[PROCESSING]

by Tara McHugh and Peishih Liang

Realizing the Benefits of Food Irradiation

T
his month’s column will help us to
realize the benefits of irradiation as a
processing technology for food. Food
irradiation is a preservation technique
using ionizing radiation to lengthen shelf-
life of fresh foods and vegetables,
postpone microbial spoilage, reduce
occurrence of foodborne contamination,
and prevent infestation by insects (WHO
1988).
I wish to thank my co-author, Peishih
Liang, research agricultural engineer at
the U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service, for con-
tributing to this column.

History and Market

Ionizing radiation used in food irradiation
includes gamma rays, x-rays, and elec-
tron beams. X-rays and gamma rays were
discovered in the 1890s, and research
back then showed that these forms of
irradiation kill bacteria. However, the
efficiency of x-ray machines and the
availability of radioactive materials pro-
hibited them from being used in the food
industry. Not until the 1940s were elec-
tron accelerators developed, and ionizing
radiation was able to be generated at
much lower cost. In addition, radioactive
elements, such as cesium-137 and
cobalt-60, were produced from atomic
fission, representing a major scientific
advance that supported the industrial
application of food irradiation.
Since then, many studies have been
done to determine the appropriate doses
for treatment of a wide range of food
products. While a certain dose may be
required to inactivate or kill foodborne
pathogens, spoilage microorganisms, and
insects, too much ionizing radiation can
cause fruits and vegetables to soften and
become unacceptably mushy (e.g.,
cucumbers, grapes, and some tomatoes)
Molecular biologist Chris Sommers (left) and microbiologist Glenn Boyd vacuum-seal hot dogs to get them ready for
irradiation. Photo by Stephen Ausmus, USDA Agricultural Research Service
or introduce undesirable flavor in dairy
and meat products.
Globally, gamma rays are the most
common source of food irradiation.
Electron beams cannot penetrate as far
into foods as gamma rays and x-rays;
thus, they are used primarily for treating
grains and powders. Electron beam irra-
diation was reviewed in the January 2017
Processing column. Radioactive iso-
topes, such as cobalt-60 and cesium-137,
are needed to produce gamma rays with
sufficient energy to treat foods. X-rays
and electron beams do not require radio-
active isotopes, but do require costly
accelerators, making gamma ray technol-
ogy more economical than x-rays.
National security concerns about radio-
active materials in recent years have
caused the gamma ray facilities to be
Too much ionizing radiation can cause
fruits and vegetables to soften and
become unacceptably mushy
or introduce undesirable flavor
in dairy and meat products.
more costly and less desirable, and much
more research has been dedicated
toward using x-rays as alternatives.
The global food irradiation market
was valued at $200 million in 2017 and
was projected by Coherent Market
Insights to grow at a 4.9% combined
annual growth rate from 2018 to 2026.
This projects the market size to rise to
$284 million by 2026. This high growth
rate was envisioned due to increased
consumer acceptance since the U.S.

