CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The major cooking fuels in the rural areas in Nigeria are wood fuel, agricultural wastes and

animal dung while in the urban and suburban cities, the main cooking fuels are kerosene,

liquefied natural gas (LNG), electricity, fossil fuels such as coal and natural gas. The use of

kerosene for cooking is presently more common in the urban and suburban cities because of the

declining production and poor management and distribution of electricity. The increasing cost of

Liquefied Natural Gas due to the bad economic situation in the country also contributed to

restriction of the use of liquefied natural gas by only the rich in the society Vieira de Silva,

(2005). In this modern day civilization in environmental control, it has been realized that the use

of wood fuel and other biomass, kerosene and liquefied natural gas for cooking introduces

Carbon II Oxide and other greenhouse gases in the household environments and this in great

measure contributes to global warming and climate change. The persistent use of firewood for

cooking had also leads to soil erosion, deforestation, desert encroachment, health hazard and the

shortage of firewood. In advance search for other alternative ways of cooking technology, solar

energy becomes a good alternative source of energy for cooking in Nigeria. This is because

Nigeria is endowed with abundant sunshine of not less than 9 hours per day throughout the year

due to its position near the equator Bald et.al, (2000). However, solar cooking cannot be able to

replace the other cooking technology in Nigeria, but the use of solar energy for cooking would

save the forest reserves of Nigeria. It would adequately reduce air pollution from the carbon

containing fuels that contribute to global warming and climate change. Moreover, introduction of

solar energy for cooking would reduce the cut down of trees which lead to soil erosion,

deforestation and desert encroachment which is mostly common in 18 the northern parts of
Nigeria. It would also improve food nutrition and health condition as has been found out and as

well serve as a good alternative source for cooking during the periods of shortage of other

cooking fuels. The use of solar energy for cooking in Nigeria could be beneficial because solar

energy is inexhaustible, universal, abundant and free. Solar cookers can be used for cooking at

any areas and that includes the most remote rural areas in Nigeria.

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE OVEN

An oven is an enclosed compartment for heating, baking, roasting or drying. Ovens most

commonly used in baking of bread, etc are also known as kilns. The heat which is required in

almost all forms of food preparation has been generated and employed by early man for cooking,

baking and roasting his food since time in memorial. Bread which has been found to be widely

accepted as suitable food among the oldest foods prepared by man, the processes involved are

accomplished by playing some forms of fuel from baking of food on hot stoves and by direct

solar radiation in early times. Baking has advanced to the use of charcoal as fuel for generating

energy source, some of the oven in use today include, gas oven, electric oven, wood fired oven,

steam oven, masonry oven, microwave oven, earth oven, etc. Oven which is first within each

mud-brick house in been produced in a year 3200B.C and also the oven which can be use in

producing sweet breads, fritters, puddings, cheese cakes, pastries and oven for welding cakes,

often in symbolic shapes. These products were originally served during special occasions and

ceremonies, by 300 C.E, developed over seventy different of bread. The project therefore forms

the basis for the construction of oven for baking bread and cake by the used of charcoal as source

of energy. Oven can be made locally by use of local materials such as sheet metal material angle

iron or square pipe, welding electrode with insulating materials etc because it is more efficient

for rural areas due to lack of electricity. The heat source is generates the heat and heat sink
absorbs the heat and releases it to the heating chamber through the drilling holes provided where

the heat will pass to the chamber gradually in the process of baking fance, (1960).

1.2 SOLAR RADIATION

The sun is a thermal reactor with a high temperature, nuclear fusion of hydrogen isotopes taking

place inside it. The processes in principles are similar to those envisaged for the fusion reactors

of the future. The sun has a diameter of 1.39x10 6 km and is on average 1.5x108 km from the

earth. Its surface temperature is 6000k and the radiation density incident at the edge of the outer

atmosphere of the earth is on the average 1395w/m 2 (or about 1.4kw/m2 ), which figure is known

as the solar constant Nelkon and parker, (1996). It has been calculated that the energy received

over the total surface of the earth amounts to 1.73x10 14kw, an enormous amount of energy

roughly 20,000 times larger than the current global energy consumption. The energy radiation by

the sun in to space (solar radiation) is generated from a fusion reaction where hydrogen

combines to form helium with loss of mass at several millions of degrees Eggers, (1930).

