one thing, such as a word or an
CALLP
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
A Swiss psychologist who made the theory
of cognitive development.
According to him, stages of development
takes place via interaction between natural
capacities and environmental happenings,
and children experience a series of stages.
Theory of Cognitive Development
A comprehensive framework that explains
how individuals progress through distinct
stages of intellectual growth from infancy to
adulthood.
Piaget’s Stages of Development
Sensorimotor (Birth to 18-24 mos)
- infant focuses on physical sensations
and on learning to coordinate their
body.
Major Characteristics and
Developmental Changes:
1. The infant learns about the world
through their senses and through
their actions.
2. Cognitive abilities develop:
a. object permanence – Major
understanding the permanence
of objects and that they will exist
even if they can’t see them and
the infant will search for them
when they disappear.
b. self-recognition
c. deferred imitation
d. representational play
3. They relate to the emergence of
general symbolic function, which is
that capacity to represent the world
mentally.
Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)
- The child’s thinking is influence by
the way things appear rather than
logical reasoning.
Major Characteristics and
Developmental Changes:
a. Acquire the ability to internally
represent the world through
language and mental imagery.
b. They can thing about thinks
symbolically – the ability to make
object, stand for something other
than itself.
c. Their thinking is dominated by how
the world looks and not how the
world.
d. They are not capable of the logical
(problem solving) type of thought.
e. They have difficulty with class
inclusion; they can classify objects
but cannot include objects in sub-
sets, which involves classifying
objects as belonging to two or more
categories simultaneously.
f. They demonstrate animism – the
tendency for the child to think that
non-living objects have life and
feeling like a person.
Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)
- The child can use operations (a set
of logical rules) so they can conserve
quantities, realize that people see
the world in a different way than
they do (decentering), and they have
improved in inclusion task but still
have difficulties with abstract
thinking.
Characteristics and
Developmental Changes:
1. Children begin to think logically
about concrete events.
2. They begin to understand the
concept of conservation –
understanding that, although things
may change in appearance, certain
properties remain unchanged.
3. They can mentally reverse things.
4. They are also less egocentric and
begin to think about how other
people might think and feel.
Formal Operational Stage (12-adulthood)
- They gain the ability to think in an
abstract manner, to combine and
classify items in a more
sophisticated way, and the capacity
for higher-order reasoning.
Major Characteristics and
Developmental Changes:
1. Formal operations are carried out on
ideas – entirely freed from physical
and perceptual constraints.
 2. They can deal with abstract ideas. III. Identity Formation in
3. They can follow the form of an Adolescence
argument without having to think in Influencing Factors:
terms of specific examples. a. Exploration of self-identity,
4. They can deal with hypothetical values, and beliefs.
problems with many possible Psychosocial Development by
solutions. Erik Erikson
The theory postulates that
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT people advance through the
The gradual acquisition of social skills, stages of development based on
behaviors, and values that enable how they adjust to social crisis
individuals to interact effectively within throughout their lives.
their community.
Erikson’s Stages of Development
I. Early Social Foundation Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (0-
Influencing Factors: 18mos)
a. Family dynamics Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame
b. Caregiver interactions (18mos – 3 years)
c. Early social experiences Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5
Attachment Theory by John Bowlby years)
(1958) Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
This theory suggests that a secure (6-11 years)
emotional bond formed in infancy Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
has long-lasting effects on an (12-18 years)
individual’s emotional and social Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
development. (18-40 years)
Stage 7: Generativity vs.
Strange Situation by Mary Ainsworth Stagnation (40-65 years)
(1970’s) Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (65-
1. Secure Attachment death)
2. Avoidant-Insecure Attachment
3. Ambivalent/Resistant-Insecure Identity Development in
Attachment Adolescence in Erikson’s Theory:
Mary Main and Judith Solomon He believed that childhood
(1986) identification lay the
4. Disorganized/Disoriented groundwork for identity
Insecure Attachment formation in adolescence.

II. Peer Interactions and Social IV. Socialization through Institution

Learning Influencing Factors:
Influencing factors: a. Formal institutions shaping
a. Peer relationships in school social behaviors.
contributing to social skills
and emotional regulation. Structural Functionalism by
Social Learning Theory by Albert Emile Durkheim
Bandura Emile Durkheim is a French
This theory emphasized the Philosopher and sociologist
importance of observing, known as the father of the
modeling, and imitating the French school of sociology
behaviors, attitudes, and for his methodology
emotional reactions of others. combining empirical research
with sociological theory.
