Volume 43#Number Illanuory 2021 IPages 1 -181https:Ildoi.orgtiO. 17744lmehc.43.1.

01

PRACTICE

Using Storytelling for Counseling With

Children Who Have Experienced
Traunna
Krystyne Mendoza and Loretta Bradley

College of Education, Texas Tech University

This article presents a fictional case study that illustrates the use of a model for
storytelling, focusing on counseling with ticiumatically abused children. A review
of information on child wet/are is presented with a historical account of expreswive
modalities used in the therapeutic context when working with children. Since stories
provide a developmentally appropriate means of communication, it brief review on
the eficacy of using ston,telling techniques with children is also provided. While the
value ofstories is inherent and con,monly known, for,nal methods for utilizing stories
in counseling are lacking. This article creates a foundation in which counselors can
embrace storytelling as they seek to understand the stories with which children work.
A fictional case vignette further illustrates the use ofa model for storytelling,

Since child abuse rates are increasing (Bray, 2019), it is important

th:it counselors be prepared to counsel children experiencing abuse and
trauma. Children often comimmicate through symbolic play (Piaget, 1936,
1947/1950). Storytellii,g is :1 ine:ins that captures this Colililittilication style
while simultaneously providing value within the therapeutic relationship (Gil,
2006; Gladding, 2010; Kottler, 2015), This purpose of this article is to describe
a model for story telling for counselors to use to support children in processing
through their traumatic events while conctirrently minimizing the iiegative
effects of trei 11 m .1.

Krystyne Mendoza ~ https:Horcid.org/0000-0002-9782-6196

Loretto Bradley S https:llorcid.org/0000-0003-3959-4339
Krystyne Mendoza is now in the Department of Behavioral and Social Sciences at Colorado Christian
University.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Krystyne Mendoza, Del)artment
of Behavioral and Social Sciences. Colorado Christian University, Lakewood, CO 80226. Email:
kaleksandr-mendoza@ccu.edu

OJ ournal of Mental Health Counseling ~

 CHILD TRAUMA
From 1995 to 1997, the first comprehensive longitudinal study of elijld
trauma iii America, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention-Kaiser
Permanente Adverse Childhood Experiences Report, was published. Following
this report, the exploration oftlie impacts of child tralima increased. Research
regarding how trauma impacts children has "increased substantially over the
past two decades" (American Psychological Association, 2008, para. 2). Bray
(2019) reported that 1 iii 3 American children experienced an adverse cliild-
hood experience.
Miller aiid Boe (1990) posited that trauma occurring iii childhood is
different from adult trauina. First, children are iii a dynamic, rapid phase of
development tliat includes physical, emotional, cognitive, and social develop-
ment. From a neurobiological perspective, brain development occurs at a rapid
rate from birth to approximately 6 years (Wheeler & Taylor, 2016). Since there
is fragility iii the child's development when trauina occurs, these symptoms are
impacted in a multifaceted form.
Second, Ainsworth (1991) and Bowlby (1969), in their research stiidies
focusing on attachment, reported that childhood is a vulnerable stage that is
often characterized as a developmental period in which a child needs the pres-
ence of an adult figure. Ifan adult introduces abuse into the caregiver relation-
ship, the child is caught between tile poles of needing the parent and needing
to break away from the parent because of the abuse. This type of intrafamilial
trauina impacts the child's perception of titists#c)1[liiness withili the adiilt-child
relationship (Siegel, 2012). In this way, the internal representation ofthe rela-
tionship is skewed, thus complicating the child's development in a profound
way. The impact of abuse on attachinent can alter the child's ps>·che, which iii
turn can lead to other mal:idaptive symptoniology such as dissociation, emo-
tional withdrawal, and aggressive behavior, factors that can create further psy-
chic trattina (van der Kolk, 1987,2003, 2005,2014). When a child is impacted
by psychic trauma. there is a profound effect 011 the developing mind, which
ofteri predisposes the child lo be at risk for subsequent traunia (van der Kolk,
2005); this may further negatively impact future relationships (Siegel. 2012)
According to the Health Resources and Services Administration (2019),
traumatic experiences can have lasting implications on child development,
including, but not limited to, problems with both physical and mental well-
being. A child experiencing tratima can have "short- and long-term ment:11
health concerns" (Wyiner et al., 2020, p. 125). Alisic et al. (2014) reported
15.9% of childreii who experienced a traninatic event were diagnosed with post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). According to the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders ( 5111 ed .; American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ),

2 *J ournal of Mental Health Counseling

 Using Stories m Counseling

PTSD can have devastating effects witli a variety of disttiptive symptoinology.

