EE5601 POWER SYSTEM

ANALYSIS
Dr. V. SENTHIL KUMAR
PROFESSOR
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
ANNA UNIVERSITY CHENNAI
EE5601 POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS LTPC
3003
OBJECTIVES
Toimpart knowledge on the need for “power system analysis” and
model various power system components.
To formulate the power balance equations and to conduct the
power flow analysis by Gauss Seidel and Newton-Raphson methods.
To model and carry out short circuit studies of power system for
symmetrical faults and to determine the fault levels of different
buses.
To learn about the symmetrical components and their application
to carry out short circuit studies of power system for unsymmetrical
faults and to determine the fault levels of different buses.
To model and analyze the stability of the power system due to
balanced faults by equal area criteria and explicit integration
methods.
UNIT I POWER SYSTEM OVERVIEW 9
Need for system planning and operational studies - Power
scenario in India - Power system components – Representation
- Single line diagram - per unit quantities - p.u. impedance
diagram - p.u. reactance diagram - Network graph, Bus
incidence matrix, Primitive network, Bus admittance matrix
from primitive parameters - Representation of off-nominal
transformer - Formation of bus admittance matrix of large
power network.
UNIT II POWER FLOW ANALYSIS 9
Significance of Power Flow Analysis in planning and operation-
Formulation of Power Flow problem in polar coordinates - Bus
classification - Power flow solution using Gauss-Seidel method
- Handling of Voltage controlled buses - Power Flow Solution by
Newton-Raphson method.
UNIT III SYMMETRICAL FAULT ANALYSIS 9
Importance of short circuit studies - Assumptions in short
circuit analysis - Symmetrical short circuit analysis using
Thevenin’s theorem - Bus Impedance matrix by building
algorithm (without mutual coupling) - Symmetrical fault
analysis through bus impedance matrix - Post fault bus
voltages - Fault level - Current limiting reactors.

UNIT IV UNSYMMETRICAL FAULT ANALYSIS 9

Symmetrical components - Sequence impedances – Sequence
circuits of synchronous machine, transformer and transmission
line-Sequence networks - Analysis of unsymmetrical faults:
single - line to - ground, line-to-line and double-line to-ground
using Thevenin’s theorem and Z-Bus- computation of post fault
currents in symmetrical component and phasor domains.
UNIT V STABILITY ANALYSIS 9
Importance of stability studies - Classification of power system
stability: rotor angle stability and voltage stability – Single
Machine Infinite Bus (SMIB) system: Development of swing
equation - Equal area criterion - Critical clearing angle and time
- solution of the swing equation – modified Euler method and
Runge-Kutta fourth order method.

TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
COURSE OUTCOMES:
Ability to:
CO1: Model the various power system components for steady-
state analysis.
CO2: Carry out the power flow analysis by Gauss-Seidel and
Newton-Raphson methods.
CO3: Conduct the fault analysis of power system for balanced
faults.
CO4: Carry out the short circuit analysis of the power system for
unbalanced faults using symmetrical component theory.
CO5: Compute the stability of the system with the help of equal
area criteria and Modified-Euler and Runge-Kutta fourth order
methods.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. John J. Grainger and W. D. Stevenson Jr., ‘Power System Analysis’ ,Tata
McGraw—Hill, Sixth reprint,2010.
2. Nagrath I. J. and Kothari D. P., ‘Modern Power System Analysis’, Tata
McGraw Hill,14th reprint,2009.
3. Hadi Saadat, ‘Power System Analysis’, Tata Mc Graw Hill Education Pvt.
Ltd., New Delhi, 21st reprint 2010.
REFERENCES:
1. Pai M A, ‘Computer Techniques in Power System Analysis’, Tata Mc Graw-
Hill Publishing Company Ltd., New Delhi, Second Edition, 2007.
2. J. Duncan Glover, Mulukutla S.Sarma, Thomas J. Overbye, ‘Power System
Analysis & Design’, Cengage Learning, Fifth Edition, 2012.
3. Gupta B. R., ‘Power System - Analysis and Design’, S. Chand Publishing,
2001.
4. Kundur P., ‘Power System Stability and Control’, Tata McGraw Hill
Education Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 10th reprint, 2010.
 UNIT I

POWER SYSTEM
OVERVIEW
 Structure of Power system:
 Electrical energy is generated in large Hydro—
electric, Thermal and Nuclear power stations.
 These stations are generally situated for away from
the load centre.
 This necessitates an extensive power supply
network between generating stations and
consumer’s loads.
 Power system can be broadly divided in to
Generation, Transmission, Distribution and
Utilisation.
Basic Structure of an Electric Power System
 Figure shows the layout of power system network
 Transmission system
 Primary Transmission System
 Secondary Transmission system
Transmission lines transmit bulk electrical power from sending
end stations to receiving end stations without supplying any
consumers enroute. The voltage may vary 10% to 15% due to
variation in loads
 Distribution system
 Primary Distribution System
 Secondary Distribution System
Distribution lines supplies consumers directly at short intervals
along the line. A distributer is subject to the legal requirement
that Power must be supplied at a voltage within ±6% of the rated
voltage
 Tie—lines: The transmission lines that connect an area to its
neighboring area are called tie—lines. Power sharing
between two areas occurs through these tie—lines.
 Grid: Transmission system of an area or a network is called
as a grid. The different grids inter connected through a tie
lines to form a regional grid. The different regional grids are
further interconnected to form a national grid. Each grid
operates independently, however power can be transmitted
from one grid to another over the tie lines under conditions
of sudden loss of generation or increase in load.
 In India, State grids were inter—connected to form regional
grid and India was demarcated into 5 regions namely
Northern, Eastern, Western, North Eastern and Southern
region.
 Eastern regional gird: WB, Bihar, Orissa,
Sikkim, and Jharkhand (Head Office —
Calcutta).
 Northern regional grid: Haryana, HP,
J&K, Punjab, Rajasthan, UP, Delhi,
Uttaranchal and Chandigarh (Head Office
— New Delhi).
 Western regional grid: Gujarat, MP,
Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Daman,
Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli (Head Office
— Bombay).
 North Eastern regional grid: Assam,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura,
Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram (Head
Office — Shillong).
 Southern regional grid: Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Pondicherry and Lakshadweep
(Head Office — Bangalore).
 Power Generations in Tamil Nadu
Thermal Generation: Generating Station Installed Units Fuel Type
Capacity (MW)
ENNORE THERMAL POWER STATION 450 M.W 2 X60 M.W Coal
3X110 M.W
METTUR THERMAL POWER STATION 840 M.W U—I,II,III&VI Coal
210 M.W each
NORTH CHENNAI THERMAL POWER STATION 630 M.W 3 X 210 M.W Coal
TUTICORIN THERMAL POWER STATION 1050 M.W 5 X 210 M.W Coal
Total 2970 M.W

