2.

1 STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS

● an organic compound found in living organisms that is insoluble (or only sparingly
soluble) in water but soluble in nonpolar organic solvents. [LIPID]
● Two common methods for sub classifying lipids [ BIOCHEMICAL FUNCTION AND
SAPONIFICATION REACTION]
● 5 categories of lipids based on biochemical function (EMEMP) [ENERGY-STORAGE
LIPIDS, MEMBRANE LIPIDS, EMULSIFICATION LIPIDS, MESSENGER LIPIDS,
PROTECTIVE COATING LIPIDS]
● 2 Categories of lipids based on saponification (SN) [SAPONIFIABLE AND NON
SAPONIFIABLE]
● Energy storage lipids (T) [triacylglycerol]
● Membrane lipids (PSC) [Phospholipids, sphingoglycolipids, cholesterol]
● Emulsification Lipids (B) [bile acids]
● Messenger Lipids (SE) [steroid hormones and eicosanoids]
● Protective- Coating Lipids (B) [biological waxes]
● Saponifiable Lipids (TPSB) [triacylglycerol, phospholipids, sphingoglycolipids,
biological waxes]
● Nonsaponifiable Lipids (CSBE) [cholesterol, steroid hormones, bile acids, eicosanoids]
● the hydrolysis reaction that occurs in basic solution is called? [saponification]
● Lipids that are converted into smaller molecules when hydrolysis occurs [Saponifiable
lipids]
● cannot be broken up into smaller units since they do not react with water.
[nonsaponifiable lipids]
● The most frequently encountered lipid building block [fatty acids]

1. A lipid is any substance of biochemical origin that is?

- insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents
2. Which of the following is not a biochemical function classification for lipids?
- Biochemical function classification of lipids are EMEMP
3. The saponifiable and nonsaponifiable classification system for lipids is based on?
- Lipid behavior in basic solution

2.2 TYPES OF FATTY ACIDS

● a naturally occurring monocarboxylic acid. [fatty acids]

● always contain an even number of carbon atoms and have a carbon chain that is
unbranched. [fatty acids]
● Characterization of fatty Acids base on carbon length (LMS) [Long-chain, medium-chain
and short chain]
● C12 to C26 [long-chain]
● C8 and C10 [medium-chain]
● C4 and C6 [short-chain]
● Classification of fatty acids based on carbon-carbon bonds [SFA, MUFA, PUFA]
● a fatty acid with a carbon chain in which all carbon–carbon bonds are single bonds.
[SFA]
● a fatty acid with a carbon chain in which one carbon–carbon double bond is present.
[MUFA]
● In biochemically important MUFAs, the configuration about the double bond is nearly
always [CIS]
● a fatty acid with a carbon chain in which two or more carbon–carbon double bonds are
present. [PUFA]
● The fatty acids present in naturally occurring lipids almost always have the following
three characteristics: [1. An unbranched carbon chain 2. An even number of carbon
atoms in the carbon chain 3. Double bonds, when present in the carbon chain, in a cis
configuration]
● To specify double-bond positioning within the carbon chain of an unsaturated fatty acid,
the preceding notation is expanded by adding the Greek capital letter [DELTA]
● 18:3(Delta 9,12,15) [ARACHIDONIC ACID]
● 18:0 [STEARIC ACID]
● double-bond positioning within the carbon chain of MUFA’s (usually at?) [DELTA 9]
● location of the first two additional double bonds in PUFAs (generally at?) [DELTA 12
AND DELTA 15]
● a PUFA with the structural parameters 20:4(D5,8,11,14). [ARACHIDONIC ACID]
● These family relationships become apparent when double-bond position is specified
relative to the methyl (noncarboxyl) end of the fatty acid carbon chain. Double-bond
positioning determined in this manner is denoted by using the Greek lowercase letter
[OMEGA]
● an unsaturated fatty acid with its endmost double bond three carbon atoms away from
its methyl end. [OMEGA-3]
● an unsaturated fatty acid with its endmost double bond six carbon atoms away from its
methyl end. [OMEGA-6]
● 12:0 [lauric acid]
● 14:0 [myristic acid]
● 16:0 [palmitic acid]
● 18:0 [stearic acid]
● 20:0 [arachidic acid]
● 16:1 Delta-9 omega-7 [palmitoleic acid]
● 18:1 Delta-9 omega-9 [oleic acid]
● 18:2 D9,12 [linoleic acid]
● 18:3 D9,12,15 omega-3 [linolenic acid]
● 20:4 D5,8,11,14 omega-6 [arachidonic acid]
● 20:5 D5,8,11,14,17 omega-3 [EPA eicosapentaenoic acid]
 ● 22:6 Delta 4,7,10,13,16,19 omega-3 [DHA (docosahexaenoic acid]

1. Which of the following statements concerning fatty acid is correct?

- They are rarely found in the free state in nature
2. In which of the following pairs of fatty acids are both members of the pair
polyunsaturated fatty acids?
- 18:2 acid and 18:3 acid
3. Which of the following fatty acids is ab omega-6 fatty acids?
- CH3-(CH2)4- CH=CH-(CH2)8—COOH
4. The double bond present in a monounsaturated fatty acid almost always
- is in a cis-configuration