Additionally, tratimatic experiences can affect a child's brain development,
which cati subsequently impact the overall function, including social, emo-
tional. cognitive, and physical dc,inains (Ford, 2009; Siegel, 2012; v:m der Kolk,
2003, 2005, 2014; Wyiner et al., 2020). Consequently, treatinelit is necessary
to minimize the negative effects of traimia and complex tratima responses.
Numerous evidence-based treatment modalities and expressive techniques
exist to beliefit children who have experienced traumatic events (Wvmer et
al., 2020).

EXPRESSIVE TECHNIQUES
Expressive techniques include such techniques tls sandtray therapy, play
therapy, music, and art therapies. Play therapy, an expressive techilique, was
developed to invite children into therapy and to enhance the therapetitic alli-
ance betweeit child and cozinselor (Gil, 2006). Because of limited linguistic
ability and difficult>' with abstract thinking, traditional talk therapies are often
not as effective or appropriate for children. Children often need creative out-
lets that "go beyond the spoken word" (Wymer et al., 2020, p. 126). Siiice play
embraces the natitral way iii whicli children comintliiicate, expressive tech-
iliques are viewed as a developmentally responsive model (Wheeler & Taylor,
2016). Furthermore, iii combination witli supportive relational experiences,
these techniques support healthy neurodevelopment (Wheeler & Taylor,
2016). Expressive techniques are a means by whic]} a couriselor can enter tlie
world of a child by using nonverbal techniques (Gil, 2006). The modalities iii
which children have opportzinities to communicate are virtually limitless; these
include play through toys, art, sand, and stories (Gil, 2006; Green et al,, 2010).
When children begin to narrate or explain what they create, their play is sto-
ried. In many instances, the symbolic language, as described by Piaget (1936,
1960), is illustrated within the narration, thus providing a method for the child
to be safely distanced from parts of their experience that may be traumatizing
(Gil, 2006; Gladding, 2010)

CHILDREN'S SYMBOLIC FUNCTION

Symbolic function is a paramoimt feature iii expressive techniques.
Through the use ofsyinbolisin and metaphors, children can facilitate tliouglits
and imagine stories tliat tliey may be unable to articulate witli words, Piaget
(1936,1947/1950,1960)was one ofthe first researchers to describe imaginative
play as a means of symbolic function. Inthienced by Piaget's writings, Cassar
(2000) stated tliat the emergence of syinbolic thought and metaphorical lan-

IJ ournal of Mental Health Counseling 3

guage in childhood is a landinark for the underst:inding oftlie impact of storieq
and fairytales" (p. 1). Essentially, stories and fairy tales provide a new means
of communication (Bettellieini, 1977; Jung, 1936/1969; Piaget, 1947/1950,
1960). Furthermore, symbols play a salient role iii stories and fairy tales
(Bettellieim, 1 977; Cassar, 2000). 7'hus, stories offei an insightful means by
which children can reveal narratives that may not be iii their awareness or abil-
ity to articulate by other means (Gladding, 2010; Pelirsson, 2008). Children's
play offers a bridge between expression and language, giving them the power
to communicate by stories.

STORYTELLING

Storytelling transcends culture and era. It can be discerned in every pop-

illation and across all cultures (Gladding, 2010; Kottler, 2015; Miller & Boe,
1990; Quintero, 2010; Russo et al., 2006). Furthermore, stor>telling is present
iii an ana>· of forms with many characteristics. Often in storytelling, there is a
nioral lesson or resolution to be learned, and this is complemented by a subjec-
tive illustration and interpretation (Cladding, 2010; Kottler, 2015).
By using expressive techniques, counselors can implement stor>telling,
thereby inviting children to use their "own subjective language" to describe
their experiences (Miller & Boe, 1990, p. 248). Albert (1992) explained that
through stories, childreii "erin find their own social, psychological, and cultural
1 Ld litics" and explnre these realities with ati invitation of growth and changed
perspective (p. 1; see also Gladding, 2010). Iii terms ot Fiaget's (1947/1950)
theory ofcognitive development, children between the ages of 6 and 12 years
are oilly beginnilig to have logical thought processes consistent with concrete
and formal operations. The beginning phrase "Once zipon a time" and other
open-ended prompts are a developmentally appropriate expression that invites
curiosity and serves as an unique means of nieeting the child at their cognitive
level through the use ofsyinbols (Gardner, 1993). Through the use ofsymbols,
storytelling is enhanced. Whenever a child is encouraged to create a personal-
ized narrative of their trauma (Cohen et al., 2017), stories offer a developmen-
tally appropriate metbd.