1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

1. Solar oven is expensive for family to afford

2. To minimize the cutting down of trees in Aliero.

1.4 JUSTIFICATION

The environmental degradation resulting from fire wood as source of energy e.g deforestation,

ozone layer destruction and pollution. The fire wood stress in terms of element consumption can

be reduced by use of solar energy. Finally concentration of energy source from non renewable

source which is diminishing day by day and preventing a clean atmosphere justify the
construction of solar oven for domestic purposes. Solar oven can be adopted as an alternative

way of cooking using solar energy as the source of energy cheap readily available.

1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The primary use of the oven is for baking, roasting etc. the design is made up of galvanized sheet

and angle iron because of the availability of the material and also the materials are cheap to

purchase unlike the other cookers. The oven is also suitable for small scale industries likewise

rural areas, where there is no electricity.

1.6 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

The limitations of the work are as follows;

1. The solar oven is only solar powered.

2. Baking is restricted to sunny period and evening period.

3. There must be continuous movement of the solar oven every 15 minutes to track maximum

solar radiation.

1.7 AIMS OF THE STUDY

The aim of this project is to provide an alternative energy source by producing a functional solar

oven that will serve the purpose in order to produce a clean and hygienic process of baking of

bread and also to provide an alternative energy sources to the firewood used by our local people

and discourage falling of trees for firewood as sources of energy for domestic use and to reduce

financial stress.
1.8 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objectives of this work are as follows;

1. To design and construct an oven for baking and using low cost of materials.

2. To save tremendous use of fire wood at least baking in the afternoon and evening meal.

3 To construct an oven with double reflectors.

4. To construct and determine the performance evaluation of solar baking oven.

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Cooking Technology

There have been numerous cooking technologies since the inception of cooking Sambo et al.

(1991). These technologies tend to ease the difficulties encountered during cooking and also

reduce the cost of buying fuel by reducing the combustion of fuel such that very little smoke is

emitted during the cooking process. The technology ranged from the use of firewood, kerosene

and gas cooker to the use of solar cookers. The improvement on these cooking systems has been

to create efficient and clean burning stove that will be most convenient to the user. Some

common methods of cooking technology include the use of three stones, charcoal fire cooking,

kerosene stove, gas cooking, electric cooking and solar cooking technologies.

2.1 Solar Energy Resources in Nigeria

Nigeria is located in the tropical region of the equator ranging between 4 and 11 degrees north

latitude Narayanaswamy, (2001) and with its location in the equator, it receives greater solar

energy because in the tropics, solar radiation is more direct and also passes through relatively

less atmosphere Duffie and Beckman, (1974). It has been said that Nigeria is blessed with

abundance of solar energy to help alleviate its numerous energy insufficient problems when

harnessed and utilized effectively. According to Bald et.al. (2000) Nigeria is endowed with an

annual average daily sunshine of 5.2kw/m2/day for 6.25 hours ranging between 3.5kw/m 2/day for

3.5 hours at the coastal areas to 7.0kw/m 2/day for 9 hours at the far northern areas. Ikuponisi,

(2004) stated that this amount of energy from the sun in Nigeria is equivalent to 1.082 million

tones of its oil production per day, four thousand times Nigeria’s current daily crude oil
production thirteen thousand times that of natural gas daily production and one hundred and

seventeen thousand times the amount of electric power generated in Nigeria in 1998. He

analyzed his statistics and found out that the annual solar energy insulation value is about twenty

seven times the Nigeria’s total convectional energy resources. This therefore shows that Nigeria

with a total land mass of 9.24×103km2 and average of 1.804×1015kwh of incidence solar energy

annually requires only 3.7 % of her national land area to be utilized effectively in order to collect

amount of sun energy equivalent to the nation’s conventional energy reserve. Only recently with

the invasion of the world energy crisis in 1970s which has brought about global realization of the

need for diversity of energy from exhaustible fossil fuel resources to other energy sources has

