ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
● Largest amplitude - least
*the higher the frequency, the shorter
the wavelength; the lower the
frequency, the longer the wavelength
WHAT IS A WAVE?
- A wave is a movement up and
down or back and forth
- One of a series of ridges that
moves across the surface of a
liquid
3 Types of Waves
● Mechanical waves - moves
through medium (solid,
liquid, gas)
● Electromagnetic waves - no
medium required
● Matter waves - electrons and
particles
PARTS OF WAVES
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
powerful wave
● Smallest amplitude - most
powerful wave
● Non-ionizing - low frequency
but dangerous
● Ionizing - ultraviolet, x-rays,
and gamma rays (for medical
reasons)
● waves of electromagnetic
spectrum travel at the speed of
light: 186,000 miles per second;
300,000 km per second
INSTRUMENTS USED TO MEASURE:
● Visible light - lumen
● Others - radiation
*EM waves have
● Electric field (vibrates
vertically)
● Magnetic field (vibrates
horizontally)
*EMS are “transverse waves”
*electric and magnetic fields oscillate
in a plane that is perpendicular to the
propagation of the waves
HISTORY OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
- These 2 words often go
together like horse and
carriage, in electromagnetism
and electromagnetic
induction
HANS CHRISTIAN OERSTED
- Danish physicist
- In 1820, he accidentally
discovered that magnetic
needle is deflected when the
current wire in a nearby wire
varies which established the–
- Relationship between electricity
and magnetism
- Needle + magnet = electricity
- CONCEPT: magnet-electricity
ANDRE-MARIE AMPERE
- Relationship between
electric-current flow and
magnetism
- Formulated “LAW OF
MAGNETISM”
- Electrodynamics
- Electric current
- Voltage and current
- Relationship governing the
behavior of electric currents
in various types of conductors
- “AMPERE LAW” (magnetic
force between two electrical
currents)
MICHAEL FARADAY
- First discovery in 1821
- Took the work of Oersted and
Ampere on the magnetic
properties of electrical points
as a starting point
- In 1831, achieved an electrical
current from a changing
magnetic field, known as
“ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION”
- When electrical current
passed through a coil, another
very short current was
generated in a nearby coil
- Used today to generate
electricity on a large scale
power stations
JOSEPH HENRY 2 Basic Principles of Electromagnetism
- 1829 (insulating the wire ● A changing electric field in
instead of the iron core) space produces a magnetic
- Increase the power of the field
magnet ● A changing magnetic field in
- Made an electromagnet that space produces electric field
could support 2,063 pounds
(world record at that time)
- First to notice the
“PRINCIPLE OF SELF
INDUCTION”

HEINRICH HERTZ
- After death of Maxwell, he
designed an experimental
setup that was electrical in
nature and able to generate
JAMES CLERK MAXWELL
and detect electromagnetic
- Physicist and mathematician
waves
- Proposed Faraday’s
electromagnetic induction to
happen even in empty space
- Symmetry between the fields
fascinated him so much
- “ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVE”
- Alteration of electric and
magnetic fields generating
and propelling each other in
space
8
- 3 𝑥 10 m/s
ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS - Electromagnetic waves are
TOGETHER defined by the amount of
*accelerating electrons produce energy carried by PHOTONS.
electromagnetic waves - Photons (bundles of wave
● A changing electric field in energy)
space produces a magnetic - Gamma rays have photons of
field high energies
● A changing magnetic field in - Radio waves have photons
space produces electric field with the lowest energies
*electric field produces magnetic
field
*both electric and magnetic field
oscillate perpendicular to each other
to the direction of the propagating
wave
*all electromagnetic fields travel
through a medium and vacuum
8
3 𝑥 10 m/s

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
- Electromagnetic spectrum is a
continuum of electromagnetic
waves ARRANGED ACCORDING
TO FREQUENCY AND
WAVELENGTH
- It is a gradual progression from
the waves of lowest frequencies
to the waves of highest
frequencies