METHODS OF STORYTELLING

Storytelling can be a powerful tool by which interaction is proctored

between child and counselor (Brandell, 1984; Gladding, 2010; Kottier, 2015).
A counselor can invite stories through many different techniques and modal-
ities, such as bil,liotherapy, sandtray, and cognitive-behavioral approaches

4 *J ournal of Mental Health Counseling

 Using Stories in Counse/ing

(Henderson & Tlionipson, 2011, Carey, 1990. Edgar-Bailey & Kress, 2010;
Pelirsson, 2008; Russo et,al., 2006: Wymer et al. 2020).
Bibliotherapy is an expressive tlier:ipeutic modality in which the child
and counselor use books as a niedillin for cominlillication (Henderson &
Thompson, 2011) These books represent stories that may be captured as fairy
tales or other familiar published literature to which the child shows affinity.
Through well-known stories, a child may identify with the character and learn
vicariously through the story (Pelirsson, 2008). In this method, it is not just
about reading the story btit also about experiencing the story by discussing
the characters' "feelings, thoughts, relationships, cause and effects and conse-
quences" (I-lenderson & Thompson, 2011, p. 171). These character associa-
tions introduce third-persoii techniques that encourage the child to talk about
a character's thoughts, feelings, mid behaviors that may relate to their own
(Pehrsson, 2008). Bil,liotherapy involves tangible books; iii coiitrast, storytell-
ing focuses oii different modalities iii the form of"speaking, listeniiig, writing,
or pictures" (Pehrsson, 2008, p. 278).
Several variations of stor> telling techniques exist (Gardner, 1971;
Kritzberg, 1975; Remontigtle-Ano, 1980: Winnicott, 1971). For example,
sandiray techniques also embrace storytelling, as the child essenti.ill> creates
a picture witli story characteristics within the sand (Chesley et al., 2008). In a
unique way, sandtray combines psychodrama, art, play therapy, aixl story com-
position by giving the child simultaneous concrete and elusive representations
(Carey, 1990; Russo et al., 2006). Furtlier, sandtray is a means by whicli a child
can concretel> create their story through the use of miniatures and symbolic
representation (Chesley et a]., 2008)
Within the counseling context, different teclmiques exist to illustrate the
versatility of stories. Stontelling techniques can be incorporated into other
existing counseling models such as trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral ther-
apy (7'F-CBT; Wyiner et al., 2020). Since TF-CBT is the most researched
modility related to its efficacy iii counseling with children (Edgar-Bailey &
Kress, 2010; Wymer et a]., 2020), it is important to know its utility in partnering
it with the developmental responsiveness of expressive techniques, Together,
these two modalities, when integrated, have proved invaluable (Edgar-Bailey
& Kress, 2010; Wymer et al., 2020). Although there are many variations of
stor> telling to implement within the counseling session, stories iii particular
serve as a means to enhance the relationship between the child and coun-
selor. Furthermore, this relationship can be facilitated through the creative,
culturally responsive language captured by stories (Casares & Cladding, 2020;
Gladding, 2010)

0 J ournal of Mental Health Counseling 5

 MITIR:ULTURAL AND M HICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Many researchers have concluded that stories are universal (Albert, 1992;
Casares & Cladding, 2020; Cassar, 2000; Cladding, 2010; Kottler, 2015;
Pearce, 1996; Plante, 2006; Scielzo, 1983; von Franz, 1973; Warner, 2014;
Zipes, 2012). iii fact, the history of stories lends itself to pieserving and trans-
mitting culture from one generation to the next. Likewise, the preservation of
fairy tales provides protection for good literary works, reflects cultural history,
and caphires societal progress. However, this preservation does not exclude
the need for the composition of liew works to be multiculturally competent.
Terrero (20 1 4) cautioned that in contemporary stories, many protagonists do
not represent minority groups or show diversity. Kottler (2015) reported that
"among the 3,000 children's stories that are published each year, less than
3% presented African American characters (p. 65). This is compounded by
the "significant gap in readiiig literacy by race/ethnicity" (Cook et al., 2017,
p. 14). The power of character identification through vicarious experience is
profound; tlierefore, counselors should introduce new stories, embracing all
cultures, that provide a foundation for children to build zipon and explore.
The cultural and linguistic diversity iii the thiited States abounds (Ivers et al.,
2013). Accordingly, since children's cultural identification and communica-
tion are represented via play, it is important for counselors to have culturally
inclusive toys and sand miniatures (Chesley et al., 2008). As children person-
alize their play, it is necessary to have culturally appropriate toys to cue stories
that facilitate the movement froni third-person to first-persnii narratives. It is a
given that eiichantmenl does not belong to one social class, ethiucity, race, or
religious classification; enchantment belongs to the child.

