies that
this is true when both (pq) and q of
these are true. So since both of these
are true so this is true. Both of these are
also true so this is true and the rest are
false.
And finall, we may add additional
column for this argument [(p q ^ q)]
 p. In which this operation  again
tell us that this is false[(p q ^ q)]  p,
when this is true[(p q ^ q), and this is
false p. In which this is true and this is
false so this is false and the rest are
true.
Since the compound proposition is not
always true, it is not a tautology. Hence,
it’s not a valud argument.
Examples: is this a valid argument?
If you sleep early, thaen you wake up
early.
If you wake up early, then you will not
be ate in classes.
If you sleep early, then you will not be
late in classes. In this arguments we
have a three propositions, which are:
you sleep early, you wake up early, and
you will not be late in classes.
Putting everything in symbols, we have
p q on the first one, qr on the
second one, then in our conclusion we
have pr. Keep in mind again that this
are our hypothesis, and this is our
conclusion. Remember that we may
combine the hypothesis using the
conjunction operation ^. And since this
is the hypothesis and our conclusion is
pr, so we may make use of the
implication operation .
Thus constructing a truth table for this
argument, we may start with pq,
which implies again that this only false
when this is true p and this is false q.
This is true and false so this is false, like
wise this is true and this is false so this is
false so the rest are true.
We may add additional column for r,
which is either true or false and adding
additional column (qr), which again
implies that this is false when this is true
q and this is false r. So since this is true
and this is false, then this is false. Like
wise this is true and this is false, so this
is false. And the rest are true.
Combining these two (pq) ^(qr)
using this operation we may add
additional column in which this
operation ^ implies that this is true only
when both (pq) and (qr) of these
are true. So since these are both true so
this is true. Thee are also true so this is
true. And the rest are false.
And further we may add additional
column for pr, which implies that this
is false  only when this is true p and
this is false r. In which this is true and
this is false, so this is false. This is true when we say that the relations is not
and this is false, so this is also false. And Function:
the rest are true.
- When we say that a relation
is not a function, we mean
that it does not meet the
criteria of being a function. In
a function, every input value
from the domain must
correspond to exactly one
output value in the range.
However, not all relations
satisfy this requirement.
Some relations may have
And finally we may add additional inputs that map to multiple
column for this argument combining outputs or have no outputs
thhis [(pq) ^(qr)] and this pr. In at all, making them not
which this operation  tells us that this functions. These types of
is only false when this is true [(pq) relations violate the
^(qr)] and this is false (pr). And fundamental property of
since none of these are true (second to - functions, which is why we
the last column and when these are distinguish between
false (last column) then all of these are functions and other types of
true. relations.
Since the compound propositions is
always true, then it is as tautology and
hence, it is a valid argument.
Assignments:
when we say that the relations
isFunction;
- When we say that a relation
is a function, we're specifying
that every input has exactly
one output. This means that
for every value in the
domain, there's only one
corresponding value in the
range. However, not all
relations meet this
requirement. Some relations
may have elements in the
domain that map to multiple
elements in the range, or
they may have elements in
the domain that don't map
to any elements in the range.
In such cases, the relation is
not considered a function.