Annals of Tourism Research 103 (2023) 103669

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Annals of Tourism Research

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tourism-research

Research article

A social identity perspective on dark tourism impacts

Yachen Zhang a,⁎, Brent Moyle b,c,f, Gui Lohmann c,g, Renan Peres de Oliveira c,
Lu Chang d, David Weaver e
a
School of Tourism and Geography Science, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
b
Department of Tourism, Sport and Hotel Management, Griffith Business School, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD 4111, Australia
c
Griffith Institute for Tourism, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, 4111, Australia
d
Department of Tourism, Sport and Hotel Management, Griffith Business School, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD 4222, Australia
e
School of Management, QUT Business School, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, 4000, Australia
f
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
g
Tourism Economics and Management Research Center (NEAT), University of São Paulo (USP), Brazil

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This theoretical paper investigates the potential of social identity theory to promote reconcili-
Received 25 May 2023 ation in the context of dark tourism associated with conflicts. While tourism scholars consider
Received in revised form 1 October 2023 an opportunity for leveraging dark tourism in peacebuilding, there must be more evidence of
Accepted 2 October 2023
its effectiveness in promoting peace, especially in the reconciliation process. Through a social
Available online 23 October 2023
identity approach, this paper sheds light on the inconsistency of reconciliation in the geopoli-
Handling Editor: Noga Collins-Kreiner tics of dark tourism. It develops a conceptual framework of three design dimensions to dis-
suade animus and promote reconciliation through dark tourism settings of conflicts. The
conceptual discussion in this study is of high value for dark tourism stakeholders and gover-
Keywords:
nance actors aiming at developing solutions for reconciliation through tourism.
Dark tourism
Reconciliation © 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Peacebuilding
Social identity
Geopolitics

Introduction

Promoting a peaceful society is a significant dimension of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (UN, 2022). With a decline in
global peace, designing and implementing strategies contributing to peaceful relations between and within states is a priority and
challenge to present-day society (Carbone, 2022). Building peace never comes down to a single action or sector. Instead, it re-
quires synthesising multidimensional elements (Heathershaw, 2008). Along with socioeconomic and political factors, reconcilia-
tion is integral to peacebuilding (Schiller, 2011; Smith, 2004). Reconciliation signifies a psychological process “encompassing
the majority of society members, who form new beliefs about the former adversary, about their own society, and about the rela-
tionship between the two groups” (Bar-Tal, 2000, p. 356). Reconciliation mainly applies to intergroup conflicts involving extensive
violence over an extended time.

⁎ Corresponding author at: School of Tourism and Geography Science, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
E-mail addresses: zhangyachen@qdu.edu.cn (Y. Zhang), b.moyle@griffith.edu.au (B. Moyle), g.lohmann@griffith.edu.au (G. Lohmann),
renan.deoliveira@griffithuni.edu.au (R.P. de Oliveira), lu.chang@griffithuni.edu.au (L. Chang), david.weaver@qut.edu.au (D. Weaver).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2023.103669
0160-7383/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Zhang, B. Moyle, G. Lohmann et al. Annals of Tourism Research 103 (2023) 103669

A growing literature focuses on dark tourism and its transforming effects on travellers, including social mobilisation outcomes
(Soulard, Stewart, Larson, & Samson, 2022). Dark tourism is widely recognised as an enormous and fast-growing phenomenon
where tourists visit places associated with conflict(s), war(s) and disaster(s) (Chen & Xu, 2021). Notably, some dark tourism ac-
tivities draw scholarly attention due to their potential, through education and awareness, to assist in the rebuilding of conflict-
affected countries, ultimately contributing to a peace mindset (Dolnicar & McCabe, 2022). Dark tourism icons (e.g., battlefields)
can function as “local infrastructures for peace” (Carbone, 2022) and bring healing opportunities and meaningful reflections
into broader peacebuilding debates (Su & Yu Park, 2022). Strong linkages, therefore, exist between conflict-related dark tourism
and reconciliation. However, dark tourism can also perpetuate or exacerbate animus toward perceived antagonists by projecting
anti-reconciliation narratives (Weaver et al., 2018).
Dark tourism either way is essentially relational, as dark historical moments associate with social groups of community, eth-
nicity and states, and the collective storytelling of those moments (Light, 2017). Therefore, a social identity approach is founda-
tional to this research (Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, & Wetherell, 1987). Embodying painful communal histories, dark tourism
inevitably captures how people negotiate and consolidate their national, religious, ethnic, and political identities and how they
perceive outgroups in each evolving social context (Brown, Ibarra, & Karen, 2018; Laing & Frost, 2019; Wight, 2020).
Animus derives from situations where members of a particular identity retain their animosity toward another group
(s) perceived as having harmed them in the past and, typically, remain a threat (Jung et al., 2002). Reconciliation, alternatively,
reflects changed social group identity, characterised by the “removal of the negation of the other as a central component of
each party's own identity” (Kelman, 2006, p. 23). This psychological change constitutes a fresh perspective on how social groups
should interact, indicating positive changes in intergroup relations and the promise of a more orderly future (Subašić & Reynolds,
2009). Accordingly, engaging in dark tourism involves perceptions and understanding of ingroup, outgroup and intergroup rela-
tionships, possibly influencing reconciliation processes.
This theoretical paper, focusing on dark tourism sites of intergroup conflict, aims to enhance dark tourism's potential to ad-
vance world peace. We investigate the tension between reconciliation and animus in such contexts, then interpret and innova-
tively structure this relationship through a social identity lens. First, we review the nexus between social identity,
reconciliation, animus, and geopolitics. Subsequently, we apply this concept amalgam to conflict-centred dark tourism. Using
the social identity approach, we illustrate the inconsistency and ambiguity in current research regarding the relationship between
dark tourism, animus, and reconciliation. Consequently, we develop a conceptual framework to facilitate pragmatic solutions to
better leverage dark tourism as a vehicle for reconciliation and worldwide peacebuilding.

