Lab Manual

INDUS UNIVERSITY KARACHI
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, SCIENCE &

TECHNOLOGY (FEST)
Department of Science and Technology
LAB MANUAL
ELECTRONICS
FALL-2021
Prepared by: Mubashir Iqbal
Student Name:
Student ID:
Instructor Name:
Signature and Date

Department of Science and Technology FEST Indus University Karachi
LABORATORY SAFETY
INSTRUCTIONS & PRECAUTIONS FOR LABORATORY SAFETY

Laboratory Safety:
All students must read and understand the information in this document with regard to laboratory safety and
emergency procedures prior to the first laboratory session. Your personal laboratory safety depends mostly on
YOU. Effort has been made to address situations that may pose a hazard in the lab but the information and
instructions provided cannot be considered all-inclusive.
Students must adhere to written and verbal safety instructions throughout the academic term. Since
additional instructions may be given at the beginning of laboratory sessions, it is important that all students
arrive at each session on time.
With good judgment, the chance of an accident in this course is very small. Nevertheless, research
and teaching workplaces (labs, shops, etc.) are full of potential hazards that can cause serious injury and or
damage to the equipment. Working alone and unsupervised in laboratories is forbidden if you are working
with hazardous substances or equipment. With prior approval, at least two people should be present so that
one can shut down equipment and call for help in the event of an emergency.
Safety training and/or information should be provided by a faculty member, teaching assistant, lab
safety contact, or staff member at the beginning of a new assignment or when a new hazard is introduced into
the workplace.
Emergency Response:
1. It is your responsibility to read safety and fire alarm posters and follow the instructions during an
emergency
2. Know the location of the fire extinguisher, eye wash, and safety shower in your lab and know how to
use them.
3. Notify your instructor immediately after any injury, fire or explosion, or spill.
4. Know the building evacuation procedures.
Common Sense:
Good common sense is needed for safety in a laboratory. It is expected that each student will work in a
responsible manner and exercise good judgment and common sense. If at any time you are not sure how to
handle a particular situation, ask your Teaching Assistant or Instructor for advice. DO NOT TOUCH
ANYTHING WITH WHICH YOU ARE NOT COMPLETELY FAMILIAR!!! It is always better to ask
questions than to risk harm to yourself or damage to the equipment.
Personal and General laboratory safety:
1. Never eat, drink, or smoke while working in the laboratory.

2. Read labels carefully.
3. Do not use any equipment unless you are trained and approved as a user by your supervisor.
4. Wear safety glasses or face shields when working with hazardous materials and/or equipment.
5. Wear gloves when using any hazardous or toxic agent.
6. Clothing: When handling dangerous substances, wear gloves, laboratory coats, and safety shield or
glasses. Shorts and sandals should not be worn in the lab at any time. Shoes are required when
working in the machine shops.
7. If you have long hair or loose clothes, make sure it is tied back or confined.
8. Keep the work area clear of all materials except those needed for your work. Coats should be hung in
the hall or placed in a locker. Extra books, purses, etc. should be kept away from equipment that
requires air flow or ventilation to prevent overheating.
9. Disposal - Students Are Responsible For The Proper Disposal Of Used Material If Any In
Appropriate Containers
10. Equipment Failure - If a piece of equipment fails while being used, report it immediately to your lab
assistant or tutor. Never try to fix the problem yourself because you could harm yourself and others.
11. If leaving a lab unattended, turn off all ignition sources and lock the doors.
12. Never pipette anything by mouth.
13. Clean up your work area before leaving.
14. Wash hands before leaving the lab and before eating.
Electrical Safety:
1. Obtain permission before operating any high voltage equipment.

2. Maintain an unobstructed access to all electrical panels.
3. Wiring or other electrical modifications must be referred to the Electronics Shop or the Building
Coordinator.
4. Avoid using extension cords whenever possible. If you must use one, obtain a heavy- duty one that is
electrically grounded, with its own fuse, and install it safely. Extension cords should not go under
doors, across aisles, be hung from the ceiling, or plugged into other extension cords.
5. Never, ever modify, attach or otherwise change any high voltage equipment.
6. Always make sure all capacitors are discharged (using a grounded cable with an insulating handle)
before touching high voltage leads or the "inside" of any equipment even after it has been turned off.
Capacitors can hold charge for many hours after the equipment has been turned off.
7. When you are adjusting any high voltage equipment or a laser which is powered with a high voltage
supply, USE ONLY ONE HAND. Your other hand is best placed in a pocket or behind your back.
This procedure eliminates the possibility of an accident where high voltage current flows up one arm,
through your chest, and down the other arm.
Mechanical Safety:
1. When using compressed air, use only approved nozzles and never directs the air towards any person.
2. Guards on machinery must be in place during operation.
3. Exercise care when working with or near hydraulically- or pneumatically-driven equipment. Sudden
or unexpected motion can inflict serious injury.
Chemical Safety:
1. Treat every chemical as if it were hazardous.

2. Make sure all chemicals are clearly and currently labeled with the substance name, concentration,
date, and name of the individual responsible.
3. Never return chemicals to reagent bottles. (Try for the correct amount and share any excess.)
4. Comply with fire regulations concerning storage quantities, types of approved containers and
cabinets, proper labeling, etc. If uncertain about regulations, contact the building coordinator.
5. Use volatile and flammable compounds only in a fume hood. Procedures that produce aerosols should
be performed in a hood to prevent inhalation of hazardous material.
6. Never allow a solvent to come in contact with your skin. Always use gloves.
7. Never "smell" a solvent!! Read the label on the solvent bottle to identify its contents.
8. Dispose of waste and broken glassware in proper containers.
9. Clean up spills immediately.
10. Do not store food in laboratories
Lasers Safety:
1. NEVER, EVER LOOK INTO ANY LASER BEAM, no matter how low power or "eye safe" you
may think it is.
2. Always wear safety goggles if instructed by your Instructor or Teaching Assistant.
3. The most common injury using lasers is an eye injury resulting from scattered laser light reflected off
of mountings, sides of mirrors or from the "shiny" surface of an optical table. The best way to avoid
these injuries is to always wear your goggles and NEVER LOWER YOUR HEAD TO THE LEVEL
OF THE LASER BEAM! The laser beam should always be at or below chest level.
4. Always use "beam stops" to intercept laser beams. Never allow them to propagate into the laboratory.
Never walk through a laser beam. Some laser beams of only a few watts can burn a hole through a
shirt in only a few seconds.
5. If you suspect that you have suffered an eye injury, notify your instructor or teaching assistant
IMMEDIATELY! Your ability to recover from an eye injury decreases the longer you wait for
treatment.
Additional Safety Guidelines:
 Never do unauthorized experiments.

 Never work alone in laboratory.
 Keep your lab space clean and organized.
 Do not leave an on-going experiment unattended.
 Always inform your instructor if you break a thermometer. Do not clean mercury yourself!!
 Never taste anything. Never pipette by mouth; use a bulb.
 Never use open flames in laboratory unless instructed by TA.
 Check your glassware for cracks and chips each time you use it. Cracks could cause the glassware to
fail during use and cause serious injury to you or lab mates.
 Maintain unobstructed access to all exits, fire extinguishers, electrical panels, emergency showers,
and eye washes.
 Do not use corridors for storage or work areas.
 Do not store heavy items above table height. Any overhead storage of supplies on top of cabinets
should be limited to lightweight items only. Also, remember that a 36" diameter area around all fire
sprinkler heads must be kept clear at all times.
 Areas containing lasers, biohazards, radioisotopes, and carcinogens should be posted accordingly.
However, do not post areas unnecessarily and be sure that the labels are removed when the hazards
are no longer present.
 Be careful when lifting heavy objects. Only shop staff may operate forklifts or cranes.
 Clean your lab bench and equipment, and lock the door before you leave the laboratory.
Declaration By Student:
It is here by declared that I have read all instructions and precautions carefully and I will follow
them to ensure safety.
Name of Student: ___________________________________
Signature of Student: ________________________________
Name of Lab Teacher: _______________________________
Signature of Lab Teacher: ___________________________

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
(ET-134A) ELECTRONIC
OBE ATTAINMENT (Course): OBE ATTAINMENT(Taxonomy): OBE ATTAINMENT(Program):
COs (Course Outcomes):CO-1,2 Domain: Psychomotor Program Outcome (PO):1
Level: P1, P2
S. No Lab Experiment Date Sign

Describe the basics of Basic of Electrical and Electronics.
1
Identify the resistor color coding scheme.

