Acute Effects of 6-Week Fasted Training on Body

Composition and Endurance Performances

VIB3101
Research Project in Sport and Exercise Sciences
Final Year Project

Tan Kian Hin (U2005187)

Ooi Tze Liang (17204388)

Supervisor: Dr. Khong Teng Keen

Professor Madya Dr. Ashril Bin Yusof

Faculty of Sports and Exercise Science

 [ACUTE EFFECTS OF 6-WEEK OF FASTED TRAINING ON BODY

COMPOSITION AND ENDURANCE PERFORMANCE]

ABSTRACT

Introduction - Fasted training has emerged as a promising approach to improve body

composition and endurance performance, both of which are key factors in maintaining optimal
health and fitness. Fasted training, also known as working out on an empty stomach or while
fasting, has been shown to boost the body's ability to utilise stored fat as an energy source
during exercise. This study aims to investigate the acute effects of 6-week fasted training on
body composition and endurance performance. The research objectives involve comparing the
outcomes of fasted training with non-fasted training and evaluating the potential benefits and
limitations of each approach.

Methods - In this study, the randomized controlled trial design was used to find out the
effectiveness of fasted training on body composition and muscular endurance performance. In
total, 24 university students that fit the criteria participated in this study and they were
randomly assigned into a fasting, FT group (n=12) and a non-fasted, NFT group (n=12). Both
groups went through the same pre-tests, 6 weeks of endurance training and a post tests. The
purpose of the pretest was to find out every individual’s body fat percentage, RM and VO2
max. The design of the endurance training included both ‘track & field’ and ‘muscular
endurance training’ which covered outdoor and indoor. The intervention focused on finding
out the difference of endurance performance between both groups, as well as their body
composition when the training were finished with a post-test session. The meal intake of each
participant was recorded 3 days before pre-tests and post-tests.

Results - The main findings were, first, that fasted training which is executed by the FT group
did not show significant reduction in body fats % as compared to NFT group. There is a slight
reduction of body fats % in both groups, but there is no significant difference between pretest
and post-test of both groups. Second, the FT group also did not significantly improve the
VO2max, the indicator of cardiovascular endurance as compared to the NFT group. 5 out of 11
participants from the FT group and 4 out of 11 participants from the NFT group dropped in
their cardiovascular endurance performance which is VO2 max. Third, there is huge
improvement in muscular endurance in both groups, but both groups did not show a difference
between each other.

I
Conclusion - There are no significant differences between FT group and NFT group in InBody
test, VO2 max test and RM test. But the pattern of improvements by percentage in both group
is like other studies. Future research must increase the duration of fasting period to at least 14
hours and also increase the duration or volume of aerobic training gradually to obtain
significant difference between both groups in body composition, cardiovascular endurance and
muscular endurance.

Keywords: Fasted training; body fats; endurance

II
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT I

TABLE OF CONTENTS III

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Problem Statement 1

1.2 Conceptual Framework 2

1.3 Research Questions 2

1.4 Research Objectives 2

1.5 Research Hypotheses 3

1.6 Significance of Study 3

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 4

2.1 Introduction 4

2.2 Effects of Fasted Training on Body Composition 4

2.3 Effects of Fasted Training on Physical Performance 5

2.4 Table of Findings 6

2.5 Summary of Literature Review 21

III
CHAPTER 3: METHODS 22

3.1 Research Design 22

3.2 Participants 22

3.3 Protocols / Measurements and Materials 22

3.3.1 Protocol of InBody Test 23

3.3.2 Protocol of VO2 Submaximal Test 23

3.3.3 Protocol of 10RM Test 24

3.3.4 Protocol of RM Test 24

3.4 Statistical Analysis 27

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS 28

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION 33

5.1 Limitations 35

5.2 Conclusion 35

REFERENCE 36

APPENDICES 38

Appendix A: Consent Form 38

Appendix B: Participant Information Sheet 39

Appendix C: Score Sheet 41

Appendix D: Dietary Record 43

IV
Appendix E: GraphPad Prism Generated Sheet 44

Appendix F: Pictures 53

V
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Fasted training has grown in prominence in recent years as a viable technique for
improving body composition and endurance performance, both of which are important
components of health-related fitness. Excess body fat, particularly visceral fat, can lead to
insulin resistance, inflammation, and metabolic dysfunction, thus raising the risk of chronic
diseases. A healthy body composition, on the other hand, has been demonstrated to improve
insulin sensitivity, metabolic health, and overall physical performance by including less body
fat and more muscle mass. Fasted exercise has been shown to improve endurance performance
by increasing the body's ability to use stored fat as fuel while exercising. This increased fat
consumption can allow people to exercise for longer periods of time, increasing overall
endurance. Both health-related fitness components are important in reducing the risk of
obesity-related chronic diseases including heart disease and diabetes, as well as improving
overall physical performance. Finding effective strategies to improve body composition and
physical performance is therefore crucial for decreasing the risk of chronic diseases and
improving overall health.

Fasted training, also known as working out on an empty stomach or while fasting, has
been shown to boost the body's ability to utilise stored fat as an energy source during exercise.
Fasted training may thus be effective in reducing body fat in overweight and obese persons.
Fasted exercise enhances adipose tissue lipolysis, which leads to an increase in peripheral fat
oxidation. This results in greater fat utilisation and weight loss. One study found that exercising
following an overnight fast increased fat oxidation during submaximal exercise compared to
exercising after a CHO-rich meal (Rothschild et al., 2021). Fasted training may also improve
endurance athletes' physical performance, such as cardiovascular fitness and running
performance. Nevertheless, the efficacy and safety of fasted exercise to enhance body
composition and endurance performance have yet to be adequately explored. As a result, the
goal of this study is to look more into the effects of fasting training on body composition and
endurance performance, as well as to provide insight into the potential benefits and limitations
of this training strategy.

1
1.1 Problem Statement

Just a few studies have examined how fasting training impacts endurance performance
in those who have never trained in endurance sports or do not engage in endurance training on
a regular basis. (Zouhal et al., 2020). There has been no study on the use of muscle endurance
as a predictor of the effects of fasting training. The effects of fasting on body composition and
endurance performance are unclear due to differences in study designs, fasting durations,
subject characteristics, weight status, age, and gender.

1.2 Conceptual Framework

1.3 Research Questions

What are the acute effects of 6-week fasted training on body composition and endurance
performance?

1.4 Research Objectives

To investigate the acute effects of 6-week fasted training on body composition and endurance
performance.

2
1.5 Research Hypotheses

Fasted training is more effective than non-fasted training in improving body composition and
endurance performance.