 Structural Functionalism is a
macro theory that looks at how
all structures or institutions in
society work together.
 Manifest Function –
things that are put in
place intentionally to
keep society moving
forward.
 Latent Function – diverse virtual communities,
unintended
consequences from
manifest function.
Social Institutions
Structure that meet the basic needs
and reproduce patterns of behavior
in the society.
Five Basic Social Institution:
1. Family
2. Economy
3. Government
4. Education
5. Religion
Social Facts
Have persuasive effect over
individuals but cannot be influenced
by individuals.
V. Technology and Social Impact
Influencing Factors:
a. Impact of technology and
social media on
communication styles and
community formation.
1. Communication Styles
- Technology and social
media influence how
individuals express
themselves and interact. The
introduction of emojis, short-
form communication, and
multimedia content on social
media platforms has shaped
the way people
communicate in the digital
realm. And this new form of
communication is directly
tied to business success
through messaging media
platforms,
2. Community Formation
- Social media platforms
provide spaces for individuals
with shared interests or goals
to connect and form online
communities. The ease of
global communication
fosters the formation of
transcending geographical
limitations.
 Herbert Marshall
McLuhan
(July 21, 1911 –
December 31, 1980) was
a Canadian philosopher
whose work is among the
cornerstones of the study
of media theory.
Media ecology is the study of
media as environments
within which people's sense-
making experience manifests
itself through and in
communication.
This phrase, "The medium is
the message," coined by
Marshall McLuhan, suggests
that the way information is
communicated (the medium)
is just as important as the
content of the message
itself. It emphasizes that the
medium used influences how
a message is perceived.
In essence, the relationship
between Technology and
Social Media Impact and
Media Ecology Theory
emphasizes the
interconnectedness between
media and the way
individuals and societies
function in the modern,
digitally influenced world.
VI. Sociocultural Theory
Lev Vygotsky, a Russian
psychologist born in 1896,
 developed the Social-Cultural
Theory, emphasizing the role
of social interaction, culture,
and language in learning and
development. He applied this
theory to improve his
teaching methods and
explored various areas such
as language, psychology of
art, thought, and educating
students with special needs.
The theory identifies three
crucial factors in a child's
cognitive development:
social interaction, culture,
and language. Vygotsky
introduced the Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD),
which represents the gap
between what a learner can
do independently and what
they can achieve with
guidance from a skilled
partner (MKO). Scaffolding,
akin to constructing a house,
is the judicious assistance
that allows a child to move
from their actual
development to the ZPD.
 MKO
When an MKO scaffolds, the
process evolves through four
levels: "I do, you watch," "I
do, you help," "You do, I
help," and "You do, I watch."
Patience is key, especially
when working with learners
who have impairments.
Factors influencing learning
include the skill of the MKO,
the learner's readiness, and
the difficulty of the skill being
learned. Cultural influences
on cognitive development
vary, and language serves a
dual purpose: facilitating
social interaction and
providing a means for
individuals to acquire
knowledge. Private speech,
or self-talk, is believed to aid
in regulating and reflecting
on one's own thinking.
In summary, Vygotsky's
theory underscores the
collaborative role of social
interaction, culture, and
language in learning. The ZPD
and scaffolding emphasize
guided learning, with the
MKO's skill playing a crucial
role in the process. Overall,
the theory provides valuable
insights into how individuals
acquire knowledge within
their social and cultural
contexts.
VII. Transition to Adulthood
Transition to adulthood is the
time when you grow up,
learn to take care of yourself,
make important decisions,
and become more
independent. As we
transition to adulthood there
are some influencing factors
in shaping an individual's
personal development and
contributing to their role in
the broader social context.
Influencing Factors:
Establishment of
Independence
-This involves developing the
ability to take care of
oneself, make decisions, and
pursue personal goals
without relying heavily on
others.
Forming Relationships
-Building connections with
others is a fundamental part
of social development. This
includes friendships, family
relationships, and romantic
partnerships.
Navigating Responsibilities
-This involves managing
various tasks and obligations,
 both personal and societal,
and understanding the
consequences of one's
actions.