A MODEL FOR STORYTELLING

Stories often use metaphorical, syinbolic, and imaginative language. The
value ofstories is inlierent to the human experience (Gladding, 2010; Kottler,
2015; Plante, 2006). The importance of stories extends be>ond the typical
boundaries of expressive techniques and, iii turn, allows them to be used in a
more practical way than is based within a model. Figure 1 depicts a model for
storytelling and ilhistrates how the model can be implemented in counseling
practice.
Within the model of storytelling, two spectruins, the story spectrum
and the degree of control spectrum, are tised to formulate a model of how,
to iiiiplement storytelling into counseling practice. Tlie two spectrums serve
as assessments with which to determine where the child is in regard to the
types of stories the child is telling (story spectrum) and the control the child
has iii telling the story (degree of control spectrum). In achieving success,

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 Using Stories in Counse/ing

Figure 1 A Model for Storyte#ing

Story Spectrum

w itt' .& w ith Firsi~~~ Trauma la

1 Storytelling~ Realistic~ Person 1~ Narrative j~
Accounts

Degree of Control

/ Story ~ Story 7 Child ~Child~

~ C'hild „a. Limited~mit~ Story /

7-/4//7

Note. The storytelling model represented above includes two spectrums, the story spectrum and the degree of
control spectrum. The upper panel represents the story spectrum. The left side of the model captures fictional
storytelling that js characterized by fairy tales and fantasy-type stories, which often include stories from character
perspectives or third-person accounts such as in bibliotherapy (Crenshaw, 2004; Henderson &Thompson, 2011;
Pehrsson, 2008). The model then progressively moves toward the trauma narrative, which is the child's first-
person account of their traumatic experience, as illustrated within the trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy
(TF-CBT) model (Cohen et al., 2017). The lower panel represents the degree of control spectrum. The left side
of the model represents the situation when a child js unable to share details of their trauma narrative. Here,
negative symptomology associated with trauma, such as dissociation or overwhelming emotional affect, interrupts
the child's ability to share their story (Ford, 2009; Gil, 2006; Siegel, 2012; van der Kolk, 2003,2005,2014). This
spectrum incorporates tenets found within the TF-CBT model, especially when the child challenges the disruptive
symptomology as they share their trauma narrative (Cohen et al., 2017; Deblinger et al., 2012). The right side
of the model focuses on the stage in which the child can articulate a story without becoming negatively activated
during the account of the story.

the goal is to direct the child from left to right on both spectrums, thus trans-
forming a fictional story into a trauma narrative (story spectrum) and devel-
oping empowerment for the child (degree of control spectrum), respectively;
this allows the child to describe their trauma iwirrative with confidence and
control. A child will often begin sessions as depicted on the left of the story
spectrum (see Figure 1); these stories include both fictional ancl fantastical
eleinents as endorsed will}in bibliotherapy (Henderson & 'I'honipson, 2011;
Pelirsson, 2008). hiherent iii the stories is often an illustration of a connection
to the child's life throtigh character identification or the plotline of the stor>
(Crenshaw, 2004; Henderson & Thompson, 2011; Pehrsson, 2008). On tile
story spectrum, fictional storytelling provides safety and distance from over-

.J ournal of Mental Health Counseling 7

whelming symptoinology, because most of the discitssions will orriir from the
characters' perspectives or other third-person accounts. Although the child
does not necessarily identify the connection, the counselor will often observe
the similarities within the story.
As the child progresses to the right int the story spertrimi (see Figure 1),
the child begins to include more realistic features. New theines emerge that
specifically relate to the child's story, and the child is able to identify these
themes and associations. Pehrsson (2008) explains that "some children identify
with a character iii the story when they determine the character feels the same
as they feel" (p. 267). Movement is depicted by the child's articillation of the
conilection between themselves and the characters.
As these stories progress, the counselor shotild Ilionitor the secoiid
spectrum, the degree of control spectrum. Specifically, the counselor should
monitor the confidence a child maintains as the story becomes more realistic
to the child. Pelirsson (2008) posited that children's books iii physical form are
typically safe for children, since they foster complete control (e.g. holding a
book). Because fantasy invites freedom and rooni for growth, a child can read
at their own pace or describe the story (Gladding, 2010. Pelirsson, 2008). When
a child moves from the left to the right on both spectrums, it is important that
tile counselor be cognizant of activators and signs of overwhelming anxiety.
'The degree of control spectruin incorporates tenets found within the TF-CBT
model, especially when children gain control of negative symptoinology as
they explore [lieit trauma narr:itive (Cohen et al., 2017). The PRACTICE
acronym summarizes 7'F-CBT treatment as follows: psychoeducation and pal-
enting skills (P), relaxation (R), effective modulation (A), cognitive coping (C),
traunia narrative (T), in vivo exposure (I), conjoint sessions (C), mid enhancing
safety (E; Cohen et al., 2017). Stories can embrace all these features. Both the
story spectrum and the degree of control spectrum embrace PRACTICE coin-
ponents as the child normalizes the trauma responses and challenges negative
beliefs (Deblinger et al., 2012). Iii instances when a child is activated, it may
be an indication that the child is too far to the right of the degree of control
spectrum and needs to shift more to the left on the story spectrii 111. Both the
story spectruin and the degree of control spectrum work in parallel, and each
predicts and modulates movement 011 the other. Ditring counseling, the spec-
truins serve as an informal means of assessment for determining where the
cliild is iii communicating their trauma narrative. The following case exaiiiple
illustrates the implementation ofthis storytelling model.