INCREASING FREQUENCY
- Radio wave
- Microwave
- Infrared
- Visible light
- Ultraviolet
- X-rays
- Gamma rays
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF
THE DIFFERENT REGIONS OF
EM WAVES
RADIO WAVES/ TV WAVES
- longest wavelengths and the
lowest frequencies
- produced by making
electricity oscillate in an
aerial, or antenna, and are
used to transmit sound and
picture information over long
distances
1. Microphone - converts the sound
waves to audio-frequency
signals (electrical signal) and
acts as a receptor.
2. AF signal will go to modulator
3. Radio frequency oscillator will
produce radio frequency carrier
and go to modulator
4. Process of amplitude modulation
or frequency modulation.
5. In amplitude modulation, the
amplitude of the radio waves (RF
carrier) changes to match that of
the audio-frequency signal (used
in standard broadcasting
because it can be sent over long
distances)
6. Very high frequency waves
provide a higher quality
broadcasting including stereo
sound.
7. Frequency modulation - the
frequency of the waves that
changes to match that of the
signal instead of the amplitude
of the RF carrier
8. The modulated carrier wave will
be sent to an amplifier that will
magnify its energy– then to the
transmitting antenna
9. The ionosphere helps the radio
waves to bounce back radio
waves and will be accepted by
the receiving antenna.
10. Since radio waves have a
wavelength of 1m to 10, 000m, a
relay/repeater antenna is used as
bridge to reach the receiving
antenna
11. Once the radio waves reach the
receiving antenna, a tuner circuit
selects the frequency of the
station desired.
12. The received signal will now be
sent to the demodulator which
will get the information, the AF
signal from the modulated
carrier waves.
13. It will be sent to the amplifier to
increase its energy and will be
transported to a speaker that will
convert it to the original sound.
MICROWAVES
- higher frequencies compared
to radio waves that made it to
be used in satellite
● Microphones
communication
- works by transmitting
- ground equipment is used to
microwaves which are
transmit signals to a satellite
received by cell sites
that will amplify that signal
and delivered to a target
and will return it to the Earth
mobile phone
to be received by another
● Microwave ovens
ground equipment
- used to cook or heat
- used to transmit signals
food
overseas (communication)
- When you turn on the
microwave and start to
● RADAR (radio detection and
set it, the water
ranging)
molecules of the food
- used to locate, track,
inside start to vibrate
recognize or detect
through microwaves,
objects within a range
causing the production
- emits microwaves until
of intermolecular
it reaches the target
friction between the
- commonly used in
molecules of the food
national defense by
tracking aircrafts and
ships from other
countries that may
trespass and cause
threat
- also used to determine
the speed of automotive
vehicles
INFRARED
- waves that lie in the region
beyond the red end of visible
spectrum
- Wavelength is too long to be
visible to the naked eye
- most noticeable when given
off by hot objects, especially
when objects are red hot
Some Useful Applications of IR
Radiation:
1. Infrared photographs taken
from a satellite with special
films provide useful details of
the vegetation on the Earth’s
surface.
2. Body temperature// for
medical diagnosis
3. Remote controls
4. Night vision goggles use IR
5. Autofocus cameras
VISIBLE LIGHT
- the shortest waves present
can be detected by the eye
- light waves
- makes up only a small portion
of the entire electromagnetic
spectrum
- When white light passes
through a prism, it is
separated into its constituent
colors (ROYGBIV)
- Violet has the shortest
wavelength and red has the
longest
- There are no sharp
boundaries separating the
various colors; there is a
continuous blending from one
color to the next
PHOTOTHERAPY
- use of light in medical
treatment of a variety of
ailments from topical
