Electromagnetic Testing Emt RFT Chapter

Ele ctro m agn e tic Te s tin g
Magnetic flux leakage / Eddy current/ Microwave

Chapter 8 – Remote Field Testing 远场涡流
Reading 2
16th Feb 2015
My ASNT Level III Pre-Exam Preparatory
Self Study Notes
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.themalaysianinsider.com/world/article/sinopec-oil-pipeline-blast-kills-44-in-eastern-china
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.themalaysianinsider.com/world/article/sinopec-oil-pipeline-blast-kills-44-in-eastern-china
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.s1979.com/tupian/china/201311/22107372922_8.html
Fion Zhang at Shanghai
2015 February
Shanghai 上海
Chapter Eight:
Remote Field Testing Reading Session 2
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Other%20Methods/RFT/RFT_Intro.htm

Reading 1: Remote Field Testing RFT
Remote Field Testing or "RFT" is one of several electromagnetic testing
methods commonly employed in the field of nondestructive testing. Other
electromagnetic inspection methods include magnetic flux leakage,
conventional eddy current and alternating current field measurement testing.
Remote field testing is associated with eddy current testing and the term
"Remote Field Eddy Current Testing" is often used when describing remote
field testing. However, there are several major differences between eddy
current testing and remote field testing which will be noted in this section.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Other%20Methods/RFT/RFT_Intro.htm

RFT is primarily used to inspect ferromagnetic tubing since conventional eddy
current techniques have difficulty inspecting the full thickness of the tube wall
due to the strong skin effect in ferromagnetic materials. For example, using
conventional eddy current bobbin probes to inspect a steel pipe 10 mm thick
(such as what might be found in heat exchangers) would require frequencies
around 30 Hz to achieve the adequate I.D. to O.D. penetration through the
tube wall. The use of such a low frequency results in a very low sensitivity of
flaw detection.
The degree of penetration can, in principle, be increased by the use of:
■ partial saturation eddy current probes,
■ magnetically biased probes, and
■ pulsed saturation probes.
However, because of the large volume of metal present as well as potential
permeability variations within the product, these specialized eddy current
probes are still limited in their inspection capabilities.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.shipstructure.org/pdf/91symp22.pdf

The difficulties encountered in the testing of ferromagnetic tubes can be
greatly alleviated with the use of the remote field testing method. The RFT
method has the advantage of allowing nearly equal sensitivities of detection
at both the inner and outer surfaces of a ferromagnetic tube. The method is
highly sensitive to variations in wall thickness and tends to be less sensitive
to fill-factor changes between the coil and tube. RFT can be used to inspect
any conducting tubular product, but it is generally considered to be less
sensitive than conventional eddy current techniques when inspecting
nonferromagnetic materials.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.shipstructure.org/pdf/91symp22.pdf

RFT Theory of Operation
A probe consisting of an exciter coil and one or more detectors is pulled
through the tube. The exciter coil and the detector coil(s) are rigidly fixed at
an axial distance of two tube diameters or more between them. The exciter
coil is driven with a relatively low frequency sinusoidal current to produce a
magnetic field.

These eddy currents, in turn, produce their own magnetic field, which
opposes the magnetic field from the exciter coil. Due to resistance in the tube
wall and imperfect inductive coupling, the magnetic field from the eddy
currents does not fully counterbalance the magnetic exciting field. However,
since the eddy current field is more spread out than the exciter field, the
magnetic field from the eddy currents extends farther along the tube axis. The
interaction between the two fields is fairly complex but the simple fact is that
the exciter field is dominant near the exciter coil and the eddy current field
becomes dominant at some distance away from the exciter coil.

Keywords:
The interaction between the two fields is fairly complex but the simple fact is
that:
 The exciter field is dominant near the exciter coil and

 The eddy current field becomes dominant at some distance away from the
exciter coil.

The receiving coils are positioned at a distance where the magnetic field from
the eddy currents is dominant. In other words, they are placed at a distance
where they are unaffected by the magnetic field from the exciter coil but can
still adequately measure the field strength from the secondary magnetic field.
Electromagnetic induction occurs as the changing magnetic field cuts across
the pick-up coil array. By monitoring the consistency of the voltage induced in
the pick-up coils one can monitor changes in the test specimen. The strength
of the magnetic field at this distance from the excitation coil is fairly weak but
it is sensitive to changes in the pipe wall from the I.D. to the O.D.