8 0 Journal of Mental Health Counseling

 Using Stories in Counseh'rig

CASE EXAMPLE
hi counseling with children who have been tratiinatically abused, stories
often serve as entry points into the child's personal narrative. Though a child
may be reluctant to share their history during an initial intake, the child may be
more willing to talk about their favorite fairy tale. Tlie following fictional case
study illustrates how the model for storytelling can be applied,
Ashley, a 5-year-old girl, had recently been removed from her biolog-
ical mother because of allegations of lieglect witli physical confirmation of
sexual abuse. The biological mother's boyfriend was the alleged perpetrator.
Altliough the sexual abuse was confirmed by physical examination, Ashley did
not provide an> verbal confirmation of abuse during the forensic interview,
Additionally, the duration and extent of the :ibuse were unknown, Ashley was
referred to counselir}g by the Department of Child Protective Services (CPS)
mid a local child advocacy center (CAC). CPS mid the C.AC staff wanted to
ensure that Ashley had appropriate niental health support.
Ashley's biological father denied responsibility for Ashley and her 2-year-
old sister; lie stated that he would not work the court-ordered services recltiested
by CPS. Since acceptable kinship placements were linavailable, Ashley and
her sister were placed in a foster home. Her foster niother reported that Ashley
was iii kindergarten at the local elementary school, where she performed well
academically but struggled socially, The foster mother described Ashley as
shy and socially withdrawn, and she also reported that Ashley did not respond
to male authority and seemingly ignored any direction from the foster father.
The foster mother reported that Ashley suffers from chronic em.iresis and ofteii
has night terrors. Additionally. the foster motlier reported that during batli
tillie, Ashley would have a "meltdown" involving screaming, fighting, and
kicking because she did not want to remove lier clotlies. Tlie foster mother
reported that Ashley also had a terrible reaction to being alone iii a dark room.
Moreover, the foster motlier reported tliat after going to visits with her biologi-
cal mother, Ashle> became "like a zombie." The foster mother continued with
a description that seemed to describe a dissociative reaction.
During the intake session, Ashley presented with guarded affect :md
limited interaction. When Ashley entered the playroom, she approaclied tile
princess crown and stuffed unicorn, As the counselor reflected this to Ashley,
Ashley theti shared that her favorite priiicess was Belle from the Disney movie
Beauty and the Beast, which she also knew as a written story. The counselor
talked to Ashley about princesses and unicorns and her favorite characteristics
about Iliem. Ashley explored the playroom; however, she never put down the
princess crown and unicorn, The counselor noticed that Ashley became tense

IJ ournal of Mental Health Counseling 9

when talking in the first person about herself :md would often iespond with "I
don't know" or "I don't reinember" to direct questions.
Siiice Ashley shared an affinity toward fairy tales, the counselor made a
decision to utilize storytelling techiliques by implementing several mediums
tliat incorporated Ashley's interests of princesses, unicorns, and her favorite
movie. When the counselor implemented this approach, Ashley became
actively engaged iii these activities. Psychoeducation related to effective £0111-
munication and emotional regulation was introduced, a feature advocated
within TF-CBT. The counselor utilized third-person techniques iii encourag-
ing Ashley to talk about a stuffed animal shaped as a unicorn.
During several sessions, the counselor invited Ashley to select mi item
witli which she wanted to play. The cozinselor was intentional about reflect-
ing the feelings illustrated iii Ashley's play. Ashley became inore interactive
as rapport increased. The counselor could then speak directly about how the
unicom was feeling today and what made the uniconi happy or sad. While
Ashley would not answer these questions directly pertaining to herself, she
eagerly answered on behalf of the unicorn. As Ashley becaine more fluent iii
talking aborit the unicorn, the counselor stiggested that Ashley might have the
unicom play a character, like iii a movie, using different props in the office. As
the model for storytelling illtistrates (see Figure 1), the invitation of direct coin-
inuiiication regarding the unicorn's feelings creates movement to the right of
the story spectruin. The discussion offeelings offers an opportunity to attribute
realistic characteristics to the fictional character.
In one session, Ashley acted out the movie Beauty and the Beast, with the
unicom as the heroine. The Beast was a shiffed animal in the form of a snake.
The themes from the movie were readily apparent as Ashley described the char-
acters. For example, Ashley described the unicorn as pretty, smart, and a good
reader, At times, Ashley identified witli the unicorn in that she also liked to
read. Ashley talked about the unicorn's dad being locked in prison because of
the snake. Ashley explained that the zinicorn did not have a inother. Although
she appeared rehictant to talk about the snake, Ashley began to describe the
unicorn iii niore detail. During a session. the counselor prompted her about
the stiake, and Ashley responded, "The snake is mean." The counselor observed
that Ashley's affect clianged when the counselor reflected what she said about
the snake. Ashley continued to demonstrate progression to the right 011 holli
the story spectrum and the degree of control spectrum as slie elaborated on the
realistic features of the fictional characters.
As weeks passed, Ashley continued to show hesitancy, as her play nar-
rations decreased when the snake was the character in action. In contrast,
Ashley grew very comfortable talking about the unicorn. whom she dubbed
tile "Unicorn Princess," She often sought ways to praise the Uliicorn Princess.

