Microwave Components Lai 6.1 INTRODUCTION x Zc : ee. ‘Microwave systems normally consist of several microwave components including the source and the load being connected to each other by waveguide or co-axial or transmission line system. All these components must be built with low standing wave ratios, lower attenuation, lower insertion losses and other desirable characteristies to achieve the desired transmission of microwave signal. ‘The rectangular and circular waveguides, cavity resonators etc. that were discussed in previous chapters aré also microwave components. In this chapter we study other components like waveguide junctions, joints, corners, drives, posts and screws, directional couplers, ferrite devices phase shifters, filters ete. 6.2 WAVEGUIDE MICROWAVE JUNCTIONS Qtacertain position in a waveguide system, many a times it becomes necessary to split all or part of the microwave energy into particular directions. This is achieved by waveguides or in general by microwave junctions These are combined to form coupler units that direct the energy as required. Alternately the sam@ junction may be used to combine two or more signals. In general, a microwave junction is an interconnection of two or more microwave components as shown in Fig, 6.1 Gis junction has four ports similar to low frequency two-port networks, Fig. 6.2 sh microwave source at port © and microwave londs at ports ©. @ ead . Fig. 6.2 shows a ‘The microwave junction is analogous to a traffic junction where ke anw which vehicles enter and leave the trffiejunction. Ina similar mannes ee < source is applied at port © a part ofiteomos outof pot ® another partoutofpert Geren some part ou‘cavity Resonators Bei ofport © and the remaining part may come out of port © itself due to mismatch between port O and microwave junction. Pon @) Port @) ow Load aw : ow Pot ®| source Junction toad |Por@ 6.2.1. Scattering or (S) Parameters ((Low frequency circuits can be described by two port networks and their parameters such as Z, ¥, \H, ABCD ete, as per network theory, Here network parameters relate the total voltages and total currents as shown in Fig, 6.3.)202 © Microwave and Radar Engineering Ina similar way at microwave frequencies, we talk of travelling waves with associated Lethe instead of voltages and currents and the microwave junction can be defined by what are call) 2) S-parameters or soattering parameters (similar to H, Y, Z parameters). Referring to Tie: | canbe seen that foran input atone port, we have four outputs as discussed earlier. SimilarlvGPe apply inputs to all the ports, we will have 16 combinations, which are represented in a matrix form and that matrix is called as a Scattering Mat is a square matrix which gives all the combinations of power relationships between the various ifput and output ports of a microwave junction/{The elements of this matrix are called scattering coefficients or scattering (S) paramete’ 5 +o——_| \—o+ 2-port Mi network “a | a Fig.6.3 ‘To obtain the relationship between the scattering matrix and the input/output powers at different, ports, consider a junction of ‘n’ number of transmission lines wherein the ith line (i can be any line from 1 to n) is terminated in a source as shown in Fig. 6.4. tine. #2 Fig. 6.4 Case 1 Let the first line be termiriatod in ay impedance other than th aa Gc, 2 # Z05 and all the remaining lines (from 2nd to nth tine) in ae ieee ate impedance L ne lie 4% e equal to Z,Cavity Resonators: 203 Ifa; be ee at the junction due to a source at the ith line, then it divides itself aE CO a nsincidontwercs nears shown in Fig. 6.4. There will be no reflections from gnd to nth line and the incident waves are absorbed since their impedances are equal to characteristic impedance (Z,). But, there isa mismatch at the 1st line and hence there will be a reflected wave b going back into the junction, i by is related to a, by, by =(cefection coefficient) a, = Siy-a, where, Sj, =reflection coefficient of 1st line. 1 =reflection from 1st line and i=source connected at ith line. Hence, the contribution to the outward travelling wave in the ith line is given by a b, = Sasa, [by =b3=..