Life Course Perspective
(Glen H. Elder)
Glen H. Elder's Life Course
Perspective also known as
Life Course Theory provides a
comprehensive framework
for understanding individual
development within the
context of time, historical
events, and social structures,
emphasizing the
interconnectedness of lives
and the influence of various
life transitions on the
trajectory of one's life.
VIII. Life Long Learning and
Adaptation
Bronfenbrenner (1977)
suggested that the child’s
environment is a nested
arrangement of structures,
each contained within the
next. He organized them in
order of how much of an
impact they have on a child.
He named these structures
the microsystem,
mesosystem, exosystem,
macrosystem and the
chronosystem.
a. Microsystem influences
the child’s experiences
directly.
b. Mesosystem represents
the interconnections
between the elements
that surround the child.
c. Exosystem involves links
between social settings
that do not involve the
child.
d. Macrosystem describes
the overarching culture
that influences all other
systems, such as a child’s
geographic location and
ethnicity.
e. Chronosystem, refers to
changes in the child, and
the environment over
time
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987)
- renowned for his groundwork in the
field of moral development and
education.
- his theory focuses on the stages of
moral reasoning in individuals.
- laid foundation for understanding
the cognitive processes underlying
moral decision-making and ethical
reasoning.
Stages of Moral Development
 Pre-conventional Level
Characterize by a focus on self-
interest, avoiding punishment,
gaining rewards and a limited
understanding of societal rules.
 Stage 1: Obedience and
Punishment Orientation
-Individuals make decisions
thinking about what’s best
for themselves.
-Focuses on avoiding
punishment to stay out of
trouble and protect
themselves.
-A basic form of thinking
centered around self-
preservation.
 Stage 2: Naïve
Instrumentalism
-Children are motivated by
self-interest.
-Their understanding of right
and wrong is closely tied to
the consequences of actions
for themselves.
-Children tend to evaluate
the morality of an action
based on whether it brings
personal benefit or avoids
personal harm.
 Level 2: Conventional Morality
Marked by the acceptance of
social rules regarding what is
good and moral.
During this time, adolescents
and adults internalize the moral
standards they have learned
from their role models and from
society.
 Stage 3: Interpersonal
Relationships
-Often called the “good
boy/good girl” orientation.
-Centered on upholding
social roles and expectations.
-Behaving nice, conforming,
and thinking about how
decision affect relationships
are all stressed.
 Stage 4: Maintaining Social
Order
-Decisions are based on
respecting authority and
doing right by society, not
just the individual.
-Feelings of guilt about
decisions play a central role
at this stage.
 Level 3: Post-Conventional
Moral reasoning is drawn from
broad principle that extend
beyond the scope of societal
rules.
Involves a higher level of
reasoning and considering
multiple perspectives on the
issue.
 Stage 5: Social Contract
Morality
-Individuals are motivated by
a sense of fairness and
justice.
-Focus shifts from personal
gain to a broader
understanding of the social
contract and the principles
that contribute to a fair and
equitable community.
 Stage 6: Universal Principles
-Morality is determined by a
nuanced, critical
understanding of justice,
equity, and duty.
-Decision-making extends
beyond a single moral act to
consider the implications and
personal responsibility.
Jean Piaget (1932)
- he believed that children’s moral
reasoning is not determined by
external influences, but rather by
their own cognitive development.
- he identified two main stages of
moral development: heteronomous
morality stage and the autonomous
morality stage.
 Heteronomous Morality
(between the ages of 4 and 7)
Moral Realism
Individual believe that rules are
imposed upon them by
authorities and must be followed
without question – moral
realism.
Children at this age focuses on
the outcomes of actions rather
than intentions, meaning that
they judge the morality of an
action solely based on its
consequences.
 Autonomous Morality
Moral Relativism
Children start to develop a more
flexible and internalized sense of
morality.
They begin to understand that
rules are agreements among
individuals and can be modified
if there is consensus.
They also consider intentions
and motives when evaluating the
morality of an action, rather
than solely focusing on
outcomes.
Carol Gilligan (1932)
- Her theory of moral development,
often referred to as the care
perspective, emerged as a critique of
Kohlberg’s theory, which primarily
focused on the moral development
of males.
  Pre-conventional Stage
-Individuals are primarily
concerned with their own self-
interest and personal needs.