Method

The pragmatic constructivist epistemology underpinning this theoretical study assumes the dynamic, subjective, and socially
constructed essence of “truth” (Ayikoru, 2009). We articulate and synthesise conceptually related knowledge (i.e., social identity,
dark tourism, reconciliation, animus, and geopolitics) to generate a new perspective for stimulating innovative approaches to the
real-world issue of peacebuilding. The “realities” investigated must be constructed and understood through the interactions be-
tween meaning, ideas, and experience, which pragmatic constructivism privileges over measurement and hypothesis testing
(Gordon, 2009). Indeed, conceptual research does not require the collection of its own empirical data, but does depend on
high quality empirical evidence from other sources, and the insight that evidence provides into relevant social contexts, to support
evolving constructions of meaning (Vargo & Koskela-Huotari, 2020). In this research, evidence for the inconsistency between dark
tourism and reconciliation is integrated, scrutinised, and framed under the guidance of social identity principles. As a result, fur-
ther theoretical articulation of those principles and their application to dark tourism's new social context is achieved.
As a fit-for-purpose systematic conceptual research design increases its trustworthiness (Kirillova & Yang, 2022), we draw
upon the constituent themes identified by Xin, Tribe, and Chambers (2013). Adaptive variants of these themes are found in
Weaver, Moyle, Casali, and McLennan (2022) in their inductive conceptual tourism research. Specifically, as outlined in Fig. 1
and articulated in the Interrelated primary concepts section, we first conduct a historical analysis of interrelated primary concepts,
including social identity, animus, reconciliation, and geopolitics. Here, we define, explore the purposes of, and deconstruct the con-
cepts by articulating how social identity, animus, reconciliation, and geopolitics manifest in tourism contexts and how social iden-
tity variably underpins animus and reconciliation from these broader perspectives. A key emergent dynamic (Ingroup and
outgroup awareness section) is the construction of ingroup and outgroup awareness, manifesting in conflicting and evolving sen-
timents of reconciliation and animus.
Following an introduction to the broader literature on peacebuilding through tourism and the dark tourism knowledge domain
(Peacebuilding through tourism section), a reconciliation framework is proposed (A reconciliation framework for dark tourism
section) that focuses on synthesising concepts and translating concepts to new contexts, i.e., dark tourism. Integrating insights
from prior dark tourism research, we contend that the social identity approach can be applied to animus and reconciliation man-
ifestations in the dark tourism domain. A schematic diagram synthesises selected concepts and prescriptive components for key
stakeholders, thereby applying concepts to practice. While the lack of empirical testing and validation in conceptual research
might explain its marginalisation by some academics (Kirillova & Yang, 2022), it still has potential to “bridge existing theories
in interesting ways, link work across disciplines, provide multi-level insights, and broaden the scope of our thinking” (Gilson &
Goldberg, 2015, p. 128). Therefore, by developing theoretically and logically sound justifications of how key concepts are linked,
this conceptual research can harness the social identity approach to navigate reconciliation and animus issues in relevant dark
tourism contexts.

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Y. Zhang, B. Moyle, G. Lohmann et al. Annals of Tourism Research 103 (2023) 103669

Fig. 1. . Schematic diagram of the research method.

Identifying sources

Trustworthiness was enhanced by systematically searching the peer-reviewed literature on the attendant concepts. To locate,
organise, and analyse relevant documents, Sarantakos' (2005) guidelines were followed. Scopus and Google Scholar provided
comprehensive and well-regarded formal channels for identifying this literature, using the primary concepts as the main search
keywords. The database was incrementally expanded by adding papers deemed to be relevant based on their Abstracts and, as
warranted, their main text contents. Essential themes in the accepted content were then strategically incorporated into the evolv-
ing manuscript to further crystallise emergent meanings and patterns (Gordon, 2009).

Literature review

Interrelated primary concepts

Social identity
Tajfel (1972) introduced the concept of “social identity” to theorise how individuals conceptualise themselves within society.
Social identity entails “socially constructed and socially meaningful categories accepted by individuals as descriptive of themselves
or their group” (Thoits & Virshup, 1997, p. 106). This approach helps to understand the construction of self and others and rela-
tionships between groups. The two main theoretical branches are Social Identity Theory (SIT) (Tajfel & Turner, 1979), and the de-
rivative Self-Categorisation Theory (SCT) (Turner et al., 1987). Both branches systematically elaborate the categorisation of
ingroup and outgroup, their manifestation in three hierarchical levels, and the cognitive processes underlying categorisation.
Our research requires their synthesis.

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According to SIT, social identity phenomena are underpinned by processes of categorisation and self-enhancement (Hogg,
Terry, & White, 1995). Categorisation relies on understanding fundamental characteristics signifying ‘us’ (ingroups) and ‘them’
(outgroups), sharpening intergroup boundaries (Ellemers, Kortekaas, & Ouwerkerk, 1999). Self-enhancement reflects a basic
human need for self-esteem by differentiating one's group from others to establish ingroup superiority and achieve a positive so-
cial identity (Turner et al., 1987). Social identity can thereby engender ingroup favouritism and outgroup animus (Tajfel & Turner,
1979).
Compared to SIT, SCT projects greater explanatory scope and a broader cognitive agenda (Haslam & Ellemers, 2005) by further
conceptualising the self at three levels of abstraction, i.e., 1) Individual (being a unique person compared to other persons); 2) In-
termediate (being a member of a social group compared to other social groups); and 3) Superordinate (being human compared to
other species). The intermediate level can have multiple overlapping manifestations. For instance, a German is part of Germany
and the European Union, with the latter more inclusive since it is a common ingroup of many European countries. SCT elaborates
on how such parallel social identities develop and interact, by specifying how and why the competing social identities are oppor-
tunistically switched on and off (Haslam & Ellemers, 2005).
Drawing from SCT principles, cognitive processes and changing circumstances shape one's categorisation into a given social
group instead of another, making a particular social identity more prominent in one's mind through “switching on” effects
(Turner et al., 1987). A particular social identity becomes salient to the extent that an individual shares essential characteristics
with ingroup members through perceived homogeneity and self-stereotyping (Amiot, Sukhanova, & Bastian, 2019), differentiating
them from other groups (Livingstone, Spears, Manstead, Bruder, & Shepherd, 2011). This self-categorisation will more likely occur
when observed intergroup similarities and differences match expected stereotypes and norms (Livingstone et al., 2011). A salient
social identity prescribes fundamental attributes of the social group and informs expected and accepted emotions, attitudes and
behaviours among members (Hogg & Terry, 2000).
Studies have used social identity approaches to understand tourism-related phenomena. Acknowledging unique group values
and culture, Zhang, Morrison, Tucker, and Wu (2018) investigates the conceptualisation of backpacker social identity in associa-
tion with detachment from home, work alienation, and externally-oriented motivations. Zhang (2022) explores visitors' enhanced
awareness of human identity and attributes as realised at dark tourism sites of natural disaster. Social identity has been widely
recognised as an essential precursor for attitudes and behaviours. Surveying 400 backpackers, Agyeiwaah, Pratt, Iaquinto, and
Suntikul (2020) and Adam, Agyeiwaah, and Dayour (2021) found that those who identify as backpackers are more inclined to-
ward sustainable behaviour. In hospitality management, characteristics, values, or aspirations shared between employees and
the hotel (i.e., high social identification with the organisation) enhance their engagement in group-serving behaviours, including
support for innovation and corporate social responsibility initiatives (Hu, Liu, & Zhang, 2020; Li, Yu, Yang, & Chen, 2022). Similar
effects were also observed in outbound travel settings, where tourists highly aware of their nationality-based social identity were
less likely to engage in deviant behaviours (Wang, Zhong, Wang, li, & Guo, 2023).