2.3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FATTY ACIDS

● The physical properties of fatty acids, and of lipids that contain them, are largely
determined by the [length and degree of unsaturation of the fatty acid carbon chain.]
● for fatty acids is a direct function of carbon chain length (solubility decreases as carbon
chain length increases. ) [water solubility]
● have a slight solubility in water. [short-chain fatty acids]
● essentially insoluble in water. [long-chain fatty acids]
● for fatty acids are strongly influenced by both carbon chain length and degree of
unsaturation (number of double bonds present). (increases as carbon chain length
increases) [Melting points]
● The greater the degree of unsaturation, the greater the reduction in [melting points]
● tend to be solids at room temperature [long-chain saturated fatty acids]
● tend to be liquids at room temperature. [long-chain unsaturated fatty acids]
● The double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids, which generally have the cis configuration,
produce________ in the carbon chains of these molecules. These prevent unsaturated
fatty acids from packing together as tightly as saturated fatty acids. [bends]
● The greater the number of double bonds, the less efficient the ________As a result,
unsaturated fatty acids always have fewer intermolecular attractions, and therefore
lower melting points, than their saturated counterparts. [packing]
1. In which of the following pairs of fatty acids does the first listed acid have a
greater water solubility than the second listed acid?
- 16:0 acid an 18:0 acid
2. In which of the following pairs of fatty acids does the first listed acid have a
lower melting point than the second listed?
- 18:2 acid and 18:0 acid

2. 4 ENERGY-STORAGE LIPIDS: TRIACYLGLYCEROLS

● most widespread energy-storage material within cells [carbohydrate glycogen]
● concentrated primarily in special cells (adipocytes) that are nearly filled with the
material [Triacylglycerol]
● Adipose tissue containing these cells is found in various parts of the body [under the
skin, in the abdominal cavity, in the mammary glands, and around various organs]
● much more efficient at storing energy than is glycogen because large quantities of them
can be packed into a very small volume [Triacylglycerol]
● most abundant type of lipid present in the human body. [energy-storage lipids]
● In terms of functional groups present, triacylglycerols are? [triesters]
● a compound produced from the reaction of an alcohol with a carboxylic acid. {ester]
● The alcohol involved in triacylglycerol formation is always…[Glycerol]
● three-carbon alcohol with three hydroxyl groups. [triacylglycerol]
● In the esterification reaction producing a triacylglycerol, a single molecule of glycerol
reacts with__________ each of the three hydroxyl groups present is esterified. [ 3 fatty
acid molecule]
● is a lipid formed by esterification of three fatty acids to a glycerol molecule.
[triacylglycerol]
● the portion of a carboxylic acid that remains after the -OH group is removed from the
carboxyl carbon atom. [acyl group]
● molecules contain three fatty acid residues (three acyl groups) attached to a glycerol
residue. [triacylglycerol]
● An older name that is still frequently used for a triacylglycerol is? [triglyceride]
● is a triester formed from the esterification of glycerol with three identical fatty acid
molecules. [simple triacylglycerol]
● is a triester formed from the esterification of glycerol with more than one kind of fatty
acid molecule. [mixed triacylglycerol]
● is a triacylglycerol mixture that is a solid or a semi-solid at room temperature (25C). [fat]
● Is a triacylglycerol mixture that is a liquid at room temperature (25C). [oil]
● composed largely of triacylglycerols in which saturated fatty acids predominate,
although some unsaturated fatty acids are present. Such triacylglycerols can pack closely
together because of the “linearity” of their fatty acid chains
higher melting points
obtained from animals
saturated fatty acids are more prevalent [fat]
● contain triacylglycerols with larger amounts of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids
than those in fats. Such triacylglycerols cannot pack as tightly together because of
“bends” in their fatty acid chains
come from plants, although there are also f i sh oils
lower melting points.
unsaturated fatty acids are more prevalent [oil]
● highly saturated. This oil is a liquid not because it contains many double bonds within
the fatty acids but because it is rich in shorter-chain fatty acids, particularly lauric acid
[coconut oil]
 1. How many structural “subunits” are present in the block diagram for a
triglycerols
- Four
2. How many ester linkages are present in a triacylglycerol molecule?
- 3
3. How many different simple triglyceride molecules can be produced that include
glycerol, stearic acid and palmitic acid as part of their structure?
- zero
4. How many different mixed triglyceride molecules can be produced that include
glycerol, stearic acid and palmitic acid as part of their structure?
- four
5. Which of the following is a distinguishing characteristic between fats and oils?
- physical state at room temperature
6. Unsaturated fatty acid residues are structural components of?
- both fats and oils