Hydro Electric Generation: Generating Station Installed Capacity Source Elevation

(MW) (Feet)
 Generation Mode – The machines will Kundah Power House 1 3 X 20 = 60 M.W Avalanchi and Emerald Dam 5353
be operated to cater the Peak hour demand Kundah Power House 2 5 X 35 = 175 M.W Kundah Forbay Dam, Tail race 2876
for full load, the generation will be water of Power House 1
Kundah Power House 3 3 X 60 = 180 M.W Pegumbahallah Dam, Nirali 1429
depending on the kadamparai storage and
Pallam and Kattery Weir
the level of Upper Aliyar dam.
Kundah Power House 4 2 X 50 = 100 M.W Pillur Dam, Tail race water from 1193
Power house III
 Pump Mode - The machines will be Kundah Power House 5 2 X 20 = 40 MW Western Catchment —1,Upper 6527
operated as pump mode to pump the water Bhavani Dam
from upper Aliyar dam to kadamparai Kundah Power House 6 1 x 30 = 30 MW Catchment 2 & 3,Porthimund 6518
reservoir during night hours on grid Dam, Parsons Valley Dam
frequency above 49.4 Hz Kadamparai Power 4 X 100 = 400 MW from Kadamapari 710
House (Pumped Reservoir/Upper Aliyar Dam
Storage Scheme)
THERMAL POWER PLANT

PUMPED HYDRO
POWER PLANT
 Thermal Generation (GAS):

Generating Station Installed Units Fuel Type

Capacity
(MW)

Basin Bridge Gas Turbine Power Station 120M.W 4 X 30 M.W Naptha

Kuttalam Gas Turbine Power Station 101M.W — Natural Gas
Thirumakotai Gas Turbine Power Station 107.88M.W — Natural Gas
Valuthur Gas Turbine Power Station 187.2 M.W Phase I — 95 MW Natural Gas
Phase II — 92.2 MW

 Nuclear Generation:
Madras Atomic Power Station, Kalpakkam – 2 × 235 MW
Kudankulam Nuclear power plant — 2 ×1000 MW
Renewable Energy

 Wind Energy: In Muppandal wind farm the total capacity is 1500 MW,
which is the largest in India. As per TEDA (Tamil Nadu Energy Development
Agency), the total installed capacity in Tamil Nadu is 8506 MW
 Solar Energy: M/s. Numeric Power Systems Limited has commissioned 1
MW solar PV power plant at Kuppepalayam village, Coimbatore district, 5
MW solar farm at Sivagangai, 1MW Solar plant at Mayiladuthurai
 Bio mass: It is thermo - chemical conversion of solid biomass into a
combustible gas mixture (producer gas) through a partial combustion
route with air supply restricted to less than that theoretically required for
full combustion. The newest method for generating electricity is
gasification. This method captures 65 — 70% of the energy present in solid
fuels by converting it first to combustible gases. These gases are then
burnt as we currently burn natural gas, and create energy. Three bio—
mass gasifiers, one at Odanthurai, 9 KW capacity, Nellithurai 9 KW and
Kadachanallur 40 KW are now in operation in the Villages of Tamil Nadu.
 Cogeneration: or combined heat and power (CHP) is the use of
a heat engine or power station to generate
electricity and useful heat at the same time. Tri-
generation or combined cooling, heat and power (CCHP) refers
to the simultaneous generation of electricity and useful
heating and cooling from the combustion of a fuel or a solar
heat collector
 Bagasse: is the fibrous matter that remains
after sugarcane or sorghum stalks are crushed to extract their
juice. It is dry pulpy residue left after the extraction of juice
from sugar cane. Bagasse is utilized as a biofuel and in the
manufacture of pulp and building materials.
 Vegetable Solid Waste: Chennai Metropolitan Development
Agency (CMDA) has installed a 250 kW Vegetable Waste based
power plant at Koyambedu Whole sale Vegetable Market in
Chennai.
 Biomethanation plant in Koyambedu

About 30 tones of green waste daily is sufficient

to produce 250 kilowatts (KW) of power per hour
 Location wise regional summary of all India installed
capacity (IN MW) of power stations as on 30/06/2020
Mode wise breakup
Ownership/ Grand
Region Thermal
Sector Total
Nuclear Hydro RES
Coal Gas Diesel Total
Southern

STATE SECTOR 18782.50 791.98 159.96 19734.44 0.00 11694.50 586.88 32015.82
1
PVT SECTOR 9590.00 5340.24 273.70 15203.95 0.00 0.00 41373.13 56577.08
2
CENTRAL SECTOR 12740.00 359.58 0.00 13099.58 3320.00 0.00 541.90 16961.48
3
41112.50 6491.80 433.66 48037.97 3320.00 11694.50 42501.91 105554.38
Total of Southern
43239.00 5781.26 0.00 49020.26 1620.00 19023.27 17049.05 86712.58
Total of Northern
34827.00 100.00 40.05 34967.05 0.00 5862.45 1520.53 42350.02
Total of Eastern
85476.00 10806.49 0.00 96282.49 1840.00 7392.00 26232.32 131746.81
Total of Western
750.00 1811.95 36.00 2597.95 0.00 1727.00 365.38 4690.34
Total of North Eastern
205404.50 24991.51 509.71 230905.72 6780.00 45699.22 87669.19 371054.12
Total of ALL INDIA
 A single phase ac circuit requires two conductors
 A 3 phase ac circuit using the same size conductors as the single—phase circuit
can carry three times the power which can be carried by a single phase circuit
and use 3 conductors for the three phases and one conductor for the neutral.
 Thus a 3 phase circuit is more economical than a single phase circuit in terms of
initial cost as well as the losses.
 All transmission and distribution systems are 3 phase systems.
 Balanced 3 phase circuit does not require the neutral conductor as the
instantaneous sum of the 3 line current is zero, therefore transmission lines and
feeders are 3 phase 3 wire circuits.
 The distributors are 3 phase and 4 wire circuits because a neutral wire is
necessary to supply the single phase loads of domestic and commercial
consumers.
 The standard frequency in India and many other countries is 50Hz
 Single phase voltage is 230 V
 Three phase voltage is 400 V
 High Voltage (HV) is < 300 kV
 Extra High Voltage (EHV) is 300 kV to 765 kV
 Ultra High Voltage (UHV) is > 765 kV