Electromagnetic Testing
1. Conventional ECT 2. Remote Field ECT
3. Near Field ECT 4. Magnetic Flux Leakage ECT
5. ACFM ECT
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.olympus-ims.com/cs/ms-5800-tube-inspection/

Electromagnetic Testing – Conventional ECT
Eddy current testing is a noncontact method used to inspect non-ferromagnetic tubing. This
technique is suitable for detecting and sizing metal discontinuities such as corrosion, erosion,
wear, pitting, baffle cuts, wall loss, and cracks in nonferrous materials.
 Two coils are excited with an

electrical current, producing a
magnetic field around them. The
magnetic fields penetrate the
tube material and generate
opposing alternating currents in
the material. These currents are
called eddy currents.
 Any defects that change the eddy
current flow also change the
impedance of the coils in the
probe.
 These changes in the impedance
of the coils are measured and
used to detect defects in the tube.

Electromagnetic Testing – Remote Field ECT
Remote field testing (RFT) is being used to successfully inspect ferromagnetic tubing
such as carbon steel or ferritic stainless steel. This technology offers good sensitivity
when detecting and measuring volumetric defects resulting from erosion, corrosion,
wear, and baffle cuts.

Electromagnetic Testing – Near Field ECT
Near field testing (NFT) technology is a rapid and inexpensive solution intended specifically for fin-
fan carbon-steel tubing inspection. This new technology relies on a simple driver-pickup eddy
current probe design providing very simple signal analysis.
NFT is specifically suited to the detection of internal corrosion, erosion, or pitting on the inside of
carbon steel tubing. The NFT probes measure lift-off or "fill factor," and convert it to amplitude-
based signals (no phase analysis). Because the eddy current penetration is limited to the inner
surface of the tube, NFT probes are not affected by the fin geometry on the outside of the tubes.

Electromagnetic Testing – Magnetic Flux Leakage ECT
Magnetic flux leakage (MFL) is a fast inspection technique, suitable for measuring wall
loss and detecting sharp defects such as pitting, grooving, and circumferential cracks.
MFL is effective for aluminum-finned carbon steel tubes, because the magnetic field is
almost completely unaffected by the presence of such fins.

Electromagnetic Testing – ACFM ECT
In a basic alternating current field measurement system, a small probe is moved along
the toe of a weld. The probe contains an exciter coil, which induces an AC magnetic
field in the material surface aligned to the direction of the weld. This, in turn, causes
alternating current to flow across the weld. – ASTM E2261-12

IRIS UT
The ultrasonic IRIS option is used to inspect a wide range of materials, including ferrous,
nonferrous, and nonmetallic tubing. This technique detects and sizes wall loss resulting from
corrosion, erosion, wear, pitting, cracking, and baffle cuts. Olympus digital IRIS inspection
technology is used extensively as a prove-up technique for remote field testing, magnetic flux
leakage, and eddy current inspections.

Electromagnetic Testing – Conventional ECT
Eddy current testing is a non-contact method for the inspection of nonferromagnetic tubing. This
technique is suitable for the detection and sizing of metal discontinuities such as corrosion,
erosion, wear, pitting, baffle cuts, wall losses and cracks in nonferrous materials.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://absolutende.com/en/solutions/tube

Electromagnetic Testing – Remote Field ECT

IRIS UT

IRIS UT

The Zones
These eddy currents, in turn,

produce their own magnetic field,
which opposes the magnetic field
from the exciter coil. Due to Eddy current field is
resistance in the tube wall and more spread out than
imperfect inductive coupling, the the exciter field, the
magnetic field from the eddy magnetic field from the
currents does not fully eddy currents extends
counterbalance the magnetic farther along the tube
exciting field. axis.

Direct Couple Zone
The region where the magnetic field from the exciter coil is interacting with the
tube wall to produce a concentrated field of eddy currents is called the direct
field or direct coupled zone. This zone does not contribute a great deal of
useful data to the RFT inspection due to problems with rather high noise
levels due to the intense varying magnetic field from the excitation coil.
Keywords:
High Noise Level.

Transition Zone
The region just outside the direct couple zone is known as the transition zone.
In this zone there is a great deal of interaction between the magnet flux from
the exciter coil and the flux induced by the eddy currents. As can be seen in
the graph, the interaction of the two opposing fields is strongest near the ID of
the tube and fairly subtle at the OD of the tube. The "resultant" field strength
(the magnetic field at the sum of the two fields) in this region tends to change
abruptly on the ID due to the interaction of the fields with differing directional
characteristics of the two fields.

The receiver coil's signal phase, with respect to the exciter coil, as a function
of distance between the two coils is also shown in the graph. When the two
coils are directly coupled and there is no interference from a secondary field,
their currents are in phase as seen at location zero. In the transition zone, it
can be seen that the phase swiftly shifts, indicating the location where the
magnetic field from the eddy currents becomes dominate and the start of the
remote field.