2
Detect the resistance, voltage and current of a Resistor using Multi meter
3
Display and introduce Multisim Software.

4
Detect the Equivalent Resistance of a Series, Parallel and Series-Parallel

5 combination Resistors
Display the result of CRO oscilloscope and Digital oscilloscope
6
Show the Biasing Modes of PN junction diode.

7
Display and introduce Proteus Software.

8
To show, Implement and plot the waveforms of diode as a Half wave rectifier.
9
To show, Implement and plot the waveforms of diode as a Full wave rectifier
10 using bridge network.
To show Implement and Verify the Zener diode operation and plot its
11 characteristic curve in forward and reverse bias.
12 To state and observe electrical characteristic of BJT and Use it as a Switch
13 Display and introduce to MATLAB Software
14 To detect the response of RL Circuit and State the result coming out by their
implementation on MATLAB
15 To detect the response of RC Circuit and State the result coming out by their
implementation on MATLAB
Department of Electrical Engineering, FEST, Indus University, Karachi
LAB # 01
Describe the basics of Basic of Electrical and
Electronics
Objective:__________________________________________________________________
To understand the Basics of Electrical and Electronics and their

usage.
Theory:
Electrical Charge
Electricity is the movement of electrons. Electrons create charge, which we can

harness to do work. Your light bulb, your stereo, your phone, etc., are all
harnessing the movement of the electrons in order to do work. They all operate
using the same basic power source: the movement of electrons.
The three basic principles for this tutorial can be explained using electrons, or
more specifically, the charge they create:
 Voltage is the difference in charge between two points.

 Current is the rate at which charge is flowing.
 Resistance is a material's tendency to resist the flow of charge (current).
Voltage:
We define voltage as the amount of potential energy between two points on a
circuit. One point has more charge than another. This difference in charge between
the two points is called voltage. It is measured in volts, which, technically, is the
potential energy difference between two points that will impart one joule of energy
per coulomb of charge that passes through it (don't panic if this makes no sense, all
will be explained). The unit "volt" is named after the Italian physicist Alessandro
Volta who invented what is considered the first chemical battery. Voltage is
represented in equations and schematics by the letter "V".
Electronics (Lab Manual) Page 2

When describing voltage, current, and resistance, a common analogy is a water

tank. In this analogy, charge is represented by the water amount, voltage is
represented by the
water pressure, and current is
represented by the
water flow. So for this analogy,
remember:
 Water = Charge
 Pressure = Voltage
 Flow = Current
Current:
We can think of the amount of water flowing through the hose from the tank as
current. The higher the pressure, the higher the flow, and vice-versa. With water,
we would measure the volume of the water flowing through the hose over a certain
period of time. With electricity, we measure the amount of charge flowing through
the circuit over a period of time. Current is measured in Amperes (usually just
referred to as "Amps"). An ampere is defined as 6.241*10^18 electrons (1
Coulomb) per second passing through a point in a circuit. Amps are represented in
equations by the letter "I".
 Water = Charge (measured in Coulombs)

 Pressure = Voltage (measured in Volts)
 Flow = Current (measured in Amperes, or "Amps" for short)
 Hose Width = Resistance
Electrical (Lab Manual) Page 3

Resistance:
Consider again our two water tanks, one with a narrow pipe and one with a wide
pipe.
It stands to reason that we can't fit as much volume through a narrow pipe than a
wider one at the same pressure. This is resistance. The narrow pipe "resists" the
flow of water through it even though the water is at the same pressure as the tank
with the wider pipe.
Ohm's Law
Combining the elements of voltage, current, and resistance, Ohm developed the
formula:
V=IR
Where,
 V = Voltage in volts
 I = Current in amps
 R = Resistance in ohms

Exercise:
1. What is the unit for voltage?
2. What is the unit for current?
3. What is the unit for resistance?
4. What is the unit for energy?
5. What is the equation for Ohm's Law?
6. Why can birds sit on a power line?
7. The resistance of a hotplate is 48 Ω? How much current does the plate carry when
connected to a 120-V source?

Conclusion:

LAB # 02
Identify the resistor color coding scheme
Objective:_________________________________________________________________
Calculating the Resistor’s value by color coding
Theory:
Resistors use colored painted bands to indicate both their resistive value and their tolerance with the
physical size of the resistor indicating its wattage rating. These colored painted bands produce a
system of identification generally known as a Resistors Color Code.
The resistor color code markings are always read one band at a time starting from the left to the right,
with the larger width tolerance band oriented to the right side indicating its tolerance. By matching the
color of the first band with its associated number in the digit column of the color chart below the first
digit is identified and this represents the first digit of the resistance value. Again, by matching the
color of the second band with its associated number in the digit column of the color chart we get the
second digit of the resistance value and so on. Then the resistor color code is read from left to right as
illustrated below:

For example:
Red Red Black Gold | 2 2 0 5% and it says (5%)(22) = (0.05)(22) = 1.1
max value = 22 +1.1 = 23.1
min value = 22 - 1.1 = 20.9
Exercise:
Calculate the multiple Resistors values and complete the
observation table
S/NO Band1 Band2 Band3 Band4 Tolerance Min Max Nominal
1
2
3
4
5
Conclusion:

LAB # 03
Detect the resistance, voltage and current of a Resistor using
Multi meter
Objective:__________________________________________________________________
Using the Multimeter for calculating resistance value current and

voltages through it
Theory:
Multimeters are very useful test instruments. They are needed in every kind of robotic
activity. Don’t ever forget to carry this whenever you are going for a competition.
USE:
Multimeters can be used as an ammeter, a voltmeter, an ohmmeter; by operating a
multi-position knob on the meter. They can measure DC as well as AC (but you
shall rarely require measuring an AC quantity in robotics). There are also special
functions in a multimeter like ‘Detecting a Short Circuit’, testing transistors and
some have additional features for measuring capacitance & frequency.
They are available in two types in market:
1.) Analog Multimeter
§ Analogue meters take a little power from the circuit under test to operate their
pointer (a hand like in a clock to indicate the reading).
§ They must have a high sensitivity of at least 20k /V or they may upset the
circuit under test and give an incorrect reading.


2.) Digital Multimeter

§ All digital meters contain a battery to power the display so they use
virtually no power from the circuit under test.
§ They have a digital display as shown.
There DC voltage ranges have a very high resistance (usually called input
impedance) of 1M or more, usually 10 M , and they are very unlikely to affect
the circuit under test.
Here we will have discussion on digital multimeter (as they are commonly used).
There are three sockets of wire, the black lead is always connected into the
socket marked COM, short form for COMMON. The red lead is connected into
the socket labeled V mA. The 10A socket is very rarely used.
Measuring resistance with a multimeter
To measure the resistance of a component it must not be connected in a circuit.

If you try to measure resistance of components in a circuit you will obtain false
readings (even if the supply is disconnected) and you may damage the
multimeter.
The techniques used for each type of meter are very different so they are treated
separately:
Measuring resistance with a DIGITAL multimeter
1. Set the meter to a resistance range greater than you expect the resistance to be.