 Raichur – Sholapur have 765 kV transmission line for a distance of 208 Km

 HVDC transmission line voltage of 500 kV between Rihand to Dadri

(near Delhi) with a distance of 814 km long Bipolar overhead line

 Phase Voltage(Vp) – Voltage between any phase and neutral

 Line Voltage (VL) — Voltage between any two phases
 GIS SS – Gas Insulated Switchgear Sub-Staion
 LDC – Load Dispatch Centre
In TAMIL NADU
LOAD DISPATCH CENTRE
Need for system planning and operational studies

 The power system engineer has to face a variety of challenging

tasks, which can meet only by keeping knowledge about recent
scientific advances and the latest technologies.
 Energy demand grows exponentially
 On the planning side we have to make a decisions on how much
electricity to generate – where, when and by using what fuel.
 Continuous planning for expansion of Generation subsystem and
Transmission subsystem is very much required in order to meet
the growing demand
 Long—term planning (10 to 15 years ahead) is carried out since
the gestation period of power projects is long
 Maintaining a reliable, quality, economic and secure supply
calls for carrying out periodic planning and operational
studies.
 These studies simulate the behavior of the system under
normal and abnormal operating conditions that the system
may undergo to reveal any system inadequacies either during
the steady state or during the transient period.
 Remedial planning actions and corrective operational control
actions are taken to overcome the deficiencies noted
 For planning the operation and expansion of a power system
needs load flow studies, short circuit studies and stability
studies.
 Different types of power system analysis
 Load Flow Studies:
 Load flow study is the determination of the voltage, current, real power
and reactive power at various points in electric network
 This study deals with the steady state operation of the system
 Further alternative plans for further expansion to meet new demands, can
be analysed and complete information is made available through this
study
 This model comprises of non linear algebraic equations which can not be
solved using direct methods
 This equations can be solved using iterative methods as follows:
 Gauss—Seidel method
 Newton—Raphson method
 Fast Decoupled Load Flow method
 Short Circuit Studies:
 Concerned with the abnormal state arising “immediately”
after a disturbance (fault)
 Given the network configuration, the type and location of
fault, to determine the fault level (MVA) at various buses
and current in different lines and transformers.
 Objective is to estimate the Interrupting capacity of circuit
breakers at various locations and to design the protective
relay system.
 Quasi steady—state analysis
 Model comprises a set of linear algebraic equations
 Stability Studies:
 The stability of an interconnected power system is its
ability to return to normal or stable operation after having
been subjected to some form of disturbances.
 Stability considerations have been recognised as an
essential part of power system planning for a long time
 With interconnected systems continually growing in size and
extending over vast geographical regions, it is becoming
increasingly more difficult to maintain synchronism
between various parts of a power system
 Power system stability problems are classified into three
basic types – steady state, dynamic and transient
 Model comprises a set of nonlinear differential equations
and algebraic equations
 Modern Power System Operation and Control
 The optimal system operation in general involves the consideration
of economic of operation, system security, emissions at certain
fossil—fuel plants, optimal releases of water at hydro generation,
etc.
 The main aim of the economic dispatch problem is to minimize the
total cost of generating real power at various stations while
satisfying the loads and the losses in the transmission lines.
 Deals with the maintenance of active power balance and control
voltage magnitude and power frequency, within specified limits,
when a system is operating in the steady state.
 Involves basic control loop in a generator, the automatic voltage
control (AVC) and load frequency control (LFC) under steady state
and dynamic behaviour.
SINGLE—PHASE SOLUTION OF BALANCED THREE—PHASE
NETWORKS
A complete diagram of a power system representing all the three
phases becomes too complicated for a system of practical size, no
longer convey the information it is intended to convey.
 The solution of a three phase network under balanced condition is
easily carried out by solving the single—phase network corresponding
to the reference phase.
 Fig 1 shows a simple balanced three—phase network
Fig 1
 The generator and load neutrals are at the same potential, that
In = 0. Thus the neutral impedance Zn does not affect network
behaviour.
 For the reference phase a,
Ea = (ZS + ZL)Ia ———— (1)
 The currents and voltages in the other phases have the same
magnitude but are progressively shifted by 1200. Equation (1) and
fig 2 corresponds to the single phase representation of a three phase
network.
Fig 2
 Consider a three phase transformer which forms the part of a three phase system.
 The transformer is Y/Y connected as shown in fig 3a.
 Fig 3b shows the single—phase equivalent of a three—phase transformer with
primary and secondary representing phase a.

Fig 3a Fig 3b
 If the transformer is Y/Δ connected as shown in fig 4a
 The delta side has to be replaced by an equivalent star connected as shown
dotted to be obtain the single—phase equivalent
 Fig 4b shows the single—phase equivalent of Y/Δ transformer
 On the delta side the voltage to neutral VAN and line current IA have a certain
phase shift from star side values of Van and Ia (900).