Reconciliation
Reconciliation may occur within or between societies and countries (Bar-Tal, 2000). It is recognised as a psychological process
involving “a transition to beliefs and attitudes that support peaceful relations” between formerly hostile groups (Bar-Tal, 2000,
p. 356), with members of both groups seeing prospects of a constructive relationship (Staub, 2006). Reconciliation is closely
linked to social identity theories (Demirel & Eriksson, 2020) as it entails internalising a new relationship between conflicting
groups, with attitudinal changes gradually negotiated and integrated into their identities (Kelman, 2006). Hence, social identity
is considered as both the origin of intergroup dissonance and, importantly, the potential remedy (Gaertner et al., 2000).
The pursuit of reconciliation through tourism fits within a broader agenda of peace through tourism (Higgins-Desbiolles,
Blanchard, & Urbain, 2022; Moufakkir & Kelly, 2010). Higgins-Desbiolles (2003) suggests tourism can promote reconciliation be-
tween indigenous and non-indigenous Australians. Similarly, Hurst and Grimwood (2022) observe that tourist experiences of the
“Algonquin Park totem pole” may promote a political climate supportive of indigenous resurgence, disrupting Settler Canadians'
colonising narratives and encouraging reconciliation. Some scholars suggest that tourism cooperation between partitioned regions
might assist the reconciliation process (Guo, Kim, Timothy, & Wang, 2006). Tourism initiatives in the Israeli-Palestinian interface
often incorporate peace and reconciliation themes, with Belhassen (2022) contending that tourism serves as an arena where
hopeful ideas about reconciliation are narrated, developed and inscribed into the experiences offered to tourists.

Animosity
Animosity reflects repulsion and distrust toward a specific social group. It involves affective dimensions, such as hatred, fear,
distrust, and anger, emanating from economic, political, military or socio-cultural antagonism between individuals and nations
(Josiassen, Kock, Assaf, & Berbekova, 2023; Yu, McManus, Yen, & Li, 2020). As a hostile attitude comprising emotions and beliefs,
animosity inclines toward defiance, resentment, and alienation (Kubany, Bauer, Pangilinan, Muraoka, & Enriquez, 1995). Yu et al.
(2020) describe war/military, economic, politics, social/people, religious, and cultural types of feelings-based animosity.
From demand and supply perspectives, animosity has been well examined in the tourism domain (Farmaki, 2023). The
demand-side dimension manifests as negative sentiments toward a particular destination and its inhabitants (Josiassen, Kock, &
Nørfelt, 2022). Studies reveal its impact on intentions and behaviours, such as whether to visit places that harbour resentful
and hostile sentiments (Stepchenkova, Dai, Kirilenko, & Su, 2020). On the supply side, Josiassen et al. (2022) observe that resi-
dents with animus toward incoming visitors' country of origin might be less supportive of tourism and less hospitable to that
group. Similarly, following the Russia-Ukraine conflict, Josiassen et al. (2023) found animus to dissuade some tourists from staying

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in hotels with Russian guests and engaging in philanthropic tourism. Farmaki (2023) notes the animosity of Cypriots toward
Russian tourists is influenced by subjective norms, cultural and political affinity, and media representations.

Geopolitics
Geopolitics focuses on the interconnections between power, territoriality, territory and space (Cohen, 2003). It includes under-
standing how change in the global landscape is informed by multi-scalar agendas and discourses and how it is structured accord-
ingly (Kraxberger & Paul, 2013). Political geography scholars seek to enhance our understanding of how physical geography and
human activities influence domestic and international political interactions, framing the core of geopolitics as a strategic and dy-
namic struggle for control over territory (Hall, 2017; Timothy, 2017). Hence, many studies have investigated relative power
within and between nations, and state authorities' fundamental aspiration to maximise sovereignty over particular spaces
(Stilz, 2019).
Powerful connections exist between geopolitics and tourism (Mostafanezhad & Norum, 2016). Gillen and Mostafanezhad
(2019) emphasise that everyday tourism encounters are crucial to geopolitical, economic, social, and cultural assemblages. Exam-
ining Russian tourism to post-Soviet cities, Pfoser and Yusupova (2022) elaborate on the geopolitical implications of cultural
memories and show how Russian tourists reinterpret relationships with former Soviet republics. Tourism is even considered a po-
litical instrument rather than a mere leisure activity (Rowen, 2016), and can be used by state authorities to achieve certain
territorialisation objectives (Weaver, Moyle, & McLennan, 2023). The international tourism and travel restrictions imposed during
the COVID-19 pandemic therefore reflect geopolitical strategies as well as humanitarian and health responses (Seyfi, Hall, &
Shabani, 2020). Gozgor, Lau, Zeng, Yan, and Lin (2022) observe that geopolitical risks negatively impact capital investment in
tourism in developing economies, in part because perceived geopolitical risks reduce tourism demand (Tiwari, Das, and Dutta
(2019).