Discussion
Subject: Study on the phase lag of ID/OD amplitudes.

Remote Field Zone
The remote field zone is the region in which direct coupling between the
exciter coil and the receiver coil(s) is negligible. Coupling takes place
indirectly through the generation of eddy currents and their resulting magnetic
field. The remote field zone starts to occur at approximately two tube
diameters away from the exciter coil. The amplitude of the field strength on
the OD actually exceeds that of the ID after an axial distance of approximately
1.65 tube diameters. Therefore, RFT is sensitive to changes in material that
occur at the outside diameter as well as the inside diameter of the tube.

The amplitude of the field strength on the OD actually exceeds that of the ID
after an axial distance of approximately 1.65 tube diameters.
The amplitude of the field strength on the OD

actually exceeds that of the ID after an axial
distance of approximately 1.65 tube
diameters.

RFT Probes
Probes for inspection of pipe and tubing are typically of the bobbin (ID) variety.
These probes use either a single or dual excitation coil to develop an
electromagnetic field through the pipe or tube. The excitation coils are driven
by alternating current. The sensing coil or coils are located a few tube
diameters away in the remote field zone. Probes can be used in differential or
absolute modes for detection of general discontinuities, pitting, and variations
from the I.D. in ferromagnetic tubing. To insure maximum sensitivity, each
probe is specifically designed for the inside diameter, composition, and the
wall thickness of a particular tube.

RFT Probes

RFT Instrumentation
Instruments used for RFT inspection are often dual use eddy current / RFT
instruments employing multi-frequency technology. The excitation current
from these instruments is passed on to the probe that contains an exciter coil,
sometimes referred to as the driver coil. The receiving coil voltage is typically
in the microvolt range, so an amplifier is required to boost the signal strength.
Certain systems will incorporate a probe excitation method known as
multiplexing. This utilizes an extreme high speed switching method that
excites the probe at more than one frequency in sequence. Another method
of coil excitation that may be used is simultaneous injection. In this coil
stimulation technique, the exciter coil is excited with multiple frequencies at
the same time while incorporating filter schemes that subtract aspects of the
acquired data. The instrument monitors the pickup coils and passes the data
to the display section of the instrument. Some systems are capable of
recording the data to some type of storage device for later review.

RFT Instrumentation

RFT Instrumentation

RFT Instrumentation

RFT Instrumentation

RFT Signal Interpretation
The signals obtained with RFT are very similar to those obtained with
conventional eddy current testing. When all the proper conditions are met,
changes in the phase of the receiver signal with respect to the phase of the
exciter voltage are directly proportional to the sum of the wall thickness within
the inspection area. Localized changes in wall thickness result in phase and
amplitude changes. These changes can be indicative of defects such as
cracks, corrosion pitting or corrosion/erosion thinning.

RFT Signal Interpretation

The ID Phase Lag

The Phase Lag
The skin depth equation is strictly true only for infinitely thick material and planar magnetic fields.
Using the standard depth δ , calculated from the above equation makes it a material/test
parameter rather than a true measure of penetration.
(1/e)
(1/e)2
(1/e)3
FIG. 4.1. Eddy current distribution with depth in a thick plate and resultant phase lag.

RFT Reference Standards
Reference standards for the RFT inspection of tubular products come in many
variations. In order to produce reliable and consistent test results, the material
used for manufacturing calibration standards must closely match the physical
and chemical properties of the inspection specimen. Some of the important
properties that must be considered include conductivity, permeability and
alloy content. In addition, tube dimensions including I.D., O.D. and wall
thickness must also be controlled.
The type of damage mechanisms that are expected to be encountered must
also be carefully considered when developing or selecting a reference
standard. In order to get accurate quantitative data, artificial discontinuity
conditions are typically machined into the standards that will closely match
those conditions that may be found in the tubing bundle.

Reading 2: Remote Field Testing of Ferromagnetic Tubes
Remote Field Testing (RFT) is the purely magnetic technique useful to detect
flaws in materials with permeability sufficient to prevent significant penetration
of eddy currents. RFT is primarily used to inspect ferromagnetic tubing since
conventional eddy current techniques have difficulty inspecting the full
thickness of the tube wall due to a strong skin effect in ferromagnetic
materials. Eddy currents are also generated in tested material but particularly
in the region near the excitation coils. However, the position of the receiver
coils is far enough from the exciters that the influence of eddy currents is
negligible. "Remote" magnetic fields are capable of passing through tested
material. In penetrating the material, the magnetic field travels along the
outside surface and the coils detect disturbances in the flux field in
comparison to the primary magnetic field.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.instytutgamma.com.pl/rft.html