Fig 4a Fig 4b
One—line diagram and Impedance or Reactance
diagram
 A one line diagram of a power system shows the main connections and
arrangements of components
 Any particular component may or may not be shown depending on the
information required in a system study
 Circuit breaker need not be shown in load flow study but are must for
a protection study
 Power system networks are represented by one—line diagram using
suitable symbols for generators, motors, transformers and loads
 Generator and transformer connections – star, delta and neutral
grounding are indicated by symbols drawn by side of the elements
 Circuit breakers are represented as rectangular boxes
Standardised symbols for components of power systems
 Impedance diagram: On single—phase basis for use under balanced
operating conditions can be easily drawn from the one—line diagram

Reactance Diagram: By neglecting the resistance and shunt capacitance in

transmission lines reactance diagram can be drawn

Fig 5a Single line diagram of a Power System Fig 5b Impedance diagram of the Power System
 Per Unit (PU) system
 In power system all the quantities like Voltage, Current, Voltamperes
and impedances of an electric circuit are expressed in per unit (or
percentage) of base or reference values of these quantities
 Per unit (pu) of any quantity is defined as:

the actual value in any units

the base or reference value in the same units
 Both the actual value and base values are expressed in same units, so
that per unit value is dimensionless
 The base values are generally indicated by a subscript “B” and per
unit value by a subscript “pu”
Consider a single—phase system, let
Base voltamperes = (VA)B VA
Base voltage = VB V
then
Base current IB = (VA)B A
VB
2
Base impedance ZB = VB =
VB ohms
IB (VA)B

If the actual impedance is Z (ohms), its per unit value is

given by
Z Z(ohms) VA B
Z(pu)  
ZB VB2
For a power system, of practical choice of base values
are:
Base megavoltamperes = (MVA)B
Or
VA (VA) 10 3 kVA
Base kilovoltamperes = (kVA)B I 
V (V ) 10 3 kV
Base kilovolts = (kV)B
(VA) 10  6 MVA 103

(V ) 10 3 kV
1000  (MVA)B (kVA)B
Base Current IB =  A 5V  5 10 3 kV
(kV)B (kV)B
5kVA  5 10 3 kVA
1000  (kV)B  5 10  6 MVA
Base impedance ZB =
IB
(kV) 2B 1000  (kV) 2B
  ohms
(MVA)B (kVA)B
 Z(ohms) (MVA)B
Per unit impedance Z (pu) =
(kV) 2B

= Z(ohms) (kVA)B
(kV) 2B 1000
In a three—phase system rather than obtaining the per unit values
using per phase quantities, the per unit values can be obtained directly
by using three—phase base quantities. Let

Three—phase Base megavoltamperes = (MVA)B

Line to line Base kilovolts = (kV)B
Assuming star connection,

1000  (MVA)B
Base Current IB = A
3 (kV)B
Base impedance ZB =
1000  (kV) B
3 IB
(kV) 2B 1000  (kV) 2B
  ohms
(MVA) B (kVA) B

Z(ohms) (MVA)B
Per unit impedance Z (pu) =
(kV) 2B

Z(ohms)  (kVA)B
=
(kV) 2B 1000
 When MVA base is changed from (MVA)B,old to (MVA)B,new
and kV base is changed from (kV)B,old to (kV)B,new, the per
unit impedance is given by:

2
(MVA)B, new (kV) B,old
Z (pu)new  Z (pu)old   2
(MVA)B, old (kV) B,new
 ADVANTAGES OF PER UNIT SYSTEM
 Manufacturers usually specify the impedance values of
equipment’s in per unit of the equipment’s rating. If any data
is not available, it is easier to assume its per unit value than its
numerical value.

 When expressed in per unit, system parameters tend to fall in

a relatively narrow numerical ranges. Therefore, any
erroneous data can be easily identified.

 Per unit data representation yields important information

about relative magnitudes.
 Power system contain a large number of transformer. The
ohmic value of impedance as referred to secondary is
different from the value as referred to primary. However base
values are selected properly, the per unit impedance is the
same on the two sides of the transformer.

 The transformer connections in 3—phase circuits do not affect

the per unit value of impedance although the base voltages on
the two sides do depend on the connections
 PER UNIT IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM OF A POWER SYSTEM
 From a one—line diagram of a power system we can directly
draw the impedance diagram by following the steps given below:
 Choose an appropriate common MVA (or kVA) base for the system
 Consider the system to be divided into a number of sections by
the transformers. Choose an appropriate kV base in one of the
sections
 Calculate kV bases of other sections in the ratio of
transformations
 Calculate per unit values of voltages and impedances in each
section and connect them up as per the topology of the one—line
diagram. The result is the single—phase per unit impedance
diagram
 Two generators rated at 10 MVA, 13.2 kV and 15 MVA, 13.2 kV
are connected in parallel to a bus bar. They feed supply to
two motors of input 8 MVA and 12 MVA respectively. The
operating voltage of motors is 12.5 kV. The percentage
reactance for generators is 15% and that for motors is 20% on
its own rating. Assuming base quantities as 50 MVA and 13.8
kV, draw the reactance diagram.

G1
M1

M2
G2
Solution:
New Base values are 50 MVA and 13.8 kV
Generator 1:
10 MVA, 13.2 kV, X” = 0.15
2
(MVA)B, new (kV) B,old
Z (pu)new  Z (pu)old  
(MVA)B, old (kV) 2B,new
(50) (13.2) 2
X"  0.15    0.6862 p.u.
(10) (13.8) 2
Generator 2:
15 MVA, 13.2 kV, X” = 0.15
2
(50) (13.2)
X"  0.15    0.4575 p.u.
(15) (13.8) 2
Motor 1:
8 MVA, 12.5 kV, X” = 0.2 2
(50) (12.5)
X"  0.2    1.0255 p.u.
(8) (13.8) 2
Motor 2:
12 MVA, 12.5 kV, X” = 0.2 2
(50) (12.5)
X"  0.2    0.6837 p.u.
(12) (13.8) 2
Figure shows a generator feeding two motors through transformers and
line. The ratings and reactance are as under:
Generator: 90 MVA, 11 kV, 3 phase, X = 25%, T1: 100 MVA, 10/132 kV, X =
6%, T2: Bank of 3 single—phase transformers, each rated at 30 MVA,
66/10 kV, X = 5%. M1: 50 MVA,10 kV, X = 20%, M2: 40 MVA, 10 kV, X = 20%.
The line reactance 100 ohms. Taking the Generator rating as base, draw
the reactance diagram. Indicate p.u. reactances on the diagram.