10 0 J ournal of Mental Health Counseling

 Using Stories in Counseling

During many weeks, the stories often lacked logic or reasmi, The stories related
to the thiicorn Princess and the "Mean Snake" were fantastical. Furthermore.
theines of polarity were reflected iii the play between the Unicorn Princess and
the Snake; this polarity was clearly defined.
As As]Iley's coliliseling progressed, the counselor introduced the sandtray
modalih to offer Ashley more control over her 11:irratives. This modality was
implemented to create a parallel place 011 the story spectrum and the degree of
control spectrum. The counselor felt that within the sand, the story would phys-
ically be smaller via the miniatures and more contained within the sandtray
This approach was implemented to lielp facilitate a trauma narrative.
The colinselor's miniatures iiicluded a unicorn and snake. Although
Ashle> readily chose those two figures, she also selected other figures, including
a fairy godmother, flowers, trees, :md a coffin, This modality introduced more
concrete, real-life objects. Previously, the stories that were told were imagina-
tive. Within the sandtray, the counselor provided Ashley the opportunity to
physically represent and illustrate her stories in the sand. Ashley incorporated
more realistic scenarios and objects related to everyday life, For example,
although the previous story themes were present, new themes emerged. Often
the unicorn would get buried in the sand while the snake dominated the tray.
The magical Fairy Godmother would be locked iii a prison, imich like the
father iii the previous Beauty and the Beast narrative . There were challenges,
great obstacles, and evils that conquered and prevailed iii every session; then
one day, Ashley's unicorn poked its head out of the sand.
111 each subsequent session, more themes were slowly revealed about the
Unicorn Princess, both physically from the sandtray aiid characteristically from
Ashley's narrative. Additionally, in comparison to the Mean Snake's voice, the
Fairy Godmother's seemed to get stronger and louder, Ashley would often talk
for the Fairy Godmother. She assitined mi encouraging, caretaking voice simi-
lar to the one the counselor mid foster niother were modeling for Ashley. As the
themes sh ifted to a more positive realm in which the sandtray grew, the Mean
Silake was rivaled. Iii fact, there was one session in which the Unicorn Princess
almost emerged from the sand, and the Fair> Godinother, through the help of
a lion, captured the Mean Snake, The Mean Snake was placed in a coffin, and
a jail was erected around him. According to Ashley's iiarrative, althotigh the
Metin Snake remained iii jail, he was still a great threat.
As time passed, Ashley's Unicorn Princess fully surfaced from the sand.
The counselor asked Ashley how the imicorn became free, and Ashley stated,
"It was time." Tlie Unicorn Princess joined forces with the Fairy Godinother,
aild other characters came to help. 'riley worked together to defeat the Mean
Snake, but iii one session, he escaped from jail. When he escaped, the Mean
Snake slithered to the Unicorn Princess mid bit her on her female private parts.