These can be very quickly scanned for both internal and external wall loss
defects such as a corrosion, erosion, pitting, cracks, and wear scar.
RFT can be used to inspect any conducting tubular product. Evaluating the
quality of products by Remote Field Testing method is the most effective for
ferromagnetic materials like low carbon steels, chrome molly, duplex in units
like:
 heat exchangers
 feedwater heater
 furnace tubes in vessels
 Texas Towers
 Went coolers with fin fan tubes

RFT Expert at Works

The 3D Push Pull High Speed Data Acquisition System consisting of
professional Zetec's software allows for the checking of about 400 tubes per
shift. Institute Gamma utilizes the highest technology of multi-frequency
testing equipment including the Zetec's MIZ-27SI and RFT Amplifier.
Institute Gamma's qualified engineers and technicians perform maintenance
and inspection services.
 Engineers with competence in maintenance analysis and planning,
inspection planning, damage evaluation, material technology and risk
based inspection.
 NDT senior inspectors on level 2 and 3 in accordance with EN-473/PCN-
BIND certification system.
 NDT technician on level I and II with ZETEC certificates for RFT method
 Data analysts for eddy current on level IIA/QDA in accordance with EPRI
S/G certification.
 Welding inspectors in accordance with European Welding Federation
requirements and EN-719 standard.

Benefits of RFT tube testing are:
 Prevention of dangerous leaks
 Prevention of break down outages
 Accurate assessment of wall thickness loss up to 0,1mm
 Recorded measurement data , forecasting of wall loses, predictive
maintenance
 Quantitative method
 Detecting abnormalities of used materials
 RFT doesn't need water and clean surface like the IRIS method
 RFT is more sensitive and sizes defects more accurately than other
magnetic methods

Remote Field Testing - Data Display

Reading 3: Steam Boiler Inspections Using Remote Field
Testing
Forced outages of steam boilers due to tube leakages remain the leading cause of lost
production in plants. Due to hundreds, if not thousands of linear feet of pipe, there is a
high potential for failure without notice. One of the biggest challenges for maintenance
and operations personnel is the prevention of tube failures in boilers and heat
exchangers without causing significant loss to the company. When excursions from
normal operating conditions occur, the question must be raised, “if our boiler tubes
were damaged by the excursion (for example, overheating, or a condenser tube leak),
how do we find out if we have a problem that could lead to failure?”
Boiler operation always involves harsh working conditions. On the fuel side of tubes,
high operating temperatures and corrosive by-products from burning fossil fuels or
solid waste can seriously degrade the life-expectancy of the boiler tubes. On the
water/steam side, there is a high potential for oxidization of boiler tubes due to high
temperature steam and the corrosive action of chemicals in the water supply. These
conditions may cause metal to overheat, corrosive wall thinning, and localized pitting,
any or all of which can lead to premature failure of the tubes, possible injuries to
personnel, damage to adjacent tubes and a forced outage.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.power-eng.com/articles/print/volume-115/issue-3/features/steam-boiler-inspections-using-remote-field-testing.html

Fire Boiler

In spite of these adverse operating conditions, boilers have a life expectancy upwards
of 30 years and most premature failures are due to conditions that make operational
variables deviate from expected parameters.
Industrial best practice is to inspect all tubes periodically, checking to ensure that
mechanical properties of the materials are intact and that material thickness is within
normal expectations. A proper and rigorous inspection regimen will go a long way to
reduce the probability of premature boiler failures.
Thomas R. Schmidt of Shell Oil headed the initial development of the remote field
testing (RFT) technique for measuring oil well casings. After that, several tools have
entered the market using RFT for multiple specialized applications.
The primary benefit of this technique is that it does not require contact with the object
under test to measure material thickness and condition. Additionally, a high-quality
inspection can be assured without requiring couplant and with minimal surface
preparation. RFT also shows high sensitivity to detection of defects on the ID or OD of
the tube in question and can measure through non-ferromagnetic coatings, linings and
scale.

There are two approaches to doing maintenance of any kind: a preventative approach
or a corrective approach (pro-active or reactive). This holds true with boiler inspections.
A preventative approach seeks to look at the long-term wear-and-tear tendencies on
the equipment, with an eye towards improving operations through improvements to
the fuel-air mixture, flow balancing and the creation of a maintenance specification for
tube repair or replacement. Undertaking a corrective approach looks to inspect the
boiler after a failure to look for collateral damage and to ensure that the failure
mechanism has not affected other areas in the boiler.
Of the two, the former is more advantageous from the perspective of being performed
before failure, within the context of the firm’s long-range operational plan, resulting in a
reduced effect to the operations budget and significantly reduced time lost due to
unexpected outages.