2.5 DIETARY CONSIDERATIONS AND TRIACYLGLYCEROL

● Total fat intake recommendation (30% of total calories—with up to 15% coming from
monounsaturated fat, up to 10% from polyunsaturated fat, and less than 10% from
saturated fats.)
● bad fat, increase heart disease risk (saturated fat)
● Good fat, decreases both heart disease and breast cancer risk ,include olive, avocado,
and canola oils, help reduce the stickiness of blood platelets. This helps prevent the
formation of blood clots and may also dissolve clots once they form.(monounsaturated
fat)
● both good and bad fat, reduce heart disease risk but promote the risk of certain types of
cancers, (polyunsaturated fat)
● Good sources of MUFA (Tree nuts and Peanuts)
● In the 1980s, researchers found that the Inuit people of Greenland exhibit a low
incidence of heart disease despite having a diet very high in fat. This contrasts markedly
with studies on the U.S. population, which show a correlation between a high-fat diet
and a high incidence of heart disease. What accounts for the difference between the two
peoples? (The Inuit diet is high in omega-3 fatty acids (from fish), and the U.S. diet is
high in omega-6 fatty acids (from plant oils)
● also called fatty fish because of the extra amounts of fat they have for insulation against
the cold, contain more omega-3 acids than leaner, warm-water fish. (Cold-water fish)
● cold water fishes high on omega 3 (albacore tuna, salmon, and mackerel)
● leaner warm fish (cod, catfish, halibut, sole, and snapper)
● In 2001, the FDA gave approval for manufacturers of baby formula to add the fatty
acids_________ and _______to infant formulas. Human breast milk naturally contains
these acids, which are important in brain and vision development. Because not all
mothers can breast-feed, health officials regulate the ingredients in infant formula so that
 formula-fed babies get the next best thing to mother’s milk.(DHA (docosahexaenoic
acid) and AA (arachidonic acid)
● fatty acid needed in the human body that must be obtained from dietary sources because
it cannot be synthesized within the body, in adequate amounts, from other substances
(essential fatty acids)
● Two essential fatty acids that are needed for proper membrane structure and (2) serve as
starting materials for the production of several nutritionally important long chain
omega-6 and omega-3 acids (Linoleic acid and Linolenic acid)
● (18:2) is the primary member of the omega-6 acid family, the starting material for the
biosynthesis of arachidonic acid, the major starting material for eicosanoids—
substances that help regulate blood pressure, clotting, and several other important body
functions. (Linoleic)
● (18:3) is the primary member of the omega-3 acid family, the starting material for the
biosynthesis of two additional omega-3 fatty acids— EPA and DHA (linolenic)
● What happens if the essential acids are missing from the diet? (the skin reddens and
becomes irritated, infections and dehydration are likely to occur, and the liver may
develop abnormalities)
● important constituents of the communication membranes of the brain and are necessary
for normal brain development, also active in the retina of the eye (EPA (eicosapentaenoic
acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid)
● substances that replicate the taste, texture, and cooking properties of fats but are
themselves not lipids. (artificial fats)
● Omega-3 Acids [linolenic acid (18:3); eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5); docosahexaenoic acid
(20:6)]
● Omega 6 acids [linoleic acid (18:2); arachidonic acid (20:4)]
1. In terms of human body response to dietary fat, which of the following is
considered to be “good fat”
- monounsaturated fats
2. Current dietary recommendations for Americans, relative to omega-3 and
omega-6 fatty acids, include a recommended increase in?
- both omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acid intake
3. Linolenic acid and linoleic acid, the essential fatty acids, are, respectively,
- 18:2 and 18:3 fatty acids

2.6 CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF TRIACYLGLYCEROLS

● reverse of the esterification reaction by which it was formed, requires the presence of an
acid or a base (Hydrolysis of a triacylglycerol)
● the hydrolysis products are glycerol and fatty acids (under acidic conditions)
● the hydrolysis products are glycerols and fatty acid salts ( Under Basic Conditions)
● Within the human body, triacylglycerol hydrolysis occurs during the process of
__________ (Digestion)
● situations where all three fatty acids are removed, the hydrolysis process is referred to as
__________ (complete hydrolysis)
● If one or more of the fatty acid residues remains attached to the glycerol, the hydrolysis
process is called __________ (partial hydrolysis)
● reaction carried out in an alkaline (basic) solution (Saponification)
● For fats and oils, the products of saponification are __________ and __________ ( glycerol
and fatty acids salts)
● The overall reaction of triacylglycerol saponification can be thought of as occurring in
two steps. The first step is the ________ and The second step involves a reaction between
the __________ (hydrolysis of the ester linkages to produce glycerol and three fatty acid
molecule; fatty acid molecules and the base (usually NaOH) in the alkaline solution. This
is an acid–base reaction that produces water plus salts)
● the process by which soap was made in pioneer times (Saponification of animal fat)
● The cleansing action of soap is related to the structure of the ________ present in the
fatty acid salts of soap and the fact that these ions readily participate in micelle
formation (carboxylate ions )
● is a spherical cluster of molecules in which the polar portions of the molecules are on the
surface, and the nonpolar portions are located in the interior. ( Micelle)
● involves hydrogen addition across carbon–carbon multiple bonds, which increases the
degree of saturation as some double bonds are converted to single bonds. With this
change, there is a corresponding increase in the melting point of the substance
(Hydrogenation)
● Concern has arisen about food products obtained from hydrogenation processes because
the hydrogenation process itself converts some cis double bonds within fatty acid
residues into trans double bonds, producing _____________ (trans unsaturated fatty
acids)
● The carbon–carbon double bonds present in the fatty acid residues of a triacylglycerol
are subject to oxidation with molecular oxygen (from air) as the oxidizing agent. Such
oxidation breaks these bonds, producing both __________________ (aldehyde and
carboxylic acid products)
● The short-chain aldehydes and carboxylic acids so produced often have objectionable
odors, and fats and oils containing them are said to have become rancid. To avoid this
unwanted oxidation process, commercially prepared foods containing fats and oils
nearly always contain_________ (antioxidants)
1. One molecule of a fat or oil, upon complete hydrolysis, produces how many
product molecules?
- Four
2. Triacylglycerol hydrolysis associated with the human digestive process most
often produces which of the following?
- A monoacylglycerol
3. Which of the following are the expected products when a fat undergoes
saponification
 - Glycerol and fatty acid salts
4. Unwanted production of trans fat is associated with which of the following types
of triacylglycerol reactions?
- Hydrogenation
5. The effect of partial hydrogenation of a fat or oil is which of the following?
- decrease in the degree of fatty acid unsaturation
6. In the oxidation of fats and oils, which structural part of the molecule is attacked
by the oxidizing agent?
- carbon-carbon double bonds