= 6, = 01 Case % Let all the (n— 1) lines be terminated in an impedance other than 2) (ie. #2, for all the lines ‘Then, there will be reflections into the junction from every line and hence the total contribution to the outward travelling wave in the ith line is given by b= Sym + Si, +S; 40+ 4S: (6.1) i=1ton since i can be any line from 1 ton ‘Therefore. we have, Bre Sy a, + Sip a+ Sip gt * Sin bn By = Spy 04 + Sap 02 + S35 0g + ~- + San On by = Spa 1 + Spa. Qa Spa ds * + Se On In matrix form, : b Si Sip Stn a by Soy Sap Son ay = (6.2) 6, Sq Sa Son a Column Matrix [6] Seattering Column Matrix {al corresponding to Matrix [S} Corresponding to Reflected waves ofordorn Xn Incident Waves or Output or Input {o] = 1S) al (6.3)- ‘Microwave and Radar Engineering When a junction of n number of waveguides is considered, a's represent inputs to particular ports. D's represent outputs out of various ports. ‘ F i utput taken Sj; corresponds to scattering coefficients resulting due to input at ith port and outpt out of jth port, + nction i i hen input Si, denotes how much of power is reflected back from the junction into the ith port wl power is applied at the ith port itself. “Properties of (S) Matrix 1. [S] is always as quare matrix of order (n x n) 2. [S]is a symmetric matrix. ie, Sy = Sj 3. [S] is a unitary matrix ie, (s} [sl =U) where, _[S] = complex, conjugate of [S] O =unit matrix or Identity matrix of the same order as that of [S]. The sum of the products of each term of any row (or column) multiplied by the complex conjugate of the corresponding terms of any other row (or column) is zero. =1,2,3,..0 ,2,8,.. ) If any of the terminal or reference planes (say the kth port)-are moved away from the junction by an electric distance fy1,, each of the coefficients S;, involving k will be multiplied by the factor ela, & ies ¥ 548) Oke) ( i 63 MICROWAVE TJUNCTIONS Genction is an intersection of three waveguides in the form of. several types of Tee junctions. The following Tee junctions will be “L H-plane Tee junction 2. E-plane Tee junction 3. E-H plane Tee junction (Hybrid T junction) 4, Magic-T junction 5. Rat race junction ‘English alphabet ‘I’. There are, discussed. 6.3.1. H-plane Tee Junction . ‘ id by cutting a rectang lar al i {AHeplane Teo junction formed by esting arectangulaalot slong the width gas : and attaching another waveguide —thesidonrm — called the Harm asche ee Tig.6 Shewn © and port @ ofthe mainwavepidesreclotcolinons portsandgar Sista ee ee : arm or side arm, LT acavity Resonators 205 | H-plane aa *° called because the axis of the side arm is parallel to the planes of the main | transmission line. As all three arms of H-plane Tee lie in the plane of magnetic field, the magnetic field divides itself into the arms, Therefore this is also called a current junction. ‘The properties ofa H-plane Tee can be completely defined by it [S] matrix. The order of scattering matrix is 3 x 3 since there are three possible inputs and 3 possible outputs. Plane of \ symmetry Coplanar arms Port 4 , bb | aya Port, Fig. 6.5 mes Su Sp Sp _ [5] =| S21 Sa2 Ses (6.4) : Ss Sar Sas. Now we determine the S-parameters Sj, i.1, 2, 3,j—> 1,2, 3 by applying the properties of [S]. 1. Because of plane of symmetry of the junction scattering coefficients,S,, and Sp, must be = / — equal. - : FB - Sys = Sra _2 From the symmetric property, Sj= 8° Sirice ports peifectly matched to the junction / Sag =O | / With these properties [S] matrix of Ea. 6.4 becomes, } / Su Sw Sis : 15] =|Siz Sx Sis (6.5) Sir Sy 0 i.e, We have four unknowns.208 1 Engineering ” Microwave and Radar 4, From the unitary property ? (SSI =U) Sy Sz Ss][Si Siz Sis] [10 0 Si2 Sep S3||Siz Sx Sis] =| 1 ° Ss Sa. 0||s, si. 0| 19 o 1 Multiplying we get, RyCy Siy Siz + Sip Sto + Sis Sig = WRC, = row 1, column 2) = ISy? + 1Sy21? + 1Sial?=1 Similarly R,Cy:|Syal? + | Sza!? + 1 Siol?