.J ournal of Mental Health Counseling ~ ~

Unfortunately, the Unicorn Princess cotild not be saved. As the Meali Stialc
attacked, the Unicorn Princess began to be buried once again in the sand.
However, this time, as Ashle, revealed, the Unicorn Princess now knew how to
hold onto the magical tree for support. The Unicom Princess grabbed the tree
and held on, even though the siiake was attacking her. While holding onto the
tree and kicking the snake, the Unicorn Princess fought back. All of a sudden,
the snake fled and ran away. The imicom emerged froni imder the sand and
held oixto the tree. Ashley stated, "The sand is what buried her. If she can stay
out of the sand, the snake would not be able to get her."
In the sandtray, it was apparent tliat Ashley found a breakthrough. This
was facilitated by the rapport between the counselor and client during sessions.
Additionally, outside of sessions, Ashley progressed academically :md socially.
The foster mother reported that she and Ashley "bonded," and Ashley began
referring to her as "mom." As therapeutic aiid client factors increased, Ashley's
confidence allowed her to act out a victory in a concrete form where the
Unicorn Princess defeated the Mean Snake. Depicted as movement on the
degree of control spectrum, Ashley's play illustrated empowerment and security
(see Figure 1)
To facilitate a personal narrative and to enhance progression on the story
spectrum, the counselor then introduced writing a story, As Ashley began
to illustrate her story, she talked a great deal about her younger sibling and
how she is a big sister who teaches her little sister. Ashley explained how she
helped lier little sister "follow the rules and learn new words. Later. she talked
about her biological father; Ashley reported tliat he left when she was little.
She reported that she missed him and did not know why lie left. Ashley was
reluctant to talk al)out her biological mother. She began by talking about their
past visits. Since the initial intake, visitations with the biological mother were
ceased because it was suspected that the mother was coaching Ashley.
As the sessions continued, Ashley talked more about what it was like when
she lived with her mother and her inother's boyfriend. Interestingly, Ashley
wotild sometimes abruptly stop and go back to storytelling with the unic·orn
(stuffed animal), playing teacher mid doctor while the unicorn was her patient.
Iii some sessions, the unicorn was completely ignored. The counselor colitin-
Lied to be nondirective mid responsive to Asliley, thus following her lead iii
each session.
After counseling occurred for approximately a year, Ashley came into a
session talking about the unicom's feelings. hi one session. she stated, "The
unicorn was sad when the snake hurt her." The cozinselor asked, "How did the
snake hurt her?" Inslantly, Ashley changed her language to the first-person,
slating, "He did things 1 didn't like." From tliat point forward, Ashley shared
a detailed trauma narrative about the sexual abuse that she experienced: she

12 0 Journal of Mental Health Counseling

 Using Stories in Counseling

named her mother's boyfriend as the perpetrator, Since Asliley held complete
control in sharing her trauma mirrative iii a personalized form, the degree of
control spectrum was maintained.
Ashley's stories captured a broad range offeeling and eniotional response.
By incorporating the sandtray, the counselor invited fictional storytelling that
progressed to storytelling witli realistic featitres, Next, the counselor offered
a more grounded storytelling teclmique when the coimselor invited Ashley
to discuss parts of her story, especially those parts that related to the Unicom
Princess, which connected the child to the character. Through this process,
Ashley's tratima narrative was ultimately revealed, first through the tale of Ilie
Unicorn Princess and the Mean Snake and then throtigh the reality of what
Ashley had experienced as described by her first-person account,
The progression of empowerment throughout Ashley's story development
was revealed as the stories progressed froni imaginative to concrete form, For
instance, at each stage, Ashley mastered the storv iii relation to the control she
had over the narrative. There were times where it seemed the story controlled
tile Unicorn Princess, thus highlighting Ashley's limited control through the
voice of the characiers, However, :is the stories progressed and became more
realistic, Ashley would move from having no control to complete control iii
telling her story, Asliley's stories continued on both spectritins, mid progres-
sively, the stories evolved from being completely imagiiiative to containing
realistic, first-person features.

DISCUSSION
In exploring the fictional case study, the progression on botli spectrunis
011 the model for storytelling is evident. Initially, Ashley was reluctant to share
an> information pertaining to herself; however, she did display an aptitude iii
talking about her interest in liiiicorns :md a particular fair, tale, Beauty and
the Beast. Since Beauty and the Beast is a published story as well as a movie,
it aligiis with the use of bibliotherapy, which invites identification with story
characters (Crenshaw, 2004; Henderson & Thompson, 2011; Pelirsson, 2008)
When Ashley was able to comerse openly about Beauty and the Beast and
unicorns, she fostered a high degree of control, as evidenced by a lack of neg-
ative symptomology present in lier discussion of the story. As demonstrated iii
Figure 1, she w'as on the left side of the ston, spectrum but on the right side
of the degree of coiitrol spectrum as represented on the model for storytelling.
As the counseling sessions progressed, Ashley moved to the right on both
spectrums (see Figure 1), especially as she began to play out her favorite fair>
tale, Beauty and the Beast. Simultaneously, Ashley displayed more control iii
relation to her stories, whicli related to inanaging the negative symptomology