2.7 MEMBRANE LIPIDS: PHOSPHOLIPIDS

● three common types of membrane lipids (phospholipids, sphingoglycolipids, and
cholesterol)
● Most contain an even number of carbon atoms. Carbon chain length is up to 24 carbon
atoms (Fatty acids)
● Classification Based on Degree of Unsaturation (SATURATED, MONOUNSATURATED
AND POLYUNSATURATED)
● No double bonds are present in the carbon chain. Dietary effect is an increase in heart
disease risk. (Saturated)
● One double bond is present in the carbon chain. Dietary effect is a decrease in heart
disease risk (monounsaturated)
● Two or more double bonds are present in the carbon chain. Dietary effect is “mixed”;
there have been several conflicting studies relative to heart disease risk.
(polyunsaturated)
● Classification Based on Configuration of Double Bond for monounsaturated and
polyunsaturated fatty acids ( CIS AND TRANS)
● fatty acids have effects on blood chemistry similar to those of saturated fatty acids
(TRANS)
● Classification Based on Location of Double Bond for polyunsaturated fatty acids (
omega-3 and omega-6)
● First double bond is three carbons away from the CH3 end of the carbon chain. Linolenic
acid (18:3) is the primary member of this family. (omega-3)
● First double bond is six carbons away from the CH3 end of the carbon chain. Linoleic
acid (18:2) is the primary member of this family. (omega-6)
● is a lipid that contains one or more fatty acids, a phosphate group, a platform molecule
to which the fatty acid(s) and the phosphate group are attached, and an alcohol that is
attached to the phosphate group (phospholipid)
● The platform molecule on which a phospholipid is built may be the________ OR
__________________ ( 3-carbon alcohol glycerol or a more complex C18 aminodialcohol
called sphingosine)
● is a lipid that contains two fatty acids and a phosphate group esterified to a glycerol
molecule and an alcohol esterified to the phosphate group
 contains ester linkages
undergo hydrolysis and saponification reactions that contains fi ve reaction products.

(Glycerophospholipid)
● the parent source for the minus one charged phosphate group used in the formation of
glycerophospholipids. (phosphoric acid)
● 3 amino alcohol groups attached to the phosphate group in glycerophospholipid
(choline, ethanolamine, or serine)
● Glycerophospholipids containing these three amino (choline, ethanolamine, or serine)
alcohols are respectively known as? (phosphatidylcholines, phosphatidylethanolamines,
and phosphatidylserines)
● Glycerophospholipids function almost exclusively as components of? (cell membranes)
● hydrophobic (“water-hating”) portion of glycerophospholipid (the non polar fatty acid
groups — tails)
● hydrophilic (“water-loving”) portion of glycerophospholipid (The polar head group–
choline and phosphate)
● also known as lecithins, are waxy solids that form colloidal suspensions in water. Egg
yolks and soybeans are good dietary sources of these lipids,The enzyme lecithinase in
the intestine hydrolyzes before it passes to body fluids. It is made in the liver. The food
industry used them as emulsifiers to promote the mixing of otherwise immiscible
materials. Mayonnaise, ice cream, and custards are some of the products they are found
in. (phosphatidylcholines)
● also known as cephalins. These compounds are found in heart and liver tissue and in
high concentrations in the brain. They are important in blood clotting. (
Phosphatidylethanolamines and phosphatidylserines)
● is a lipid that contains one fatty acid and one phosphate group attached to a sphingosine
molecule and an alcohol attached to the phosphate group (sphingophospholipid)
● All phospholipids derived from sphingosine have______ ((1) the fatty acid attached to
the sphingosine —NH2 group via an amide linkage (2) the phosphate group attached to
the sphingosine terminal —OH group via an ester linkage and (3) an additional alcohol
esterified to the phosphate group.)
● tails of the Sphingophospholipids ( the fatty acid and the long carbon chain of
sphingosine)
● The polar head of Sphingophospholipids ( PHOSPHATE GROUP WITH ESTERIFIED
ALCOHOL)
● Sphingophospholipids in which the alcohol esterified to the phosphate group is choline
are called ___________ and are found in all cell membranes and are important structural
components of the myelin sheath, the protective and insulating coating that surrounds
nerves.( sphingomyelins)
● Two types of phospholipids are? (glycerophospholipids and sphingophospholipids)
1. Based on the biological function, phospholipids are classified as?
- membrane lipids
 2. Which of the following types of lipids contain both ester and amide linkages?
- sphingoglycolipids
3. Which of the following statements about the molecule sphingosine is correct?
- 2 hydroxyl group and one amino group
4. when the “head and 2 tails” structural model is applied to glycerophospholipid,
the 2 tails are?
- both fatty and acid residue
5. When the “head and 2 tails” structural model is applied to sphingophospholipid,
the 2 tails are?
- The fatty residue and part of the sphingosine molecule
6. In terms of head and two tails model for phospholipid
- both tails are hydrophobic