Ingroup and outgroup awareness

The confluence of social identity and geopolitics engages ingroup and outgroup awareness, manifested mainly as sentiments of
intergroup reconciliation or animus. These feelings-based reactions predominantly occur at the intermediate and superordinate
levels.

Intermediate identity
Social identification with a common intermediate ingroup may reduce intergroup animosity and facilitate reconciliation. A
common ingroup is more inclusive than any hostile social group (Noor, Brown, Gonzalez, Manzi, & Lewis, 2008), and identifying
with the common ingroup could transform group membership representations from two separate and conflicting social identities
to a more inclusive common identity (Gaertner et al., 2000). Andrighetto, Mari, Volpato, and Behluli (2012) observe that the com-
mon ingroup identity indicated by “inhabitants of Kosovo territory” is essential to restoring the fractured relationship between
ethnic Serbs and Albanians. This has clear geopolitical implications for the prospects of a viable independent Kosovo. Noor
et al. (2008) interrogating the anti- and pro-Pinochet factions in Chile, found reconciliation between the two to be positively pre-
dicted by the common ingroup identity of being Chilean. Moreover, scholars documented that a shared national identification in
Northern Ireland among Irish, British, Catholics and Protestants, is linked to positive social attitudes toward integrating commu-
nities with different religious backgrounds, thereby improving intergroup relations and promoting reconciliation (Lowe &
Muldoon, 2014).
Perhaps related, increasing awareness of commonalities between ingroup and outgroup may result in high prospects for rec-
onciliation (Gaertner et al., 2000). In the case of post-conflict Rwanda, the shared suffering of ingroup and outgroup delivered by
the radio drama Musekeweya seems to promote positive intergroup relationships (Bilali, Vollhardt, & Rarick, 2016). Similarly,
Kappmeier and Mercy (2019) suggest that shared collective memories of mutual suffering could be utilised to address division
and facilitate reconciliation through a resulting mutual desire for peace. In accordance, Palmberger (2013) observes that positive
memories, stressing common ground, show potential for reconciliation in post-conflict settings such as Bosnia and Herzegovina. In
such settings, commonalities between conflicting groups, partially represented by shared collective memories, play a crucial geo-
political role in aiding reconciliation and stabilising the parent state.
Conversely, the motivation of individuals to differentiate ingroup from outgroup may encourage animus toward the latter in
competitive social contexts (Han & Federico, 2018). For example, political partisans tend to evaluate their party more positively
while expressing hostility toward opposing parties in a conflict-saturated media environment (Iyengar, Sood, & Lelkes, 2012).
Similarly, the boundary between social groups becomes apparent when self-stereotyping of one group's members differentiates
them from others (Livingstone et al., 2011). Demirel and Eriksson (2020) suggest that if competitive victimhood (i.e., “the subjec-
tive belief that one's own ingroup has suffered more than the outgroup” - Andrighetto et al., 2012, p. 513) becomes a key com-
ponent of one's national identity, the goal of reconciliation might be hard to achieve, while intergroup animosity and distrust can
be fostered.

Superordinate identity
As per Čehajić-Clancy and Bilewicz (2017), identification at the superordinate level of being human has significant potential for
intergroup reconciliation. Bar-Tal (2000) proposes that reconciliation requires attendant psychological change. To illustrate, Nazi
atrocities of World War II eventually ended but the Holocaust continues to be highly relevant for both Germans' and Jews'

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identities. Wohl and Branscombe (2005) examine the levels of categorisation on how Jews perceive contemporary Germans and
the consequences of these perceptions. Critically, when Jews were encouraged to think of themselves and Germans as human be-
ings (a single and inclusive superordinate identity), they reported fewer feelings of hostility and more feelings of forgiveness to-
ward Germans (Wohl & Branscombe, 2005). In such seemingly intractable intergroup conflicts, positive change in societal beliefs
also contributes to reconciliation. Thus, when ingroup members view outgroup members as fellow human beings, stereotypes and
animosity toward the adversary group are reduced (Bar-Tal, 2000).

Peacebuilding through tourism

Our research situates within a broader framework of building peace through tourism. Cokisler and Cokisler (2023) provide a
conceptual evaluation of tourism's potential to promote peace via international relations theories. From this perspective, tourism's
contribution to peace can align with a constructivist approach, where individual behaviours and values (e.g., “friend” versus “foe”
and “we” versus “other”) can be altered and constructed for building amity between societies. According to their analysis, the
peace through tourism notion also pertains to neoliberalism, with tourism promoting levels of economic interdependence and co-
operation that might positively impact foreign policy and relationships between opposing groups.
Engaging political science theory, Farmaki (2017) developed a methodological framework of the peace through tourism notion
which recognises that tourism's role is multi-faceted and complex. The framework articulates the conflict's causes and context,
political and socio-economic factors, and the dynamic of various moderators, tourism sectors, and actors in peacebuilding. Simi-
larly, Gelbman (2019) developed a typological model against the background of sports tourism events promoting a message of
peace between Israelis and Palestinians. The model underscores the social, organisational, and media managing dimensions in
the event implementation for peacebuilding.
While the empirical research on peacebuilding through tourism still lacks strong theoretical foundations, many case studies are
implicitly based on contact theory, which posits that bringing people together under certain conditions may reduce intergroup
prejudice and increase understanding (Pettigrew, 1998). Muldoon and Mair (2022) found that township tourism placed South
African residents in the international spotlight, allowing them to be seen and heard, placing pressure on local governments to im-
prove their conditions. Shepherd and Laven (2020) note that hostels in a Palestinian city provide a space to challenge master nar-
ratives of conflict-related Palestine tourism by removing ignorance about Palestine and showing the positives it has to offer to
Israelis and Palestinians.
Some investigations also emphasise the potential of special tours or tourism activities. Everingham, Young, Wearing, and Lyons
(2022) observe that volunteer tourism, by moving away from economic exchange and focusing on the exchange of cultural iden-
tity and host-guest interactions, might better enable social justice and peace. Senbeto (2022) documents that the religious coex-
istence and harmony manifested in tangible and intangible interfaith tourism resources has the potential to promote peace and
mutual understanding among diverse (non)followers and constituencies. Conflict-denominated dark tourism is another important
type of niche tourism within the research stream of peacebuilding through tourism. Yet, considering the ambiguity and inconsis-
tency that attend its alleged role in building peace, further investigation, such as pursued in this paper, is required.