1.6 Significance of Study

This study is significant because it will contribute to the current understanding of the
effects of fasted training and non-fasted training on body composition and endurance
performance. By comparing the two approaches, this study will provide insight into which
approach is more effective in improving these outcomes, which has practical implications for
athletes and individuals seeking to improve their fitness levels. Additionally, this study will
provide valuable information for health professionals and fitness experts who recommend
fasting or fasted training to their clients. The study findings can guide these professionals in
creating more effective and personalized exercise and nutrition plans that can help clients
achieve their health and fitness goals.

3
 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Fasting has grown in favour as a potential method for enhancing body composition and
endurance performance in recent years. Body composition and endurance are significant
components of health-related fitness that are closely linked to a lower risk of chronic illnesses
and a higher quality of life. Numerous studies have looked at the effects of fasting on body
composition and endurance performance in overweight and obese people, and the results have
been positive in terms of lowering body fat and enhancing physical performance. Fasting and
exercise training are low-cost and non-pharmacological approaches that can assist in the
management of health issues associated with being overweight or obese. Fasting can be
practiced for various reasons, such as cultural, religious, or health purposes. It involves
refraining from consuming food or drinks for varying durations, which could range from
several hours each day to several weeks. The start of a fasting period is not precisely defined
in terms of the last consumption of food or drinks.

2.2 Effects of Fasted Training on Body Composition

Based on the Table 2.1 below, there were two studies that showed that Ramadhan
fasting is effective in reducing body weight while the other two studies proved that oxidation
of fat is higher in fasted state than non-fasted state. According to a study, there was a minor
reduction in body mass by 1.3 kg at the end of Ramadhan (Chaouachi et al., 2009). Based on a
research, subjects lost 1.2% of their total body weight and 5% of their body fat weight within
2 weeks of Ramadhan fasting (Ramadan et al., 1994). A study showed that exercising in the
overnight-fasted state increased fat oxidation during submaximal exercise as compared to
exercising in non-fasted state (Rothschild et al., 2021). Another study also showed that the peak
rate of fat oxidation in fasting state was likewise higher than in CHO (Karen Van Proeyen et
al., 2011).

However, there were three studies found that fasted training did not have much effect
on body composition as compared to non-fasted training. The results of a study suggest that
the changes in body composition that occur with aerobic exercise and a hypocaloric diet are
comparable regardless of whether the individual is in a fasted or fed state prior to training
(Schoenfeld et al., 2014a). Same goes to another study, The study showed that both FAE and

4
NFAE interventions conducted over a period of six weeks led to significant improvements in
body shape among overweight and obese young adult males but no significant difference
between groups (Liu et al., 2023). Also, other results of a study indicated that there was no
statistically significant difference between the FAST and FED groups in body mass, body fat
percentage and fat-free mass (Gillen et al., 2013).

2.3 Effects of Fasted Training on Physical Performance

Based on the Table 2.1 below, there were two studies showed that fasted training has
positive effect on the physical performance. A study showed that Ramadan fasting (RF) causes
significant metabolic, hematologic, and cardiovascular changes that are critical during a period
of restricted fluid, mineral, and food consumption as the submaximal heart rate was
significantly decreased while submaximal oxygen uptake increased at the end of RF (Ramadan
et al., 1994). Another study showed that FAST training group increased VO2max much more
than the FED group (Stephen R. Stannard et al., 2010).

Another two studies found that fasted training does not have effect in improving
physical performance. One study found that aerobic and anaerobic adaptations to seven weeks
of training were not compromised by four weeks of intermittent Ramadan fasting, possibly
because the overall training intensity and nutrient intake were maintained throughout the
Ramadan period (A. R. Aziz et al., 2012). Another study found that both groups which are
fasted training and non-fasted groups are observed to have improved VO2 max and
performance in a 60-minute simulated time trial, but both groups did not show significant
difference between each other (K. Van Proeyen et al., 2011).

However, there were two studies showed that fasted training impaired the physical
performance. The findings of a study indicate that Ramadan intermittent fasting (RIF) has
minimal impact on the aerobic performance and performance in very short duration sprinting
and jumping tests among elite Judokas. The slight decrease in the 30-second jump test results
may be linked to reduced central drive and body mass (Chaouachi et al., 2009). Ramadan
fasting had an adverse effect on prolonged intermittent performance as the performance of
sprinting dropped during Ramadhan fasted period (Aziz et al., 2017). During Ramadan fasting,
nocebo effects play a prominent role in exercising.

5
2.4 Table of Findings
Table 2.1 Table of Findings

No. Study Participant Research Intervention Measureme Measure Outcomes Major Findings
design nts

1. Chaouachi Elite judo Semi- Physical performance Body mass, There was no The findings
et al. athletes, longitudinal tests were performed on squat jump significant change in indicate that
(2017) study with 15 professional Judokas (SJ), 30-meter sprint Ramadan
n = 15 repeated- four times: before countermove performance, intermittent fasting
measures Ramadan (T1), ment jump multistage shuttle run (RIF) has minimal
design throughout Ramadan (CMJ), 30- test, squat jump (SJ), impact on the
(T2), at the conclusion second and aerobic
of Ramadan (T3), and repeated countermovement performance and
three weeks following jump, 30-m jump (CMJ) during performance in
Ramadan (T4). sprint, and Ramadan fasting. very short duration
Throughout these the However, the average sprinting and
measurements, the multistage power during the 30- jumping tests
training load was kept fitness test) second repeated jump among elite
constant. and fatigue test slightly decreased Judokas. The slight
scores at the end of decrease in the 30-
Ramadan compared second jump test
to before Ramadan. results may be
There was a minor linked to reduced
reduction in body central drive and
mass by 1.3 kg, and body mass.
an increase in total
fatigue scores during
Ramadan compared
to the control period.
The total fatigue

6
 scores were
significantly higher at
T2 and T3 (19 ± 5
and 16 ± 4,
respectively)
compared to T1 (12 ±
3).

2. Aziz et al. Healthy, The study A total of 14 players Throughout Sprint times during The study indicated
(2017) Muslim used a took part in a modified the trial, the mLIST were that fasting during
football within- version of the several considerably quicker Ramadan had a
players, group, Loughborough measures in both CON1 and detrimental
cross-over Intermittent Shuttle Test were CON2 trials influence on long-
n = 14 design, (mLIST), which lasted obtained, compared to RAM term intermittent
with two 60 minutes and including trials, according to performance. It was
non-fasted consisted of four 15- capillary the research. also shown that
or control minute workout blocks blood nocebo effects had
trials before interspersed with 3- glucose, a significant impact
and after minute intervals. The blood in exercising during
Ramadan mLIST comprised set- lactate, rectal Ramadan fasting.
(CON1) speed walking, jogging, and skin
and and running, as well as temperatures
Ramadan- all-out sprints. , maximum
fasted voluntary
(RAM) isometric
trials contractions
throughout (MVIC) of
Ramadan. the dominant
leg, and a
hand grip

7
 test.