2.8 MEMBRANE LIPIDS: SPHINGOGLYCOLIPIDS

● a lipid that contains both a fatty acid and a carbohydrate component attached to a
sphingosine molecule
undergo hydrolysis and saponification reactions, (sphingoglycolipid)
● A fatty acid is attached to the sphingosine through (an amide linkage)
● a monosaccharide or oligosaccharide is attached to the sphingosine at the terminal –OH
carbon atom through a (Glycosidic linkage)
● Tails of sphingoglycolipids (the fatty acid and the long carbon chain of sphingosine)
● Head of sphingoglycolipid (mono- or oligosaccharide)
● The simplest sphingoglycolipids, which are called________, contain a single
monosaccharide unit—either glucose or galactose. As the name suggests, cerebrosides
occur primarily in the brain (7% of dry mass). They are also present in the myelin sheath
of nerves. (cerebrosides)
● what are the 3 membrane lipids (Glycerophospholipid Sphingophospholipid
Sphingoglycolipid)
● 2 glycerolipids (Triacylglycerol Glycerophospholipid)
● 2 sphingolipids (Sphingophospholipid Sphingoglycolipid)
● More complex sphingoglycolipids, called_________, contain a branched chain of up to
seven monosaccharide residues. These substances occur in the gray matter of the brain
as well as in the myelin sheath.(gangliosides)
1. The number of structural building blocks present in a sphingoglycolipid in which
a single mono unit is present is?
- 3
2. Which of the following types of linkages are always present in a
sphingoglycolipid?
- amide and glycosidic

2.9 MEMBRANE LIPIDS: CHOLESTEROL

● the third of the three major types of membrane lipids, is a specific compound rather than
a family of compounds like the phospholipids. structure differs markedly from that of
other membrane lipids in that (1) there are no fatty acid residues present and (2) neither
glycerol nor sphingosine is present as the platform molecule. it is also considered as a
steroid (Cholesterol)
● lipid whose structure is based on a fused ring system that involves three 6-membered
rings and one 5-membered ring (Steroid)
● Steroid fused ring is als called? (steroid nucleus)
● What distinguishes steroids from one another? ( Location of double bonds within the
fused-ring system and the nature and location of substituents)
● Most steroids have an oxygen functional group (=O or –OH) at _______and some kind of
side chain at_____. (carbon 3; carbon 17)
● is a C27 steroid molecule that is a component of cell membranes and a precursor for
other steroid-based lipids.
It is the most abundant steroid in the human body. The -ol ending in the name
cholesterol conveys the information that an alcohol functional group is present in this
molecule; it is located on carbon 3 of the steroid nucleus
(CHOLESTEROL)
● Location of the alcohol molecule in cholesterol (CARBON 3)
● Location of the methyl attachments in cholesterol (carbons 10 and 13)
● Location of the carbon–carbon double bond in cholesterol (carbons 5 and 6)
● Location of the eight-carbon branched chain in a cholesterol (carbon 17)
● The lack of a large polar head group causes cholesterol to have limited water solubility.
The ______ on carbon 3 is considered the head of the molecule. (-OH GROUP ON C3)
● Where is cholesterol found in the human body? (cell membranes (up to 25% by mass), in
nerve tissue, in brain tissue (about 10% by dry mass), and in virtually all fluids.)
● Every 100 mL of human blood plasma contains about _____of free cholesterol and about
_______of cholesterol esterified with various fatty acids. (50 mg; 170 mg)
● Although a portion of the body’s cholesterol is obtained from dietary intake, most of it is
biosynthesized by the ________and (to a lesser extent) the_______. Typically, 800–1000
mg are biosynthesized each day. (liver, intestine)
● Because cholesterol is only sparingly soluble in water (blood), a protein carrier system is
used for its distribution. These cholesterol protein combinations are called (lipoproteins.)
● The lipoproteins that carry cholesterol from the liver to various tissues are called
_________and those that carry excess cholesterol from tissues back to the liver are called
__________[LDLs (low-density lipoproteins); HDLs (high-density lipoproteins).]
● High blood cholesterol levels contribute to _________, a form of cardiovascular disease
characterized by the buildup of plaque along the inner walls of arteries. (atherosclerosis)
● a mound of lipid material mixed with smooth muscle cells and calcium. It deposits in the
arteries that serve the heart reduce blood flow to the heart muscle and can lead to a heart
attack (Plaque)
 ● The cholesterol associated with LDLs is often called “_________” because it contributes
to increased blood cholesterol levels, and the cholesterol associated with HDLs is often
called “________” because it contributes to reduced blood cholesterol levels.( BAD
CHOLESTEROL; good cholesterol)
1. The “ steroid nucleus” common to all steroid structure involves a fused-ring
system that contains
- 3 6-membered rings and one 5-membered rings
2. Which of the following types of membrane lipids has a steroid structure?
- CHOLESTEROL
3. Which of the following statements concerning cholesterol is correct?
- an alcohol functional group is present in its structure.