Dark tourism
Lennon and Foley (2000) argue that “dark tourism is both a product of the circumstances of the late modern world and a sig-
nificant influence upon these circumstances” (p. 3). Dark tourism implicates destinations and exhibitions featuring sites of conflict,
disaster, and death (Goulding & Pressey, 2023), and by some estimations, may be one of the largest subsectors of the broader
tourism industry (Smith, 1998). Facilitating world peace is widely recognised as one of dark tourism's most critical purposes
(Weaver et al., 2018; Zhang, Yang, Zheng, & Zhang, 2016). However, although certain dark tourism settings serve as historical re-
minders of the significance of peace and hope (Gibson, Yai, & Pratt, 2021), in-depth analysis of the association between dark tour-
ism, animosity, and reconciliation are lacking.
Identity is a strong theme in conflict-based dark tourism (Laing & Frost, 2019). In particular, research reveals that building,
shaping, and reinforcing specific social identities seems integral to the dark tourism agenda (Frew & White, 2015), with settings
and affiliated interpretation inevitably engaging social groups such as communities, political parties, ethnicities, and citizens.
Morton (2019) suggests that based on tragic history, dark tourism resonates strongly at the societal level, playing a defining
role in forming collective identities. In that sense, engaging in shared symbols and stories in many dark tourism settings serves
to develop national, ethnic, and other collective identities.
Given its profound and complex subject matter, it is unsurprising that dark tourism has been examined from various theoretical
perspectives beyond those focused on identity. Mediation theory, for example, contends that dark tourism acts as a cathartic filter be-
tween the living and dead, reducing the visitor's existential dread of death through education, entertainment, memorialisation, and
moral instruction at attractions such as Body Works (art exhibits using actual human anatomy) and the London Dungeon (Stone,
2012). Theorisation around emotional dualities argues that both positive and negative emotional reactions to Holocaust sites are de-
sirable, as feelings of anger, dismay, and grief invite introspection and can enhance ingroup solidarity (Nawijn, Isaac, van Liempt, &
Gridnevskiy, 2016; Oren, Shani, & Poria, 2021). From a sociological perspective, the framing theory of social action demonstrates
how dialogue and negotiation among visitors to Holocaust sites can build consensus and meaning around the attendant problem
of intergroup hatred and induce mobilisation to address that problem (Soulard et al., 2022). Simulation theory, applied to black
metal festivals, shows how attendees and performers reinforce each other's dark attitudes and actions through similar emotional con-
tagion effects (Podoshen, 2013; Podoshen, Venkatesh, Wallin, Andrzejewski, & Jin, 2015).

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Dark tourism as a geopolitical phenomenon

Geopolitics also often motivate dark tourism displays, reinforcing or eroding reconciliation/animosity toward other groups
(Weaver et al., 2018). Dark tourism settings, such as war museums or battlefields, represent authorities' attitudes toward war
and feature adversaries (Carbone, 2022). Accordingly, such settings are political instruments signifying “the capacity of a state
as a geopolitical subject to tell its story to create cohesion within its borders and respect in the international arena”
(Caracciolo, 2020, p. 7). Therefore, the geopolitical nature of some dark tourism sites implies the potential to (in)advertently trig-
ger or sustain animosity, violence, and conflict.
From a geopolitical perspective, Weaver et al. (2018) found that a Chinese museum featuring antagonist-centric displays of the
Second Sino-Japanese War evoked patriotism and strong adverse emotional reactions against Japan among domestic visitors. This
has negative implications for the bilateral relationship between these two countries (Weaver et al., 2018). At the Island of Peace
border site between Israel and Jordan, Gelbman and Maoz (2012) observe that the narratives and messages delivered by Israeli
tour guides to tourists, despite the peace theme, employ an “‘us and them’ rhetoric, instead of concentrating on joint ventures
and common interests of the two countries” (p. 129). This was partly attributed to the lack of a clear policy about conveying mes-
sages of peace and understanding between the two countries. Tourism activities investigated in the study mainly serve as a re-
minder of conflict, tension, and violence. A similar effect emerges from a media report analysis of dark commemorative and
sports events, shown to exacerbate divisive bilateral relationships and impeding peaceful coexistence in the Western Balkans
(Šuligoj & Kennell, 2022). The authors emphasise that events could be utilised to build and sustain peace only when dark tourism
stakeholders and authorities can encourage and deliver inclusive events.
Nevertheless, a growing body of research reveals initiatives and practices that alleviate animosity. Carbone (2022) adopts a
system-thinking perspective on the association between tourism and peacebuilding, highlighting that war museums can promote
reconciliation. Erwin and Sturm (2022) demonstrate that a guided night walk followed by performances of an Irish Republican
Army Wake, an Ulster Defence Association Funeral and a Mixed-Marriage, choreographed to “cultivate an emotive understanding
of the visitors' differences” and “function as a sustainable institution of peace”, could facilitate peacekeeping and peacemaking
among the sectarian communities of Northern Ireland. Participants were encouraged to consider other perspectives and break
down barriers between communities by engaging in those performances. Younger generations, in particular, were more likely
to improve their attitude and understanding of others.
Built on the belief that interpretation positively impacts world peace and social harmony, Su and Yu Park (2022) investigate
exposure to signage in an atrocity site that describes adversaries in a more positive light. The findings reveal that such
counter-monuments can help transform interpretations, diluting the victim-perpetrator binary and facilitating more open and in-
clusive dialogue. Similarly, Packer, Ballantyne, and Uzzell (2019) observe that the ANZAC war heritage's interpretation in Gallipoli,
Türkiye, has the potential to convey an inclusive perspective. For instance, Turkish guides engaged visitors with stories of friendly
interactions between Turkish soldiers and ANZACs, increasing visitors' positive feelings and openness toward Türkiye. Based on
the significant political conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Causevic and Lynch (2011) recognise the proactive role of post-
conflict tourism activities in disseminating a message of multiculturalism, tolerance, love, and common identity. The activities
took place during a “phoenix stage” when warfare sites and conflict issues were transformed into new heritage through the
agency of personal catharsis. Such practice deepens the understanding of tourism in ameliorating social relationships in post-
conflict contexts.
Existing literature emphasises this inconsistency over dark tourism's role in the reconciliation process, but does not provide
resolution. Carbone (2022) highlights the necessity of concrete theoretical and practical guidelines to make better sense of the
tourism-peace nexus and help tourism sector representatives, such as the UNWTO, to effectively promote peace. A better under-
standing of how dark tourism may alleviate animosity and support reconciliation through a social identity lens will contribute to
dark tourism and peacebuilding debates and inform policymakers and other relevant stakeholders.