3. Rothschild Male trained A A total of 17 trained Fat oxidation CARB had lower fat When compared to
et al. cyclist, randomised male cyclists oxidation than exercise after a
(2021) control trial participated in three FASTED at and CHO-rich
n = 17 research trials, each consisting of below the ventilatory breakfast,
design with twenty minutes of threshold (VT), as exercising in the
three submaximal cycling (4 well as PROTEIN at overnight-fasted
groups x 5 minute stages at 60% VT. There were state increased fat
which are 60%, 80%, and 100% of no variations in oxidation during
CARB, VT, and 20% of the average power during submaximal
PROTEIN difference between high-intensity periods exercise, and pre-
and power at the VT and between trials. The exercise protein
FASTED peak power), followed levels of oxidative ingestion allowed
groups. by 3 x 3 minutes at 80% stress (F2- for similarly high
peak aerobic power and isoprostanes), levels of fat
3 x 3 minutes at perceived exertion, oxidation.
maximal effort, 30 and hunger were all
minutes after no difference across
consuming either a trials.
carbohydrate-rich meal
(CARB), a protein-rich
meal (PROTEIN), or
water (FASTED) on 3
different settings.

4. Abdul n= 20; Non- Condition: - All Body mass: no The findings

Rashid randomized variables significant effect for discovered that
Aziz et al., Adolescent controlled - Subjects were not measured in both groups Ramadan fasting
2012. males, trial (nFAS involved in systematic last training did not affect the
represent were fitness training during session of Peak oxygen uptake adaptation to

8
Effect of college/ chosen) research period. the week. (VO2peak): Significant training for FAS
Ramadan schools/ improvement for both group. FAS groups
fasting on local clubs - Muslim subjects did i) Urine groups. who completed all
training in soccer/ annual Ramadan fasting sample training sessions
induced basketball past 5-7 years. Total work (kJ): FAS presented data with
ii) Body group > CON group
adaptation Activity plan: Mass no significant
s to a nFAS = 10 (pre & post training) difference from
(Muslim); measurement
seven- A) High-intensity in minimal Maximize anaerobic CON group.
week nCON = 10 interval cycle exercise clothes performance: Researchers
high- training Significant suggested it could
intensity (non- iii) WAn improvement for both due to training
Muslim) - 21 sessions: duration T exercise
interval of 7 weeks with 3 times protocol. groups. intensity and daily
exercise on alternate day per energy/ fluid intake
Magnitude change in during the fasting
week; time between Peak oxygen total work: No
16:00 & 18:00. uptake month were not
significant difference compromised.
(VO2peak): in both groups.
- Ramadan fasting for electrical-
FAS
n group (week 3-6) Researchers
braked cycle mentioned other
- Allowed n CON
to drink ergo-meter; factors such as
water ad libitum during open-circuit dehydration/
training; nFAS remained computerize muscle glycogen
fasting during training. d gas- availability were
analysis not examined in
- All trained in air- spirometry this study,
conditioned system therefore,
environment (20.9 + (calibrate suggested future
0.8oC) with study to include a
Activity flow: standardized more challenging
gases in physical activity
- Standard warm up every test); under more
exercise + 30s maximal stressful

9
effort sprints. heart rate environment.
- Week 1: 4 WAnT
bouts; Week 2: 6
WAnT bouts; Week 3: Maximal
8 WAnT bouts; Week anaerobic
4-7: 10 WAnT bouts. performance
test: Pan-
Recovery gap; Week 1 - weighted
4: 4 min; Week 5: 3 min cycle ergo-
30s; Week 6: 3 min; meter &
Week 7: 2 min 30s. computerize
d software
- Cycle at 60rpm;
constant pace with Food diary
resistance at 50w, then (3 day each
every 2 min increase week): Food
25w until subjects works
unable to sustain 40rpm dietary
for 5 seconds. analysis
programme
B) Maximal
Anaerobic Performance
Test:
- Four set of 30s
Wingate Anaerobic Test
+ 4 min recovery in
between the sets.
Urine sample:
- Collection of ~20ml of
mid stream urine

10
 sample (last training
session of the week);
time: 06:30 - 09:00

5. Gillen et n= 16; Randomize Condition: Two factor Body composition: The findings
al., 2013. d controlled ANOVA. suggested 6 weeks
Overweight/ trial - Subjects had self Body mass: no low volume HIT
Interval obses reported physical Baseline significant effect for (only 30 min
training in women, activity of 2 or less testing: both groups. exercise with 1
the fed or session/ week and 30 or electronicall hour commitment
fasted nFAS = 8 less than 30min per y braked DEXA scan: lower %
in fat in abdominal/ per week) helped
state nFED = 8 session. cycle overweight &
improves ergometer leg/ whole body
Activity plan: obese women
body (VO2peak & Total body fat mass: reduce % in fat on
compositi - 30minutes/ time VCO2); peak HIT reduce abdominal, leg &
on and (morning 07:00 - 10:00) power out abdominal whole body level;
muscle (Wmax); improved body
oxidative - 3 times a week (Mon, maximal Lean mass: Increased
Wed & Fri), total 18 in leg and gynoid composition &
capacity in heart rate capacity of
overweigh supervised sessions (HRmax); region
across 6 weeks. oxidative on
t women glucose Dietary: no skeletal muscle.
Activity flow: tolerance test significant effect for
(OGTT) both groups. There was not
A) Baseline testing after > 10 measurable
(test VO2peak): hours difference between
overnight FED and FAS
- 5 min warm up at Skeletal muscle &
fasting; group on HIT
50W, increase blood metabolites:
DEXA X ray training. Limitation
resistance by 1W every
for skeletal No significant marker include lack of
2 seconds until
muscles. of insulin sensitivity. control group in
exhaustion/ pedal fell
this study.

11
below 50rpm. Researchers
suggested 6 weeks
B) HIT training Post testing: low volume HIT
Blood did induced small
- 3 min warm up (50 W) analysis with
improvements in
- 25 min (10set x 60s ELISA; overweight and
cycling bouts) + 60s DEXA scan obese women’s
recovery (pedal at with Lunar body composition;
resistance 50W) Prodiy however FAS and
Advance; FED group did not
- 2 min cool down (50 muscle
W) show any
analysis on significant
C) Nutrition on enzyme difference in
training day activity & overall variables.
western
- Standardized & blotting
identical breakfast
(energy bar, yogurt &
orange juice: 439 kcal -
74% carbs + 14% fat +
12% protein)
- FED group ate ~60
min before training;
FAS group ate ~60 min
after training.
Post testing
Blood sample -
collected via treated
tubes at 10/ 20/ 30/ 60/
90/ 120 min & placed