=1 RCo 1Sygi2+ 1Siol? BC S12Si1 + Sis Siz From Eq. 6.8 21SI2=1 or Syy= (6.10) 13 13* Ty Comparing Eqs. 6.6 and 6.7, we get 1Syy1? = 1 Spo? . Sy = Sia (6.11) From Eq. 6:9, Sip #0, (Si +Si2=0 oF Su ) - Sy =—'Siz oF S2=-Su ..-(6.12) Using these in Eq. 6.6. Isyl?+|Sul2+4 #1 or 21S y=} oF Suz 5 (6.13) From Eq. 6.11 and 6.12, i Si > (6.14) Sy =i and : ae = 5 (6.15) Substituting for S13, Shy, Syg and Syqfrom Eq. 6.10 and Eqs. 6.13 to 6:15 in Eq. 6.5, we get 2 1 1 2.2 2 e|y 2 at = I=|\-9 2 ~-(6.16) ta 0 eve 3) We know that [6] = [5] [ol (from Eq. 6.3)ay cavity Resonators 207 ie, (6.17) (6.18) by = p% + a + (6.19) Case 1: a, 40,a,=a,=0, (ie., Input is given at port @ and no inputs at port © and port ®). Substituting these in Eqs. 6.17, 6.18 and 6.19, we get : b, = “3, b, = = and b. wee Let P; (corresponding to a) be the power input at port @. Then this power divides equally between ports © and @ in phase i.e., P; = P, (power outputs at the respective ports corresponding tob, and b,). But Py = Py+ Py=2P, =2 Py ‘The amount of power coming out of port © or port @ due to input at port ©. B PB t = 10 logyy Zt = 10 logyo Zt = 10 log, (3) 0 oR 10 (5 =—10 log, =— 10(0.3010) = 4B Hence the power coming out of port © or port @ig 3 dB down with respect to input power at port ©, hence the H-plane Tee is called as 8-4B splitter Further when TEy) mode is allowed to propagate into port , the electric field lines do not change their direction when they come out of port © and ®, hence called H-plane Tee. i.e., The waves that come out of ports © and @ are equal in magnitude and phase. Case 2:we iGrowave and Radar Engineehind . 1 in i.e,, The output at port @ is addition ofthe two inputs at port © and port @ and these are added i phase. 6.3.2 E-Plane Tee : is ‘A rectangular slot is cut along the broader dimension of a long waveguide and @ ae an. attached as shown in Fig, 6.6. Ports © and are the collinear arms and port @ is the E-orm. Port @) E-arm pot @ Port @ Fig. 6.6 E-plane Tee. When TE mode is made to propagate into port @, the two outputs at port © and © will have a phase shift of 180° as shown in Fig. 6.7. Since the electric field lines change their direction when they come outof port © and @, itis called a E-plane Tee. E-plane Tee isa voltage or series junction eymmetrical about the central arm. Hence any signals that is to be eplit or any two signal that are tobe combined will be fed from the E arm. ® Fig.6.7cavity Resonators Bs 209 ‘The scattering matrix of an E-plane Tee can be used to describe its properties. In general, the power ‘out of port ® (side or E arm) is proportional to the difference between instantaneous powers entering from ports © and @. ‘Alco, the effective value of the power leaving the B arm is proportional to the phasor difference between the powers entering ports © and ®. When powers entering the main arms (ports © and @are in phase opposition, maximum energy comes out of port @ or E-arm. Since it is a three port junction the scattering matrix can be derived as follows: Je THis 0.3 x 3 matrix since there are 8 ports. ~ ) SurS2 Sis IS] =|Sx So Soa Ss S32 Ss, / De The Scattering coefficient Sos =-Sig Since outputs at ports © and © are out of phase by 180° with an input at port ©. 3, Afport @ is perfectly matched to the junction. Soq =0 ‘4, From symmetric property S,= S; ‘ Siz = Sa Shs = Sar Sag = S32 ' With the above properties (Eq. 6.21 and 6.22), [S] becomes, Si Sx. Sia [5] =|Si2 See Sis Sig7Si3 0 5. From unitary proptery, [S]. [S]*=[] see gn ch || Sica one 1e ORO) in - |Si2 Se S|[S Sz Sis|=]o 20 Sa Bis 9 S/S, Sis 0 ool RC: 1S, 12 + [Sy2I? + 1Sig1? = 1 RiCy: Sig? + | Sool? + 1S,g1?