CHAPTER II: INFLUENCES TO SARTRE AND THE ROOT OF HIS IDEA OF

FREEDOM

The Influential Philosophers

Existential Pioneers

a. Friedrich Nietzsche

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) is one of most prominent philosophers in the history of

the Western philosophy. He is famous in his provocative and controversial ideas, in which

challenged the notions of morality, religion, and human cognition in the late 19 th century. He

championed practical improvements in people's lives and their communities, valuing tangible

accomplishments over abstract ideas. Living a full life, expressing oneself boldly, and making a

real impact were more important to him than metaphysical concerns1.

This man has been a major influence in Germany. His intelligence becomes helpful in

shaping one’s culture, not only in his country but also to various countries. In the philosophical

realm, Friedrich Nietzsche is often associated with existentialism and nihilism, however not

straightforward. At some point, his ideas are aligned to the existentialist philosophy in the sense

that he emphasizes the value of each individual – that they create their own values and meaning 2.

He also focused on the importance of personal responsibilities, the rejection of predetermined

essence, and the call for authentic way of life. Furthermore, parts of his ideas are also in line to

the nihilist philosophy. For instance, his concern about the creation of values which will sustain

1
Robert Wicks, "Nietzsche’s Life and Works", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2022 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2022/entries/nietzsche-life-works/>.
2
Georges Chatterton-Hill, The Philosophy of Nietzsche: An Exposition and an Appreciation (New York: D.
Appleton and Company, 2016) pp. 9-55.
the well-being of one. This creation is a consequence of the world devoid of traditional values 3.

By this creation of values, a man could overcome nihilism.

In addition, Nietzsche’s emphasis on the individual’s will to power and responsibility to

create one’s own values, it is here where Sartre’s ideas of one’s individual freedom and

responsibility for oneself are rooted. That is why he concluded that existence precedes essence

because of this responsibility of one to face. However, this responsibility for oneself is the

consequence of the absence of predetermined essence and influence of external factors, such as

authorities, that may restrict the freedom of an individual, in which both philosophers have

agreed on.

Furthermore, Friedrich Nietzsche is one of the famous individuals who criticizes

metaphysics. He denies the existence of absolute moral truths that are grounded in God, reason,

and other external influences4. Nietzsche also asserts that values are human creations, which

shaped throughout the discourse of history and psychological desires 5. With all certainty, this has

challenged the idea of fixed, universal moral principles. In relation to Sartre, the reason why an

individual must create his own values is that because the world has no inherent moral order. This

absence of inherent moral order is the result of believing that there is no God. In response, an

individual has the freedom and necessity of moral autonomy and ethical responsibility in the

society. It means, individuals must depend on their subjective experiences, rationality, and values

to navigate ethical dilemmas and create meaningful lives.

b. Søren Kierkegaard

3
Ibid.
4
R. Lanier Anderson, "Friedrich Nietzsche", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2024 Edition),
Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.), forthcoming URL =
<https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2024/entries/nietzsche/>.
5
Ibid.
 Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) is a Danish philosopher, a theologian and a writer, who

is famous in the 19th century. This man is often regarded as the “father of existentialism” due to

his influence to various figures in the philosophical world, including Jean-Paul Sartre 6. He also

focused on various themes which would later influence the existentialist philosophy such as,

individuality, faith, and meaning. His influence extends to Protestant theology in the 20 th century.

Kierkegaard is also a critique of the various establishments during his time not only on

literature and philosophy but of the ecclesiastical establishments. He claims that these

establishments have misinterpreted the highest task of human existence. According to

Kierkegaard, the highest task of human existence was to become oneself in an ethical and

religious sense. He argued that this task was often misunderstood or trivialized by the cultural

and religious institutions of his era7.

Furthermore, Kierkegaard has given emphasis to the individual. Unlike the rationalists

who believed that there are objective and universal truths in the world, Kierkegaard holds the

idea that an individual has to construct his own meaning through his free choice and

commitment. He added that “the self is not what it is and yet is what it is not. It is not what it is

because it is becoming what it is not. Yet it is what it is not because it is becoming what it is 8.”