12
 on ice.
DEXA scan

6. Ramadan Healthy Randomize Fifteen healthy male Body weight The individuals lost The conclusion is
J. et al., female d controlled Kuwaitis with an 1.2% of their total that RF (Ramadan
1994. trial average age of 37 years Body fat fasting) causes
n = 15 mass body weight and 5%
were tested for of their body fat significant
Effect of cardiopulmonary fitness metabolic,
Ramadan Serum weight after two
on a Monark cycling protein weeks of Ramadan hematologic, and
Fasting on ergometer at 100 W for cardiovascular
Physical Albumin fasting (p < 0.05),
6-8 minutes, and body changes that are
Performan according to the
composition was White blood critical during a
ce, Blood assessed using the research. Total serum period of restricted
and Body cells proteins, albumin,
skinfold technique. fluid, mineral, and
Compositi Biochemical and Platelets and osmolarity food consumption.
on haematological studies significantly
Serum iron
were also carried out increased towards the
utilising conventional Red blood conclusion of RF (p
procedures. These cell count < 0.05). White blood
assessments were cells, platelets, and
performed one week Haematocrit
serum iron, on the
before Ramadan fasting Submaximal other hand, were
(RF), two weeks heart rate considerably
throughout RF, the last
Submaximal reduced (p < 0.05).
four days of RF, and
one week to ten days oxygen During RF, there was
following RF. uptake no significant change
in red blood cell
count or hematocrit.
Also, towards the end

13
 of RF, submaximal
heart rate reduced
considerably (p
< 0.05) by 5.4%,
while submaximal
oxygen consumption
rose by 12.7%.

7. Schoenfel n= 20; Randomize Condition: Testing Body mass: no The findings

d et al., d controlled period: significant effect for pointed out there
2014. Healthy trial - Subjects had history of Baseline both groups. was no difference
young doing aerobic exercise assessment Decrease from pre to between feeding
Body university on regular basis (few (body mass/ post. status in pre-
compositi female, times a week). body exercise in this
on change composition/ BMI: no significant study that covered
associated nFAS = 10 - Age between 18-35, effect for both
BMI not obese. height/ waist aerobic exercise
with fasted (fasted in cm) groups. Decrease and hypocaloric
versus training + - Excluded subjects from pre to post. diet. Result showed
non- overnight with medical history/ -double there was no
fasted beam scale/ % body fat: no
fast) high risk significant effect for beneficial effect for
aerobic intelametrix FAS group.
exercise nFED = 10 Activity plan: tape both groups.
Decrease from pre to Researchers
(Post- Testing: 24 to 48 hours meausrement post. mentioned fasted
prandial prior intervention & / Air training or eating
training + after 4 weeks of study displacement Waist in CM: no after exercise did
ate meal plethysmogr significant effect for not impact the lose
before - FAS group went to lab aphy (ADP) both groups. of body fat.
exercise) in the morning for Decrease from pre to
baseline assessment post. Researchers
after overnight fast (no Training suggested
vigorous physical period: Heart Fat mass: no limitation as below:

14
activity/ no alcohol/ rate monitor significant effect for 4 weeks were fairly
medicine for at least 12 both groups. short for such
hours). Decrease from pre to study; accuracy of
Dietary post. self reported food
Training: treadmill log; menstrual
(steady state aerobic formula: Fat-free mass: no cycle among
exercise) 10x weight significant effect for female which might
- 3 days/ week; 1 hour/ (kg) + 6.25 x both groups. affect hydration
time height (cm) -
5 x age (y) -
Activity flow (1 hour): 161
- 5 min warm up
(intensity 50% of
MHR)
- 50 min (intensity 70%
of MHR)
- 5 min cool down (50%
of MHR)
Dietary:
- Customized dietary
plans based on Mufflin-
St. Joer Equation
- FED group consumed
shake before exercise;
FAS group consumed
shake after exercise.

15
8. Liu et al., n= 30; Single- Condition: SPSS After 6 weeks The findings
2022. blind Statistics showed 6 weeks
Overweight randomized - Subjects were 26.0 - FAE & NFAE training improved
The effect and obese controlled unaware of other’s plan decrease very body shape of FAE
of six young adult trial for training or diet. i) Heart significantly on & NFAE group
weeks of males, rate: Polar following variables among the
fasted - Subject were meter (P < 0.01): weight,
nFAE = 10; participants of enclosed overweight and
aerobic BMI, body fat %, obese subjects.
exercise fat loss training Before & waist & hip
nNFAE = 10; program & no history of after
on body circumferences, waist FAE showed
shape and nCON = 10. systematic training. exercise: to hip ratio & waist to significant reduced
blood - Excluded subjects ii) heigh height ratio, TG, TC, in fasting insulin
biochemic with cardiovascular t, weight, LDL-C & VLDL. levels; increase in
al index in system diseases after BMI, body tissue cell
overweigh - FAE group had sensitivity to
physical exam, fat % (GAIA significant decrease
t and consultation on medical KIKO bio- insulin. However,
obese in FINS (P < 0.05). 30 min of FAE in
history, medicine/ resistance
young supplement intake antibody - NFAE group had morning did not
adult history, PAR-Q, resting composition significant decrease increase adverse
males ECG exam, exercise analyzer) in HDL-C (P < 0.01). effect (frequency of
load test. hunger, thirst,
iii) Circu - FAE & NFAE did fatigue & nausea
Activity plan: mferences not have significant during training)
for waist & difference in adverse
Indoor treadmill brisk hip, waist to reactions. Limitation: sample
walking: 5 days/ week; hip ratio & size focused on
Diet control: 6 weeks. waist to only young men
- 30 min/ time height ratio instead of women/
(tape middle-age/ elderly
Activity flow (1 hour): measure) people/ children.
- Indoor treadmill brisk iv) FPG,
walking (intensity based

16
on result of exercise FINs, TC,
load test & health TG, HDL-C,
status) LDL-C,
VLDL,
- 30 minutes HDL-C/
Dietary: LDL-C
(Toche
- During study period, C8000
FAE & NFAE groups automatic
had all 3 meals at biochemical
fitness center based anaylsis)
customized diet plan.
Adverse
- Breakfast plan: reaction
i) FAE group: 0.5h questionnair
after exercise, es:
subjective
ii) NFAE group: 1h hunger;
before exercise thirsty;
nausea &
Blood sample:
vomiting
- Retain usual eating & feeling;
living habits before comfort
blood test. level (VAS)
- 12h before blood test,
no food intake
(moderate water intake
allowed).