=1 RyC3: 1Sy91? + 13,3]? RCy: ‘ Siy° Siy- Sis Sig=0 > Equating Bqs. 6.24 and 6.25, we get Sn =Sn ; , From Eq, 6.26, Sig = ve (6.20) (6.22) (6.22) (6.23) (6.29)Microwave and Radar Engineering 210 From Eq. 6.27, - Syq (Sir — Sis) = OF Sy, = S12 = Se (6.30) Using these values (Eqs- 6.28 to 6.30) om Eq. 6.24, isl? 1Sule* 5 7? i Esau] 7 a|syl2=5 0 Si =i ‘ “63 nt n= (6.31) ‘Substituting the values from ‘Eq. 6.29 to 6.31, the [S] matrix of Eq. 6.23 becomes, 114 22 2 eji La {s] 22 2 (6.32) 1-1 6 we We know, (from Eq. 6.3) (8) = [SI [a] (6.38) (6.34) : (6.38) by -4 . gage Case 1: RB oe a, =a,=0 ay#0 (6.36) b, = hays by =- 4 1 = pai by = — agi by = 0 ie. An input at port © ivi ie, An input at port @ equally divides between © and ® but i a . Hence E-plane Tee alo acts as a 8 GBeplten S phiase ahi of 397 po @ = ay =a, ay = sci ‘Substituting again in Eqs, 6.34 to 6,36, we : a . 1.36, we get * b= 48 : : 122 ie., equal inputs at port © and port ® result in no out utput at port @Cavity Resonators 3 2 Case 3: 4 #0, a3=0,a3=0 Hence, bh =F; d2 455, 2” 2 Similarly we can have all combinations of inputs and outputs. 6.3.3 E-H Plane (Hybrid or Magic) Tee Here rectangular slots are cut both along the width and breadth of a long waveguide and side arms are attached as shown in Fig. 6.8a. Ports © and @ are collinear arms, port @ is the H-arm, and port @ is the E-arm. Signal into ~E=arm Port 4 tt Port 1 E Port2 i Ht a ae ‘Output utput signal Pont 3 signal st ‘ a X Signal into . , H=am = Fig. 6.8 (b)212 . Such a device became necessary bet three port Tee junction. This four port hybrid ofboth H-plane Tee and i-plane‘Tge as shownrin Big. 6.86 and has P eful applications as matched at all its ports. This has several properties of E-H plane Tee, its scattering matrix can 1. [S]isa 4x 4 matrix since there are 4 ports Si Se Sis : Su Sn Ses aa S=)5, Se Su Sa Se, So 2. Because of H-plane Tee section Sa=8. 3, Because of E-plane Tee section BEB - rFe isolated ports and vice versa. Microwave and Radar Engineering ining & completely matched cause of the difficulty of obtai apo ‘Tee junction com! ines the power dividi the advantage of being completely will be seen later. Using the be obtained as follows. Sus Sou (6.37) Soa Su (6.38) (6.39) y Because of geometry of the junction an input at port ® cannot come out of port © since they a Soy =Siq=0 . (6.40) 5. From symmetric property, $=; ~ “ Siz = Sor + Sia = Sou 5 Sos = Sz i ' Seq = Saas Soa = Sao s Sar = Stas --(6.41) 6. Ifports @ and @ are perfectly matched to the junction, Sp =Su=0 (6.42) Substituting the above properties from Eqs. 6.38 to 6.42 in Eq. 6.37, we get Si Sz Sis Sia i =|S2 Se Sn Se Sp Ss 0 0 : a Sy -Sy,' 0 o 7, From unitary property, [SI [S]* = [J] Sh 1000 . =| Siz o100 Sia Sg 0 0 oo10 Sip Sy 0 0 ooo01 2+ (S,l8=1 HIS gI7+1S 1221 644) (6.45)Cavity Resonators 213 RCs? ISigl? + 1S,512=1 (6.46) RCs: Syl? + 1S,.12=1 (BAT) From Eq. 6.46 and Eq. 6.47, (6.48) (6.49) Comparing Eqs. 6.44 and 6.45, we get. 7 Su=Sx (6.50) ‘Using these values from Eqs. 6.48 and 6.49 in Eq. 6.44, we get ISy11? 1Sg/2+ 444 3 ISul? Sal? 54g é s IS? + 1521? =0 ie, \ Sy =S2=9 _ (6.51) From Eq. 6.45, Sg =0 (6.52) This means ports ® and @ are also perfect! junction. Hence in any four port junction, if any two ports are perfectl ed to the junction, then the remaining two ports are automatically match © junction, Such a junction where in all the Tour ports are perfectly matched to the junction is called a Magic Tee. ‘The [S] of Magic Tee is obtained by substituting the scattering parameters from Eqs. 6.48 to 6.52 in Eq. 6.43. 1 1 oom 2 vot o o + Pi we Is) = & (6.53) t+to 0 2 2 1 1 Lo 0 Nz V2 We know that, [b] = [5] [a] (from Ex, 6.3) % 0 by 0 0 " 2 ae ~ a+Microwave and Radar Engineering 214 1 =4 by = (a + a2) b= Jptes +40 by =F os L sa by 7% ~a4); by = Fela — 42) i 8. Using Eq. 6.54, we look at the properties of Magic Tee for some important cases Case 1: #0, a, =, =0,=0 Substituting these in Eq. 6.54, we get ‘Thisis the property of H-plane Tee. _- Case 2: ay #0, a, =a, =a) =0 This is the property of E-plane Tee. © <* Case3: | a, #0, a,= by = 05 by = % - ie., when power is fed into port ©, nothing comes out of port © even though they are collinear - ports (Magic !!). Hence ports © and @ are called isolated ports. Similarly an input at port © cannot come out at port . Similarly E and H ports are isolated