infections
*Chukuka S. Enwemeka -
well-known specialist who is
conducting studies about
phototherapy
FIBER OPTICS/ OPTICAL FIBERS
- long, thin strands about the
diameter of a human hair
drawn glass
- optical cables which are used
in communication
- it was used by doctors to see
the patient’s inside body
without conducting a major
surgery
-
ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION
- invisible radiation that lie
beyond the violet end of the
visible spectrum
- Comes from the sun
- Carries more energy
 - It helps our body to produce
vitamin D which is essential
in our body’s calcium
absorption
- too much exposure to UV rays
will make our skin to
accelerate in aging or worst, it
may lead to skin cancer
- UV lamps (used in checking
signatures on passbook;
determine real money bills)
- used in sterilizing water from
drinking fountains
- used in our water filters being
attached on faucets
- Some washing powder also
contains fluorescent
chemicals which glow in
sunlight. This makes your
shirt look whiter than white
in daylight.
- In Japan, UV rays are also used
to disinfect their toilets.
X-RAY
- short wavelengths and high
frequencies
- Very penetrating
- produced by the rapid
acceleration of electrons in
X-ray machines that collide
with atoms (these atoms emit
x-rays)
- long wavelengths that can
penetrate through flesh but
not bone
- used in photography to help
doctors look inside the body
- useful in diagnosing bone
fractures and tumors
- can penetrate even through
metals
- used in industry to inspect
welded joints for faults
- All X-rays are dangerous
because they can damage
healthy living cells of the
body. This is the reason why
frequent exposure to X-rays
should be avoided.
- Too much exposure to X-rays
can damage body tissues and
can cause cancer.
GAMMA RAYS
- high-energy waves produced
from nuclear reactions
- more dangerous than X-rays
because radioactive
substances emit them
- can kill living cells that is why
they are used to treat cancer
through the process called
radiotherapy
- used for sterilization of
drinking water
- used for sterilization of
medical equipments
Qualitative Characteristics of
Images Formed by Mirrors
*What can you see when you look at a
mirror, or a polished metal or a still
pool of water? You can see your image.
Why?
- These objects are image
reflecting objects. A mirror is a
smooth reflecting surface,
usually made of polished
metal or glass that has been
coated with metallic
substances
● Incident ray - ray of light
approaching the mirror
● Reflected ray - ray of light
leaving the mirror
● Normal ray - imaginary line
perpendicular to the optical
element
LAW REFLECTION OF LIGHT
*incident ray, reflected ray and
normal line are on the same plane
*angle of incidence is equal to the
angle of reflection
TYPES OF REFLECTION OF LIGHT
● specular/regular reflection
(smooth surface)
● diffused/irregular reflection
(rough surface)
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
- Change in direction of a wave
passing from one medium to
another
TYPES OF IMAGES
● Real - inverted
- Formed IN FRONT of
the mirror
- Size depends on the
location of the object
with respect to the
mirror
● Virtual - upright
- Formed at the back of
the mirror
- Size depends on the
mirror used
TYPES OF MIRRORS
● Plane mirror - reflecting
surface is flat surface
● Curved mirror - reflecting
surface is a section of sphere
 KIND OF CURVED MIRROR CONCAVE MIRROR
● Size of image is bigger than
object
- Virtual
- Upright
● Size of image is smaller than
object
- Real
Convex Mirror Concave Mirror - Inverted
- Reflective - Reflective
surface surface *The characteristics of the images
bulges bulges formed in concave mirror depends on
towards the away from the location of the object
light surface the light
- “Diverging source
CONCAVE MIRROR
mirror” - “Convergin
(parallel g mirror”
incident (parallel
rays diverge incident
after rays
reflection) converge or
meet/inters
ect at a focal
point after
reflection)