17
9. Van Young male Randomize The participants took VO2max The researchers To summarise,
Proeyen et d control part in a six-week discovered that both fasted training is
al., 2011. n = 20 trial endurance training Muscle groups improved more efficient than
programme that oxidative their VO2max (+9%) carbohydrate
Beneficial included cycling for 1- capacity and performance in a consumption before
metabolic 1.5 hours at roughly 60-minute simulated and during exercise
adaptation Exercise-
70% of their maximum induced net time trial (+8%) (P in enhancing
s due to oxygen consumption < 0.01). muscle oxidative
endurance IMCL
(VO2max) four days a degradation capacity and
exercise week. They ate F was shown to be boosting net
training in isocaloric, Fat oxidation more efficient in intramyocellular
the fasted carbohydrate-rich meals improving muscle lipid (IMCL)
state Maximum oxidative capacity
during this period. Half citrate breakdown.
of the individuals and exercise-induced Furthermore,
synthase net IMCL
trained fasted (F; n=10), fasting training
whereas the other half Hydroxyacyl degradation, helps sustain blood
had enough of coenzyme A especially in type I glucose levels
carbohydrates before dehydrogena fibres (P < 0.05), with during exercise,
(about 160g) and during se activity a trend to increase in which is not the
the workouts (1g per type IIa fibres (P = case when carbs are
Blood 0.07). The peak rate
kilogramme of body consumed before
glucose level of fat oxidation in F
weight per hour) (CHO; and during
n=10). (+21%) was likewise exercise.
higher than in CHO
(+6%) (P < 0.05).
Also, F substantially
increased maximum
citrate synthase
(+47%) and -
hydroxyacyl
coenzyme A
dehydrogenase

18
 (+34%) activity (P
< 0.05), but CHO did
not. F also reduced
the exercise-induced
decline in blood
glucose levels (P
< 0.05), but CHO did
not.

10. Stannard Healthy, Randomize The participants were Respiratory When compared to To summarise, the
et al., untrained 8 d control divided into two exchange the FED training findings of this
2010 females and trial training groups at ratio (RER), group, the FAST study suggest that
6 males random and put through activities of training group had no (a) eating a meal
Adaptatio four-week endurance Vastus significant changes in before daily
ns to cycle ergometer training lateralis respiratory exchange exercise can alter
skeletal programme five days a citrate ratio (RER) or plasma some of the
muscle week. One group synthase glucose, lactate, and exercise training-
with conducted the workout (CS) and 3- free fatty acid (FFA) induced changes
endurance while fasting overnight hydroxy- concentrations after that are commonly
exercise (FAST), whereas the CoA submaximal exercise. observed with
training in other group was fed dehydrogena The training endurance training
the acutely prior to the training se (HAD), increased the when compared to
fed versus session (FED). VO2max and activities of Vastus exercising fasted;
overnight- resting lateralis citrate and (b) the
fasted muscle synthase (CS) and 3- magnitude of these
state glycogen hydroxy-CoA changes in skeletal
concentratio dehydrogenase muscle differs
n (HAD) in both slightly between
groups. When the males and females.
data was evaluated by
gender, it was shown

19
that males reacted
better to FAST
training, while
women responded
better to FED
training. Also, the
FAST-training group
increased VO2max
and resting muscle
glycogen
concentration much
more than the FED
group, but there was
no gender interaction
in this approach.

20
2.5 Summary of Literature Review

Fasted training has been shown to affect body composition and physical performance
differently. Fasted training has been found in several research to reduce body weight and boost
fat burning during exercise. Some research, however, have discovered that fasted exercise has
little to no effect on body composition when compared to non-fasted training. Similarly, fasted
training has varied results in terms of physical performance. Some studies indicated that fasting
and non-fasted training groups performed equally well in terms of physical performance,
including improved VO2 max, while others found no significant differences. There have been
instances of reduced physical performance during fasting training, though. These findings
imply that the effects of fasted training on body composition and physical performance may be
influenced by a variety of parameters such as exercise intensity, duration, and overall
nutritional intake, as well as individual variability in metabolic and physiological responses to
fasting. Therefore, more investigation needs to be done on the effects of fasting on body
composition and endurance performance is required, with a particular emphasis on the
processes behind these effects and the factors that may impact the outcomes. Nevertheless,
there have been limited research on the impact of fasting on endurance performance in
untrained and healthy individuals (Zouhal et al., 2020). There is no research on using muscular
endurance as an indicator to observe the effects of fasted training. Because of variations in
study designs, fasting durations, subject characteristics, weight status, age, and gender, the
effects of fasting on body composition and endurance performance are unknown.

21
 CHAPTER 3: METHODS
3.1 Research Design
In this study, the randomized controlled trial design was adopted to find out the
effectiveness of fasted training on body composition and muscular endurance performance. In
total, 24 university students that fit the criteria participated in this study, and researchers
assigned the participants randomly into a fasted, FT group (n=12) and a non-fasted, NFT group
(n=12). Both groups went through the same pre-test, 6 weeks of endurance training, and a post-
test. The purpose of the pretest was to find out every individual’s body fat percentage, 10RM,
and VO2 max. The design of the endurance training included both ‘track & field’ and ‘muscular
endurance training,’ which covered outdoor and indoor activities. The intervention focused on
finding out the difference of endurance performance between both groups, as well as their body
composition when the training was finished with a post-test session. Both groups had at least
8 hours of overnight fast, FT group trained without eating breakfast while NFT group trained
after 1 hour of eating breakfast. The meal intake of each participant was recorded 3 days before
the pre-test and post-test.

3.2 Participants

This study aimed to recruit at least 24 university students as targeted participants. We

recruited 28 participants in total, but 6 of them dropped out from the study and left 22
participants. The following requirements had to be met by the participants for them to be
qualified to take part in this study:

i) Male university students who were young adults.

ii) No medical history of heart disease.
iii) Healthy and did not have any lower body injuries.
All participants received comprehensive information about the procedures, potential
risks of the interventions, and the purpose of this study before the research began. All
participants were required to provide signed informed consent.

3.3 Protocols/Measurements and Materials

The duration of the intervention was 18 sessions across 6 weeks, which were 3 times a
week. Both the fasted and non-fasted groups went through a pre-test before the training session

22
began and a post-test after the 6 weeks of training. The testing and measurements during the
pre-test were InBody test, VO2 max test, and lower body muscular endurance test including
10RM and RM. The purpose of the pre-test was to measure every individual’s body fat
percentage, VO2 max, and RM. While the purpose of taking 10RM is to prescribe the intensity
of the exercise individually based on their 10RM which is 90% of their 10RM. RM test also
conducted according to their 10RM to see how many repetitions that they can make based on
90% of their 10RM, usually around 12 to 18 repetitions. After the pre-test, two types of training
sessions were conducted alternately across the 18 sessions, which were cardiovascular
endurance training at the track & field and muscle endurance training in the gym. During the
first session of the week, participants underwent cardiovascular endurance training under
researchers’ supervision, which included slow jogging (50% of MHR), running (70% of MHR),
and cool down. The session was estimated to be completed within 40 minutes. The alternate
muscular endurance training started during the second session of the week, which began with
either option of dynamic warm-up, followed by a series of lower body exercises with machines
(leg extension, leg press, leg curl, and calf raise), and finally static stretching on both legs. This
sequence was repeated until all 18 sessions were completed by all the participants. Meanwhile,
every day’s meal of each participant under both the fasted and non-fasted groups was asked to
stick to a similar diet across 6 weeks of training. Lastly, a post-test was conducted to measure
the effects of fasted training on body composition and endurance performance of every
individual. The tests were In Body test, VO2 max test, and lower body muscular endurance test.