2.10 CELL MEMBRANES

● also commonly called plasma membranes because they separate the cytoplasm (aqueous
contents) of a cell from its surroundings. It is also defined as a lipid-based structure that
separates a cell’s aqueous-based interior from the aqueous environment surrounding the
cell.
also controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell
(Cell membrane)
● Up to ____of the mass of a cell membrane is lipid material consisting primarily of the
three types of membrane lipids just discussed: phospholipids, glycolipids, and
cholesterol.(80%)
● The keys to understanding the structural basis for a cell membrane are {(1) the virtually
insoluble nature of membrane lipids in water and (2) the “head and two tails” structure
of phospholipids and sphingoglycolipids.}
● is a two-layer-thick structure of phospholipids and glycolipids in which the nonpolar
tails of the lipids are in the middle of the structure and the polar heads are on the outside
surfaces of the structure (LIPID BILAYER)
● How thick is the lipid bilayer? (six-billionths to nine-billionths of a meter thick—that is,
6 to 9 nanometers thick)
● 3 DISTINCT PART OF THE LIPID BILAYER( the exterior polar “heads,” the interior
polar “heads,” and the central nonpolar “tails,”)
● A lipid bilayer is held together by________, not by covalent bonds. This means each
phospholipid or sphingolipid is free to diffuse laterally within the lipid bilayer(
intermolecular interactions)
● Cholesterol molecules are also components of cell membranes. They
regulate___________. Because of their compact shape. Within the membrane, the
cholesterol molecule orientation is “______” to the outside (the hydroxyl group) and
“______” to the inside (the steroid ring structure with its attached alkyl groups).
[MEMBRANE RIGIDITY; head; TAIL]
● There are two general types of membrane proteins (integral and peripheral)
● is a membrane protein that penetrates the cell membrane. Some membrane proteins
penetrate only partially through the lipid bilayer, whereas others go completely from
one side to the other side of the lipid bilayer (INTEGRAL MEMBRANE PROTEIN)
● a nonpenetrating membrane protein located on the surface of the cell membrane.
(PERIPHERAL MEMBRANE PROTEIN)
● _____________rather than chemical bonds govern the interactions between membrane
proteins and the lipid bilayer. (Intermolecular forces)
● Three common transport mechanisms exist by which molecules can enter and leave cells.
They are (passive transport, facilitated transport, and active transport)
● is the transport process in which a substance moves across a cell membrane by diffusion
from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration without the
expenditure of any cellular energy. Only a few types of molecules, including O2, N2,
H2O, urea, and ethanol, can cross membranes in this manner. (Passive transport)
● what molecules can cross the membrane in a passive transport (O2, N2, H2O, urea, and
ethanol)
● is the transport process in which a substance moves across a cell membrane, with the aid
of membrane proteins, from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration without the expenditure of cellular energy. The specific protein molecules
involved in the process are called carriers or transporters. (Facilitated Transport)
● What molecules can cross the membrane in facilitated transport (Glucose, chloride ion,
and bicarbonate ion)
● is the transport process in which a substance moves across a cell membrane, with the aid
of membrane proteins, against a concentration gradient with the expenditure of cellular
energy. (Active transport)
● Proteins involved in active transport are called “_______,” because they require energy
much as a water pump requires energy in order to function (pumps)
● Why is there a need for energy in an active transport? (The need for energy expenditure
is related to the molecules moving against a concentration gradient—from lower to
higher concentration)
● Why is there a need for active transport? (It is essential to life processes to have some
solutes “permanently” at different concentrations on the two sides of a membrane, a
situation contrary to the natural tendency (osmosis) to establish equal concentrations on
both sides of a membrane. Hence the need for active transport.)
● What molecules can cross the membrane during active transport (Sodium, potassium,
and hydronium ion)
1. The exterior surface positions in a lipid bilayer are occupied by?
- hydrophilic entities
2. Which of the following polarity-based descriptions is correct for the interior of a
lipid bilayer?
- contains nonpolar tails
3. The biochemical function of the cholesterol present in cell membranes is?
- regulate membrane fluidity
 4. Which of the following membrane transport mechanism requires both the aid of
proteins and the expenditure of energy?
- Active transport