Long-term overheating (creep): This type of failure occurs when the operating
temperature of the boiler tubes exceeds the operational limits for an extended period
of time. These limits are variable based on the tube size and thickness, operating
pressures, as well as the tube locations in the boiler and construction materials.
Overheating leading to creep damage can be caused by internal deposits, which
reduce flow through the tubes or, more commonly, sudden spikes in operating
temperature due to increasing load or issues with the temperature control. These
reduce the resistance of the tubes.
Figure 1 Long-term overheating (creep)

How to detect creep damage: During the period of long-term overheating, the surface
of the tube will develop blisters at the locations subject to the highest temperature and
will develop elongated axial cracks. Both of these failures will reduce overall tube
thickness and material properties of the tube. Additionally, thick, dark, brittle oxides
will appear on the internal and external surfaces of the tube. All of these conditions
can be detected through RFT as the changes in the tubes electrical permeability can
be easily measured.
How to prevent creep damage: Often, when boilers are operating outside of standard
operational parameters, it goes unrecorded or unnoticed by the operator. Either of
these issues can lead to premature failure, as the degradation of the tube’s material
properties is not being accurately recorded. As such, it is necessary to run periodic
performance evaluations on the boiler. Ensuring frequent calibration of the
thermostats is the best way to prevent unexpected temperature spikes and to help
ensure that the unit is warmed up in accordance with the manufacturer’s
recommended specifications. Frequent sampling of the unit’s feed water supply ideally
once per shift—will help to ensure that the feed water quality is within the
manufacturer’s recommended parameters.

Regular internal flushing of the boiler tubes will ensure removal of any material
deposits clogging the tubes. Any deposits must be measured frequently, and chemical
cleaning is recommended when the deposit density exceeds 15 g/sq.ft. Cleaning
becomes mandatory as the density reaches 30 g/sq/ft. Frequent drum inspections are
mandatory according to the maintenance manual of the manufacturer. Depending on
the hours of service, it is necessary to determine how well the equipment is working,
the effectiveness of the water treatment and that there are no failure mechanisms
affecting the internal surface, mainly in the area of water-steam interface line.
Lastly, it is necessary that all spare parts used in maintenance or repairs are correct to
the manufacturer’s specifications. It should be noted that when any tube fails as a
result of creep damage, there will be a rupture with slightly rounded edges and jagged
edges with cracks or breaks in the vicinity of the rupture. A thick, fragile layer of
magnetite will appear near the failure, indicative of long-term overheating.

Short Term Overheating: Most often, these failures occur when the tubes are left
without sufficient cooling and occur in short order. Failures caused by short-term
overheating frequently occur at the top of the tubes or close to the steam collector. If
the failure occurs in a single tube and if surrounding tubes have no appearance of
alteration, it suggests that the failed tube was at least partially obstructed, causing the
temperature to rapidly exceed material limits, causing an explosion or leak in the tube.
Figure 2 Short-term overheating

How to detect short-term overheating: As these failures occur rapidly, it is
recommended that the tubes be inspected visually through the inspection ports during
start-up. If red spots suddenly appear on a tube, it is a signal that the tube may be
plugged. This type of inspection is necessary after chemical cleaning, tube
replacement or re-commissioning after a long period of dormancy.
How to prevent short-term overheating: As a result of the rapid occurrence of this type
of failure, it is not readily detectable through non-destructive testing methods. The best
way to prevent it is to flush the tubes with water to ensure all obstructions are removed
prior to startup and by ensuring that the purge and bottom headers are open as the
pressure is increased. This type of failure can be recognized by the longitudinal
rupture, smooth edges and no loss of wall thickness as the rupture.

Oxygen Corrosion: Oxygen corrosion occurs in a boiler due to small corroded
regions which acts as an anode to the rest of the boiler, causing further corrosion. This
process is exacerbated by the presence of dissolved oxygen in the boiler system.
Ideally, the boiler surface would be covered with a protective layer of iron oxide,
preventing the attack of free oxygen in the water supply. The small pits that result from
oxygen corrosion can cause significant stress, and will result in the formation of cracks
in the region
Figure 3 Oxygen corrosion