Notice that the meter display shows "off the scale" (usually blank except for
a 1 on the left). Don't worry, this is not a fault, it is correct - the resistance of
air is very high!
2. Touch the meter probes together and check that the meter reads zero.
If it doesn't read zero, turn the switch to 'Set Zero' if your meter has this and try
again.
3. Put the probes across the component.

Avoid touching more than one contact at a time or your resistance will upset
the reading!
If the meter reads 1, this means that the resistance is more than the maximum
which can be measured on this range and
you may need to switch to a new
position, 2000 k or so, to take a reading.
Note: It is recommended purchasing a

multimeter with a 'continuity' feature
built in. This mode allows us to 'tone' out
circuits. In this mode, if you touch the
two probes together (or there is a short
circuit), you should hear a tone
indicating that there is a direct connection
between one probe and the other (obviously
- you have them touching!). This feature is used countless times during trouble
shooting.

Measuring Voltage with Voltmeter
1. Select a voltage range with a maximum greater than you expect the reading to
be. If the reading goes off the scale immediately disconnect and select a higher
range.
2. Connect the red (positive +) lead to the point you where you need to measure
the voltage
3. The black lead can be left permanently connected to 0V while you use the
red lead as a probe to measure voltages at various points. (The black lead
can be fitted by using a crocodile clip.)

Similarly, you can measure the current by choosing a suitable range. If it

displays a ‘1’ at left, choose a higher current range.
Testing a diode with a DIGITAL multimeter

§ Digital multimeters have a special setting for testing a diode, usually labeled
with the diode symbol.
§ Connect the red (+) lead to the anode and the black (-) to the cathode. The
diode should conduct and the meter will display a value (usually the voltage
across the diode in mV, 1000mV = 1V).
§ Reverse the connections. The diode should NOT conduct this way so the
meter will display "off the scale" (usually blank except for a 1 on the left).

Testing a transistor with a

multimeter
Set a digital multimeter to diode test
and an analogue multimeter to a low
resistance range such as × 10 ohm as
described above for testing a diode.
Test each pair of leads both ways (six

tests in total):
§ The base-emitter (BE) junction

should behave like a diode and conduct one way only.
§ The base-collector (BC) junction should behave like a diode and
conduct one way only.
§ The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way.
NOTE: Conducting in one way simply means it will behave as a short

circuit and
The diagram shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor.
The diodes are reversed in a PNP transistor but the same test
procedure can be used.
Some multimeters have a 'transistor test' function; please refer

to the instructions supplied with the meter for details.
Electrical Network Analysis (Lab Manual) Page 15

Exercise:
Calculate the values of resistance by using the multimeter and verify

the table used in Lab 1.
S/NO CALCULATED MEASURED BY MULTIMETRE
Conclusion:

LAB # 04
Display and introduce Multisim Software.
Objective:____________________________________________________________
 To get familiarize with MULTISIM software
Equipment / Requirement:
 Personal Computer
 MULTISIM software
Theory:
Multisim is the schematic capture and simulation application of National Instruments
Circuit Design Suite, a suite of EDA (Electronic Design Automation) tools. It is
similar to PSpice, but it is more easy to use in Practical sense and has lots of features
to make circuit drawing/simulating, a really simple task. Here is Window of
multisim, as it appears first time when you start the software

How To Use Multisim Software:

1. The Menu Bar is where you find commands for all functions.
2. The Design Toolbox lets you navigate through the different types of files in a
project (schematics, PCBs, reports), view a schematic’s hierarchy and show or hide
different layers.
3. The Component toolbar contains buttons that let you select components from the
Multisim databases for placement in your schematic.
4. The Standard toolbar contains buttons for commonly-performed functions such as

Save, Print, Cut and paste.
5. The View toolbar contains buttons for modifying the way the screen is displayed.
6. The Simulation toolbar contains buttons for starting, stopping, and other
simulation functions.
7. The Main toolbar contains buttons for common Multisim functions.
8. The in-Use List contains a list of all components used in the design.
9. The Instruments toolbar contains buttons for each instrument.
10. Scroll Left –right is to ensure ease in handling larger designs.
11. The Circuit Window (or workspace) is where you build your circuit.
12. Active tab indicates the current active circuit window .
Let’s take an example of a RC circuit. We will simulate the circuit to perform the
transient analysis. At any point of time, you can click F1 for help on the tool.
Please follow the steps:
1. Select Start»All Programs» National Instruments» Circuit Design Suite 10.1»
Multisim 10.1. A blank file opens on the workspace called Circuit1.
2. Select File» Save As to display a standard Windows Save dialog.
3. Select Place» Component to display the Select a component browser, navigate to
the group Sources and click on POWER_SOURCES. Then choose the Family:
AC_POWER option. The component appears as a “ghost” on the cursor. (Once you
have selected the desired Group and Family, start typing the component’s name in
the browser’s Component field. As you type, the string

appears in the Searching field at the bottom of the browser.)
4. Move the cursor to the bottom-right of the workspace and left-click to place the
component. Similarly, find the other components and place them. When a part is on
the workspace and you want to place the same part again, highlight it and select
Edit»Copy, then Edit» Paste. You can also select it from the In Use List and click to
place it on the workspace. Press Ctrl+R if you want to rotate the component.The
oscilloscope is obtained (by dragging it) from the component window on the right
hand side of main window.

5. All components have pins that you use to wire them to other components or
instruments. As soon as your cursor is over a pin, Multisim knows you want to wire
and the pointer changes to a crosshair. You can also use ctrl + q for wiring the
circuit. Don’t forget to add Ground to the circuit (available in Sources option in
Place>>Component).
6. Choose the type of analysis you want to perform by clicking Simulate>>
Analyses>>. Here, we have chosen transient analysis.

7. Select Simulate» Analyses»Transient Analysis and click on the Output tab. Add
I(v1) to the right column by first clicking on I(v1) in left column and then pressing
Add tab.
8. Also choose the time (from transient Frequency parameters).
9. Click on Simulate tab. The output window appears which consists of tab for
oscillator output as well as transient waveforms. Different colored waves can be
viewed by choosing the color of respective wire of the electrical quantity (voltage
and current). Right click on wire in the circuit and then click on Colorsegment… to
choose the color of wire and thus the waveform color (after simulation).

10. With multisim, you can create 3D breadboard with components placed. You can
explore yourself this option by clicking on show breadboard tab on main toolbar.
Figure below shows example of 3Dbreadboard created in multisim.

LAB # 05
Detect the Equivalent Resistance of a Series, Parallel and
Series-Parallel combination Resistors
Objective:______________________________________________________________
The objective of this lab is to study resistances connected in

series, parallel, and combination circuits.
Theory:
In the previous experiment you constructed a circuit that contained only one
resistive element, a resistor or a light bulb. In this experiment you will construct
circuits using multiple resistors. Two resistors in parallel have same voltage across
both. Resistors can be connected in Series, Parallel or mixed combination.
Depending on the type of resistor combination, the circuit might have different
values of voltage and/or current across different part of the circuit. Below we
discuss types of resistor combination and the resulting circuit properties in detail:
a) Series Combination: Resistors are said to be connected in series when they

are connected in a line (head to tail) so that the current does not have any other
alternate path to go through [Figure 1].
Current: Since there is no alternate path, the same current passes through all
the resistors: I = I1 = I2 = I3.
Voltage: The voltage drop across each resistor is not equal to V, but the sum
of the voltage drops:
V = V1 + V2 + V3
Resistance: The equivalent resistance of the three resistors is: Req = R1 + R2
+ R3
R1 R2 R3
A
V
Figure 1: Resistors in Series

b) Parallel: Resistors are said to be connected in series when all the “heads”
are connected together as are all the “tails” [Figure 2].
R1
R2
R3
Figure 2: Resistors in Parallel
Voltage: the voltage drops across all the resistors are the same and equal to the
voltage (V) of the source:
V = V1 = V2 = V3
Current: the current (I) from the source gets divided among the resistors:
I = I1 + I2 + I3.
Resistance: The equivalent resistance of the resistors can be calculated by the
formula:
1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
Equipment Required:
 No of resistors (eg. 100 Ω, 150 Ω and 470 Ω),

 ammeter,
 voltmeter or multi-meter,
 circuit board,
 connecting wires,
 power supply.