Therefore, the self is not a fixed entity but something constantly “becoming.” Certainly, this

belief is aligned to the existential thinking in which an individual continues to develop himself

due to the absence of predetermined nature or essence. He is making himself what he was not,

and only the self could fulfill that to himself. Thus, the idea of Sartre about defining oneself
6
John Lippitt and C. Stephen Evans, "Søren Kierkegaard", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2023
Edition), Edward N. Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.), URL =
<https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2023/entries/kierkegaard/>.
7
Merold Westphal, “Søren Kierkegaard | Danish Philosopher & Existentialist,” Encyclopedia Britannica, July 20,
1998. https://www.britannica.com/biography/ Søren -Kierkegaard.
8
Søren Kierkegaard, Concluding Unscientific Postscript to the Philosophical Crumbs (Cambridge, New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2009).
through one’s choices and actions is rooted in the idea of Kierkegaard that the self is responsible

for one’s constant becoming. So it is clear that both philosophers have the same framework when

talking about freedom––that every individual is a free entity so that he could define himself by

himself.

Aside from Friedrich Nietzsche and Søren Kierkegaard who are the pioneers of

existentialism, which is discussed above, let us now try to dwell on the other philosophers who

might also be influential to the way of thinking of Sartre.

Martin Heidegger

Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) is German philosopher who became a prominent figure in

the 20th century. His thoughts have significantly shaped the existential philosophy,

phenomenology and ontology9. In the year 1927 he had published his work “Being and Time”

which increased the level of excitement to various thinkers. This book is one of the most

influential books during his century. In addition, Heidegger’s Being and Time was introduced to

Sartre in which made a significant contribution to Sartre’s philosophy. The concept of

“Dasein” has brought Sartre up to take it as a central analysis of individual consciousness and its

interaction to the world10.

In Heidegger’s discussion about his ontology and metaphysics, Dasein literally means

“being there” or simply means existence 11. Dasein represents Heidegger’s way of referring to

human being and existence, emphasizing the unique way in which humans exist in the world. In

9
Richard Wolin and Arne D. Naess, "Martin Heidegger." Encyclopedia Britannica, January 19, 2024.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Martin-Heidegger-German-philosopher.
10
Jack Reynolds and Pierre-Jean Renaudie, "Jean-Paul Sartre", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer
2022 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2022/entries/sartre/>.
11
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Dasein," Encyclopedia Britannica, March 22, 2023.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dasein.
addition, Heidegger conceives human individual as “being-in-the-world 12.” It means that the

individual intertwined in the world––that he is not an isolated entity. He is not detached and is

always in the context where he engages with the other beings. Furthermore, the being-in-the-

world is not closed-off, self-contained entity. But, it is in the world in which it uncovers and

discloses itself13. Heidegger also rejects the idea of the Cartesian thinking about the mind-body

dualism. He argues that the “mental” is not sealed off within a specific compartment within a

human being. Instead of conceiving the mind as a separate and isolated domain, Heidegger

emphasizes the interconnectedness of Dasein with the world.

Additionally, Sartre’s emphasis on the subjectivity is actually patterned to Heidegger’s

focus on the individual experience. Nevertheless, even if they both discuss subjectivity, but they

see it in different point of views. Heidegger sees it in the way as he explains “being-in-the-

world” – that the individual is interconnected with the world 14. Therefore, in order for one to

understand more oneself, one is shaped by one’s interaction with the world. Just like the fish in

the water. The fish do not just “be” in the water, but its existence is shaped by it. It is the same

with the Dasein, we interact with the world and interpret it at the same time 15. The individual is

necessary to engage with the world and give meaning to it as he shows concern to himself. This

concern is not merely the concern we always show to our fellows, such as giving an act of

service to our loved ones, however there is an underlying anxiety about our being and how we

navigate the world16. Hence, this concern for oneself is what motivates the individual to engage

with the world so that he could understand it and find his place in it. Also, the individual is not a

12
Ibid.
13
Ibid.
14
Martin Heidegger, Being and Time (Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 1962) p. 67.
15
Ibid.
16
Martin Heidegger, Being and Time (Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 1962).
passive entity in this world for he actively interprets it by assigning meaning to things and

experiences based on his own values and understanding.