ports. Case4: | \ 4p, = ag =0 Then bs = Je@ay); by=0, dy =b,=0 ‘This is nothing but the additive property. Equal iny port © (in phase and equal in amplitude). Case 5: : 1G, = ay, a= oe U yeu) that is equal inputs at ports © and © results in an out outputs at ports O, ® and ®. This is similar to case 4, puts at ports @ and ® result in an output at o; 0= by = by by put at port @ (additive property) and no 6.3.4 Applications of Magic Tee ‘A magic Tee has several applications, A few of them have been discussed here. ) Measurement of Impedance ( magic Tee has been used in the form of a bridge, as own in Fig. 6.9 for measuring impeditfco, : is ted in arm ® anda null det icrowave source is connec! jeter ; ai din arm @ anda standard variable known im, isco ctor in arm @, The unknown impedance pedance in arm ©, Using the propertiesCavity Resonators: 215 , th i of Magic Tee, the power from microwave sourcel(a,) gets divided equally between arms @ and ® ay i B (to the unknc im) ce i it ( al (to the jown impedance and standard variable impedances). These impedances are not equal to characteristic impedance Z, and hence there will be reflections from arms © and ®. If p; : . a _ and py are the reflection coefficients, powers ae and 2S. enter the Magic Teo junction from arms © and @ as shown in Fig. 6.9. The resultant wave into arm @ i.e., the null detector can be calculated as follows : “ale~] 2 — refi coeff of Zp =. Q 4 7 2|® 1 ‘Standard variable ta \ has Unknown : known impedance / ve ve impedance A / ‘ / ‘oes y 5 Fig. 6.9 Magic Tee for measurement of impedances. The net save reaching the null detector (Refer Fig. 6.8) 1 =4(Fean ) - (eos) 3 (P, - Pa) (6.55) _ For perfect balancing of the bridge (null detection) I, 6.65 is equated to zero, : 1 ie, gaa (1 ~Pa) = 0 or py pe=0 or pi=psMicrowave and Rader Engineering 216 } / Ig Bi \ Z+k, Matte \ ty =%n ie, \ < Rt fXyj= Rot 5% or R,=R, and | Xy=Xx 7 \ vadiusti jable impedance ‘Thus the unknown impedanee can be measured by adjusting the standard variable imP till the bridge is balanced and both impedances become equal. -ansmitter and receiver are connected in ports @and “Magic Tee as a Dupleser he tr connect : ; GF respectively, antenna in the B-arm or port @ [and port © of Magic Tee is terminated in a matched load ae shown in Fig, 6.10. During tranqmiission half the powe® reaches the antenna from where itis radiated into space. Other half rdathes the matched load where it is absorbed without reflections, No transmitter power reached the receiver since port © and @ are isolated ports in a Magic TespPuring reception, half of the yeceived power goes to the receiver and the other half to the trafismitter are isolated during: vein as well as during transmission. Fig. 6.10 Magic Tee as a Duplexer. Magic Tee as a Micer(Rms i : \ wie Tee can also be used in mi ere the signal and local oscillator are fed into the Bind H armeee veneers 8 8 mise Halfof the local oscillator power.and half of the received ‘sas shown in Fig>6.11. where they are mixed to generate the I’ froquency, Power from antenna goes to the mixer IF lo Magic Tee has many ot! her applications such as a microwave di ‘i ; 0) seri: tor. : We discriminator, microwave :cavity Resonators 217 ‘Antenna @ JS Kee Matched load Fig. 6.11 Magic Tee as a mixer. 6.3.5 Rat race junction nis sa four port junction, the fourth port being added to a normal three port Tee. A typical rat ace junction is shown in Fig. 6.12. Sagi Fig.6.12_ Rat-race ring ‘The four arme/ports are connected in the form of an angular ring at proper intervals by means of series (or parallel) junctions. These ports are separated by proper electrical lengths to sustain standing waves, For proper operation, itis necessary that the mean cireumference of the total be 1.52, and that each of the four ports be separated from its noighbour by a distance of Ay. When power is fed into port © it splits equally (in clockwise and anticlockwise directions) into ports ® and ® and nothing enters port ®, At ports ® and @ the powers combine in phase but at port @ cancellation oceurs due to ?,/2 path difference, Por similar roasons any input applied at port @ is equally divided between ports ® and @ but the output at port © will be zoro, The rat race can N= 5 Microwave and Radar Engineering also be used for unequal si, ®and@ combining two signals or dividing a single signal into two equal epee a ignals are applied at port ©, an output proportional to their sum will emerge from po while a differential output will appear at port. : cha he scattering matrix of a rat race junction (also called hybrid junction) can be written as ‘own below in ideal conditions (i.e., neglecting leakage coupling values). S/O Sp 0 Sy =|Ss 9 Se 0 \ : eee Sy 0 Sy 0 (6.56) 6.4 DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS \ Directional couplers are flanged, built in waveguide assemblies which can sample a small amount “of microwave power for measurement purposes. They can be designed to measure incident and/or reflected powers, SWR (standing Wave Ratio) values, provide a signal path to a receiver or perform other desirable operations, hey can be undirectional (measuring only incident power) or bi-directional (measuring both incident and reflected) powers. In its most common form, the directional coupler isa four port waveguide junction consisting of a primary main waveguide and a secondary auxiliary waveguide as shown in Fig. 6.314. a Primary waveguide — = ‘Secondary waveguide = (a) Received power Bi Po Back pow (b) Fig. 6.13. (a) Aschematic of @ directional coupler (b) Directional coupler in dicating powers. ig. 6.* cavity Resonators \ ag ‘With matched terminations at all its ports, the properties of an ideal directional coupler can be eummarized as follows, 1, Aportion of power travelling from port © to port ® is coupled to port @ but not to port @- 2, Aportion of power travelling from port @ to port © is coupled to port © but not to port © (idirectional case), 3. Aportion. of, power incident on port @ is coupled to port ® but not to port © anda portion of the power incident on port is coupled to port ® but not to port ®. Also ports © and @ are decoupted as are ports ® and ®, Asmall! portion of input power at port © is coupled to port @ so that measurement of this small power is possible. Ideally no power should come out of port ©.Fig. 6.136 indicates the various input/output powers. P, = incident power at port 0.» P, =received power at port @. P, = forward coupled power at port ©. P, =back power at port @. 7 ‘The performance of a directional coupler is usually defined in terms of two parameters which are defined as follows. Coupling Factor C:'The coupling factor ofa directional coupler (D.C. is defined as the ratio ofthe incident power ‘P; to the forward power ‘P; measured in’ dB. 5 ee C=10 10g, 4B (6.51) By y . Directivity D:'The directivity of a D.C. is defined as the ratio of forward power “F/ to the back power‘P,’ expressed in dB. P 2 ie, D= LOloBi0 aB (6.58) > Fora typical D.C. and D= SOR — ie,, C =20= 10 log z + Re a P =f or Peak Jog Also, D=60=10log Si “7 FL 2108 z Bfadar Engineering . sae z , Pe (sine 27-25) port @ can be neglected. Since P, is very small (25) P,, the power coming out of 10° The Coupling factor is a measure of how m aia directivity s a measure of how well the d eae ar reverse traveling powers. j Isolation : Another parameter called Isolation is sometimes defined to describe the aisyetive properties of a directional coupler. It is defined as the ratio of the incident power P; to the bac! power P, expressed in dB. \ guishes between i 1=10 logo AB | (6.59) BR It may be noted that isolation in dB equals coupling factor plus directivity. ion loss are also In addition to the above parameters the SWR, frequency range and transmissi specified for a directional coupler. Low SWR ensures minimum mismatch errors, wide frequency range eliminates the need for several octave band couplers to cover the broad band range and minimum transmission loss for significant