How to detect oxygen corrosion: RFT is one of the most effective methods used to
detect oxygen corrosion if it is located at the fire side. High tool sensitivity and
accuracy (>1/8” diam.) allows for the early detection of initial defects, providing data
necessary to determine a repair or replacement protocol before the tube fails.
Ultrasonic testing (UT) can also be used, but is limited by significantly slower
inspection time and the fact that 100 percent coverage is impossible. The latter
increases the risk that serious damage to tubes could go unnoticed.
How to prevent oxygen corrosion: The most effective way to prevent oxygen corrosion
in boiler tubes is to prevent oxygen from entering the system in the first place.
Oxygen enters a boiler system primarily through three means: air can be trapped
during normal operation when internal pressure is less than the ambient atmospheric
pressure; when the system is left open for maintenance; and as a result of molecular
dissociation of water in the system. Other critical factors are the presence of ambient
moisture in the system and, the loss of a passivation layer after chemical cleaning.
Eliminating these factors can successfully prevent oxygen corrosion. It is
recommended that all metal surfaces be kept dry using positive-pressure inert gas,
moisture-absorbing materials, or a continuous flow of dry, dehumidified air (<30
percent).

Caustic Corrosion: Caustic corrosion refers to the corrosive action of sodium
hydroxide with a metal and is restricted to: water-cooled tubes in regions of high heat
fluctuation; regions with heat transfer in welding rings or other devices that disrupt flow;
horizontal or inclined tubes; places with thick internal deposits reducing flow rates.
This penetration may be filled with dense corrosion products which sometimes contain
magnetite crystals. Most often, the metal surface has a smooth contour and
laminations. Sodium hydroxide is added to boiler water in non-corrosive
concentrations; however other physical factors tend to concentrate it further, leading to
the production of corrosive alkaline in the boiler.
Figure 4 Caustic corrosion

How to detect caustic corrosion: Caustic corrosion is easily detected using non-
destructive testing methods, because the affected area is found with reduced wall
thickness. If this is in its early stage there may not be any blister, but if the thickness is
reduced there is likely to be a blister or deformation in the tube. Remote field testing is
the most suitable method. These tools have high sensitivity and inspection speed,
allowing for rapid detection of corrosive damage. UT can also be used, once the
affected region has been located.
How to prevent caustic corrosion: When sodium hydroxide is present—either by itself,
or as a salt-producing alkaline—with a concentration mechanism, there exists the
possibility of caustic corrosion. To reduce the likelihood of caustic corrosion damage in
a boiler, the amount of free sodium hydroxide available to produce alkaline salts in the
condenser water must be controlled at the purification stage. This will prevent nucleate
boiling, and the formations of water-level lines. Proper purging will prevent the
formation of sludge deposits.

Stress Corrosion: Stress corrosion is caused by a combination of two
separate factors: tensile stresses on the pipe caused by internal pressure, or
residual stresses induced by improperly-applied heat treatment, or tube
bending; and a corrosive material such as sodium hydroxide or chlorine. This
combination results in cracking near the stressed region. Stress corrosion
usually occurs near welds, or tube bends.
Figure 6 Stress corrosion

How to detect stress corrosion: Stress corrosion displays as cracking near welds
subject to tensile stresses. While stress corrosion cracking can be difficult to see, it
can be detected visually. Liquid penetrant inspection provides a surer means of
detection. Additionally, ultrasonic testing or radiographic testing can detect stress
corrosion cracking.
How to prevent stress corrosion: Annealing will relieve residual stresses from welding
or bending. Adding phosphates to the operating environment will help prevent the
formation of free sodium, reducing the concentration of corrosion products.

Hydrogen Damage: When chemicals are added to boiler water to balance pH, an
electrochemical reaction can occur, releasing free hydrogen atoms into the
environment. This can cause decarburization, embrittlement and the formation of
molecular hydrogen and methane in the steel. Hydrogen damage is restricted to
evaporator tubes with pre-existing corrosion problems. Hydrogen atoms diffuse into
the steel of the boiler tubes. Some of these atoms bond with either each other, or the
carbon in the steel, forming molecular hydrogen or methane. These gasses
accumulate until the pressure causes the separation of the metal along the granular
borders, producing inter-granular micro-cracks. This in turn reduces the mechanical
strength of the tube, which causes it to burst. Any tubes suspected of failing due to
hydrogen damage should have samples taken and sent for metallographic analysis in
a lab.
Figure 7 Hydrogen damage

How to detect hydrogen damage: Hydrogen damage is hard to detect visually, except
in the advanced stages when the pipe has visible cracks. Remote field testing is highly
effective in detecting hydrogen damage because the changes in the electrical
properties of the material due to hydrogen damage are readily detected.
How to prevent hydrogen damage: The two critical factors in reducing a boiler’s
susceptibility to hydrogen damage are the amount of hydrogen available, and the
means to increase its concentration. Proper chemical treatment of feed water,
combined with a stringent pH control system is the best way to prevent hydrogen
damage.