3.3.1 Protocol of InBody test

Prior to the InBody test, the participants were asked not to consume any foods or sugary
drinks to get accurate data of body composition. Before standing on the InBody weighing
machine, the participants were asked to remove their shoes and socks. The foots must be placed
correctly on the metal plate of the weighing machine. After their body weight were measured,
the participants were asked to key in their personal information such as height, age and gender.
Next, they were asked to hold the handlers with both hands by placing the thumbs right on the
metal plates of the handlers and their arms were away from their trunk. A few minutes later,
the measurement was completed, and their results were printed in a score sheet.

3.3.2 Protocol of Bruce VO2 Submaximal Test

This VO2 submaximal test Bruce protocol included four stages that were completed on
a treadmill. The first stage included a 3-minute warm-up session in which the runner walked at

23
1.7 mph with a 0% gradient. The second stage consisted of a 3-minute run at a 10% grade, with
the runner's heart rate measured during the last 15 seconds of the second and third minutes. If
the difference in heart rate between these two times was greater than 5 beats per minute, the
stage was extended by one minute to produce a steady-state heart rate, and the heart rate was
measured during the final 15 seconds of that stage. The third stage was a 3-minute run at 2.5
mph and a 12% incline, with the heart rate measured every 15 seconds. The fourth and final
test was a 3-minute run at 3.4 mph and a 14% slope, with the heart rate monitored at the finish.
The exercise program was devised to gradually raise the intensity of the activity, with heart
rate readings recorded at key stages to evaluate the exercise's effect on cardiovascular function.

3.3.3 Protocol of 10RM

The 10RM test was done on leg press, leg extension, leg curl and calf raise. The routine
of this 10RM workout started with a quick warm-up, which consisted of 5 to 10 minutes of
light cardio and stretching with the purpose of getting the muscles ready. Then the participant
chose the weight that was suitable for them to complete the lower body exercises for 10
repetitions. It might have been necessary for the participant to consider doing a few warm-ups
to identify the best beginning weight. It was important to ensure each participant started the
lower body exercises with the appropriate weight, as well as kept proper form throughout the
full 10 repetitions. During the process, ensuring the lower body muscles were fully stretched
and contracted during the exercise was a must. Researchers documented each participant’s
weight used and total number of repetitions for future reference in the rest of the study. It was
recommended to have at least 2 to 3 minutes break in between each set. The exercise could be
performed as many times as possible with weights that progressively increased until the
participant completed the maximum of 10 repetitions.

3.3.4 Protocol of RM

RM test was conducted on leg press only. Started with a quick warm-up, which
consisted of 5 to 10 minutes of light cardio and stretching with the purpose of getting the
muscles ready. By using the weight, 90% of the participants’ 10RM, they were asked to lift the
weight as many as possible and the total number of repetitions was recorded.

24
Table 3.1 Flow of Procedure

PRE-TEST

Purpose: To test individual’s body fat %, VO2max & RM.

Tests Instrument
1 In Body test In Body machine
2 VO2max test Treadmill and CPET device
3 Lower Body Muscular Endurance Test

(RM)

- Leg extension

- Leg press

- Leg curl

- Calf raise

6 weeks - Intervention Period (3 times a week)

Activity: Alternate training between A) Cardiovascular Endurance and B) Muscular

Endurance

A) Cardiovascular Endurance Training

Activity Duration Material

1 Slow jog (50% MHR) 5 mins
2 Run (70% MHR) 30 mins
Track & Field
3 Cool Down 5 mins
Total Duration: 40 mins
B) Muscular Endurance Training

Activity Duration Material

1 Dynamic Warm Up Yoga Mat

25
 Option 1

- Inch worm plus cobra 1 min

- Hip flexor to glute stretch 1 min

- Prone spinal twist 1 min

- Squat to overhead squat 1 min

Option 2 Yoga Mat

- Jumping jack 1 min & Swiss Ball

- Swiss ball overhead squat 1 min

- Stability Swiss ball plank extension 1 min

- Stability Swiss ball single leg hamstring 1 min

curl

2 Muscular Endurance Training 12 reps/ 5 sets Isotonic Machine

- Leg extension

- Leg press

- Leg curl

- Calf raise (gastrocnemius)

(Note:1 minute rest in between each set)

3 Static Stretch

- Quadriceps 2 sets
-
- Hamstring - Hold for 60s

- Gastrocnemius (Each leg)

POST-TEST

26
 Purpose: To observe the effects of fasted training on body composition and endurance
performance.

Activity Instrument
1 In Body test InBody machine
2 VO2 Max test Treadmill and CPET device
3 Lower Body Muscular Endurance Test Leg press machine in gym

(RM)

- Leg press

3.4 Statistical Analysis

The data was analyzed using GraphPad Prism Version 9.3.1 (©2021 GraphPad
Software, Inc, USA). An independent t-test was used to ensure homogeneity among the groups
based on pre-test results. A two-way ANOVA was conducted to determine significant
interactions within and between the variables of the study. If significant interactions were
found, Tukey's post hoc test was used to identify where the significance lied. Descriptive
statistics were presented in means and standard deviations (Mean ± SD), with all levels of
statistical significance set at 95%, p < 0.05.

27
 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS

4.0 Results

This study included 28 healthy and physically active university male students, but 6 of
them were dropped out from the study and left 22 participants (an average age of 21.85 ± 2.25
years, average height of 1.72 ± 0.07 m, average weight of 67.69 ± 11.56 kg, and average BMI
of 22.70 ± 2.96). Table 4.1 includes descriptive data for the baseline physical characteristics of
both the FT and NFT groups.

Table 4.1

Baseline Characteristics of Participants

FT (n = 11) NFT (n = 11)

Age (years old) 21.55 ± 0.93 21.82 ± 0.87

Weight (kg) 70.3 ± 12.41 68.14 ± 11.01

Height (m) 1.73 ± 0.04 1.71 ± 0.05

BMI 23.61 ± 4.10 23.24 ± 3.64

Note. Table above shows the baseline characteristics of the participants from FT and NFT
groups. All values in the table are recorded in Mean ± SD.

28
Table 4.2

Results of InBody test, VO2max test and RM test for both groups during Pre- and Post Test

FT NFT

InBody Test
Pre 20.1 ± 5.76 20.4 ± 6.67
Post 19.0 ± 5.95 19.7 ± 7.33

VO2 Max Test

Pre 51.0 ± 9.60 49.0 ± 12.09
Post 53.2 ± 9.44 49.6 ± 10.73

RM Test
Pre 21.5 ± 6.82 18.3 ± 7.10
Post 36.6 ± 10.91 * 33.6 ± 8.37 *

Note. Table above shows the results of InBody test, VO2 max test and RM test for FT and NFT
at pre- and post-test after 6-week training which consist of 9 sessions of cardiovascular training
and 9 sessions of weight training All values in the table are recorded in Mean ± SD. *p < 0.05
compared to Post; **p < 0.01 compared to Post. FT = fasted group; NFT = non-fasted group.