IMAGES FORMED BY PLANE MIRROR

❖ Virtual
❖ Upright
❖ Formed at the back of the
mirror
❖ Same size and distance
❖ Laterally reversed
 MIRROR EQUATION
- to determine the exact
location and size of the image
formed in a curved mirror.

1 1 1
FORMULA: 𝑓
= 𝑝
− 𝑞

CONVEX MIRROR

ℎ' −𝑞
FORMULA: ℎ
= 𝑝
 1 1 1
FORMULA: 𝑓
= 𝑝
+ 𝑞

Sign Conventions for Mirror

● f is positive (+) if the mirror is
a concave mirror
● f is negative (-) if the mirror
is a convex mirror
● q is (+) if the image is a real
image and located on the
object's side of the mirror
● q is (-) if the image is a virtual
image and located behind the
mirror
● h' is (+) if the image is an
upright image
● h' is (-) if the image is an
inverted image
Qualitative Characteristics of - Thicker than the middle than
Images Formed by Lenses the edge.
Lenses
- An optical device which is
made of transparent material
which bends light
Difference of Mirror and Lens

Mirror Lens

-Has one focal -Has two focal Parts of Ray Diagram

point point
-Reflection of -Refraction of
Light Light

Types of Lenses

IMAGES FORMED BY LENSES

Kinds of Lens
Concave Lens
- Converging Lens
- Thicker at the edge than the
middle
Convex Lens
- Diverging Lens
Basic Principles of - If a force of repulsion only is
possible between an object
Magnetism
and a magnet, then the object
interacting with the magnet
Compass
may also be a permanent
- a device that shows cardinal
magnet or a temporarily
directions used for navigation
magnetized ferromagnetic
and geographic orientation.
material.
- Commonly consists of a
magnetized needle or other
element such as a compass
card or compass rose, which
can pivot to align itself with
magnetic north.

History of Magnet
*It was discovered 2000 years ago
in the island of Magnesia, and
originated from certain stones Magnetic Field
discovered by Greeks. - Is the area around a magnet in
*These same stones helped which the effect of magnetism
navigators in finding the direction is felt.
to take during voyages. Today this - A tool to describe how the
stone is known as magnetite, magnetic force is distributed
magnetized ore of iron. in the space around and
within something magnetic in
Key Concepts nature.
- Magnets exert either a force
of repulsion or attraction.
- If a force of attraction only is
possible between an object
and a magnet, then the object
interacting with the magnet
contains a ferromagnetic
substance and is considered
naturally magnetic
 an external magnetic field.
When placed in an external
magnetic field, ferromagnetic
materials are strongly
magnetized in the direction of
the field.
*Iron
*Steel
*Nickel
*Cobalt

Magnetic Substance

Natural Magnets
Induced Magnetism
- An ore of iron that attracts
- When a non magnetic iron is
small pieces of iron, cobalt,
placed near a magnet it gets
and nickel towards it. It is
magnetized.
usually an oxide of iron
- When some iron filings get
named Fe3o4. Magnetite or
attracted to the iron piece.
lodestone is a natural magnet.
Magnetism
Alnico Magnets
- The force exerted by magnets
- Family of iron alloys which in
when they attract or repel
addition to iron ore composed
each other.
primarily of aluminum, nickel,
Lodestone
and cobalt. They also include
- It has a property of attracting
copper and sometimes
iron particles to it
titanium.
- Naturally magnetized piece of
- Alnico alloys are
the mineral magnetite.
ferromagnetic, and are used
Magnet
to make permanent magnets.
- Substance that possess
Artificial Magnet
magnetic properties
- Materials that can be made
- Produces magnetic field
into magnets
Ferromagnetic
- Made by induced magnets
- Materials which exhibit a
Temporary Magnets
spontaneous net
- Magnets that aren’t always
magnetization at the atomic
magnetic, but their
level, even in the absence of
 magnetism can be turned on
at will.
- Magnet made of soft iron,
that is usually easy to
magnetize; however
temporary magnets lose most
of their magnetic properties
when magnetizing cause id
discontinued. DC GENERATOR
Permanent Magnets Direct Current
- Magnets whose magnetic
strength never fades.
- Usually more difficult to
magnetize, but they remain
magnetized.
Alloy
- Mixture of two or more
metals

Electromagnetic Induction
- When a magnet is brought
towards a coil, a relative
motion is generated between
the two due to a magnetic flux.
This leads to an electromotive
force which results in an
electric current in the coil.
Generator
- Operates on the principle of Electric Motor
electromagnetic induction - A device that converts
- A device that converts electrical energy to
mechanical energy to mechanical energy.
electrical energy.
AC GENERATOR
Alternating Current