Exercise:

Conclusion:

LAB # 06
Display the result of CRO oscilloscope and Digital
oscilloscope
Objective:_____________________________________________________________
To study the CRO and Digital Oscilloscope and their working

principals
Theory:
a) The Cathode ray Oscilloscope
Y plates
Electron gun
cathode
Fluorescent screen
electron beam
anode
X plates
Cathode ray tube
The cathode ray oscilloscope (CR0) is a very useful instrument that has many
applications in science.
A beam of electrons is shot down an evacuated tube by an electron gun. This
beam passes between two sets of deflecting plates and then strikes a screen
that glows when the beam hits it (fluorescence).
The most important parts of the CR0 are:
(A) Electron gun - this produces the electron beam. The more electrons there
are in the beam the brighter the spot on the screen;
(B) Deflecting plates - by putting a voltage on each pair of plates the beam can
be moved up and down or side to side.

Since the electron beam is negative it will be attracted towards a positive

plate;
(C) Fluorescent screen - this glows when the electron beam hits it.
You will find various controls on the front of an oscilloscope this is what they
do:
On/Off- obvious
Brightness - makes the beam brighter, this is sometimes linked to the on/off
control
X shift - moves the spot across the screen
Y shift - moves the spot up and down the screen
X gain - magnifies movement in the X direction
Y gain - magnifies movement in the Y direction
Focus - obvious
Time base - makes the spot move from one side of the screen to the other at
various speeds. Usually from 1 second to 1 millionth of a second for one
crossing.
There are other controls but we will not deal with them here, but the time base
is worth looking at more closely.
right right right
A voltage is applied to the X plates

that pulls the spot across the screen,
allows it to fly back again by
changing sign and then pulls it across
again, and so on. The voltage is
left left left
called a SAW TOOTH wave and is
shown in the diagram below. The bigger the voltage the further the spot gets
pulled across, and the greater the frequency the faster it moves.
The input voltage is usually connected to the Y plates and this pulls the spot
up and down as the time base moves it across the screen.

The following diagram shows you various patterns that can be made on the
screen with two different inputs.
d.c. input a.c. input
The speed of the time base will change what we see on the screen even if the
input signal is kept the same. The following four diagrams show this.
d.c. input with the time base off d.c. input with the time base on
a.c. input with a fast time a.c. input with a slow time
base base

Because the deflection of the spot depends on the voltage connected to the Y
plates the CR0 can be used as an accurate voltmeter. The oscilloscope is also
used in hospitals to look at heart beat or brain waves, as computer monitors,
radar screens and is also the basis of the television receiver.
b) Digital Oscilloscope
In the digital oscilloscope, the measuring signal from the analog form is
converted into a digital version, which takes place in an analog-to-digital
(A/D) converter. It is further accumulated in the memory, and then processed
in a digital-to-analogue (D/A) converter and put on the screen. This seemingly
circumferential way of signal processing has a deep justification, because it
makes it possible to obtain results unattainable in analogue technology. For
example, the signal image stored in memory can be transferred to the screen of
the oscilloscope or to an external computer at any time. The signal from the
memory can also be sent to a printer or flash memory.
The sample collection can also be subjected to filtration and frequency
analysis. Finally, the signal parameters are calculated from the selected sample
set: average, effective, minimum, maximum and other values. These
calculations are not burdened with errors that occur in measurements with an
analog oscilloscope - errors caused by readings, oscilloscopes and amplifiers
(bypassing the input amplifier).
Figure 6b 2: Internal block diagram of digital oscilloscope


Exercise:
Test Circuit 1 Measurement and Waveforms
Test Circuit 1 Voltage Measurement B-C
Channel 1 Volts/div ______ Channel 2 Volts/div ________ Time/div __________
Measurement Peak-to-Peak Volts Period (seconds) Frequency (Hz)
A-C

LAB # 07
Show the Biasing Modes of PN junction diode
Objective:________________________________________________________________
To Plot the V-I Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode under Forward and
Reverse Bias Condition and it’s I-v characteristics.
Theory:
A diode is a semiconductor device that has a non-linear characteristic and

exhibits a low resistance to current flow when connected in one direction, and a
high resistance in the opposite direction. It has no single value for its voltage:
current ratio, and is thus significantly different from a linear resistor.
The symbol for a diode is shown below in Figure 1.1
(+) Anode (-) Cathode
Figure 1.1
The cathode of a diode is normally indicated by a band around one end of the
device. If the positive terminal of a power supply is connected to the anode and
the negative terminal to the cathode, then the diode will be forward biased and a
current will flow. In practice this current may be very large and a series resistor
must normally be used to limit it to a safe value.
If the power connections were reserved (i.e., positive to cathode and negative to
anode) then ideally no current will flow. In practice a very small leakage will
flow. If the reverse voltage is made too large, then the diode will break down
and a very large reverse current will flow. Again, if this is not limited, the diode
will be damaged and possibly destroyed.

Apparatus:
Procedure:
FORWARD BIAS CHARACTERISTICS
1. Connect the Circuit as per the Circuit Diagram on the bread board.
2. Switch on the Regulated Power Supply and slowly increase the source
voltage. Increase the Diode Current in steps of 2mA and note down the
corresponding voltage across the PN junction Diode under forward Bias
condition as per table given below.
3. Take the readings until a Diode Current of 30mA.
4. Repeat the same by using Ge Diode instead of Si Diode.
5. Plot the graph VF versus IF on the graph Sheet in the 1st quadrant as in Fig.
6. From the graph find out the Static & Dynamic forward Bias resistance of the
diode
7. Observe and note down the cut in Voltage of the diode.
Forward Biasing:
On forward biasing, initially no current flows due to barrier potential. As the applied
potential increases, it exceeds the barrier potential at one value and the charge
carriers gain sufficient energy to cross the potential barrier and enter the other
region. The holes, which are majority carriers in p-region, become minority carriers
on entering the N-regions and electrons, which are the majority carriers in the N-
regions become minority carriers on entering the P-region. This injection of
minority carriers results current, opposite to the direction of electron movement.

Reverse Biasing:
When the reverse bias is applied due to majority carriers small amount of current
(i.e.) reverse saturation current flows across the junction. As the reverse bias is
increased to breakdown voltage, sudden rise in current takes place.
Reverse Bias Characteristics:

1. Connect the Circuit as per the Circuit Diagram on the bread board.
2. Switch on the Regulated Power Supply and slowly increase the source
voltage. Increase the Diode voltage
In steps of 2.0 volts and note down the corresponding Current against the
Voltage under Reverse Bias condition as per table given below.
3. Take readings until a Diode Voltage reaches 30.0V.
4. Repeat the same by using Ge Diode instead of Si Diode.
5. Plot the graph VR versus IR on the graph Sheet in the 3rd quadrant as in Fig.
6. From the graph find out the Dynamic Reverse Bias.
Circuit diagrams and model graph

Exercise:
Draw the circuit for forward and reverse bias of PN Diode
Apparatus: Diod , Resistors, Multimeter, Power supply

Observation table Hardware readings of current and voltage:
Reading of Forward biasing Reading of Reverse biasing

V (volts) Current(mA) V (volts) Current(mA)
Conclusion: Obervation Graph

LAB # 08
Display and introduce Proteus Software
Objective:____________________________________________________________
 To get familiarize with Proteus software
 Proteus software
Theory:
Proteus Design Suite (designed
by Labcenter Electronics Ltd.) is
a software tool set, mainly used
for creating schematics, simulating
Electronics & Embedded Circuits
and designing PCB Layouts.
 Proteus ISIS is used by
Engineering students &
professionals to create schematics & simulations of different electronic
circuits.
 Proteus ARES is used for designing PCB Layouts of electronic circuits.
 It’s available in four languages i.e., English, Chinese, Spanish & French.
Getting Started With Proteus Software :
 Click on Proteus ISIS and it will open up as shown in below image.