InBody test

The interaction effect of Group is not significant (P value = 0.5070), showing that the
Group variable has no effect on the outcomes. The quantity of interaction found in this size
experiment has a 51% probability of being seen randomly, indicating that Group does not have
a consistent influence across all Time values. The effect of Time is considered insignificant (P
value = 0.1067), suggesting that Time has no effect on the outcomes. There is an 11%
probability of seeing an effect as large as or larger than the one seen in this size experiment.
This implies that the curves representing different time points are not significantly different.
The matching is regarded as exceptionally effective (P value 0.0001), showing that the

29
matching process employed in the experiment was effective in forming comparable groups.
There is less than a 0.01% probability of finding an effect as great as or larger than the one
reported in this experiment by chance, indicating that the matching had an important impact.

VO2max test

The interaction effect of Group is considered insignificant (P value = 0.6139),

indicating that Group has no consistent influence across all Time values. The quantity of
interaction detected in this size experiment has a 61% probability of being seen randomly. The
effect of Time is considered insignificant (P value = 0.3885), implying that Time has no
significant influence on the outcomes. There is a 39% probability of seeing an effect as large
as or larger than the one observed in this size experiment. The effect of Group is considered
insignificant (P value = 0.5093), suggesting that Group has no effect on the outcomes. There
is a 51% probability of finding an effect as large as or larger than the one seen in this size
experiment. The matching approach used in the experiment was successful in forming similar
groups (P value 0.0001). There is less than a 0.01% probability of finding an effect as great as
or larger than the one reported in this experiment by chance, indicating that the matching had
a significant effect.

RM test

The interaction effect of Group is deemed insignificant (P value = 0.9396), indicating

that Group has no consistent effect across all Time values. The quantity of interaction detected
in this size experiment has a 94% probability of being seen randomly. The impact of Time is
regarded as highly significant (P value 0.0001), implying that Time has a major influence on
the outcomes. There is a less than 0.01% probability of finding an impact as significant as or
larger than the one shown in this small experiment. The effect of Group is deemed insignificant
(P value = 0.3295), suggesting that Group has no effect on the outcomes. There is a 33%
probability of finding an effect as large as or larger than the one observed in this size
experiment. The matching is regarded as very significant (P value = 0.0071), indicating that
the matching process used in the experiment was effective in generating comparable groups.
There is a 0.71% probability of finding an effect as great as or larger than the one found in this
experiment at random, indicating that the matching had a substantial impact.

30
Figure 4.1

Graph of results of InBody test for two groups at pre- and post-tests.

Note. Figure above shows the graph of time effect on InBody test results for FT and NFT
following an intense exercise. *p < 0.05 **p < 0.01.

Figure 4.2

Graph of results of VO2max test for two groups at pre- and post-tests.

31
Note. Figure above shows the graph of time effect on VO2max results for FT and NFT
following an intense exercise. *p < 0.05 **.

Figure 4.3

Graph of results of RM test for two groups at pre- and post-tests.

Note. Figure above shows the graph of time effect on RM test results for FT and NFT
following an intense exercise. *p < 0.05 **.

32
 CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION
5.0 Discussion

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of fasted training on the body
composition and endurance performances. The main findings were, first, that fasted training
which is executed by the FT group did not show significant reduction in body fats % as
compared to NFT group. There is a slight reduction of body fats % in both groups, but there is
no significant difference between pretest and post-test of both groups. Second, the FT group
also did not significantly improve the VO2max, the indicator of cardiovascular endurance as
compared to the NFT group. 5 out of 11 participants from the FT group and 4 out of 11
participants from the NFT group dropped in their cardiovascular endurance performance which
is VO2max. Third, there is huge improvement in muscular endurance in both groups, but both
groups did not show a difference between each other.

Body fats percentage

Both groups showed a slight reduction in body fats percentage but with no significant
difference because reducing body fats percentage does not depend solely on exercise. One of
the limitations is that the diets of the participants were not under control and only the diets 3
days before pretest and post-test were recorded. Therefore, they might overeat or undereat
throughout the 6-week of training. Plus, the training design only consists of 9 sessions of
cardiovascular training and 9 sessions of weight training which might not be effective enough
for them to improve their body composition.

The average body fats percentage of FT group and NFT group were in normal range
which are 19.23% and 19.33% respectively. Thus, it’s more difficult to observe the significant
difference in normal population as compared to overweight population. They might need longer
time of training to obtain significant reduction in their body fats percentage. A study also found
that they could not found any significant reduction in the body fats percentage of active young
women with average of 25% which is within a normal range for women category (Schoenfeld
et al., 2014b).

The duration of fasting such as Ramadhan fasting which is like 168 intermittent fasting
and overnight fast (≥8h) might be the key factor in reducing body fats % significantly as
compared to other factors like the study design, type of training and participants characteristics.

33
Longer duration of fasting like Ramadhan fasting (15h) will reduce body fats % significantly
as compared non-fasting group (Trabelsi et al., 2012). At least 14 hours of fasting to observe
significant effect in body fats percentage reduction (Martínez-Rodríguez et al., 2021).

Cardiovascular endurance

VO2max of FT group increased (+4.21%) slightly greater than NFT group (+1.16%).
The improvement pattern is similar to a study (Stephen R. Stannard et al., 2010) where it used
LISS training as their intervention to improve VO2max whereas another study (A. Aziz et al.,
2012) which used HIIT as the intervention showed similar improvement of VO2max in both
groups. The volume or the duration of the training could affect the effect of fasted training in
improving the cardiovascular endurance. This study included 4 days of aerobic training per
week (K. Van Proeyen et al., 2011) while our study included 1 to 2 days of aerobic training
due to combination of aerobic and weight training. Solely focus on cardio training might have
more significant improvement in VO2max. Another study showed significant improvement in
VO2max as they increase the duration of training gradually (S. R. Stannard et al., 2010) while
in our study, the duration of every aerobic training was maintained for 30 minutes every week
throughout the 6-week of fasted training. One study found that aerobic and anaerobic
adaptations to seven weeks of training were not compromised by four weeks of intermittent
Ramadan fasting, possibly because the overall training intensity and nutrient intake were
maintained throughout the Ramadan period (A. Aziz et al., 2012).

Muscular endurance

NFT group improved (+84.13%) greater than FT group (+70.02%). Fasted training did
not negatively impact the improvement of muscular endurance and non-fasted training seems
to have better improvement than fasted training. There have been limited research on the impact
of fasting on endurance performance in untrained and healthy individuals (Zouhal et al., 2020)
and there is no any research on using muscular endurance as an indicator to observe the effects
of fasted training.