G
M1 

T1 T2
  M2 
 
Solution:
Base MVA 90
Base voltage for generators = 11kV

132
Base voltage for line = 11   145.2 kV
10

Line to line voltage ratio of T2 = √3 × 66 : 10 = 114.31 : 10 kV

145.210
Base voltage for motors = 12.7 kV
114.31

For the above base values, the reactances are

Reactance of generator = 25% = 0.25 p.u.

2
(90) (10)
Reactance of T1 = 6  2
 4.46%  0.0446 p.u.
(100) (11)
The reactance of T2 is 5% on √3 × 66 : 10 kV i.e. 114.31 : 10 kV
And 3 × 30 i.e. 90 MVA base
For 90 MVA base, 145.2 : 12.7 kV base

(90) (10)2
Reactance of T2 = 5  2
 3.31%  0.031p.u.
(90) (12.7)
(Base kV) 2 (145.2)2
Base reactance of line =   234.26 ohm
Base MVA 90
100
Reactance of line =  0.427 p.u.
234.26

2
(90) (10)
Reactance of Motor M1 = 20   2
 22.3%  0.223 p.u.
(50) (12.7)
 2
(90) (10)
Reactance of Motor M2 = 20   2
 27.9%  0.279 p.u.
(40) (12.7)
Reactance diagram:
j0.223

E1
j0.25 j0.0446 j0.427 j0.031

Eg

E2
j0.279
 Bus Admittance Matrix
 A bus is a node at which one or more lines, one or many loads and
generators are connected. It is not necessary that all of them be
connected at every bus.
 The buses are classified as P–Q Bus (Load Bus), P—V Bus (Generator Bus)
and a slack Bus or Swing Bus or Reference Bus.
 The bus is indicated by a vertical/horizontal line at which several
components are connected.
 Load Flow calculations can be made using bus admittance or bus
impedance matrix. However it is simpler to use bus admittance matrix,
since it can be generated by inspection.
 A power system consists of a large number of buses interconnected
through transmission lines. Some of these buses have generators
connected to them, some with loads or both.
 Some buses may have static capacitors (or synchronous condensers) for
reactive power compensation or voltage control.
 Consider a simple four bus system as shown in Fig 1, SGi
denotes the 3—phase complex generator power flowing into the
ith bus and SLi denotes the 3—phase complex load power flowing
out of the ith bus.

SGi = PGi + jQGi (1)

SLi = PLi + jQLi (2)

Where P and Q denoted the real and reactive power. At each bus the generator Fig 1
and load power can be combined so that the net 3—phase complex power flowing
into the ith bus can be written as:
Si = SGi – SLi = (PGi — PLi) + j(QGi — QLi) = Pi + jQi (3)
 Fig 2 Shows the equivalent circuit of the network of Fig 1.
S1, S2, S3 and S4, denotes the net 3—phase complex power
flowing in to the buses and I1, I2, I3 and I4 denotes the current
flowing into the buses. Each transmission line is represented
by a π circuit.
The equivalent circuit Fig 2 has been redrawn in Fig 3,
where all sources have been shown connected to a common
reference at ground potential and the shunt admittances at Fig 2
the buses have been lumped. Since the system has 4 buses,
the number of nodes(m) is 5. In general yi0 denotes the
admittance of ith node with respect to reference, yip denotes
the admittance between ith and pth nodes (yip = ypi) and Vi
denotes the voltage of the ith node. We assume there is no
mutual coupling between lines.

Fig 3
Applying KCL (Kirchhoff’s current law) to the 4 nodes, the equations are:

I1 = V1y10 + (V1—V2)y12 + (V1—V3)y13 + (V1—V4)y14 (4)

I2 = V2y20 + (V2—V1)y12 + (V2—V3)y23
I3 = V3y30 + (V3—V1)y13 + (V3—V2)y23 + (V3—V4)y34
I4 = V4y40 + (V4—V1)y14 + (V4—V3)y34
Equation (4) can be re—arranged and written in matrix form as:

I1 (y10  y12  y13  y14)  y12  y13  y14  V1

I2   y12 (y20  y12  y23)  y23 0  V2
(5)
   
I3   y13  y23 (y30  y13  y23  y24)  y34  V3
I4   y 0  y (y  y  y )  V4
   14 34 40 14 34  
Equation (5) can be written as:

I1 Y11 Y12 Y13 Y14V1

I2 Y21 Y22 Y23 Y24V2
   
(6)
I3 Y31 Y32 Y33 Y34V3
I4 Y41 Y42 Y43 Y44V4
  
Where
Y11 = y10 + y12 + y13 + y14
Y22 = y20 + y12 + y23
Y33 = y30 + y13 + y23 + y34
Y44 = y40 + y14 + y34
Y12 = Y21 = — y12 ; Y13 = Y31 = — y13 ; Y14 = Y41 = — y14
Y23 = Y32 = — y23 ; Y34 = Y43 = — y34 ; Y24 = Y42 = 0
 From network theory, each admittance Yii is known as self admittance (or driving
point admittance) of ith node and equals the sum of the admittances connected to ith
node.
Each off diagonal terms Yip is known as mutual admittance (or transfer
admittance) connected between ith and pth nodes and equals the negative of the sum
of all admittances connected directly between the ith and pth nodes.
Equation (6) can be written in compact form as:
Ibus = [Ybus] Vbus (7)
For an n bus system Ibus is an n × 1 vector with general entry Ii, Vbus is an n × 1
vector with general entry Vi
[Ybus] is an n × n matrix and is known as bus admittance matrix.

Equation (7) can be written as;

Vbus = [Zbus] Ibus (8)

where, [Zbus] = [Ybus]—1

Problems: Ex 1
Fig 4 shows a four bus system. The line impedances are as under:

Bus code Impedances in p.u.