 In the central area surrounded by blue lines, we design our circuit i.e.
place the components and then join them together.
 As you can see in above figure that we have a lot of icons in Proteus
software, so let’s first understand these sections one by one.
 In the below image, I have divided the Proteus font-end in four sections:
 Section 1 is a toolbar which you would have seen on many simulation

software, it has simple functionalities i.e. first icon to create a new layout,
second one to open an existing layout, next one is to save layout, then there
comes few zooming options and few other tools which we will discuss in
coming tutorials.

 Section 2 has two buttons. P is used to open the components list and E is
used for editing purposes, like you want to edit the properties of any
component then simply click on that component and then click on E and it
will open the properties of that component and you can easily edit it.
 Section 3 has different tools, used for designing circuits, we will discuss
them in detail, at the end of today’s tutorial.
 Section 4 is the remote control section of Proteus, as it contains four
buttons i.e. Play, Step, Pause & Stop. In order to run the simulation, we have
to click on this play button.

Components Selection In Proteus Software :

 As shown in below image, click on the icon that says Click # 1, it’s a
Component Mode Icon.
 After that click on P button and a new window will open up named Pick
Devices.
 In this new window there’s a textbox on which Keyword is written, this

text box is used for the component search.
 Proteus database has unlimited components in it so now in order to get
your desired component, you have to search for it as I did.
 I have searched for PIC16F877A and Proteus provided me that component
along with its preview in top right corner and PCB package ( if available ).
Unfortunately, my Proteus doesn’t have the PCB preview of PIC16F877A
that’s why it’s blank.
 In order to add the component in Proteus workspace, either double click
on it or click on the OK button.

Instruments In Proteus Software :

 There are few measuring instruments available
in Proteus, which you can open by clicking the
Instruments Icon, as shown in figure on right side.
 First one is oscilloscope, we use it for viewing
the behavior of different signals generated.
 Another important instrument is Virtual
Terminal, it is shown on the fourth number. This
Virtual Terminal is used for checking data coming
through Serial Port.
 Then there’s Signal Generator, it is used to
generate signal like sine wave of desired frequency.
 We also have Voltmeter & Ammeter for both
AC & DC.
 As you can see in figure on right side, Icon A is
called Graph mode, used to create graphs of voltage
and current. It has different style of graphs.
 Icon B and C are voltage and current probes
respectively. Suppose you have designed some
circuit in Proteus and you want to check the value of
voltage at any point in the circuit. In order to do so,
simply select this voltage probe and place it there
and when you run your circuit, the probe will show
the value of voltage above it and same for current
probe.
 Icon D is used when we want to design our own component in Proteus.
 Icon E is a simple text editor, used for placing labels, warning or
components names etc.

LAB # 09
To show, Implement and plot the waveforms of diode as a

Half wave rectifier
Objective:_____________________________________________________________
• To Perform and Verify Half Wave Rectification.
Experiment Requirement:
• Power Supply
• Rectifier Kit
• Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
• Connecting Leads
Theory :
Rectifiers convert alternating currents (AC) into direct current (DC).Alternating currents
reverse direction each cycle while direct current moves in only one Direction. Rectifiers have
many uses including as components of power supplies and as detectors of radio signals.
Rectifiers may be made of solid state diodes, vacuum tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and
other components.
In half-wave rectification,
only one diode is used. During positive half Cycle the diode is forward biased
&, it conducts current through the load resistor R .During negative half cycle
diode is reverse biased. Hence, no current flow through the circuit. Only
positive half cycle appears across the load, whereas, the negative half Cycle is
suppressed, Half rectification can be seen in figure 1 (b).

In full-wave rectification:
two or four diodes are used. For rectification with two diodes Centre Tapped
Transformer is used whereas with four diodes we construct a bridge network.
Full rectification can be seen in figure 1 (c)
Fig 1(a) Fig 1(b)
Fig 1(c)
Fig 1(a): Input Wave

Fig 1(b): Half Wave Rectification
Fig 1(c): Full Wave Rectification
Half Wave Rectification:

The simplest rectifier circuit is nothing more than a diode connected in series
with the ac input, as shown to the right. Since a diode passes current in only one
direction, only half of the incoming ac wave will reach the rectifier output. Thus,
this is a basic half-wave rectifier. The orientation of the diode matters; as shown,
it passes only the positive halfcycle of the ac input, so the output voltage
contains a positive dc component. If the diode is reversed, the negative half-
cycle would pass instead, and the dc component of the output would have a
negative polarity. In either case, the DC component of the output waveform is
Vp/π = 0.3183vp, where Vp is the peak voltage output from the transformer
secondary winding. .

Figure 2.1: Half wave Rectifier Circuit
Procedure:
1. Construct the circuit on the bread board according to the Fig.2.1, a diode and load
resistance of 1K Ohms / 500 Ohms is connected in series, and connect the 220V AC-to-
12/15V AC transformer output to the circuit.
2. Connect the oscilloscope channel-1 probe across the output of transformer and channel-2
across the load resistance.
3. Make sure that all the connections are connected properly, and switch on the circuit input of
the transformer.
4. Configure the oscilloscope channels to analyze the output waveforms of the circuit.
5. Complete the results section below.
Input Waveform:
Output Waveform:

LAB # 10
To show, Implement and plot the waveforms of diode as a

Full wave rectifier using bridge network
Objective:_____________________________________________________________
• To Perform and Verify Half Wave Rectification.

• To Perform and Verify Full Wave Rectification using Bridge network
• To perform and verify Full Wave Rectification using two diodes and Centre
tapped Transformer
• Power Supply
• Rectifier Kit
• Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
• Connecting Leads
Full Wave Rectification using Bridge network:

The bridge consists of four diodes connected with their arrowhead symbols all
pointing toward the positive output terminal of the circuit. In this an ordinary
Transformer is used. During positive half cycle of secondary voltage, diodes D1
& D3 are forward biased & diodes D2 & D4 are reverse biased & during
negative half cycle of secondary voltage, diodes D2 & D4 are forward biased &
diodes D1 & D3 are reverse biased.
Procedure:
1. Construct the circuit on the bread board according to the Fig.2.2, four diodes,
load resistance of 1K Ohms / 500 Ohms and connect the 220V AC-to-12/15V
AC transformer output to the circuit.
2. Connect the oscilloscope channel-1 probe across the output of transformer
and channel-2 across the load resistance.
3. Make sure that all the connections are connected properly, and switch on the
circuit input of the transformer.
4. Configure the oscilloscope channels to analyze the output waveforms of the
circuit.

5. Complete the results section below.
Figure 2.2: Full wave Rectifier Bridge Circuit
Input Waveform:
Output Waveform:

Full Wave Rectification using two diodes and Centre tapped

Transformer:
In this rectifier, two diodes & a center-tap transformer is used. During
positive half cycle the diode D1 is forward biased & D2 is reverse biased.
Output will be obtained across load resistor R. During negative half cycle
diode D1 is reversed biased & D2 is forward biased. Output will be obtained
across load resistor R again & the direction of output is same.
Procedure:
1. Construct the circuit on the bread board according to the Fig.2.3, two
diodes, and load resistance of 1K Ohms / 500 Ohms and connect the
220V AC-to-12/15V AC Centre Tapped transformer output to the
circuit.
2. Connect the oscilloscope channel-1 probe across the output of
transformer and channel-2 across the load resistance.
3. Make sure that all the connections are connected properly, and switch
on the circuit input of the transformer.
4. Configure the oscilloscope channels to analyze the output
waveforms of the circuit.
Figure 2.3: Full wave Rectifier with Centre Tapped Transformer Circuit

Input Waveform:
Output Waveform:

Observation Table: -
Procedure Supply voltage Output voltage (Vo)
(Vs)
Half wave Full wave
Centre tap Bridge
Precautions: -
1) All the connection should be tight.
2) The electrical current should not flow in the circuit for long time, otherwise its
temperature will increase and the result will be affected.
3) The values of the components of the circuit should not exceed to their ratings
(maximum value).
4) Check the working condition of the all components before connecting to the
circuit.
5) Circuit should be handled carefully.