Noticeably, the idea of Heidegger regarding with the “being-in-the-world” – that it

engages and interprets the world – is linked to Sartre’s “being-for-itself.” This refers to the

consciousness of an individual in which it has the capacity to transcend from itself. This

consciousness is free and independent which allows it to create meaning through its intentional

acts17. Consequently, an individual is free in choosing who he wants to be through his actions.

Thus, he creates his own essence through his interaction and actively engaging with the world.

The same as Heidegger, Sartre also believes that an individual would face anxiety as he has to

confront absolute freedom and responsibility in creating himself to develop.

Edmund Husserl

Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) is a prominent Austrian-German philosopher during the

20th century. He is the one who founded the school of phenomenology in which, it is a

philosophical movement or school of thought which studies consciousness and the ways in

which we experience the world18. In the year 1901, he published his famous book “Logical

Investigations,” in which he discussed the method of phenomenology and its topics such as

intentionality, meaning, and nature of logic19. Because of his rigorous study about the reality,

specifically on the study of consciousness, his line of thought becomes so influential especially

in his century such as Jean-Paul Sartre, Martin Heidegger, Roman Ingarden, Edith Stein, and

Maurice Merleau-Ponty.

17
Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology (New York: Washington
Square Press, 1992).
18
Christian Beyer, "Edmund Husserl", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2022 Edition), Edward N.
Zalta & Uri Nodelman (eds.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2022/entries/husserl/>.
19
Ibid.
 To deal with intentionality, Husserl describes it as the “directedness of the

consciousness” toward an object20. Furthermore, Husserl prefers to call this as “act 21.” This

simply refers to one’s intentional mental state. Therefore, it is right to say that is always directed

towards an object since he is a conscious being, and every conscious experience is characterized

by its intentionality in which the consciousness is always intentional – directed toward

something. This would also mean that the conscious being cannot avoid to be engaged in the

world because he is always confronted by the objects outside of himself.

Throughout his phenomenological studies, he also discusses phenomenological reduction

or “epoche” or “bracketing.” This concept includes redirecting attention from the external world

to the structures of consciousness and the intentional acts that constitute subjective experience 22.

It also refers to suspending or setting aside the prior beliefs, assumptions, and judgments about

the existence of a certain object or the natural world itself 23. For example, when a man is looking

at the red apple. He sees its shape, color, and texture. However, what is the apple really like? Is it

truly red, or is it just how his eyes perceive it? This is how the epoche comes in – that your

previous knowledge about the apple are temporarily set aside, not denying them, however man

focuses on the internal structures of his experience. It means that he examines the apple in a

certain way and how he experiences it.

Therefore, a man (philosopher) adopts a new experience about the certain object – a fresh

perspective. This means, there is a suspension of judgment in which the ideas and knowledge

20
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Phenomenology | Definition, Characteristics, Philosophy, Examples, Facts,”
January 17, 2024. https://britannica.com/topic/phenomenology/Origin-and-development-of-Husserls-
phenomenology.
21
Napoleon M. Mabaquiao Jr., “Husserl’s’ theory of intentionality,” Philosophia: An International Journal of
Philosophy (2005) 34 (1): 24-49.
22
Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia, "epochē." Encyclopedia Britannica, February 22, 2016.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/epoche.
23
Ibid.
that shaped his understanding are set aside and he opens himself up into this new experience of

the object. Nevertheless, reduction lies on the fact that man does not immediately face his

attention to the external objects, objective reality. The reduction directs attention inward. It is

within. The phenomena simply imprint in the consciousness without attributing them to the

external objects.

Without a doubt, Sartre accepts Husserl’s phenomenology, specifically its concept of

intentionality, the directedness of consciousness toward the objects. This is where his

phenomenological idea in his famous work “Being and Nothingness” is aligned. The idea of

Husserl in phenomenology shapes Sartre’s “being-for-itself” and “being-in-itself.” Again,

consciousness for Sartre is characterized by nothingness and freedom (being-for-itself) and the

determined existence of objects (being-in-itself). Thus, by this man is able to engage with the

world around him. Moreover, the idea that man has a constant self-negation and freedom tells

that consciousness is always directed toward the objects. Sartre uses Husserl’s phenomenology

in establishing his existentialism which highlights freedom, responsibility, the meaning we make

in the world, which lacks predetermined essence.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

Georg Willhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) is also a German philosopher who is

prominent and an influential figure in the 19 th century Western philosophy. He made significant

contributions to various branches of philosophy, including metaphysics, epistemology, political

philosophy, and aesthetics. Hegel is known to be a dialectic, which means he is renowned for his

dialectical method. This is a way of understanding the development of ideas through a process of

contradiction and reconciliation24.