Framework development and discussion

A reconciliation framework for dark tourism

This study is a response to the increasing urgency of promoting peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development
(UN, 2022) and to a growing recognition that dark tourism plays a crucial role in variably promoting or subverting the
peacebuilding agenda (Carbone, 2022; Dolnicar & McCabe, 2022). Table 1 summarises the most representative dark tourism stud-
ies/practices relevant to reconciliation and sets out examples in line with social identity principles, either facilitating or impeding
reconciliation. Building on the social identity approach and earlier work on reconciliation and animosity, this research examines
peacebuilding issues in the conflict-related dark tourism domain, thereby contributing to comprehending and articulating related
animosity and reconciliation phenomena.
As shown in Table 1, previous inconsistencies in reconciliation outcomes in dark tourism could be elaborated and clarified
using the social identity approach. Some dark tourism research on reconciliation reveals the feasibility of increasing similarities
or decreasing differentiation between ingroup and outgroup in alleviating tensions between hostile social groups. For example,
Packer et al. (2019) observe that dark tourism at Gallipoli incorporates the interpretation of identifying and highlighting similar-
ities over differences, mitigating group-based exclusion, and facilitating reconciliation. Conversely, multiple ways of highlighting
group differences have been identified as obstacles to reconciliation. Although identifying with a common ingroup has not been suf-
ficiently utilised for reconciliation in dark tourism, Causevic and Lynch (2011) recognise the potential role of conveying a shared

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Y. Zhang, B. Moyle, G. Lohmann et al. Annals of Tourism Research 103 (2023) 103669

Table 1
The social identity approach manifested in major dark tourism practices and their effect on reconciliation.

Social identity principles Effect on Reference Study context Practice examples

reconciliation

Increasing similarities and/or
decreasing differentiation
between ingroup and
outgroup
Identifying with a common
ingroup
Emphasising a common
human identity
Highlighting group
difference
+ Erwin and Sturm (2022)
+ Su & Yu Park, 2022)
+ Packer et al. (2019)
+ Causevic and Lynch
(2011)
+ World Heritage
Convention, UNESCO
(https://whc.unesco.
org/en/list/31/)
− Šuligoj and Kennell
(2022)
− Weaver et al. (2018)
− Gelbman and Maoz
(2012)
Rural Northern Ireland, - cultivating mutual understanding of differences
United Kingdom - seeing things from the other perspective
- breaking down barriers between communities
Memorial Hall of the - alleviating the victim-perpetrator binary
Victims in Nanjing - facilitating more open and inclusive dialogues
Massacre by Japanese
Invaders, China
Australian War Memorial, - identifying and highlighting similarities between
Australia; Gallipoli battle- Turkish soldiers and ANZACs in the battle of Gallipoli
field, Türkiye
Bosnia and Herzegovina - remembering a common identity
Auschwitz Birkenau, - highlighting the strength of the human spirit, which,
Poland in appalling conditions of adversity, resisted the
efforts of the German Nazi regime to suppress
freedom and free thought and to exterminate whole
races
- interpreting the site as a critical place of memory for
the whole of humankind for the Holocaust, racist
policies, and barbarism
The Western Balkans - dark tourism commemorative and sport events,
characterising divisive state politics
Lushun Prison Museum, - post-war museum features antagonist-centric
China displays
Island of Peace border site - employing “us and them” rhetoric
between Israel and Jordan

Note: “+” represents supporting reconciliation; “-” represents hindering reconciliation.