Lab Task:
Repeat entire experiments with use of any Simulink Software (livewire, pspice) and
attach the diagram and results here

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The mean value of half wave rectified sine wave is
(A) 0.707 im
(B) 0.66 im
(C) 0.5 im
(D) 0.318 im.
2. The form factor for half wave rectified sine wave is

(A) 1.0
(B) 1.11
(C) 1.44
(D) 1.57.
3. For full-wave rectified sine wave, rms value is

(A) 0.707 im
(B) 0.6036 im
(C) 0.5 im
(D) 0.318 im .
4. For full-wave rectified sine wave, mean value is

(A) 0.70 im
(B) 0.636 im
(C) 0.5 im
(D) 0.318 lm.
5. For full-wave rectified sine wave, form factor is

(A) 1.5
(B) 1.41
(C) 1.28
(D) 1.11.
6. A half-wave rectifier circuit with a capacitive filter is connected to 200 volts, 50

Hz ac line. The output voltage across the capacitor should be approximately
(A) 300 volts
(B) 280 volts
(C) 180 volts (D) 80 volts.

7. The ripple factor of a full-wave rectifier circuit compared to that of a half

wave rectifier circuit without filter is
(A) Half of that for a half 'wave rectifier
(B) Less than half that for a half-wave rectifier circuit
(C) Equal to that of a half wave rectifier.
(D) None of the above.
CONCLUSION (What have you learnt from this experiment?):

LAB # 11
To show Implement and Verify the Zener diode
operation and plot its characteristic curve in forward
and reverse bias.
Objective:______________________________________________________________
To Plot and Verify the V-I characteristics of a Zener diode.
Zener Diode.
Power Supply (0-30V)
Digital Multimeter
Resistors
Theory:
A Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current not only in the forward
direction like a normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is
larger than the voltage known as "Zener knee voltage" or "Zener voltage".
The device was named after Clarence Zener, who discovered this electrical
property. Zener diodes differ from ordinary diodes in that it special reverses bias
characteristics. After a particular reverse voltage, the diodes breakdown. In this
region the voltages remain constant though current varies. This characteristic of
Zener diodes helps in many circuits as regulators power supplies etc.
A conventional solid-state diode will not allow significant current if it is reverse

biased below its reverse breakdown voltage. When the reverse bias breakdown
voltage is exceeded, a conventional diode is subject to high current due to
avalanche breakdown. Unless this current is limited by circuitry, the diode will
be permanently damaged. In case of large forward the diode exhibits a voltage
drop due to its junction built-in voltage and internal resistance. The amount of
the voltage drop depends on the semiconductor material and the doping
concentrations.

The Zener diode's operation depends on the heavy doping of its p-n junction
allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the
conduction band of the n-type material.
Current–voltage characteristics:
Circuit Diagram:
Figure 1: Forward Biasing Figure 2: Reverse Biasing

Procedure:
1) Wire up the circuit shown in figure1 and figure2
2) Vary the input voltage & measure the voltage across Zener diode Vz.
3) Measure the current Iz.
4) Plot the graph between Vz & Iz.


Lab Task:
Repeat entire experiment with use of any Simulink Software

(livewire, pspice) and attach the diagram and results here
Attach the datasheet of any Zener Diode

Precautions:
1) All the connection should be close-fitting.
2) The electrical current should not flow in the circuit for long time,
otherwise its temperature will increase and the result will be affected.
3) The values of the components of the circuit should not exceed to
their ratings (maximum value).
4) Check the working condition of the all components before
connecting to the circuit.

1. Zener diodes are also known as

a) Voltage regulators
b) Forward bias diode
c) Breakdown diode
d) None of the mentioned
2. Which of the following is true about the resistance of a Zener diode?

a) It has an incremental resistance
b) It has dynamic resistance
c) The value of the resistance is the inverse of the slope of the i-v characteristics
of the Zener diode
d) All of the mentioned
3. Which of the following is true about the temperature coefficient or TC of the

Zener diode?
a) For Zener voltage less than 5V, TC is negative
b) For Zener voltage around 5V, TC can be made zero
c) For higher values of Zener voltage, TC is positive
d) All of the mentioned
4. Which of the following can be used in series with a Zener diode so that
combination has almost zero temperature coefficients?
a) Diode
b) Resistor
c) Transistor
d) MOSFET
5. In Zener diode, for currents greater than the knee current, the v-i curve is
almost.
a) Almost a straight line parallel to y-axis
b) Almost a straight line parallel to x-axis
c) Equally inclined to both the axes with a positive slope
d) Equally inclined to both the axes with a negative slope

6. Zener diodes can be effectively used in voltage regulator. However, they are
these days being replaced by more efficient
a) Operational Amplifier
b) MOSFET
c) Integrated Circuits
d) None of the mentioned
7. A 9.1-V Zener diode exhibits its nominal voltage at a test current of 28 mA.
At this current the incremental resistance is specified as 5 Ω. Find VZ0 of the
Zener model.
a) 8.96V
b) 9.03V
c) 9.17V
d) 9.24V
8. A shunt regulator utilizing a Zener diode with an incremental resistance of 5

Ω is fed through an 82-Ω resistor. If the raw supply changes by 1.0 V, what is
the corresponding change in the regulated output voltage?
a) 72.7 mV
b) 73.7 mV
c) 74.7 mV
d) 75.7 mV
9. A designer requires a shunt regulator of approximately 20 V. Two kinds of

Zener diodes are available: 6.8-V devices with rz of 10 Ω and 5.1-V devices
with rz of 30 Ω. For the two major choices possible, find the load regulation. In
this calculation neglect the effect of the regulator resistance R.
a) -30mV/mA and 120mV/mA respectively
b) 30mV/mA and 60mV/mA respectively
c) -60mV/mA and +60mV/mA respectively
d) -30mV/mA and -120mV/mA respectively
10. Partial specifications of a Zener diode is provided. VZ = 10.0 V, VZK = 9.6
V, and IZT = 50 mA. Assuming that the power rating of a breakdown diode is
established at about twice the specified Zener current (IZT), what is the power
Rating of each of the diodes described above?
a) 1.04 W
b) 0.104 W
c) 10.4 mW
d) 1.04 mW


LAB # 12
To state and observe electrical characteristic of BJT

and Use it as a Switch
Objective:_______________________________________________________________
To identify transistors schematic symbols and operating characteristics and

types of BJT.
To measure circuit values of voltages and currents while operating a BJT as a
switch.
Multimeter
NPN BJT Transistor
PNP BJT Transistor
Resistor
LED
Theory:
The transistor is a three-layer semiconductor device consisting of either two N-
and one P-type layers of material or two p- and one N-type layers of material.
The former is called an NPN transistor, while the latter is called a PNP
transistor. Both are shown in Figure 1 and 2. The emitter layer is heavily
doped, the base lightly doped, and the collector only lightly doped.
The outer layers have widths much greater than the sandwiched P- or Ntype
material. The doping of the sandwiched layer is also considerably less than that
of the outer layers (typically, 10_1 or less). This lower doping level decreases
the conductivity (increases the resistance) of this material by limiting the
number of ―free‖ carriers.
The three terminals of a transistor, whether it is an NPN or PNP transistor, are
identified as the emitter, the base, and the collector, indicated by the capital
letters E for emitter,

Figure 1(a): NPN Transistor Formation Figure 1(b): PNP Transistor Formation
Figure 1: BJT Formation
C for collector, and B for base. The abbreviation BJT, from bipolar junction
transistor, is often applied to this three-terminal device. The term bipolar reflects
the fact that holes and electrons participate in the injection process into the
oppositely polarized material. If only one carrier is employed (electron or hole),
it is considered a unipolar device.
Testing a Transistor with a DMM:

A DMM can be used as a fast and simple way to check a transistor for open or
shorted junctions. For this test, you can view the transistor as two diodes
connected a shown in the figure 3 for both NPN and PNP transistors. The base-
emitter junction is one diode and base-collector junction is other. Recall that a
good diode
will show an extremely high resistance or open with reverse bias and a very low
resistance with forward bias. A defective open diode will show an extremely
high resistance or open for both forward and reverse bias. A defective shorted
diode will show zero or very low resistance for both forward and reverse bias.