24
Paul Redding, "Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2020
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2020/entries/hegel/>.
 Contradiction does not merely mean opposition or disagreement. It refers to an internal

tension or conflict within the concept or idea itself 25. Also, this conflict isn’t external, like two

opposing teams, but an inherent aspect of the concept itself. For example, his “master-slave”

dialectic. The master seeks self-definition by manipulating the slave. But the slave's struggle for

freedom negates the master's dominance, leading to a new understanding of power and self-

consciousness. The idea of contradiction lies in the concept of negation. The master’s definition

for itself relies on its manipulation over the slave (thesis). The struggle of the slave negates this

definition (antithesis). However, the negation does not simply destroy the identity of the master.

It pushes them to confront their limitations and reconsider their relationship with the slave. Due

to this, there is another understanding of a power and self-consciousness (synthesis). In addition,

the dialectical process entails the clash of thesis and antithesis which will lead to synthesis that

transcends and preserves the contradictions 26. Just like in the example that is mentioned above,

there is a reconciliation in which become the outcome of contradiction. In short, the thesis

represents an initial idea or position, the antithesis introduces a contradictory element or

opposing viewpoint, and the synthesis reconciles these contradictions, leading to a higher level

of understanding.

Moreover, in relation to Sartre, he applies this idea more on the individual’s internal

conflict – the tension between freedom (being-for-itself) and facticity (being-in-itself). In the

previous pages, the being-for-itself is characterized by freedom, consciousness, and spontaneity

since it refers to the subject––the conscious being. Furthermore, the for-itself is not a fixed

entity, however it is always subjected to change, a process of becoming, because he defines

himself by absolutely free to choose and act. However, there is a challenge when dealing with
25
Julie E. Maybee, "Hegel’s Dialectics", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2020 Edition), Edward
N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2020/entries/hegel-dialectics/>.
26
Ibid.
the objects (being-in-itself) outside the subject since they are fixed and deterministic aspects of

existence. It represents the constraints and limitations imposed on individuals by their facticity—

their physical bodies, social conditions, and historical context. Facticity includes aspects like

one's gender, nationality, socio-economic background, and other external factors that shape an

individual's existence27. This would mean that there is a tension between one’s freedom and the

determinism of the in-itself. Nevertheless, Sartre’s synthesis does not totally follow Hegel’s line

of thought. Sartre would say that these conditions, referring to facticity, are not chosen by the

individual but are part of the objective reality into which they are thrown. Therefore, the

individual must still exercise his freedom and must confront the constraints of their facticity.

Karl Marx

Karl Heinrich Marx (1818-1883) is also one of the famous philosophers in Germany. He

is known as an economist, political theorist, and revolutionary socialist 28. He was able to

influence various philosophers including Jean-Paul Sartre and the idealist philosopher, Georg

Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. Moreover, he broke the idealist tradition by establishing a materialist

conception of history29. He is the author of the work, “Das Kapital,” in which made a significant

contribution in shaping the society during his time. This is a comprehensive critique of political

economy. He is also famous by classifying the social class as a fundamental aspect of his

analysis of capitalist societies. However, the society is divided into distinct classes based on the

relations of productions. These classes are classified into two. First is the capitalist class, which

he calls the “bourgeoisie30.” They are the owners of the production such as factories, land, and

27
Jose Luis Fernandez, “Toward an Ethics of Nothingness: Sartre, Supervenience, and the Necessity of My
Contingency,” Humanities Bulletin, Vol. 4 No. 1 (1073 North Benson Road, Fairfield: USA, 2021).
28
Jonathan Wolff and David Leopold, "Karl Marx", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2021
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2021/entries/marx/>.
29
Ibid.
30
Karl Marx, Das Kapital Vol. 1(Progress Publishers: Moscow, USSR, 1887).
machinery. They also derive their wealth from the profits gained by the labor of their workers,

which is the second class, the “proletariat 31.” The proletariat, in contrast, owns no means of

production and must sell their labor power to the bourgeoisie in exchange for wages.