identity via dark tourism in ameliorating social relationships in post-conflict contexts (Causevic & Lynch, 2011). Emphasising a
common human identity is well illustrated by interpretation at Holocaust sites, e.g., the Auschwitz Birkenau in Poland, where
the critical message concerns human dignity, spirit, and strength.
How the social identity approach can be integrated into the design of dark tourism attractions to support reconciliation is a
promising domain, linking dark tourism practice to the broad peacebuilding agenda. By illustrating the connection between social
identity, reconciliation, animus, and dark tourism, the present study sheds light on dark tourism and peace debates by identifying
and synthesising opportunities for improving intergroup relationships. Fig. 2 illustrates how reconciliation may be hampered or
encouraged when core social identity principles are leveraged in conflict-related dark tourism interpretation. On the left, the
often geopolitically motivated strategy of highlighting group distinctions and identifying with an ingroup promoting difference
serves as a counterforce to reconciliation. This is supported by a case study on transboundary tourism straddling Rwanda, Dem-
ocratic Republic of the Congo, and Uganda, where optimistic aspirations of a multilateral tourism economy promoting peace were
contradicted by political segregation and militarisation among these countries (Trogisch & Fletcher, 2022).
Conversely, three dimensions of the social identity approach (on the right) can contribute to reconciliation through trans-
formed design and interpretation. Fundamentally, enhancing perceived similarities between ingroup (Group A) and outgroup
(Group B) instead of highlighting differences could be adopted in promoting reconciliation, which has been well demonstrated
in dark tourism. This proposition is also evident in non-dark tourism settings. Nutella is a shared affinity and a common cuisine
of people in many countries. Durko and Petrick (2016) found that a Nutella-related tourism initiative functions as a gateway to
cross-cultural understanding and relationship building between students from the United States and Afghanistan. The project al-
lows participants to recognise cultural similarities from both sides, no matter how seemingly mundane.
While Fig. 2 highlights the critical enabling role of identifying with a common ingroup, this dimension has yet to receive schol-
arly attention in dark tourism. This might be because it is a relatively rare phenomenon compared with the other processes. As
indicated in the Social identity and Reconciliation sections, a common ingroup focuses on a more inclusive one-group represen-
tation (as compared with either, say, Group A or Group B). It shapes group attitudes to initiate more harmonious intergroup re-
lations by harnessing the effects of social categorisation (Gaertner et al., 2000). In empirical research based on the conflicted
context of Israel and Palestine, Shepherd (2022) observes that using the unifying figure of Abraham (i.e., the biblical ancestor
of both Palestinians and Israelis) in the stories and symbols of tourism initiatives helps tourists from the conflicting sides to
see commonalities and sow the seeds for peace.
The third or superordinate dimension of dark tourism interpretation for reconciliation concerns a common identification with
the human species. This dimension of Fig. 2 is underrepresented in dark tourism, even though a common human identity can be
experienced in specific dark tourism settings (Zhang, 2021). Broadly, a perspective of universal humanity appears fundamental
today as conflicts take a devastating toll worldwide (Soulard et al., 2022). According to the social identity approach, reconciliation
encompasses seeing the humanity in hostile groups (Staub, 2006). Belhassen (2022) examines the discourse injected into tourist

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Y. Zhang, B. Moyle, G. Lohmann et al. Annals of Tourism Research 103 (2023) 103669

Fig. 2. Social identity approaches for reconciliation and animus in the dark tourism context.

offerings by eight organisations in the Israeli and Palestinian region, where the hopeful ideas and imagination that human beings
can fight despair, darkness threatening their previous lives may facilitate reconciliation. In those regards, enhancing the sense of
human identity bears an integrative potential for the reconciliation process.

Extending the social identity approach

A significant contribution of this work is that it extends the application of the social identity approach in tourism contexts. Our
research innovates by providing a nuanced and micro-theorisation of social identity's impact on reconciliation and animus in a
combined conflict-related dark tourism and geopolitics context. The social identity theories were developed for general theorising
(Turner et al., 1987), but social identity tenets in the present research are employed and illustrated in a more fine-grained manner
through a localised exploration of conflict-based dark tourism settings. Specifically, the social identity approach is often adopted
by disciplines such as organisational behaviour, political science, economics (Ma, Wang, & Hao, 2012), and broad tourism topics
(e.g., Agyeiwaah et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2023). In the current conceptual study, extending the social identity approach into the
combined dark tourism and geopolitics sphere confers unique virtues of unpacking the interactions between animosity, reconcil-
iation, and social identity in various contexts.
This extension, moreover, can benefit by incorporating psychological and sociological theories already engaged in dark tourism
research. As per the framing theory of social action (Soulard et al., 2022), evolving dialogues among visitors to conflict sites can
focus on reconciliation themes. Concurrently, the emotional contagion effects observed at dystopic black metal festivals, as de-
scribed by simulation theory, can also be attributed to or induced in Holocaust sites to produce utopic outcomes (Podoshen,
2013). And while negative emotions in emotional duality theory have been associated with the “positive” outcome of enhanced
ingroup solidarity (Oren et al., 2021), creative interpretation may induce negative emotions that invoke solidarity with the Other
and with humanity in general. A promising link with mediation theory is that reduced existential angst (Stone, 2012) could create
personal mindsets that are more conducive to reconciliation.

Expanding peacebuilding through tourism

In the face of global warfare and tension, tourism has been increasingly recognised as a beacon of shared values and hope and
a pillar of peace and recovery (UNWTO, 2022). Given the linkage between mutual understanding among people and world peace
(Pratt & Liu, 2016), there is an unsurprisingly growing research interest in the tourism-peace nexus (Farmaki, 2017). Drawing on
political science theory and international relations theories, prior research has explored peacebuilding through tourism from ei-
ther macro or meso perspectives (Cokisler & Cokisler, 2023; Farmaki, 2017). Although principles of contact theory were employed
in some empirical studies, “proximity does not equate with meaningful contact” (Valentine, 2008, p. 334). The present conceptual
research contributes to the peace through tourism debates by articulating social identity approaches for reconciliation in dark
tourism interpretation, which addresses relevant issues from a fine-grained and micro perspective.
Higgins-Desbiolles et al. (2022) underscore the need to frame and harness tourism within justice and peace contexts in an era
of multiple crises. The current study responds to Dolnicar and McCabe (2022), who call for peacebuilding research by leveraging

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Y. Zhang, B. Moyle, G. Lohmann et al. Annals of Tourism Research 103 (2023) 103669

dark tourism's potential. Previous research on dark tourism provided insights into practices fostering either animus or reconcili-
ation (e.g., Packer et al., 2019; Šuligoj & Kennell, 2022) but lacked an overarching synthesis and conceptualisation illustrating the
nexus among critical elements. Hence, an evidentiary framework depicting the underpinning mechanisms between dark tourism
and reconciliation and guiding the promotion of mutual understanding and the restoration of harmony was absent. We believe
this to be the first study illuminating how narratives of conflict-based dark tourism should be structured to improve intergroup
relations and accelerate reconciliation.