Graphitization: Graphitization is caused by small structural changes of low-carbon
steels at moderate temperatures over extended periods of time. Graphitization causes
the decomposition of pearlite in ferrite, weakening the steel. The extent of the
decomposition is dependent on the temperature. This phenomenon generally occurs
due to long-term overheating, during which, the graphite nodules are linked to each
other, reducing the resistance to internal pressure, causing the metal to tear.
Figure 8 Graphitization

How to detect graphitization: Graphitization occurs internally, with the graphite
detaching from the steel reducing the total wall thickness. As with hydrogen damage,
the electrical properties of the material changes when graphitization is present. For
this reason, remote field testing is the most effective means of detection.
How to prevent graphitization: The primary concern with respect to the susceptibility to
embrittlement due to graphitization is tube quality. Low carbon content steel is more
susceptible to graphitization and long-term overheating is liable to exacerbate the
problem. A good metal passivation program and treating the boiler feed water with
phosphate will reduce the probability of graphitization.

Fire Side Corrosion: Most fuel components can cause corrosion on boiler tubes. Due
to incomplete combustion, deposits of combustion residue can change the heat
transfer characteristics with potentially severe effects on system efficiency. Most solid
fuels contain 10 to 20 percent ash that remains in the boiler after combustion, leading
to lost heat transfer and corrosion. While liquid fuels do not exceed 2 percent ash,
they do contain elements such as vanadium and sodium.
Figure 9 Fire-side corrosion

How to detect fire side corrosion: When the surface of the boiler tubes are exposed to
combustion gases, the damaged area of the surface will change color. Long-term
corrosion of this type affects the permeability and conductivity of boiler tubes, as well
as causing pitting.
How to prevent fire side corrosion: Fuel selection is of primary concern in addressing
the issue of fire-side corrosion. Fuels should be selected containing minimal corrosive
agents such as sulfur, sodium and calcium. Second, optimizing the combustion quality
through control of temperature, fuel-air mixture, and air balancing will reduce the ash
deposits in tubes. Thermocouples should be installed throughout the boiler to indicate
when heat transfer is outside optimal operating range, which could be indicative of ash
deposits on the tubes. Third, continuous cleaning programs should be implemented in
the boiler.

The probability of steam boiler failure is dependent on numerous operational and
maintenance factors. The implementation of preventative inspection and tube profile
measurements will help to ensure that boilers are active for their expected 30-year
average operational lives. An active regime of preventative maintenance will be
effective at reducing the financial impact of unexpected shut-downs due to boiler tube
failures.
Operations staff need to be trained in preventative maintenance procedures and

processes. Often, when boiler tubes undergo catastrophic failure, adjacent tubes are
often damaged as well, increasing the outage time. Periodic inspections and follow-up
preventative maintenance is necessary to ensure the boiler system remains in good
repair, and potentially extend its life-expectancy. With this in mind, we can conclude
that periodic boiler inspection is a vital part of any maintenance regime, and that
remote field testing is the optimal means for early detection of most causes of boiler
tube failure.
Author: Mynor Celis, currently is Marketing Manager for Latin

America for Russell NDE Systems, Edmonton, AB. Canada, He has
previous experience as operation manager in a coal-fired power plant,
having responsibility for the operation of the boiler, water and
wastewater systems, high and low boiler steam pressure. He is a
mechanical and electrical engineer with MBA specialization.

More Reading

RFT The Principle: Eddy current testing is one of the most extensively used non-
destructive testing (NDT) methods for conductive materials. Remote field eddy current (RFEC) is
a type of eddy current NDT, and has drawn more and more attention in the nondestructive
testing of ferromagnetic tubular structures. RFEC has remarkable advantages such as almost
equal sensitivity to inner and outer defects, easy defect characterization and insensitivity to lift-off
or wobble [2]. Remote field eddy current testing mainly depends on indirect-coupled
electromagnetic energy, which passes through a pipe wall twice, as shown in Figure 1.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/14/12/24098/htm#sthash.RTUiWO6G.dpuf

RFT Sensors
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/14/12/24098/htm#sthash.RTUiWO6G.dpuf

Remote Field Through Wall Inspection Technique
The Remote Field Eddy Current (RFEC) inspection technique is a
nondestructive method which uses low frequency AC and through wall
transmission to inspect pipes and tubes from the inside. The through wall
nature of the technique allows external and internal defects to be detected
with approximately equal sensitivity.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.physics.queensu.ca/~amg/remote_field.html