Z = (R + jX)
1–2 0.025 + j0.10
2–3 0.02 + j0.08
3–4 0.05 + j0.20
1—4 0.04 + j0.16 Fig 4

(a) Assume that the line shown dotted (from bus 1 to 3) is not present.
Formulate Ybus
(b) Which elements of Ybus obtained above are affected when the line
from bus 1 to bus 3 is added? If the pu impedance of this line is 0.1
+ j0.4, find the new Ybus.
Solution:
The first step is to convert impedance into admittance.

Bus code Admittances in p.u.

1–2 2.35 — j9.41
2–3 2.94 — j11.76
3–4 1.176 — j4.706
1—4 1.47 — j5.88

(y12  y14)  y12 0  y14 

  y12 (y12  y23)  y23 0 
[Ybus] =  
 0  y23 (y23  y24)  y34 
 
  y14 0  y34 (y14  y34)
Y11 = y12 + y14 = (2.35 – j9.41) + (1.47 – j5.88) = 3.82 – j15.29
Y22 = y12 + y23 = (2.35 – j9.41) + (2.94 – j11.76) = 5.29 – j21.17
Y33 = y23 + y34 = (2.94 – j11.76) + (1.176 – j4.706) = 4.116 – j16.466
Y44 = y34 + y14 = (1.176 – j4.706) + (1.47 – j5.88) = 2.646 – j10.586
Y12 = y21 = —y12 = —2.35 + j9.41
Y14 = y41 = —y14 = —1.47 + j5.88
Y23 = y32 = —y23 = —2.94 + j11.76
Y34 = y43 = —y34 = —1.176 + j4.706

 3.82  j15.29  2.35  j9.41 0  1.47  j5.88 

[Ybus] =   2.35  j9.41 5.29  j21.17  2.94  j11.76 0 
 
 0  2.94  j11.76 4.116- j16.466 1.176  j 4.706
 
 1.47  j5.88 0  1.176  j 4.706 2.646  j10.586
(b) The admittance of the new line between buses 1 and 3 is 0.588 — j2.32 pu
The elements of Ybus affected by the addition of this line are Y11, Y33, Y13 and
Y31.
Y11,new = Y11,old + y13 = 3.82 — j15.29 + 0.588 — j2.352 = 4.408 — j17.642
Y33,new = Y33,old + y13 = 4.116 — j16.466 + 0.588 — j2.352 = 4.704 — j18.818
Y13,new = Y13,old — y13 = —0.588 + j2.352 = Y31,new

The new Ybus is,

 4.408– j17.642  2.35  j9.41  0.588  j2.352 1.47  j5.88 

  2.35  j9.41 5.29  j21.17  2.94  j11.76 0 
[Ybus] =  
 0.588  j2.352  2.94  j11.76 4.704 – j18.818  1.176  j 4.706
 
  1.47  j5.88 0  1.176  j 4.706 2.646  j10.586
Problems: Ex 2
The parameters of a 4 – bus system are under:

Bus Code Line Impedance Charging Admittance (pu)

(pu) Ypq/2
1–2 0.2 + j0.8 j0.02
2–3 0.3 + j0.9 j0.03
2–4 0.25 + j1 j0.04
3–4 0.2 + j0.8 j0.02
1-3 0.1 + j0.4 j0.01

Draw the network and find bus admittance matrix

Solution:
The network is shown in Fig 5. The line series admittances are:

1 1
y12 =   0.294  j1.176
z12 0.2  j 0.8

y13 = 0.588 — j2.352 pu

y23 = 0.333 — j1 pu
y24 = 0.235 — j0.94 pu
y34 = 0.294 — j1.176 pu
y10 = j0.03 pu
y20 = j0.09 pu
y30 = j0.06 pu
y40 = j0.06 pu

Fig 5
 (y12  y13  y10)  y12  y13 0 
  y12 (y12  y23  y24  y20)  y23  y24 
[Ybus] =  
  y13  y23 (y13  y23  y34  y30)  y34 
 
 0  y24  y34 (y24  y34  y40)

 0.882 – j3.498  0.294  j1.176  0.588  j2.352 0 

 0.294  j1.176 0.862  j3.026  0.333 j1  0.235 j0.94 
[Ybus] =
 
 0.588  j2.352  0.333 j1 1.215  j4.468  0.294  j1.176
 
 0  0.235  j0.94  0.294  j1.176 0.529  j2.056 
Ex 3: Form Y-bus for the network shown in Figure using Inspection method

1 2
2+j0.5

1+j0.2 3+j0.2 6+ j0.3

5+j0.8
3 4
Ex 4: The parameters of a 4-bus system are as under:

Bus code Line impedance Half Line Charging

(pu) admittance (pu)
1-2 0.1 + j 0.25 j 0.02
2-3 0.2 + j 0.15 j 0.01
2-4 0.15 + j 0.7 j 0.03
3-4 0.25 + j 0.6 j 0.02
1-3 0.1 + j 0.4 j 0.01

Draw the network and find bus admittance matrix.

 FORMATION OF Ybus USING SINGULAR
TRANSFORMATION
From Graph theory:
Graph: If each element of a network is represented by a
line, the resulting diagram of the network is known as a
graph of the network.
Each source and shunt admittance across it are taken as
a single element.
If each element of the graph is assigned a direction, it is
known as oriented graph.
The direction is generally so assigned as to coincide with
the assumed positive direction of current in the element
Fig 6 shows the oriented graph

Fig 6
Tree: A tree of a graph is that part of the graph which has
sufficient number of branches to connect all the nodes
without forming a closed path. Fig 7 shows tree of the graph.
The tree branches form a sub-set of the elements of the
connected graph.
The number of branches b required to form a tree equals the
number of buses in the network (Excluding reference bus)
Co-tree: Those elements of the graph which are not included in
the tree are known as links (or link branches) and form a sub-
graph, not necessarily connected are known as co-tree. The Fig 7
number of links l equals the number of elements minus the
number of tree branches. Fig 8 shows the co-tree of the
graph.
The above system has 9 branches. Therefore it has 18
variables ie. 9 branch voltages and 9 branch currents. The
number of tree branches gives the number of independent
voltages (bus voltages V1, V2, V3 and V4) and the number of
tree branches equals number of buses n.