Nonetheless, Sartre finds this idea of Marx a controversy. Marx, together with Engels,

developed his idea about materialism. This could also be referred to as “historical materialism.”

Basically, materialism asserts that the material conditions of society, such as its economic

structure, technology, and mode of production, are the primary factors of shaping human

history32. It does not totally subscribe to what is abstract, rather it focuses to what is tangible –

the concrete aspects of life. This is the main reason why he thinks that the economic base

comprises the means of production (factories, land, technology) and the relations of production

(social relations associated with the production of goods). The means of production refer to the

physical and technological resources and tools necessary for producing goods and services. This

includes things like factories, land, raw materials, and technology. Organization and ownership

of these means of production are crucial determinants of how a society is structured.

However, Sartre would say that this idea of Marx is faulty and defective. It fails to

consider the individual and his freedom and choices. Therefore, this can be called, at least in my

own words, an “economic reductionism.” It means that the economic factors are seen to be the

primary determinants of human behavior. The individuals could not anymore live according to

how they want to live due to the factors in the society that determine them.

The Root of his Absolute Freedom

Negations
31
Ibid.
32
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, A Critique of the German Ideology (Progress Publishers, 1968)
http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845-gi/part_a.htm (1 of 12) [23/08/2000 16:33:55]
 Jean-Paul Sartre considers negation as a fundamental facet of the human consciousness.

Simply, negation refers to one’s capacity of consciousness to deny or negate something. As

Sartre would say, “Negation proper is unthinkable; it could appear only on the level of an act of

judgment by which I should establish a comparison between the result anticipated and the result

obtained. Thus negation would be simply a quality of judgment and the expectation of the

questioner would be an expectation of the judgment-response 33.” Additionally, this negation does

not contain in the being-in-itself for it is a full positivity. The negation contains in the subject

since what can judge is only the subject. Hence it is right to say that negation involves the ability

to say “no” to what is given, to reject or refuse certain things.

In addition, negation is the result of the act of the judgment. When we make judgments,

there is a process of negating certain possibilities or affirming certain aspects. Moreover,

negation is only a conclusion or a result of a cognitive process since is it an act of judgment.

Negation can be likened to something unreal that exists between two realities. It seems to be

unreal for it appears its intangibility or its lack of concreteness. Nevertheless, this is just a

conceptual and abstract aspect of consciousness. Furthermore, these two realities refer to the

fundamental aspects of existence and perception. It simply points out the objective (being-in-

itself) and subjective (being-for-itself) realities. This negation would also mean as a link between

these two realities. It is neither of them, but it lies in between of them.

Negation, therefore, is an act of consciousness which is observed in the encounter of the

objective reality (being-in-itself) and the subjective reality (being-for-itself). It is not inherent in

either of these realities but rather takes shape in the dynamic relationship between them.

33
Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology (New York: Washington
Square Press, 1992) p. 52.
Negation could also be seen as a feature of consciousness in which we approach and engage in

the world. Thus, negation is intertwined with our engagement towards the world.

This concept of Sartre regarding negations is significant in his philosophy, especially

when we come to understand how is freedom rooted in this concept. Humans are condemned to

be free because we always have the capacity to negate our current state and choose differently.

That is why, it is important to understand that freedom exists in the context of meaninglessness

and absurdity, in which negation allows the individual to define himself and to develop himself

through the choices he makes.

Nothingness

In understanding freedom, this “nothingness” of Sartre has played a major role in his

philosophy in dealing with the human existence. However, one cannot understand nothingness

without the dwelling first negation. Nothingness is the result of negation 34. For Sartre, the act of

consciousness involves negation and because of this, individual encounters nothingness. For

example, when one says “there is no table.” The denial of the table’s presence involves negation,

and in doing this, one is aware that there is no table (nothingness). In short, as Lomack would

say, the consciousness is simply equated to nothingness35.