The RFEC tool uses a relatively large internal solenoidal exciter coil which is
driven with low frequency A.C. A detector, or circumferential array of detector
coils, is placed near the inside of the pipe wall, but axially displaced from the
exciter by about two pipe diameters.
Two distinct coupling paths exist between the exciter and the detector coils.
 The direct path, inside the tube, is attenuated rapidly by circumferential

eddy currents induced in the tube's wall.
 The indirect coupling path originates in the exciter fields which diffuse
radially outward through the wall. At the outer wall, the field spreads
rapidly along the tube with little further attenuation. These fields re-diffuse
back through the pipe wall and are the dominant field inside the tube at
remote field spacing.
Anomalies anywhere in the indirect path cause changes in the magnitude and
phase of the received signal, and can therefore be used to detect defects.

Direct / Indirect Paths

Skin effect consideration limits conventional eddy current inspection
techniques to inspection of only the surface nearest to the probe. The remote
field technique is capable of inspecting the entire wall thickness without the
need to use ultra low frequency. Like conventional eddy current techniques,
RFEC probes respond well to slits because these interact strongly with eddy
currents and produce little perturbation of magnetic flux. Although RFEC
probes have been used for well casing inspection for many years, it is a
rather complex phenomenon. The interaction with defects is now well
understood, thanks to the anomalous source defect models and computer
animations that we have developed.
Keywords:
The remote field technique is capable of inspecting the entire wall thickness
without the need to use ultra low frequency.

There is great interest in the detection of stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in
pipelines, but tests of ultrasonic tools in gas pipelines have not been entirely
satisfactory. There is therefore continued interest in the potential application
of RFEC techniques. RFEC probes are already used for commercial
inspection of heat exchanger and pressure tubes. There are several other
important potential applications for RFEC techniques including the inspection
of water and gas distribution lines. These have elbows and tees which are
difficult for any other tool to negotiate. We are collaborating on this application
as also on the potential use of RFEC for inspection of water supply pipes and
lined gas lines.

RFT
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.techcorr.com/services/Inspection-and-Testing/Remote-Field-Testing.cfm

Tube Cleanliness is as important for the process reasons (i.e. heat transfer) as
it is for the Remote Field inspection. Inspections that go the smoothest are ones
where the tubes are adequately cleaned prior to the inspection. Not only does
this save inspection time and money, but the data acquired from clean tubes
VS dirty tubes make the inspection much more accurate. Non-relevant
indications can occur from Iron deposits, calcium deposits, etc. These non-
relevant indications can mask real defects located underneath.
So how can you tell when the tubes are cleaned enough for a Remote Field
inspection? We have developed a “Dummy” probe chart that customers can
use to build probe heads to check for tube cleanliness. These probes can be
made to screw on to hydro-blasters lance’s and used after the cleaning process
is complete to make sure there is proper clearance for the Eddy Current probe.

More Reading:
1. http://www.igcar.ernet.in/benchmark/Tech/20-tech.pdf
2. http://www.imtt-usa.com/Publications/2006/Final%20JCAA_2006%20Paper%20-
%20RFEC%20military%20and%20commercial%20platform%20applications.pdf
3. http://www.imeko.org/publications/tc10-2014/IMEKO-TC10-2014-010.pdf

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Ele ctro m agn e tic Te s tin g

Magnetic flux leakage / Eddy current/ Microwave

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Other%20Methods/RFT/RFT_Intro.htm

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Other%20Methods/RFT/RFT_Intro.htm

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.shipstructure.org/pdf/91symp22.pdf

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.shipstructure.org/pdf/91symp22.pdf

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 The exciter field is dominant near the exciter coil and

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

1. Conventional ECT 2. Remote Field ECT

3. Near Field ECT 4. Magnetic Flux Leakage ECT

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.olympus-ims.com/cs/ms-5800-tube-inspection/

 Two coils are excited with an

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Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.olympus-ims.com/cs/ms-5800-tube-inspection/

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Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.olympus-ims.com/cs/ms-5800-tube-inspection/

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.olympus-ims.com/cs/ms-5800-tube-inspection/

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These eddy currents, in turn,

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The amplitude of the field strength on the OD

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Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.power-eng.com/articles/print/volume-115/issue-3/features/steam-boiler-inspections-using-remote-field-testing.html

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.power-eng.com/articles/print/volume-115/issue-3/features/steam-boiler-inspections-using-remote-field-testing.html

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.power-eng.com/articles/print/volume-115/issue-3/features/steam-boiler-inspections-using-remote-field-testing.html

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.power-eng.com/articles/print/volume-115/issue-3/features/steam-boiler-inspections-using-remote-field-testing.html