# Journal of Mental Health Counseling 13

associated with her trauma. This is in alignment with the PRACTICE Collipu-
nents of the TF-CBT model (Collen et al., 2017). During the progression, her
play invited realistic features when slie began to talk about the unicorn iii a
real-life context in which the tlilicom was presented as a character iii her play.
Additionally, Ashley's hesitancy in discussing the snake relates to the degree of
control spectrum because she was not confident in her ability to discuss the
negative attributes of the story. Avoiding iiegative activators and emotions is
consistent with researchers' conclusions about trauma symptoniology (Ford,
2009; Gil, 2006; Siegel, 2012; van der Kolk, 2003,2005, 2014; Wymer et al.,
2020). Tlie characters iii Ashley's stories and her willingness to create stories
for the make and unicorn demonstrate features of the PRACTICE model iii
which she was obtaining more control while nornializing trauina responses
(Cohen et a., 2017; Deblinger et al., 2012).
When the counselor introduced the sandtray (Carey, 1990; Russo et al.,
2006), it was an invitation to move along bottli spectrtinis (Figure 1), thereby
facilitating Ashley's stories with concrete representation within the sandtray
(Cliesley et al., 2008; Russo et al., 2006). As the stories developed, more details
corresponding with Ashley's first-person experience emerged. Accordingl>,
Ashley grew in control as she repeated the stories with similar themes :ind
meanings, using different modalities, This progress is consistent with the
integration of expressive techniques within the TF-CBT model (Wymer et
al., 2020). A defined shift on the degree of control spectrilill occtirred wheii
Ashley revealed the Unicom's head was no longer buried. The characters'
voices also demonstrated more confidence as some grew louder and stronger
while other intimidating voices grew weaker. A counseling interpretation of the
Fairy Godmother's voice, which took on caregiver tones, provides support for
the therapeutic rapport aiid safety found within the cotinseling sessions; this
is consistent with research reported by Brandell (1984), Gladding (2010), Gil
(2006),and Kottler (2015).
Tlie capturing of the Mean Snake by the Fairy Godinotlier and lioli is pro-
found. hi this demonstration, Ashley's progress revealed itself as a progressioi i
011 the storytelling model (see Figure 1). tliis progression of the story towards
her first-person account represents confidence and control as revealed as the
unicorn was finally set free and joined the good forces. Ashley explored and
challcilged her negative beliefs through her stories as described by Del)linger
et al. (2012), Gladding (2010), and Pehrsson (2008). It is important to note
that as Ashley's play progressed, the escape ancl attack of the Mean Snake were
captured as a regression on both the story spectrum and the degree of control
spectrum. Flirther, it appeared tliat she was overwhelined because the trauma
was likely revealing itself throtigh her play, tlms illustrating disruptive sympto-
mology associated with the trauina (Ford, 2009; Gil, 2006; Siegel, 2012; van

14 ournal of Mental Health Counseling

 Using Stories in Counseling

der Kolk, 2003,2005,2014). However, as Ashley's unicom attached itself to the

magical tree and fought back within ilie story, a thrust toward the right on both
spectrums w:is dramatically displayed.
When the counselor introduced writing stories about oneself, a further
encouragement to progress along the story spectrum was introduced, an event
exhibited by the rightward movement on the degree of control spectrum.
The movement was fostered by Ashley talking about herself using first-person
pronouns and sharing stories about real-life events witholit the interruption of
trauma-associated symptoniology. This is consistent with traunia research
reported by Cohen et al, (2017), Deblinger et al, (2012), Ford (2009), Gil
(2006), Siegel (2012), :mci van der Kolk (2003, 2005,2014). Later, when Ashley
spoke of her biological mother and the mother's boyfriend living iii the home,
she reiter:ited life events witli first-person references. Regression was witnessed
oii the spectrums again, especially iii sessions where Ashley was reluctant to
share or where she regressed back to telling fantastical stories about tile uni-
coni princess while simultaileously engaging iii caretaker play. Tile counselor
was responsive and supported the shift toward the left on both spectrums, thus
paGing with the client appropriately.
Iii the session where Ashley stated, "The unicorn was sad when the
snake hurt her," and subsequently provided a detailed trauina narrative, an
illustration of how stories supported Ashley was revealed (Gladding, 2010;
Pehrsson, 2008). Ashley connected the fictional stories to her real life, which
then encouraged her to sliare personal traumatic experience. This feature
demonstrated in full the story spectrum and the degree of control spectrum iii
which the stories united together in final form withotit overwhelming effect,
Embraced by play, Ashley's stories bitilt a bridge connecting her experience to
an autobiographical accozint of tile traunia.

CONCLUSION
Althotigh stories have often been utilized as an expressive means of
therapeutic communication, "storytelling activities have generally not been
formalized" (Brandell, 1984, p. 61). Consequently, further research regarding
stor> application needs to be completed (Pehrsson, 2008). This article mid its
model serve as a starting point to further develop storytelling methodology that
can be implemented during counseling sessions. While the value of stories is
inherent, further research to apply their value when working with children is
warranted. In addition, researchers might explore these applications witli ado-
lescents, adults, aiid mature adults who have experienced trauma, With the rise
of child abuse and neglect (Bray, 2019), coimselors must recognize that stories
are important fantastical means to restore hope and increase resilience.

*J ournal of Mental Health Counseling 15

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