Nigeria started showing interest in other energy resources Dohn, (2000). This resulted to Federal

Government of Nigeria in 1980 to established four energy research centers with the mandate to

source for other rich available energy resources in various areas of renewable energy Adetola,

(2006) with so many researches on renewable energy, it was found that fossil fuels are not

inexhaustible and they have environmental consequences due to their reckless consumption.

Hydro-power, coal, wind and solar energy were found to be the most available renewable energy

resources which can be adopted in Nigeria to alternate for 38 the use of fossil fuels. Out of these

renewable energy sources, the most abundant and available energy resource in Nigeria is solar

energy Bald et.al. (2000).

2.2 Solar Cooking In Nigeria

Survey of literature revealed that since the year 1969, various sizes of prototype solar box

cookers, ovens and concentrating solar cookers have been developed and tested in Nigeria by

researchers Sheyin, (2005) the research which focuses more on rural application and their

performance in different environmental condition were found to be satisfactory. The history of

solar cooking in Nigeria started when Dr Robert Metcalf, the founder of solar cooker

international toured most of African nations on solar cooking promotion and worked with

Nigerian society for the improvement of rural people metcalf, (2008). The organization

introduced the use of solar cookers and it was reported that around 50 families were using solar

cooker to pasteurize water and also cook food. Lydia Gordon Nkan of the environmental

education and her group were later reported to introduce the fabrication and use of solar cooking

technology to secondary and primary school pupil with the ambition of involving every

household on solar cooking technology. In 2000, Josephe Odey started promoting solar cooking

in Nigeria and his activities include organization of workshops and seminars, training programs,

etc Odey, (2000). Over the years, there has been massive number of cookers built to promote

solar cooking technology in Nigeria.

2.3 Technology of Solar Cooker in Nigeria

Through research and development centers and higher institutions, solar cooking technology has

gained much acceptance in terms of designs. A lot of work has been done on solar box cooker

more than the other types of solar cookers. An oven type solar cooker was constructed using

local material by Okeke and Ani (1998). It recorded a maximum temperature of 120 oC when the

cooker was tested without load and 98 oC when it was loaded with 2kg of water. The oven has
concentration ratio of 20. Another report by Ayorinde, (1989) on the analysis of a solar assisted

bakery oven, showed that technically and economically, solar energy can profitably be utilized in

baking process. Musa and Bajpai, (1989) constructed a hot box solar cooker which its

performance was recorded to be very low such that a booster reflector was later added by

Ugwoke, (1998) to improve its performance and on testing, the maximum temperature of 158 oC

was recorded at the absorber plate. A box type cooker was constructed by Amiyodu, (1993) he

introduced steam relief line to help let off steam from cooking chambers. The experimental

analysis of the cooker recorded plate temperature of 138 oC and it took 20mins to boil eggs,

80mins to cook yam and 100mins to boil 0.22kg of rice. In Akure Ondo state, a solar box cooker

was reported to attain temperature of 50oC above ambient on 1200ml of water for 4 hours. Other

researchers have basically been on concentrating solar cookers. Onyishi, (1992) designed and

constructed a concentrating solar cooker and the experimental result showed that the

concentration ratio is 37.78 and 13.69% efficiency. Another parabolic concentrator was

constructed and characterized by Eze and Agbo, (2006) using a reflector made of aluminum foil.