2.11 EMULSIFICATION LIPIDS: BILE ACIDS

● is a substance that can disperse and stabilize water-insoluble substances as colloidal
particles in an aqueous solution. (emulsifier)
● Cholesterol derivatives called ________function as emulsifying agents that facilitate the
absorption of dietary lipids in the intestine. Their mode of action is much like that of
soap during washing. (bile acids)
● From ________ TO _________of the daily production of cholesterol by the liver is used to
replenish bile acid stores. (one-third to one-half)
● Obtained by oxidation of cholesterol, bile acids differ structurally from cholesterol in
three respects: ( 1. They are tri- or dihydroxy cholesterol derivatives. 2. The carbon 17
side chain of cholesterol has been oxidized to a carboxylic acid. 3. The oxidized acid side
chain is bonded to an amino acid (either glycine or taurine) through an amide linkage.)
● the three major types of bile acids produced from cholesterol by biochemical oxidation:
(cholic acid, 7-deoxycholic acid, and 12-deoxycholic acid)
● Bile acids always carry an amino acid (______ or ______) attached to the side-chain
carboxyl group via an amide linkage. The presence of this amino acid attachment
increases both the polarity of the bile acid and its water solubility. (glycine or taurine)
● a bile acid chaacterixed by the presence of glycine as the amino acid (glycocholic acid)
● a bile acid characterized by the presence of taurine as the amino acid ( taurocholic acid)
● The medium through which bile acids are supplied to the small intestine is __________
which is define as the fluid containing emulsifying agents that is secreted by the liver,
stored in the gallbladder, and released into the small intestine during digestion (bile)
● Beside bile acids, bile also contains ________ which is describe as the breakdown of
hemoglobin (Bile pigments)
● What can upset the balance between the cholesterol present in bile and the bile acid
derivatives needed to maintain cholesterol’s solubility in the bile? (increased secretion of
cholesterol and a decrease in the size of the bile pool)
● the result of the increased secretion of cholesterol and a decrease in the size of the bile
pool is the? (precipitation of crystallized cholesterol from the bile and the resulting
formation of gallstones in the gallbladder)
1. which of the following statements concerning bile acid is incorrect?
- they are insoluble in water
2. Which of the following statements concerning the structural characteristics of
bile acid is correct?
- more hydroxyl groups are present than in cholesterol

2.12 MESSENGER LIPIDS: STEROID HORMONES

● An additional role played by lipids is that of “___________.” (chemical messenger)
● are two large families of lipids that have messenger functions (Steroid hormones and
eicosanoids)
● is a biochemical substance, produced by a ductless gland, that has a messenger function.
and serve as a means of communication between various tissues. (Hormones)
● hormones that are cholesterol derivatives (Steroid Hormones)
● hormones that are fatty acid derivatives (Eicosanoids)
● 2 major classes of steroid hormones (Sex hormones- control reproduction and secondary
characteristics and adrenocorticoid hormones, which regulate numerous biochemical
processes in the body)
● 3 major groups of sex hormones (Estrogen- female sex hormone; Androgens- male sex
hormone and Progestins- Pregnancy hormone)
● synthesized in the ovaries and adrenal cortex and are responsible for the development of
female secondary sex characteristics at the onset of puberty and for regulation of the
menstrual cycle. They also stimulate the development of the mammary glands during
pregnancy and induce estrus (heat) in animals. (ESTROGEN)
● are synthesized in the testes and adrenal cortex and promote the development of male
secondary sex characteristics. They also promote muscle growth (androgen)
● synthesized in the ovaries and the placenta and prepare the lining of the uterus for
implantation of the fertilized ovum. They also suppress ovulation (progestin)
● Increased knowledge of the structures and functions of sex hormones has led to the
development of a number of synthetic steroids whose actions often mimic those of the
natural steroid hormones. The best known types of synthetic steroids are ___________
AND ___________ (oral contraceptives and anabolic steroids)
● used to suppress ovulation as a method of birth control. Generally, a mixture of a
synthetic estrogen and a synthetic progestin is used. The synthetic estrogen regulates the
menstrual cycle, and the synthetic progestin prevents ovulation, thus creating a false
state of pregnancy (ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES)
● Interestingly, the controversial “morning after” pill developed in France and known
as________, is also similar in structure to progesterone. It interferes with gestation of a
fertilized egg and terminates a pregnancy within the first nine weeks of gestation more
effectively and safely than surgical methods. The structure of RU-486 appears next to
that of norethynodrel (RU-486)
● include the illegal steroid drugs used by some athletes to build up muscle strength and
enhance endurance. Such steroids are now known to have serious side effects in the user
(Anabolic Steroids)
● two types of adrenocorticoid hormones (Mineralocorticoids and Glucocorticoids)
● control the balance of Na1 and K1 ions in cells and body fluids (Mineralocorticoids)
● control glucose metabolism and counteract infl ammation (Glucocorticoids)
● The major mineralocorticoid is_____ , and the major glucocorticoid is
___________[Aldosterone; cortisol (hydrocortisone)]
1. Which of the following statements concerning steroid hormone is correct?
- all of them are cholesterol derivatives
 2. Which of the following is a correct pairing of concepts
- male sex hormones and androgens
3. Which of the following substances are associated with the NA+/ K+ balance in
the human body?
- aldoesterone