Figure 3: Transistor as Two Diodes Connected
In a nutshell the results you should look for when testing a good transistor.
If your multimeter is equipped with a transistor-checking feature, use that

feature rather than the method that we give you here. Consult the manual that
came with your meter for the exact procedure because it varies from one model
to another.
BJT Operation:
For proper operation, the NPN and PNP transistors must be biased as
Base/emitter junction must be forward biased and Base/collector junction must
be reverse biased. The bias voltage sources are VBB for the base voltage and
VCC for the collector voltage. The difference in these bias voltages is necessary
to cause current flow from the collector to the emitter in an NPN transistor and
from the emitter to collector in a PNP transistor

Figure 4: Biased NPN and PNP Transistors for Proper Operation
Figure 5: Directions of Currents in NPN and PNP Transistors

Using BJT as a Switch:

Transistors are used either as amplifiers or more commonly as electronic
switches. We will discuss these topics on the next section. Briefly, a typical
NPN transistor will act as a closed switch when the voltage VBE between its
base and emitter terminals is greater than 0.7V but no greater than 5V to avoid
possible damage. The transistor will act as an open switch when the voltage
VBE is less than 0.6V. Figure 3.3 shows an NPN transistor used as an electronic
switch to perform the operation of inversion, that is, the transistor inverts
(changes) an input of 5V to an output of 0V when it behaves like a closed switch
as in Figure 6(a), and it inverts an input of 0V to an output of 5V when it
behaves like an open switch as in Figure 6(b).
Circuit Diagram:
Figure 6(a): NPN transistor as electronic closed switch

Figure 6(b) NPN transistor as electronic open switch
Procedure:
1. Construct the circuit given in figure 6 on the breadboard
2. Apply 0V to NPN transistor base and record the results in Table
3. Apply 5V to NPN transistor base and record the results in Table

Lab Task 01:

Repeat the above experiment with PNP transistor
Draw the Circuit Diagram for PNP transistor here
Procedure:
1. Apply 0V to PNP transistor base and record the results in Table

2. Apply 5V to PNP transistor base and record the results in Table

Operation as a Switch:

Characteristics Curve:
Lab Task 02
Repeat entire experiment with use of any Simulink Software (livewire,
pspice) and attach the diagram and results here
Lab Task 03
Answer the following questions I. Why transistor is called current controlled
device?
II. What is the significance of the arrow-head in the transistor symbol
III. Discuss the need for biasing the transistor
IV. Why silicon type transistors are more often used than germanium
type?
V. Why emitter is always forward biased?
VI. Why CC configuration is called a voltage buffer? What is other name?
VII. What is meant by operating point?

Lab Task 04
Attach datasheet of both NPN and PNP Transistor.
Precautions:
1) All the connection should be tight.
2) The electrical current should not flow in the circuit for long time, otherwise
its temperature will increase and the result will be affected.
3) The values of the components of the circuit should not exceed to their
ratings (maximum value).
4) Check the working condition of the all components before connecting to

the circuit.

1. The three terminals of a bipolar junction transistor are called
(a) p, n, p
(b) n, p, n
(c) input, output, ground
(d) base, emitter, collector
2. In a pnp transistor, the p regions are
(a) Base and emitter
(b) base and collector
(c) emitter and collector

3. For operation as an amplifier, the base of an npn transistor must be
(a) Positive with respect to the emitter
(b) negative with respect to the emitter
(c) Positive with respect to the collector
(d) 0 V
4. The emitter current is always
(a) Greater than the base current
(b) less than the collector current
(C) greater than the collector current
(d) answers (a) and (c)
5. The bDC of a transistor is its
(a) Current gain
(b) voltage gain
(c) power gain
(d) internal resistance
6. If IC is 50 times larger than IB, then is
(a) 0.02
(b) 100
(c) 50
(d) 500

7. The approximate voltage across the forward-biased base-emitter junction of

a silicon BJT is
(a) 0 V
(b) 0.7 V
(c) 0.3 V
(d) VBB
8. The bias condition for a transistor to be used as a linear amplifier is called
(a) forward-reverse
(b) forward-forward
(c) reverse-reverse
(d) collector bias
9. If the output of a transistor amplifier is 5 V rms and the input is 100 mV

rms, the voltage gain is
(a) 5
(b) 500
(c) 50
(d) 100

10. When a lowercase is used in relation to a transistor, it refers to
(a) a low resistance
(b) a wire resistance
(c) an internal ac resistance
(d) a source resistance
11. In a given transistor amplifier, and the voltage gain is
(a) 2.2
(b) 110
(c) 20
(d) 44
12. When operated in cutoff and saturation, the transistor acts like a
(a) linear amplifier
(b) switch
(c) variable capacitor
(d) variable resistor

13. In cutoff, VCE is
(a) 0 V
(b) minimum
(c) maximum
(d) equal to VCC
(e) answers (a) and (b)
(f) answers (c) and (d)
14. In saturation, VCE is

(a) 0.7 V
(b) equal to VCC
(c) minimum
(d) maximum
15. To saturate a BJT,

(a) IB IC (sat)
(b) IB IC (sat)/bDC
(c) VCC must be at least 10 V
(d) the emitter must be grounded
16. Once in saturation, a further increase in base current will

(a) cause the collector current to increase
(b) not affect the collector current
(c) cause the collector current to decrease
(d) turn the transistor off
17. In a phototransistor, base current is

(a) set by a bias voltage
(b) directly proportional to light intensity
(c) inversely proportional to light intensity
(d) not a factor

18. The relationship between the collector current and a light-generated base
current is
(a) IC bDCIl
(b) IC aDCIl
(c) IC lIl
19. An optocoupler usually consists of

(a) two LEDs
(b) an LED and a photodiode
(c) an LED and a phototransistor
(d) both (b) and (c)
20. In a transistor amplifier, if the base-emitter junction is open, the collector

voltage is
(a) VCC
(b) 0 V
(c) floating
(d) 0.2 V
21. A DMM measuring on open transistor junction shows

(a) 0 V
(b) 0.7 V
(c) OL
(d) VCC

LAB # 13
Display and introduce to MATLAB Software

Objective:______________________________________________________________
 To get familiarize with MATLAB simulation toolbar
 To know How to simulate Engineering Circuits using MATLAB
 MATLAB software
Theory:
MATLAB (Matrix Laboratory) is a software package that is widely used in
control systems design. Simulink is a graphical front end to MATLAB that
allows you to easily create models of dynamical systems in form of block
diagrams. In this lab, you will learn how to construct different representations of
the model of a simple RLC circuit and simulate its behavior.
This lab will teach you the basic functions of: creating a new project, getting and
placing parts, connecting placed parts, simulating the schematic, plotting and
analyzing the results
LAB ACTIVITY
To get started, click on the icon from the desktop or choose from the bottom
menu:
1. Start
2. Programs
3. MATLAB
4. Capture CIS

Once Capture has started, a window named SESSION FRAME appears. In this
window, another window named SESSION LOG is always open. The SESSION
LOG records the events including warning and error messages that occur during
the Capture session.
The first step is to create a new document.
Now Open MATLAB – Capture CIS. Following image is the Environment of
MATLAB Capture CIS.
CREATING NEW DOCUMENT:

To create a new document,
1. Click the button (SIMULINK LIBRARY)

2. New
3. Project
In the window that opens, fill in the following information:
 at Name type in the name of your document (choose a name that you
can identify later) ;
 at Location type in ”G:\studenţi” (this is the location where your
document will be saved);
 Click OK.