The cooker whose diameter measures 0.46m and base diameter 0.09m has a concentration ratio

of 11 and optimum efficiency of 0.4% on a sunny day with minimum and maximum temperature

profile of 50oC and 110oC respectively. A parabolic solar cooker by Musa et.al. (1991) has

Fresnel design with mirrors as its reflecting surface. It was recorded that the cooker was able to

boil 1kg of water in 60mins and cook rice in 120mins at maximum temperature of 98 oC. A

spherical parabolic concentrating cooker was in Nsukka designed and constructed by Okonkwo

and Mageswaran, (2000) the cooker is made of stainless steel shell having a diameter of 180cm

with a focal point of 68cm and the surface covered with aluminum foil to increase the reflectivity

of the surface. The performance evaluation of the cooker recorded maximum temperature of
250oC on a very clear sky. Its concentration ratio is 74. Sulaiman et.al. (2003) carried out a

comparative study of various designs of solar cookers in the north eastern part of Nigeria and

found out that well designed solar cookers have high efficiency. Nsukka has been one of the

numerous research centers for solar cookers because it is located at latitude 6 o56N, and has

seasonal climatic condition of dry and rainy season. The researches on solar cookers at Nsukka

which were carried out at University of Nigeria Nsukka has shown a tremendous success since

its inception. Yusuf et al. (2014) to evaluate the thermal performance of a solar oven the result

show that solar box oven was found to be able to boil water with a temperature as high as 93 0c

and efficiency was found to be 96%. Adewole et al. (2015) they are expensive for family to

afford and the solar cookers are not yet practically known and the results show that the

stagnation temperature is 760c and the highest water temperature is observed to be 67 0c. There

are other projects and researches on solar cookers going on at various institution, research

centers and non governmental organizations in order to promote the use of solar energy in

Nigeria and to reduce the dependence on the of use of biomass and liquefied natural gas as the

major energy source for cooking.

2.4 Benefits of Solar Cookers

Since cooking accounts for 90% of the total energy consumed in the developing world

especially in the rural domestic sector GTZ, (2002) and Burgos, (2008) cooking with solar

energy is the most desirable option to the developing nations such as Nigeria. The environmental

benefits of solar cooking to wood burning energy source includes that it reduces CO 2 release

from the burning firewood, preserve forest reserve by reducing cutting down of trees thereby

reducing soil erosion, water pollution, loss of soil fertility and untimely desertification. There are

social benefits of using solar cookers in areas where collecting fire wood can mean long hours of
work and dangerous. The use of solar cookers can also help improve people’s health since it can

be used to sterilize water by heating to 65 oC. This can highly be beneficial to areas where people

do not have access to safe drinking water and often suffer sickness or death as a result of impure

water consumption Metcalf, (1996). In addition, many people suffer respiratory and eye ailment

as a result of extreme smoky cooking condition in homes by using fuel wood. Solar cooking is

obviously smokeless and so eliminates this problem as well as reduces burns and other fire

related injuries. Another important benefit of using solar cookers is their high temperature

attainment in the case of concentrating cookers. It has severally be reported that temperature as

high as 600oC can be attained on a very clear sky. This temperature is high enough to cook, bake

and roast any type of food stuff and this is why concentrating cookers has more acceptability

than any other type of solar cookers.

2.5 Solar Collector Orientation

The angle by which the sun’s rays strike the earth varies by geographical location, and time of

the year. This is as a result of the earth tilt on its axis and its revolution around the sun. This

angle is also influenced by the earth’s daily rotation which causes the sun to travel an arching

path through the sky. The amount of incident energy per unit area and day depends on a number

of factors such as the latitude, local climate, season of the year and the inclination of the

collecting surface in the direction of the sun. Solar collectors are equipment that transforms solar

radiation to some other useful energy forms. There are two types of collectors namely; flat plate

collector and concentrating collector. For the flat plate collectors, the area absorbing the solar

radiation is the same as the area intercepting solar radiation unlike the concentrating collector

which have concave reflector to concentrate the radiation falling on the total area of the reflector

to a point thereby increasing the energy flux at that point. The latter posses the inherent problem
of tracking because the surfaces must be oriented so that the focus, vertex and sun are in line and

this must move about in two axis namely; horizontal and vertical axis. Duffie and Beckman,

(1974) the orientation of the solar collectors (i.e the way the collectors face and how they are

tilted) optimizes their collection ability. The highest solar radiation that can be collected on a

given sunny day is at solar noon when direct beam radiation is least affected by the atmosphere.