power availability for measurement set up- en developed like Two hole crossed ‘branching guide couplers with’a bifurcated couplers metallic ‘There are several types of directional couplers thathave be guide couplers with common broad wall-sections (Fig. 6.14), common wall instead of coupling holes (Fig. 6.15), short. ‘slot couplers (Fig. 6.16), (Fig. 6.17), loop directional coupler (Fig. 6.18), couplers made from. parallel ground plane, strips running internally within the waveguide structure. Fig. 6.14 Two hole crossguide couplet, \ a ‘ \ Temay be noted that in most of the directional couplers only three of the four ports are used, the i inated in a matched load built into: i unwanted portis normally terminate ina into it. The two waveguides (pri avon dary) share a coinmon wall. This common wall has got gole or holes for counting the “ehergy flowing into the mah waveguide to the side waveguide and hence galled a side hol td les sv wo hole directional coupler is most commonly used. . | cee \ \221 Major harmonics Fundamental frequency ‘output Input \ \ Fig. 6.15 Two hole branching guide coupler. \ 2» 3-4 4 1. Many types of microwave circulators are in use today. However, their princi- ples of operation remain the same. Figure 4-6-4 shows a four-port circulator con- structed of two magic tees and a: phase shifter. The phase shifter produces a phase shift of 180°. The explanation of how this circulator works is left as an exercise for the reader. Phase shifter Figure 4-6-4 A four-port circulator, A perfectly matched, lossless, and nonreciprocal four-port circulator has an s ‘matrix of the form 0 Sa Sis Sis Sy 0 Sy Su = -6-1 roi Sum 0. Se ie Sx Sa Sa 0 Using the properties of 5 parameters as described previously, the S matrix in Eq.q ides and Com 160 Microwave Waveguides ponents, Chay i i (4-6-12) can be simplified t0 cateees 1000 S=lo 100 46.1 00190 4-6-2 Microwave Isolators : ission device that is used to isolate one ¢; An isolator is & nonreciprocs ennai in the transmission line. An ideal oa nent from reflection oe for propagation in one direction and provides las completly absorr® ‘pposite direction. Thus the isolator is usually called uniing aru generally used to improve the frequency stability of microwave genera, eae ih strons and magnetrons, in which the reflection from the load affect 1 rene. In sch cases, the isolator placed between the gener ead prevents the reflected power from the unmatched load from returning tote generator. As a result, the isolator maintains the frequency stability of the generator, Isolators can be constructed in many ways. They can be made by terminating ports 3 and 4 of a four-port circulator with matched loads. On the other hand, iol tors can be made by inserting a ferrite rod along the axis of a rectangular waveguide as shown in Fig. 4-6-5. The isolator here is a Faraday-rotation isolator. Its operating principle can be explained as follows [5]. The input resistive card is in the y-z plane, and the output resistive card is displaced 45° with respect to the input card. The & magnetic field, which is applied longitudinally to the ferrite rod, rotates the wave plane of polarization by 45°. The degrees of rotation depend on the length and d- ameter of the rod and on the applied de magnetic field. An input TE; dominant mode is incident to the left end of the isolator. Since the TE; mode wave is perpet- dicular to the input resistive card, the wave passes through the ferrite rod without st tenuation. The wave in the ferrite rod section is rotated clockwise by 45° and is nor- mal to the output resistive card. As a result of rotation, the wave arrives at the oul! 4s° 4s° Output Direction fe ide Resistive of rotation ae a vane re i“ x od k FE 1 —— Magnetic field Input Ret it worse NL, fected Ferrite rod vector 7 "eure 4-6-5 Faraday-rotation isolator.Microwave and Radar Engineerin, 8 244 “4 ATTENUATORS ire that the microwave power ina waveguide be absorbeq ire insensitive to frequency. For this we make use of 6.15 