In the new window select the option “Create a blank project” OK. Now you
should come up to a blank schematic entry screen. This is the schematic page
editor, where you will design your circuits.

LAB # 14
To detect the response of RL Circuit and State the result

coming out by their implementation on MATLAB
Objective: _____________________________________________
 To observe the transient response of RL circuits using MATLAB
 MATLAB software
Theory:
This lab is similar to the RC Circuit Lab except that the Capacitor is replaced by
an Inductor. In this experiment, we apply a square waveform to the RL circuit as
shown in fig.1 to analyze the transient response of the circuit. The pulse-width
relative to the circuit’s time constant determines how it is affected by the RL
circuit.
The time constant of an RL circuit is the equivalent inductance divided by the
Thévenin resistance as viewed from the terminals of the equivalent inductor.
)
In R-L circuit, voltage across the inductor decreases with time while in the RC
circuit the voltage across the capacitor increased with time. Thus, current in an
RL circuit
has the same form as voltage in an RC circuit. They both rise to their final value
exponentially according to 1 – e-t/τ.

The expression for the current build-up across the Inductor is given by.
Where, V is the applied square wave voltage for t ≥ 0. The response curve is
increasing and is shown in fig6.1.
Figure 6.1: Charging Curves for RL Circuit
The expression for the current decay across the Inductor is given by:
where,
i0 is the initial current stored in the inductor at t = 0

L/R = τ is time constant.
Since it is not possible to directly analyze the current through Inductor on a
Scope, we will measure the output voltage across the Resistor RL. The resistor
voltage waveform should be similar to inductor current as VR=ILRL.
Figure 6.2: Discharging Curves for RL Circuit

Exercise:
Draw the RL circuit’s diagram and plot the Charging & Discharging curves
using MATLAB/Simulink.

QUESTIONS FOR LAB REPORT
1. What is the time constant for the circuit?
2. A capacitor store charge. What do you think does an inductor store?
3. Find the value of time constant τ? If L=33m H and R=500 ohms.

LAB # 15
To detect the response of RC Circuit and State the result

coming out by their implementation on MATLAB
Objective:_______________________________________________________________
 To observe the transient response of RC circuits using MATLAB.
 MATLAB software
Theory:
Transient response
Transient response or natural response is the response of a system to a change
from equilibrium.
In electrical engineering a simple example would be the output of a 5 volt dc
power supply when it is turned on. The transient response is from the time the
switch is flipped until the output reaches a steady 5 volts. At this time the power
supply reaches its steady state of a constant 5 volts.
Transient response in RC circuit

The capacitor charges and discharges nonlinearly. During charging and
discharging capacitor follow an exponential curve. In this experiment, we apply
a square pulse waveform to the RC circuit shown in fig.1 to analyze the transient
response of the circuit. The pulse-width relative to a circuit’s time constant
determines how it is affected by an RC circuit.

Time Constant (τ): A measure of time required for certain changes in voltages
and currents in RC and RL circuits. Generally, when the elapsed time exceeds
five time constants (5τ) after switching has occurred, the currents and voltages
have reached their final value, which is also called steady-state response.
The time constant of an RC circuit is the product of equivalent capacitance and

the Thévenin resistance as viewed from the terminals of the equivalent capacitor.
A Pulse is a voltage or current that changes from one level to the other and back
again. If a waveform’s high time equals its low time, as in figure, it is called a
square wave. The length of each cycle of a pulse train is termed its period (T).
The pulse width (tp) of an ideal square wave is equal to half the time period. The
relation between pulse width and frequency is then given by,
.
Fig7.1
The value of the voltage across the capacitor, (Vc) at any instant in time during
the charging period is given as:
) Where:
Vc is the Voltage across the Capacitor
V is the Source Voltage

t is the elapsed time since the application of the supply voltage
RC is the Time Constant of the RC Circuit
V is the applied source voltage to the circuit for t ≥ 0. RC = τ is the time
constant. The response curve is increasing and is shown in fig7.2

Figure 7.2: Charging Curves for RC Circuit
The discharge voltage for the capacitor is given by:
Where vo is the initial charge stored in the capacitor t=0, and RC= τ is time
constant. The response curve is decaying exponential as shown in fig7.2
Figure 7.3: Discharging Curves for RC Circuit

EXPERIMENT EXERCISE:
 Draw the following R-C circuit’s diagram and find out transient response
using MATLAB.
 Plot the Charging waveform using SIMULINK.
 Use the given simulation setting

Answer the following questions.
1. What is the time constant for the circuit?
2. How much charge will be stored in the capacitor under steady state?
3. Find the value of time constant τ? If c=100µf and R=500 ohms.

Lab Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Lab Manual

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lab Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

INDUS UNIVERSITY KARACHI

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, SCIENCE &

Signature and Date

INSTRUCTIONS & PRECAUTIONS FOR LABORATORY SAFETY

Personal and General laboratory safety:

1. Never eat, drink, or smoke while working in the laboratory.

1. Obtain permission before operating any high voltage equipment.

1. Treat every chemical as if it were hazardous.

Additional Safety Guidelines:

 Never do unauthorized experiments.

Name of Student: ___________________________________

Signature of Student: ________________________________

Name of Lab Teacher: _______________________________

Signature of Lab Teacher: ___________________________

S. No Lab Experiment Date Sign

Identify the resistor color coding scheme.

Display and introduce Multisim Software.

Detect the Equivalent Resistance of a Series, Parallel and Series-Parallel

Show the Biasing Modes of PN junction diode.

Display and introduce Proteus Software.

12 To state and observe electrical characteristic of BJT and Use it as a Switch

13 Display and introduce to MATLAB Software

To understand the Basics of Electrical and Electronics and their

Electricity is the movement of electrons. Electrons create charge, which we can

 Voltage is the difference in charge between two points.

Electronics (Lab Manual) Page 2

When describing voltage, current, and resistance, a common analogy is a water

 Water = Charge (measured in Coulombs)

Electrical (Lab Manual) Page 3

Electrical (Lab Manual) Page 4

2. What is the unit for current?

3. What is the unit for resistance?

4. What is the unit for energy?

5. What is the equation for Ohm's Law?

6. Why can birds sit on a power line?

Electrical (Lab Manual) Page 5

Electrical (Lab Manual) Page 6

Calculating the Resistor’s value by color coding

Electrical (Lab Manual) Page 7

S/NO Band1 Band2 Band3 Band4 Tolerance Min Max Nominal

Electrical (Lab Manual) Page 8

Using the Multimeter for calculating resistance value current and

They are available in two types in market:

1.) Analog Multimeter

circuit under test and give an incorrect reading.

Electrical (Lab Manual) Page 9

Electrical (Lab Manual) Page 10

2.) Digital Multimeter

Measuring resistance with a multimeter

To measure the resistance of a component it must not be connected in a circuit.

Measuring resistance with a DIGITAL multimeter

Electrical (Lab Manual) Page 11

3. Put the probes across the component.

Note: It is recommended purchasing a

Electrical (Lab Manual) Page 12

Measuring Voltage with Voltmeter

can be fitted by using a crocodile clip.)

Electrical (Lab Manual) Page 13

Channel 1 Volts/div Channel 2 Volts/div Time/div ____