This is so because solar noon is true south in the northern hemisphere and orienting the collectors

to this true south will normally maximize the performance of the solar collector with a variation

within 20o east or west Garg, (1987).

Orientation of solar collector can be of the following ways as given by Eibling in Duffie and

Beckman (1974).

1. The collector can be fixed so that it is normal to solar beam at noon on the equinox.

2. Its rotation can be horizontal, east-west axis with a single, daily adjustment permitted so that

its surface, normal coincides with the solar beam at noon every day of the year.

3. It can as well be rotated about a horizontal east-west axis with continuous adjustment to obtain

maximum energy incidence.

4. There is rotation about a horizontal north-south axis with continuous adjustment to obtain

maximum energy incidence.

5. The rotation can also be about an axis parallel to the earth‟s axis with continuous adjustment

to obtain maximum energy incidence.

6. The collector can be rotated also about two perpendicular axes with continuous adjustment to

allow the surface normal to coincide with solar beam at all times.
In addition to the orientation of the solar collector, the solar collectors can follow the diurnal

movement of the sun through two orientation system namely; manual and mechanized operation

system. The manual system is the commonly used operation system in the developing countries.

It depends on the observation of the operator and making adequate adjustment of the collector

with time. The mechanized system does not need external operation. It is either programmed to

move in a predetermined manner or have detectors that determines the system misalignment and

through control systems makes the necessary correction to realign the collector. With these two

systems, concentrating solar reflector (since it reflects the sun’s rays and concentrate it to a focal

point) can easily be manipulated to get a very desirable result.

 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 EXPERIMENT AND DATA COLLECTION

3.1 MATERIALS/APPARATUS USE

The following are the instrument and apparatus use in construction of solar oven;

(1) Plywood

(2) Plank

(3) Reflectors made of mirror (two pieces)

(4) Plane glass

(5) Sand paper

(6) Black paint

(7) Nail

(8) Galvanize sheet

(9) Top gum/silicate gum

(10) Thermometers

(11) Hinges

(12) Hanger

(13) Shell butter

(14) Bread container

(15) Net and tray

(16) Handle

(17) Retort stand

3.2 COMPONENT PARTS OF THE SOLAR OVEN

The following parts are the component parts of the solar oven:-

(1) Reflectors.

(2) Plane glass (transmission chamber).

(3) Absorber plate.

3.2.1 FRAME FOR THE REFLECTORS

The frame in this project are two (2) reflectors in making the frames a plank wood of about 2mm

thickness and length of 60cm by 60cm will be cut using a hacksaw blade and also a grove will be

made with the use of chisel to insert or position the reflectors.

3.2.2 WOODEN CASE

A plywood will be use to make a casing which houses the heating chamber, a plywood of 2mm

thickness and length of 60cm by 60cm will be cut using saw and join in assembly it together by

using 2 inch nail to make a rectangular box and the bottom of the box will be covered also by

another plywood of 60cm by 60cm length.

3.2.3 ABSORBER PLATE

There are many types of absorber plate but in this project a galvanized sheet which has a good

thermal conductivity a 17 to 19wm-k-1 and a thickness of 6mm. The sheet will be cut in form of

a rectangular shape and the inner surface of this sheet will be painted black so that it will give

high radiation and absorb large amount of heat into the baking chamber. There are two chambers

in the absorber plate they are;

(1) The first chamber is the net carry the bread container and the net length is 59cm by 59cm

and a frame will be form for the net carry the bread container.

(2) The second chamber is the storage chamber which consists of a tray carrying a candle

wax which is about 50cm by 50cm and also makes use of a hanger of about 5cm by 8cm with a

width of 3.14cm. This chamber will help in baking bread in the evening because of it storage

capacity.