Nothingness may refer to the absence or lack of being, or empty space and non-existence.

However, there is beyond that within the system of Sartre’s thought. He argues that man has to

deal with nothingness for his existence is characterized by a fundamental lack or void. This

nothingness is not only the absence of things, but it is part of human consciousness.

34
Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology (New York: Washington
Square Press, 1992) p. 62.
35
Paul Lomack, Sartre’s Thinking of Marx (McMaster University: Hamilton, Ontario, 1987) p. 8.
 In the further discussions of Sartre, he establishes the two modes of being, being-in-itself

and being-for-itself, which are partially discussed above. On the one hand, the being-in-itself

represents the objective or the fixed existence of things. Therefore, this refers to the inanimate

things which are outside of the subject, which lacks consciousness, awareness, and freedom. On

the other hand, being-for-itself refers to the conscious being––subjectivity. Sartre added that the

one’s consciousness is marked by void or lack, which he called as “nothingness.” This

nothingness does not refer to the absence of existence, but it refers to the openness of

consciousness. It means, we have to face the fact that man has to define himself since he is

“nothing” in the sense that he is pre-determined and without nature. Hence, this will lead us to

the idea that being-for-itself is characterized by “what is not yet” and is constantly defining

himself. Due to nothingness the individual has the freedom to create himself through his own

choices, actions, and interpretations in this world.

The Absence of God

Jean-Paul Sartre is one of the best common atheists during the 20 th century. But his

conception of God is worth discussing since this is where his absolute freedom is deeply rooted.

Therefore, the idea of having the absolute freedom comes from the idea of the absence of God

for the reason that considering God limits the freedom of man for it puts governing principles in

the world in which reduces the authenticity of man to choose according to his freedom. His

rejection of God’s existence is linked to his rejection of the idea of infinite, since it determines

the nature of everything.

Additionally, if there is a God there would be a change of nature to the human

existence36. It means that every individual has already a predefined essence––that he already has

36
Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism is a Humanism (Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 1946).
a fixed nature and purpose that are imposed upon him. However, he is challenged to defend that

only the self is capable of developing oneself. Thus, as result of the absence of God, man is

absolutely free because there is an absence of the predetermined essence of man. Freedom,

therefore, is a consequence of not having a God.

The idea of Sartre about God leaves man a challenge to face. Because there is no God, he

will be condemned to be absolutely free who could choose whatever he wants for himself.

Without a God who would determine individual’s essence, man is left as a superior and the

center of the universe. In this situation he has to create values and his own moral standards in

which he inclines himself. Instead of following a God who always prohibits man, he has the

responsibility to choose values to adopt.

The implication of Sartre’s Atheism to his Absolute Freedom

Responsibility and Choices

When there is an absence of the infinitely perfect God who would determine everything

in this world’s essence, man would be left alone responsible for himself. This responsibility is

linked to considering individual’s consequences when taking a certain action. Therefore, he is

placed a heavy burden of responsibility, knowing that it is himself whom he develops. In

addition, he shapes himself through his choices, which a great manifestation of one’s freedom.

Since, the absence of God would let him live the way he wants to live, he is absolutely free to

choose anything he wants in order for one’s progress in life.

Existential Angst
 Existential angst, also known as existential anxiety, is a concept within existentialist

philosophy that refers to a deep sense of apprehension, dread, or anxiety that arises from the

awareness of certain existential realities. This anxiety is the cause of encountering the unknown

because it can also be intimidating. Knowing that there is uncertainty in following a path in life,

without predefined guidelines, can definitely lead to existential anxiety. The fear of the unknown

future and the responsibility that comes with freedom can contribute to existential angst.

Creation of Morality

In existentialist philosophy, Sartre introduces the concept of “being-for-itself,” which

refers to the nature of human consciousness. Unlike the inanimate objects or animals, human

beings are not confined to a fixed essence or nature. That is why they have the capacity to be

aware of themselves and ability to define themselves through their own choices rooted in their

absolute freedom. Moreover, due to the absence of God, which makes moral guidelines absent,

absolute freedom demands the individual to create his own moral framework. Therefore, he

makes ethical choices based on the personal values and principles rather than relying on the

external factors that would shape him such as religious doctrines.

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