34
5.1 Limitations

One possible limitation of the study is that the duration of fasting is not long enough to
obtain a significant result in reducing the body fats percentage. Therefore, it’s suggested to
increase the duration of fasting to at least 14 hours and above to obtain more significant result
in reducing body fats percentage. Another limitation is that the training volume or duration did
not increase gradually, and it caused the effects of both groups is not significantly different.
Thus, it’s recommended that the training volume should increase gradually from time to time
to create the progression in both groups.

5.2 Conclusion

There are no significant differences between FT and NFT groups in InBody, VO2max
and RM tests. This provides credibility to the idea that no significant acute effects reported to
fasted training may be due to low fasting duration and the training volume or duration was
maintained throughout the fasting period. As a result, future research must either increase the
fasting duration to observe significant reduction in body fats percentage or gradually increase
the training volume or duration from time to time to obtain significant improvement of VO2max
in fasted group as compared to non-fasted group. The study's findings are intended to help
athletes, practitioners, and coaches discover alternative type of training to enhance the athletic
performance. Further study is needed to investigate the effects of longer fasting period
(including Ramadhan fasting and 168 intermittent fasting) and training duration on body fats
percentage reduction and endurance performance enhancement, as well as to acquire a better
knowledge of the underlying physiological mechanisms.

35
 REFERENCES
Aziz, A., Slater, G. J., Chia, M. H., & Teh, K. (2012). Effects of Ramadan fasting on training
induced adaptations to a seven-week high-intensity interval exercise programme.
Science & Sports, 27(1), 31-38.

Aziz, A. R., Che Muhamad, A. M., Roslan, S. R., Ghulam Mohamed, N., Singh, R., & Chia,
M. Y. H. (2017, Jan 6). Poorer Intermittent Sprints Performance in Ramadan-Fasted
Muslim Footballers despite Controlling for Pre-Exercise Dietary Intake, Sleep and
Training Load. Sports (Basel), 5(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/sports5010004

Aziz, A. R., Slater, G., Chia, M., & Teh, K. C. (2012, 02/01). Effects of Ramadan fasting on
training-induced adaptations to a seven-week high-intensity interval exercise
programme. Science & Sports, 27, 31-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scispo.2011.03.004

Chaouachi, A., Coutts, A. J., Chamari, K., Wong, D. P., Chaouachi, M., Chtara, M., Roky, R.,
& Amri, M. (2009). Effect of Ramadan intermittent fasting on aerobic and anaerobic
performance and perception of fatigue in male elite judo athletes. The Journal of
Strength & Conditioning Research, 23(9), 2702-2709.

Gillen, J. B., Percival, M. E., Ludzki, A., Tarnopolsky, M. A., & Gibala, M. J. (2013). Interval
training in the fed or fasted state improves body composition and muscle oxidative
capacity in overweight women. Obesity, 21(11), 2249-2255.

Liu, X., He, M., Gan, X., Yang, Y., Hou, Q., & Hu, R. (2023). The Effects of Six Weeks of
Fasted Aerobic Exercise on Body Shape and Blood Biochemical Index in Overweight
and Obese Young Adult Males. Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness, 21(1), 95-103.

Martínez-Rodríguez, A., Rubio-Arias, J. A., García-De Frutos, J. M., Vicente-Martínez, M., &
Gunnarsson, T. P. (2021, Jun 14). Effect of High-Intensity Interval Training and
Intermittent Fasting on Body Composition and Physical Performance in Active
Women. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 18(12).
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18126431

Ramadan, J., Mousa, M., & Telahoun, G. (1994). Effect of Ramadan fasting on physical
performance, blood and body composition. Medical Principles and Practice, 4(4), 204-
212.

Rothschild, J. A., Kilding, A. E., Broome, S. C., Stewart, T., Cronin, J. B., & Plews, D. J.
(2021, Apr 14). Pre-Exercise Carbohydrate or Protein Ingestion Influences Substrate
Oxidation but Not Performance or Hunger Compared with Cycling in the Fasted State.
Nutrients, 13(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13041291

Schoenfeld, B. J., Aragon, A. A., Wilborn, C. D., Krieger, J. W., & Sonmez, G. T. (2014a,
2014/11/18). Body composition changes associated with fasted versus non-fasted

36
 aerobic exercise. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 11(1), 54.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-014-0054-7

Schoenfeld, B. J., Aragon, A. A., Wilborn, C. D., Krieger, J. W., & Sonmez, G. T. (2014b).
Body composition changes associated with fasted versus non-fasted aerobic exercise.
Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 11(1), 1-7.

Stannard, S. R., Buckley, A. J., Edge, J. A., & Thompson, M. W. (2010, 2010/07/01/).
Adaptations to skeletal muscle with endurance exercise training in the acutely fed
versus overnight-fasted state. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 13(4), 465-
469. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2010.03.002

Stannard, S. R., Buckley, A. J., Edge, J. A., & Thompson, M. W. (2010, Jul). Adaptations to
skeletal muscle with endurance exercise training in the acutely fed versus overnight-
fasted state. J Sci Med Sport, 13(4), 465-469.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2010.03.002

Trabelsi, K., el Abed, K., Stannard, S. R., Jammoussi, K., Zeghal, K. M., & Hakim, A. (2012,
Feb). Effects of fed- versus fasted-state aerobic training during Ramadan on body
composition and some metabolic parameters in physically active men. Int J Sport Nutr
Exerc Metab, 22(1), 11-18. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.22.1.11

Van Proeyen, K., Szlufcik, K., Nielens, H., Ramaekers, M., & Hespel, P. (2011). Beneficial
metabolic adaptations due to endurance exercise training in the fasted state. Journal of
applied physiology.

Van Proeyen, K., Szlufcik, K., Nielens, H., Ramaekers, M., & Hespel, P. (2011, Jan).
Beneficial metabolic adaptations due to endurance exercise training in the fasted state.
J Appl Physiol (1985), 110(1), 236-245.
https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00907.2010

Zouhal, H., Saeidi, A., Salhi, A., Li, H., Essop, M. F., Laher, I., Rhibi, F., Amani-Shalamzari,
S., & Ben Abderrahman, A. (2020, 2020/12/31). Exercise Training and Fasting: Current
Insights. Open Access Journal of Sports Medicine, 11, 1-28.
https://doi.org/10.2147/OAJSM.S224919

37
 APPENDICES
Appendix A: Consent Form

38
Appendix B: Participant Information Sheet

39
40
Appendix C: Score Sheet

41
42
Appendix D: Dietary Record

43
Appendix E: GraphPad Prism Generated Sheets

44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
Appendix F: Pictures
InBody test

VO2max test

53
RM test

54
Warm-up (Dynamic stretching)

55
Cardio training

Weight training

56
57