2.13 MESSENGER LIPIDS: EICOSANOIDS

● is an oxygenated C20 fatty acid derivative that functions as a messenger lipid. The term
eicosanoid is derived from the Greek word eikos, which means “twenty.” (Eicosanoids)
● The metabolic precursor for most eicosanoids is? ( arachidonic acid, the 20:4 fatty acid)
● Almost all cells, except red blood cells, produce___________ (eicosanoid)
● hormonelike molecules rather than true hormones because they are not transported in
the bloodstream to their site of action as true hormones are. Instead, they exert their
effects in the tissues where they are synthesized (eicosanoids)
● The physiological effects of eicosanoids include mediation of (1. The infl ammatory
response, a normal response to tissue damage 2. The production of pain and fever 3. The
regulation of blood pressure 4. The induction of blood clotting 5. The control of
reproductive functions, such as induction of labor 6. The regulation of the sleep/wake
cycle)
● three principal types of eicosanoids: (prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes)
● is a messenger lipid that is a C20-fatty-acid derivative that contains a cyclopentane ring
and oxygen-containing functional groups (prostaglandin)
● involved in many regulatory functions, including raising body temperature, inhibiting
the secretion of gastric juices, increasing the secretion of a protective mucus layer into
the stomach, relaxing and contracting smooth muscle, directing water and electrolyte
balance, intensifying pain, and enhancing inflammation response (prostaglandins)
● is a messenger lipid that is a C20-fatty-acid derivative that contains a cyclic ether ring
and oxygen-containing functional groups (Thromboxane)
● important function of thromboxanes (promote the formation of blood clots)
● produced by blood platelets and promote platelet aggregation (Thromboxanes)
● is a messenger lipid that is a C20-fatty-acid derivative that contains three conjugated
double bonds and hydroxy groups (Leukotrienes)
1. The metabolic precursor fro the production of the most eicosanoids is
- arachidonic acid
2. Aspirin reduces inflammation and fever by inhibiting the formation of which of
the following types of messenger lipids?
- Prostaglandins
3. Which of the following types of eicosanoids has a cyclopentane ring and a
structural component? (prostaglandins)

2.14 PROTECTIVE-COATING LIPIDS: BIOLOGICAL WAXES

 ● is a lipid that is a monoester of a long-chain fatty acid and a longchain alcohol
(Biological Wax)
● a pliable, water-repelling substance used particularly in protecting surfaces and
producing polished surfaces (wax)
● is a mixture of long-chain alkanes obtained from the processing of petroleum (mineral
wax)
also called paraffi n waxes, resist moisture and chemicals and have no odor or taste
serve as a waterproof coating for such paper products as milk cartons and waxed paper
● Biological waxes find use in the pharmaceutical, cosmetics, and “polishing” industries.
________(obtained from a species of Brazilian palm tree) is a particularly hard wax
whose uses involve high-gloss finishes: automobile wax, boat wax, floor wax, and shoe
wax. (Carnauba wax)
● a mixture of waxes obtained from sheep wool, is used as a base for skin creams and
ointments intended to enhance retention of water (which softens the skin) (Lanolin)
1. How many structural subunits are present in the “block diagram” for biological
wax?
- two
2. Which of the following functional groups are present in biological waxes?
- ester
3. The no. of carbon chains present in the structures of biological waxes and mineral
waxes are, respectively,
- 2 and 1

2.15 SAPONIFIABLE AND NON SAPONIFIABLE LIPIDS

● is a lipid that undergoes hydrolysis in basic solution to yield two or more smaller
product molecules. (Saponifiable Lipids)
● a lipid that does not undergo hydrolysis in basic solution (nonsaponifiable lipid)
● five types of saponifiable lipids (triacylglycerols, glycerophospholipids,
sphingophospholipids, sphingoglycolipids, and waxes)
● four types of nonsaponifiable (cholesterol, bile acids, steroid hormones, and eicosanoids)
● What determines whether or not a lipid is saponifiable? [ It is the types of linkages
(bonds) that hold its component parts (building blocks)]
● Three types of linkages [(1) ester linkages (2) amide linkages and (3) glycosidic linkages]
● Triacylglycerol (three ester linkage)
● Glycerophospholipid (four ester linkages)
● Sphingophospholipid (one amide and two ester linkages)
● Sphingoglycolipid (one amide, one ester, and one glycosidic linkage)
● Biological waxes (one ester linkage)
● Structurally, these nonsaponifi able lipids have two things in common: (only one
building block is present and
there is no need for ester, amide, or glycosidic linkages to be present to link building
blocks together since there is only one building block.)
1. In which of the following pairs of lipid types are both members of the pair
classified as saponifiable lipids?
- triacylglycerols and biological waxes
2. How many building blocks are present in the block diagram structure of a non
saponifiable lipid
- one
3. Which of the following statements concerning bond breaking that occurs under
saponification conditions is incorrect?
- no correct response