MICROWAVE For perfect matching sometimes We requ completely without any reflection and attenuators. i : a ye commonly used for measuring power 610 or loss in dBs, for providing isolation input toa particular stage to prevent overloading Se al e ptgyecn instruments, for reduciné 1 nee ‘ sualto for providing the signal generators with a means of ae a ae accurately gq that precise measurement could be made. ‘Attenuators can be © jassified as fixed or variable (continuous or step variation) types) : : uation is to be provided. If such a fixed Fixed Attenuators are used whefe fixed amount of attenuat . ; attenuator absorbs alll the enersy entering into it, we call it as a waveguide terminator) This ‘on ofa waveguide with tapered plug of absorbing material at the hofmally consists ofa short secti end. The tapering is done for pr absorbing medium thus reducin shows such a fixed attenuator wh or carbon film has been used asa plug. Here the lossy dielectric or vane shown is Variable attenuators provide continuous oF § waveguides, these attenuators can be flap type typeis used.) al transition from the waveguide medium to the ing at the media interface. Figure 6.49 sting of glass slab coated with aquadog oviding a gradu g the reflection occurr' ere a dielectric slab consi V-shaped and can occupy the whole of the waveguide tep wise variable attenuation. For rectangular or vane type. For circular waveguides rotary ‘Shorting plate Microwave Power Dielectric slab ke —_yonators ccaviy Rest 245 gitudinal slobtut along the centre of the wider dimension of the guide. The flap is mounted on ed arm allowing it to descent into the centre of the waveguide. The degree of attenuation is e depth of insertion of the flap. [3 .eflap type attenuator shown in Fig. 6.50, consists of a resistive element or disc inserted into the hing! determined by th Resistive cord Adjusting knob Maximum attenuation Minimum attenuation Fig.6.50 Flap attenuator. However the flap attenuator dial needs to be calibrated against a standard asit is not a precision attenuator, ‘The vane type attenuator, (Fig. 6.51) basically consists of a glass vane with a coating of aquadog or catbén similar to a fixed vane attenuatoPyff this vane used at the centre is made movable, it can be used as a variable attenuatoryhe vane positioned at the centre of the waveguide can be moved laterally, from the centre, where it provides maximum attenuation to the edges where the attenuation is considerably reduced since the electric field lines are always concentrated at the centre of the246 Microwave and Radar i waveguide. The vane is tapered at both ends for matching the attenuntor 10 the Wavy, adequate match is obtained ifthe taper length is made equal to 4/2. Tho amount of are frequency sensitive and also has to be calibrated against-a precision (standard) atte, nuator, Movable vane _ ee - MS Bolt Maximum altenation Minimum altenation Fig. 6.51 Movable vane attenuator. Aresistive rotary vane attenuator provides precision attenuation with an accuracy of: 2.1 % the indicated attenuation over the operating frequency range, Itconsists of three vanes, The a vane rotating type placed in the central section of a circular waveguide arrangement tapered at both ends. The other two vanes are in the rectangular sections as. shown in Fig. 6.52, Resistive vanes o ® © CeO Ta Ge 7 Ecos Ecos? Fig. 6.52 Rotary wave Precision attenuator, When all the three vanes are aligned thei Hence there is no (or zer0) attenuation, Van electric field at the output of vane 1 i vertie, ifit as rotated by an angle 0, the Hsing com planes are at 90° to the direction of electric field fe Prevents any horizontal polarisation and hem Y polarised, The centre vane 2 is rotating tyP® PONE is atte, st at the output of vane 2and the finaloutput ori attenuates eee Bond eee ‘es E'cos*®, which has polarisation as the input wave. The attenuation due to thi, 20 log cos”@ = 40 log cos 0 that is independent of froatency met, vane attenuator is then ed! Y and is precise,