Fig 8
Primitive Network:
A network consists of many branches. Each branch consists of
passive and/or active elements. Fig 9(a) shows the network branch in
Impedance form and Fig 9(b) shows the network branch in admittance
form.
Let:
zip = self impedance of element i-p
yip = self admittance of element i-p
Vip = Voltage across element i-p
Eip = Voltage source in series with element i-p
Iip = current through element i-p
Jip = current source in parallel with element i-p

For ac steady state conditions,

all voltages and currents are phasors
and zip and yip are complex numbers.

Fig 9
The performance equation for impedance representation is
Vip + Eip = zipIip (1)
The performance equation in admittance representation is
Iip + Jip = yipVip (2)
The impedance and admittance representations are related by:
From equations (1) and (2)
Iip = (Vip + Eip)/zip = yip Vip + yip Eip
yip Vip + yip Eip + Jip = yipVip

Jip = - yipEip (3)

yip = 1/zip (4)

A set of unconnected elements is known as primitive network

 The performance equation in admittance (or impedance) form can be written
for all the branches. The set of these equations in impedance form is
V+E=zI (5)
I+J=yV (6)
where,
V and E are branch voltages and source voltage matrices
I and J are branch current and source current matrixes
z is primitive impedance matrix (i.e. A matrix whose elements are branch self
impedances) and
y is primitive admittance matrix (i.e. Matrix whose elements are branch self
admittances)
Since no mutual couplings have been assumed between lines z and y are
diagonal matrices.
Bus Incidence Matrix:
From Fig 6, the 9 – branch voltages (Vb1,Vb2,.... Vb9) can be expressed in terms
of 4 – bus voltages (V1, V2, V3 and V4) as under:
Vb1 = V1
Vb2 = V2
Vb3 = V3
Vb4 = V4
Vb5 = V1 - V4 (7)
Vb6 = V4 - V3
Vb7 = V2 - V3
Vb8 = V1 - V3
Vb9 = V1 - V2
equation (7) can be written in matrix form as:
V = A Vbus (8) Fig 6
where A is known as bus incidence matrix

(9)
 The bus incidence matrix depicts the incidence of elements
(branches) to the buses in the graph of the network. The element
aip of the bus incidence matrix is written according to the rules
given below:
aip = 1 if the ith element is incident to and oriented away from
pth bus
aip = -1 if the ith element is incident to and oriented towards
pth bus
aip = 0 if the ith element is not incident to the pth bus
Thus bus incidence matrix is rectangular and singular. Its
dimension is e × n where e is the number of elements (branches)
and n is the number of buses. The matrix can be partitioned into
two sub-matrices, Ab of dimension b × n and Al of dimension l × n
where b is the number of tree branches and l is the number of link
branches.
Formulation of Ybus and Zbus:

Substituting equation (8) in (6)

I + J = y A Vbus (10)
Pre-multiplying Eq (10) by At,
At I + At J = At y A Vbus (11)
Since the matrix A shows the incidence of elements to buses, At I
is a phasor in which each element is the algebraic sum of currents
through the network elements terminating at a bus. As per Kirchhoff’s
current law, the algebraic sun of currents at a bus is zero. Thus
At I = 0 (12)
Similarly, At J gives the algebraic sum of sources current at each bus.
We have designated this as Ibus.
At J = Ibus (13)
 Substituting Eq (12) and Eq (13) into Eq (11)

Ibus = At y A Vbus (14)

We know,
Ibus = [Ybus] Vbus (15)

Comparing Eq (14) and Eq (15)

we get,

[Ybus] = At y A (16)

Using Eq (16) we can form [Ybus] and [Zbus] can be obtained by

taking inverse of [Ybus].
Ex 1: formulate Ybus for the network using singular transformation.

y10
y20 0
y30
y40
y= y14
y34
0 y23
y13
y12

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
A= 1 0 0 -1
0 0 -1 1
0 1 -1 0
1 0 -1 0
1 -1 0 0
 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1

0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 -1
At =
0 0 1 0 0 -1 -1 -1 0

0 0 0 1 -1 1 0 0 0

[Ybus] = At y A

(y10  y12  y13  y14)  y12  y13  y14 

  y12 (y20  y12  y23)  y23 0 
=
 
  y13  y23 (y30  y13  y23  y24)  y34 
 
  y14 0  y34 (y40  y14  y34)
Ex 2: The parameters of a 4 – bus system are given below. Form Ybus using
singular transformation:

Bus Code Line Impedance Charging Admittance (pu)

(pu) Ypq/2
1–2 0.2 + j0.8 J0.02
2–3 0.3 + j0.9 J0.03
2–4 0.25 + j1 J0.04
3–4 0.2 + j0.8 J0.02
1-3 0.1 + j0.4 J0.01

Draw the network and find bus admittance matrix

MUTUALLY COUPLED BRANCHES IN Ybus
Assume that branch impedance Za connected between the
nodes m and n is coupled through mutual impedance ZM to
branch impedance Zb connected between nodes p and q as
shown in Fig 1.
The voltage drops Va and Vb due to the branch currents Ia
and Ib are then given by primitive impedance equations,

Va   Za ZM   Ia  (1)
Fig 1
Vb    ZM Zb   Ib 
  
The coefficient matrix is symmetrical. The mutual impedance is
considered positive when currents Ia and Ib enter the terminals
marked with dots, the voltage drops Va and Vb then have
polarities.