Practical implications

This research has management implications critical to synthesising dark tourism practices to impact reconciliation in the real
world, providing industry stakeholders with a framework to minimise the associated challenges. For the content of dark tourism
interpretation, narratives of violence and conflict might be balanced by narratives of intergroup similarities. In particular, it might
be promising for dark tourism managers to disseminate messages of shared regional and more inclusive identities, such as
Europeans, Africans, or Latin Americans, thereby emphasising commonalities and diminishing tensions among less inclusive social
units (Fry et al., 2021). We also propose that the storytelling of positive human attributes and identification with the human
group could be incorporated into narratives of dark tourism. Examples include the interpretations pertaining to compassion
and humanity of soldiers and health workers from hostile groups.
Manifestations of positive dark tourism interpretation could occur in various formats. Souvenirs, for instance, should be care-
fully selected to convey inclusive messages of mutual understanding. In addition, akin to the contact zone of Erwin and Sturm
(2022) where visitors developed empathetic understanding at a setting of conflict, ameliorated relations might be achieved
through increased physical contact. Possibilities include workshops, dance, and performance highlighting collaboration, empathy,
and common interests. Curators and educators working in the dark tourism sector may use the findings of the present study as a
source of inspiration to create co-creative participatory activities.
Unfortunately, authorities often have a vested interest in promoting narratives that perpetuate animosity toward perceived ad-
versaries (Lennon & Tiberghien, 2020). This political manipulation can be achieved through selective interpretation portraying the
adversary in a suboptimal manner (Wang et al., 2023). However, if this occurs, there is also the potential for non-sanctioned dis-
senting narratives and interpretations to emerge among visitors, challenging these dominant narratives and offering a more
reconciliation-oriented perspective. While this may be difficult to achieve on-site due to limited discretion given to tour guides
and individuals, social media and other sources can provide a platform for such dissenting interpretations to reach wider audi-
ences (Jordan & Prayag, 2022).
In tandem, collaborations between dark tourism sites and organisations might be better encouraged to promote exhibitions and
performances with a peace-building theme. The UNESCO World Heritage Centre might function as a supernational monitoring agency
to regulate one-sided or biased interpretation and to encourage interpretations at dark tourism sites promoting peace. Specifically,
the World Heritage Convention could set out the criteria for some dark tourism sites being considered for inscription on the World
Heritage List, such as appreciating humanity, collaboration, shared stories, and legacy. Another potential partner is Rotary Interna-
tional, an international service organisation that supports ideas and initiatives that create environments to foster world peace.

Conclusion

This theoretical paper investigates the potential of the social identity approach to address the issue of reconciliation in the con-
text of dark tourism relating to conflicts. Fig. 2 achieves this by incorporating the social identity approach into the dark tourism
domain, presenting an informative and accessible model for future research from a multidisciplinary perspective. However, as
the social identity perspective has been applied here retrospectively, future case study research could constructively refine this
framework by using this perspective as its primary theoretical foundation. This conceptual piece also answers the call for
harnessing the tourism sector's potential, particularly niche tourism, to advance the broader global peacebuilding agenda
(Dolnicar & McCabe, 2022; Farmaki, 2017) by bringing the social identity approach into dark tourism and illuminating new recon-
ciliation avenues for dark tourism design.
Indeed, the tourism sector has limitations and should not be considered a universal panacea for reconciliation. Potentially
undermining positive social identity mobilisations are factors such as local governance, profit-making, and divergent views and
interests of stakeholders that may trigger or sustain intergroup contestation. This approach thus needs to be combined with
local governance and other strategic planning to ensure message synchronisation. Social identity-based reconciliation approaches
developed for dark tourism can serve as a bridge to draw more attention to conversations concerning peacebuilding, and to con-
nect with related social and psychological theories such as the framing theory of social action and emotional duality theory. Con-
currently, dark tourism should be integrated into a more extensive social development process as an active and dynamic force for
reconciliation in divided societies.
The study limitations also concern the restriction of the research to English language sources. There could be valuable studies
and practices in non-English languages which should be investigated in future research. Such inclusion would likely verify or
amend the proposed diagram (Fig. 2) across different cultural contexts, given that debates of dark tourism and reconciliation
are inherently a psychological and social-political phenomenon. The nexus between dark tourism and peacebuilding, moreover,
is nonlinear and dynamic, which requires future studies to deconstruct it from multiple perspectives. Higgins-Desbiolles et al.
(2022) emphasise that understanding the wider structural context in which the tourism sector operates is crucial to realise

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Y. Zhang, B. Moyle, G. Lohmann et al. Annals of Tourism Research 103 (2023) 103669

peace through tourism. From a methodological perspective, the geopolitical environment and geopolitical nature of dark tour-
ism interpretations could be expanded further using policy or discourse analysis in future investigations.
The effect of dark tourism sites associated with natural disasters on peacebuilding has not been addressed in the current re-
search. Zhang (2022) documents tourists' experience of human identity and an enhanced awareness of the qualities and common
interest of human beings, which aligns with “identifying with the human species” in Fig. 2. Hence, future research is needed to
develop a better understanding of this area. Visitors of different backgrounds and experiences play a crucial role in shaping
their onsite experience. As such, it is essential to consider visitor diversity and the potential for critical engagement with the dom-
inant narratives presented at dark tourism sites. For example, at Lushun Museum, some Chinese visitors question the official anti-
Japanese narrative, particularly those who have personal connections to Japanese people or have visited Japan (Weaver et al.,
2018). In that sense, it might be intriguing to focus future empirical investigations around the agency of individual visitors.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Yachen Zhang: Writing – original draft, Conceptualization, Methodology, Visualization. Brent Moyle: Conceptualization, Meth-
odology, Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Gui Lohmann: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – review & editing, Su-
pervision. Renan Peres de Oliveira: Writing – review & editing, Visualization. Lu Chang: Writing – review & editing, Visualization.
David Weaver: Methodology, Writing – review & editing, Supervision.

Data availability

No data was used for the research described in the article.

Declaration of competing interest

None.
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2023.103669.

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Yachen Zhang's research interests include dark tourism, tourism, and disaster management.
Brent Moyle's research interests include sustainability and regional development.
Gui Lohmann's research interests include air transport and tourism management.
Renan de Oliveira's research interests include statistical analysis, transport, and tourism studies.
Lu Chang's research interests include well-being in tourism, eudaimonic approaches, and the senior tourism segment.
David Weaver's research interests include sustainable tourism development, ecotourism, and tourism and geopolitics.

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