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Realizing the Benefits of Food Irradiation continued...
About a third of spices in the United States are irradiated. © Dmitr1ch/iStock/Getty Images Plus
Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
approved phytosanitary treatment of
fresh fruits and vegetables by irradiation.
The food irradiation market in Asia is also
growing very rapidly owing to approval of
government agencies in India and other
countries.
Presently over 40 countries have
approved applications to irradiate over 40
different foods. More than half a million
tons of food is irradiated around the globe
each year. About a third of the spices and
seasonings used in the United States are
irradiated.
Extending Shelf Life
There are two aspects in extending the
shelf life of foods using irradiation. One is
to inhibit sprouting and delaying ripening
by slowing down the speed at which
enzymes change the food. This is most
commonly used for potatoes, onions,
garlic, and some fruits using low-to-
medium doses of radiation energy. The
other aspect is to destroy or inactivate
organisms that could cause spoilage and
decomposition, which is most commonly
done in muscle foods. The predominant
food spoilage organisms are gram-nega-
tive microorganisms that are very
susceptible to radiation. For example,
pg 64 09.19 • www.ift.org
shelf life of ground beef stored at 4°C
was extended from only one day to 10
days, and shelf life of refrigerated vac-
uum-packaged beef sirloin cuts doubled
from about four weeks to 10 weeks
(Niemand et al. 1981).
Food Safety
Depending on the dose of radiation
energy applied, foods may be pasteurized
to reduce or eliminate pathogens, or they
may be sterilized to eliminate all microor-
ganisms, except for some viruses (IFT
1983). Irradiation creates damage in the
genetic material of the cell by causing a
lesion in the DNA or breaking both
strands of DNA. DNA damage prevents
multiplication and randomly inhibits cell
functions, resulting in the death of the
cell (Lacroix and Follett 2015). Examples
of microorganisms that can be eliminated
from food using irradiation include E. coli
0157:H7, Campylobacter, and Salmonella.
Higher doses of radiation energy can
further sterilize foods to ensure maximum
shelf life and food safety. This is particu-
larly useful for certain groups, such as
campers, hikers, and emergency relief
operations. Such foods have also been
used by astronauts and armed forces in
different countries. In addition, sterile
foods are also used in hospitals and other
medical facilities for immune-compro-
mised and immune-suppressed patients
who must have bacteria-free food (IAEA
1995).
Phytosanitation
Irradiation is one of the phytosanitation
measures used to prevent the introduc-
tion or spread of regulated pests or as a
control measure to contain outbreaks of
pests (Hallman et al. 2016). Phyto-
sanitation does not solely rely on killing
the pest insects, but also preventing the
successful development of different life
stages. For example, when insect larvae
are irradiated, they may not emerge as
adults, and when adult insects are irradi-
ated, they may become sterile and
produce non-viable offspring. Ionizing
radiation breaks chemical bonds within
DNA and other biomolecules, thereby
disrupting normal cellular function in the
infesting insect. The doses required to
control insects are relatively low com-
pared to doses for food safety and
sterilization purposes due to the larger
amounts of DNA and more complex
repair mechanisms.
There are currently two phytosanita-
tion facilities in mainland United States
using gamma rays for fruits and vegeta-
bles (e.g., guava and sweet potato) and
one in Hawaii using x-rays for tropical
fruits (e.g., papaya and mango).
Industrial Equipment Manufacturers
Key processing machinery companies in
the global food irradiation market include
but are not limited to the following com-
panies: Rayfresh Foods, IBA Industrial,
Sterigenics International, Phytosan,
Grey*Star, Nordion, Reviss Services,
Sadex Corp., and Scantech Sciences.
Current Use of Irradiation
The FDA has evaluated the safety of irra-
diated foods for more than 30 years. They
and the World Health Organization,
Centers for Disease Control, and U.S.
Department of Agriculture agree that
irradiated foods are safe. The FDA has
approved irradiation for the following
foods in the United States: wheat flour,
beef and pork, crustaceans, fresh fruits
and vegetables, poultry, seeds for

The Radura is the international symbol of irradiation.
© tatadonets/iStock
sprouting, shell eggs, and shellfish, as
well as spices and seasonings. The irra-
diation process is cold, and as a result,
most of the nutritional value of irradiated
foods is preserved.
The FDA requires that foods that have
been irradiated be labeled with the
Radura symbol along with a statement
“treated with irradiation” or “treated by
irradiation.” Labeling is not required for
individual ingredients in multi-ingredient
foods.
Future Developments in Irradiation
Combinations of irradiation treatments
with other preservation techniques are
likely to be more commonly applied com-
mercially to foods in the years ahead
(Lacroix and Follet 2015). Combinations
of technologies offer the potential bene-
fits of reducing the energy or dose
requirements while still destroying bac-
teria and spoilage organisms, resulting in
increased final product quality.
Synergistic effects of combinations of
Tara McHugh, PhD, Contributing Editor
• Research Leader, USDA Agricultural Research
Service, Albany, Calif.
• tara.mchugh@ars.usda.gov
Peishih Liang is a research agricultural engineer at the
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research
Service (peishih.liang@ars.usda.gov).
modified atmosphere packaging, refrig-
eration, freezing, and/or heating with
irradiation offer promise, as does appli-
cation of edible coatings and natural
antimicrobials in combination with
irradiation. FT
REFERENCES
Hallman, G. J., Y. M. Henon, A. G. Parker, et al. 2016.
“Phytosanitary irradiation: An overview.” Florida Entomologist
99(2): 1–13.
IAEA. 1995. “Shelf-stable foods through irradiation process-
ing.” International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria.
IFT. 1983. “Radiation preservation of foods. A Scientific
Status Summary by the Institute of Food Technologists’
Expert Panel on Food Safety and Nutrition.” Food Technol.
37(2): 55–61.
Lacroix, M., and P. Follett. 2015. “Combination irradiation
treatments for food safety and phytosanitary uses.” Stewart
Postharvest Review 3: 4.
Niemand, J. G., H. J. Van der Linde, and W. H. Holzapfel.
1981. “Radurization of prime beef cuts.” J. Food Protect. 44:
677–681.
WHO. 1988. “Food irradiation: A technique for preserving
and improving the safety of food.” World Health
Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
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