-Moral decisions are influenced
by the fear of punishment or the
expectation of rewards.
-They tend to prioritize their own
well-being without considering
the impact on others.
 Conventional Stage
-Emphasizes on fulfilling
expected duties and
responsibilities.
-Individuals begin to take on
societal norms and expectations.
Focuses on being a good person
and conforming to social roles
and responsibilities.
-Moral decisions are based on
seeking approval from others
and maintaining social harmony.
 Post-conventional Stage
-Individuals develop their own
set of moral principles based on
personal values and ethical
reasoning.
-They consider the complexities
of specific situations and weight
the concerns of both justice and
care
-Moral decisions are not solely
based on rules or social
expectations but also consider
the well-being and needs of
others.
INTRODUCTION TO GENDER AND
DEVELOPMENT
BASIC CONCEPTS OF GENDER
What is Gender?
In simple terms, gender is about how you
identify yourself, like whether you identify
as a man, a woman, or something else. It's
about how you feel inside and how you
express those feelings. It's not necessarily
about your physical body, but more about
your internal sense of self and the roles and
expectations society has for you.
Gender Identity
Gender identity refers to a person's internal
sense of their own gender, which may or
may not correspond to the sex they were
assigned at birth. It is important to respect
and support individuals in their gender
identity, regardless of societal norms or
expectations.
The Difference Between Gender Identity
and Biological Sex
Biological sex refers to the physical
characteristics that define males and
females, such as genitalia and
chromosomes. Gender identity, on the
other hand, is a deeply personal and
subjective experience of one's own gender.
It is important to understand the difference
between these two concepts to better
understand gender.
The Spectrum of Gender Identity
 Gender Identity Spectrum
- a more nuanced model where
gender exists beyond a simple
male/female binary model but
instead exists on a continuum that
can move more fluidly between
masculine and feminine allowing
people to identify with a more
authentic model of their gender.
Gender Spectrum Identity includes:
1. Non-Binary
- An umbrella term for gender identities
that do not exclusively align with the
categories of male or female.
2. Gender Non-Conforming
- individuals whose gender expression or
identity doesn't conform to societal
expectations.
3. Agender
- individuals who do not identify with any
gender or feel a lack of gender altogether.
4. Bigender
- Individuals who identify with two distinct
gender identities, either simultaneously or
at different times.
5 Androgynous
- Refers to individuals with a gender
expression that is a mix of both traditionally
masculine and feminine characteristics.

6. Demiboy/Demigirl
- Demiboy identifies as partially, but not
wholly, male, and demigirl identifies as
partially, but not wholly, female.
In a nutshell:
The gender spectrum recognizes that
gender is not strictly binary (male/female)
but exists on a continuum. It includes
identities like non-binary, genderqueer, and
genderfluid. This concept is closely related
to the LGBTQIA+ community, where
individuals may identify with diverse gender
expressions and sexual orientations.
Examples include non-binary individuals,
genderqueer people, and those who
identify as agender, bigender, or
genderfluid. Understanding and respecting
this diversity is crucial for creating inclusive
and supportive environments.
Gender Expression
Gender expression refers to the way in
which a person presents their gender to
the world through their behavior, clothing,
and other forms of self-expression. It is
important to recognize and respect the
diversity of gender expression and to create
safe spaces for individuals to express
themselves authentically.
Cultural Variations
Gender expression varies across cultures
and can change over time. Some cultures
have more rigid expectations for gender
expression, while others may have more
fluid or non-binary gender identities and
expressions.
Gender Expression and Identity
Gender expression is often closely linked to
gender identity, but they are not the same
thing. A person's gender identity is their
internal sense of their own gender, while
gender expression is how they present that
gender to others.
Gender Roles and Stereotypes
Gender Roles - are the societal expectations
placed on individuals based on their
perceived gender. These expectations can
vary across cultures and time periods, but
often include things like men being
expected to be providers and women being
expected to be caretakers.
Gender stereotypes
- are oversimplified and often
inaccurate beliefs about the
characteristics and abilities of
individuals based on their gender.
Examples include the belief that
women are more emotional and
men are more rational, or that
women are better at nurturing and
men are better at leadership.
Gender roles and stereotypes are the
societal expectations and assumptions
about how men and women should behave,
based on their gender. These
expectations can be harmful and limiting,
and it is important to challenge and break
down gender stereotypes to
create a more equitable society.