3.2.4 GENERAL ASSEMBLING AND FINISHING

The wood casing will be joint using a hinges together with the reflectors and a bating will be

used in holding the plane glass. Also the oven will be painted and the absorber will be black in

colour. The reflectors (two mirror) of the same size where hugged separately on the box each

side, therefore all necessary movement is possible to reflect as much as solar radiation can be

attained into the oven chamber, these reflectors help to increases the intensity of solar radiation

falling into the baking chamber.

3.3 LOCATION OF THE RESEARCH

This experiment will be carried out in Aliero town which is located in the southeast of kebbi

State longitude 12016’42’’N and latitude 4027’6’’E.

3.4 EXPERIMENTAL TEST

Three experiments will be performed in three days using the solar oven in order to test the

performance of the oven for baking and roasting purpose. These experiments are:-
3.4.1 BAKING OF BREAD

2kg of Flour will be mixed with yeast join with sugar and will be put inside a bread container for

the purpose of testing. The thermometer will be put inside the oven and another thermometer will

be placed outside the oven for the ambient temperature the data will be recorded and tabulated.

3.4.2 ROASTING OF MEAT

1kg of Fresh meat will be slide flat and put inside the oven. The thermometer will be placed

inside the oven and another thermometer outside the oven for the ambient temperature. After

each 30 minutes the reading is been recorded and tabulated.

3.4.3 ROASTING OF FISH

Two pieces of fresh fish will be put inside the oven and the thermometer will be placed inside the

oven and outside. The data will be recorded and tabulated.

3.5 DESIGN DESCRIPTION

S/ Description Materials

A Transparent glass Glass

B Reflective mirror Mirror

C Mirror frame Wood

D Absorber plate Galvanize sheet

E Opening

F Bread container Galvanize sheet

G Net Iron
H Hinges Iron

I Net Frame Wood

J Hanger Iron

K Shea butter

L Stand wood

3.5.1 THE SOLAR OVEN DESIGN DETAIL

3.5 BUDGECT

ITEM DETAILS TOTAL

1.PERSONNEL
i. Registration Fees 100.000 x 2yrs 200000
ii. Accommodation 30000 x 2yrs 60000
SUB TOTAL 260000
2. EQUIPMENT
i. Computer 1 x 70000 70000
ii. Printer (HP 2015) 1 x 30000 30000
iii. Paper (A4 Size) 1 carton x 3000 3000
vi. materials 40000
SUB TOTAL 143000

3. TRAVEL
i. Local Running 2000 x 18 months 36000
ii. Travel 5 Trips x 1000 5000
iii. workshop 1 x 2000 2000
SUB TOTAL 43000

4. COMMUNICATIONS
i. Mobile recharge 1000 x 18 months 18000
ii. E-Mail 100 x 18 months 1800
SUB TOTAL 19,800

TOTAL DIRECT COST 465800

INDIRECT COST (10% of Direct Cost) 46580
 3.6 TIME FRAME

01/04/2017
10/04/2017
17/04/2017

31/04/2017
07/05/2017
14/05/2017
21/05/2017
28/05/2017
05/06/2017
12/06/2017
19/06/2017
26/06/2017
02/06/2017
09/07/2017
16/07/2017
23/08/2017
30/08/2017
MONTH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
TASK
Survey of Literature
Write
Proposal(Programme
without coursework)
Gather data
(Programme without
course work)
Thesis Writing
Write Introduction
Revise Introduction
Results & Discussion
Write Methodology
Revise Methodology
Revise Results and
Discussion
Write Conclusions
Revise Conclusions
Acknowledgements,
Appendices, etc.
Revise Drafts
Proof reading
Printing and Binding
3.7 SUMMARY

The construction of solar oven will be constructed by using locally available materials found in

Aliero town and it will be tested by using the Indian standard method of testing. The absorber

plate consist of two chambers the net carry the bread and the storage chamber which responsible

to supply heat to the bread at night.

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