Intersectionality and Gender
 Intersectionality – is a
framework that recognizes how
different social categories and
identities intersect and interact,
leading to unique experiences of
privilege and oppression. It
originated in feminist theory and
has expanded to various
disciplines, emphasizing the
interconnected nature of social
structures.
 Intersectionality and Gender - In
the context of gender,
intersectionality recognizes that
individuals experience gender
within a matrix of intersecting
identities, such as race, class,
and sexuality. It highlights the
importance of considering these
intersections to address the
complexity of gender-related
issues comprehensively.
 Intersectionality and Feminism -
Intersectionality has significantly
 influenced feminism by urging a
more inclusive understanding of
women's experiences. It
emphasizes that women's
identities are shaped not only by
gender but also by other
intersecting factors. This
approach broadens the scope of
feminist discourse and activism
to address the unique challenges
faced by individuals with
intersecting identities.
MANIFESTATIONS OF GENDER BIAS
Gender Bias
- the tendency to prefer one gender
over the other.
- a form of unconscious bias, or
implicit bias, which occurs when one
individual unconsciously attributes
certain attitudes and stereotypes to
another person or group of people.
Marginalization (Economic)
The process which forces women out:
- into the periphery of economic and
social life, on the periphery of
decision-making process as well as
diminishing the value of the
activities in which they engage and
through which they contribute to
the national development process.
What should be the vision:
1. Equal pay for work of equal value
2. Economic independence
3. Economic opportunities.
Subordination
- refers to the unequal and unjust
power dynamic between different
genders.
- one gender is systematically placed
in a position of inferiority or
subjugation in comparison to
another.
 Subordination in the Manifestation
of Gender Bias.
a. Social and structure inequality
b. Power imbalance
c. Cultural and societal norms
d. Discrimination and exclusion
e. Legal and policy implications.
Multiple Burden
- the involvement in the three sphere
of work – reproductive, productive,
and community work.
- It can be parenting, housework,
community work, and work in the
public sphere/informal sector.
- The reproductive, productive, and
community work activities of
women are more often arduous,
undervalued and can even be
hazardous to health and life.
 Negative Effect of Multiple Burden
Can result to emergence of chronic
diseases, being underweight or
overweight, and poor health.
Double burden leads to health
deterioration owing to reduced
exercise and increased psychological
stress.
How to address:
Through dialogue, training, media,
and engaging men and boys to act
out the different roles ascribed to
mend and women, and the
constraints that men and women
face so as to change the gender
norms and stereotypes about
domestic work.
Gender Division of Labor
- refers to the way each society
divides work among men and
women, boys and girls, according to
socially-established gender roles or
what is considered suitable and
valuable for each sex.
 Importance of Gender Division of
Labor
1. Efficiency and specialization
2. Cultural and social stability
3. Historical and cultural traditions.
 Disadvantages of Gender Division
of Labor
1. Gender inequality
2. Limiting individual’s potential
3. Resistant to change
How to address:
1. Promote equal opportunities
2. Challenge stereotypes
 3. Encourage shared -In extreme cases, in can lead to
responsibilities violence, oppression, and even
genocide.
Gender Stereotypes  Overcoming Dominating Power
- fixed, unquestioned beliefs or - build alliances with others who
images we carry in the back of our share your concerns and work
minds. together
- about women and men or LGBT+
- transmitted from generation to
generation.
 Gender Stereotyping
The process of attributing a set of
characteristics, roles and traits,
favorable or unfavorable to all
members of a social group on sex.
Examples:
1. Child rearing
2. Occupation
3. Education
4. Government programs
5. Behavior
6. Culture

What should be the vision:

1. Liberation from stereotyped
images
2. Non-sexist child rearing
3. Non-sexist language

Dominating Power
- when power is uses to consciously
or unconsciously in a manner that
has negative consequences for
others.
It is all about:
1. Disadvantage
2. Impose
3. Influence
4. Coerce
5. Control
6. Exploit
7. Manipulate
8. Undermines the humanity,
wellbeing and freedom of
another.
 Effects
-Individuals may feel oppressed and
powerless, leading to feelings of
anxiety, depression, and low self-
esteem.
-Can create a culture of fear and
intimidation, leading to a lack of
creativity and innovation in society.