Fig 2
Multiplying Eq (1) by the inverse of the primitive impedance matrix,

1
 Za ZM  1  Zb  ZM   Ya YM  (2)
 ZM  
 Zb  ZaZb  Z M2   ZM


Za  YM Yb 

The admittance form for the branches are given which is also symmetrical

 Ya YM  Va   Ia  (3a)
YM Yb  Vb    Ib 
    
The admittance matrix Eq (3a) is called the primitive admittance matrix of
the two coupled branches corresponds to Fig 2.
The primitive self-admittance Ya equals Zb/(ZaZb – ZM2) and similar expression
form Eqn (2) apply to Yb and the primitive mutual admittance YM.
The voltage-drop equations Va = Vm – Vn and Vb = Vp – Vq in the matrix form:

m n p q  Vm 
 Vm 
   Vn 
 Va   Vm  Vn   1  1 0 0   Vn 
 Vb    Vp  Vq   0  A  (3b)
     0 1  1  Vp   Vp 
   
V
  q  Vq 
The branch current Ia is related to the injected currents by the two node
equations Im = Ia and In = -Ia
Similarly branch current Ib is related to the currents Ip and Iq by the two
equations Ip = Ib and Iq = -Ib
These four equations arranged in matrix form as:

Im m  1 0
In  n  1 0  Ia  Ia 
    T 
  A   (4)
IP  p  0 1  Ib  Ib 
  q  
Iq   0  1 
Substituting Eqn (3b) in Eqn (3a) to find

 Vm 
 Ya YM   Vn  Ia  (5)
 YM  A  
 Yb   Vp  Ib 
 
 Vq 
pre-multiplying both sides of the Eqn (5) by the matrix AT, we obtain

 V m Im
 Vn  In 
T  Ya YM 
    (6)
A  YM A
 Yb   Vp  Ip 
   
V
  q Iq 
When the multiplication indicated in Eqn (6) is performed, the result gives
the nodal admittance equation of the two mutually coupled branches in the
matrix form
m n p q
m  Ya  Ya YM  YM   Vm Im
n   Ya Ya  YM YM   Vn  In 
     
p  YM  Y M Yb  Yb   Vp  Ip 
     (7)
q   YM YM  Yb Yb   Vq  Iq 
The nodal admittance of the two coupled branches may be found directly by
inspection method.
m n p q (8)
m   1  1  1  1 
n    1 1  Y a   1 1  YM 
    
p   1  1  1  1 
q    1 1  YM   1 1  Yb 
    
EX 1: Two branches having impedances equal to j0.25 per unit are coupled
through mutual impedance ZM = j0.15 as shown in fig 3. Find the nodal
admittance matrix for the mutually coupled branches and write corresponding
nodal admittance equations.

Fig 3 Fig 4

Sol: The primitive impedance matrix for the mutually coupled branches of Fig 3
is inverted as a single entity to yield the primitive admittance of Fig 4.

1
j0.25 j0.15   j6.25 j3.75 
j0.15 j0.25   j3.75  j6.25
   
Let us consider the nodes m = 3 and n = 1 and the nodes p = 3 and q = 2

3 1 3 2
3   1  1  1  1 
  1 1 (j6.25)   1 1  (j3.75) 
1     
3   1  1  1  1 
   1 1  (j3.75)  1 1  (  j6.25) 
2     

1 2 3
1  j6.25 j3.75 j6.25  j3.75 
2  j3.75  j6.25  j3.75  j6.25 
 
3
 j6.25  j3.75  j3.75  j6.25  j6.25  j6.25  2(j3.75) 
The three nodal admittance equations in vector-matrix form are then written as:

 j6.25 j3.75 j2.50 V1 I1

 j3.75  j6.25 j2.50  V2  I2
    
 j2.50 j2.50  j5.00  V3 I3

V1, V2 and V3 are the voltages at nodes 1, 2 and 3 measures with respect to
reference, while I1, I2 and I3 are the external currents injected at the
respective nodes.
Ex2: The single line diagram of a power system is shown in Fig 5 and
reactance diagram with per unit values are given in Fig 6. Form Ybus.

Fig 5

Fig 6
Sol: The reactances of the generator and the motor
may be combined with their respective step-up
transformer reactances. Then by transformation of
sources the combined reactances and the
generated emfs are replaced by the equivalent
current sources and shunt admittances. Per-unit
admittance diagram is shown in Fig 7.
By Inspection method:

Fig 7
 j14.5 j8.0 j4.0 j2.5 
Ybus =  j8.0  j17.0 j4.0 j5.0 
 
 j4.0 j4.0  j8.8 0.0 
 
 j2.5 j5.0 0.0  j8.3 
EX 3: Replace branches b and c between node-
pairs 1 – 3 and 2 – 3 of Fig 7 by the mutually
coupled branches of Fig 4. Then find Ybus.
Sol: The admittance diagram of the network
including the mutual coupling is shown in Fig 8.
From the problem Ex 1, the mutually coupled
branches have the nodal admittance matrix

1 2 3
1
 j6.25 j3.75 j2.50
2  j3.75  j6.25 j2.50 
3  
 j2.50 j2.50  j5.00
Fig 8
 From the nodal admittance matrix the
elements branch admittances 1-2, 1-3 and 2-3
are updated in Fig 9. Ybus is formed.

 j16.75 j11.75 j2.5 j2.5  Fig 9

 j11.75  j19.25 j2.5 j5.0 
Ybus =  
 j2.5 j2.5  j5.80 0 
 
 j2.5 j5.0 0  j8.3 
The Network Incidence Matrix and Ybus:
Solve Ex 3 by singular transformation method.
Ex1: For the system shown below form Y-bus without mutual coupling and with
mutual coupling.
Modelling of Power System Components
Modelling of Synchronous Generator:
A Synchronous generator is represented by its generated voltage E in series with
the synchronous impedance Zs. Fig 1 shows the equivalent circuit of a
synchronous generator

The expression for induced emf is,

E = V + Ia Zs Fig 1

Where V is the terminal voltage of the generator. Ia is the armature current,

Ra is the armature resistance and Xs is the synchronous reactance
Modelling of components depends on the study. The model of AC generator
discussed above is used for steady state analysis
While performing short circuit analysis for sub-transient and transient period, the
steady state reactance of the generator will be replaced by sub-transient
reactance or transient reactance of the AC generator
 While conducting power flow analysis, generators are modelled as equivalent
complex power injection PG + jQG
In the transient stability study, synchronous generator is represented as a
voltage source in series with its transient reactance.

Modelling of Transmission Line:

Transmission lines can be represented either as a two-port π or T model.
Long and medium length transmission lines are usually represented by a nominal
π-model. In all the power system studies, transmission line with a total series
impedance of Z = R + jX and total line charging admittance of jY will be modelled
by the equivalent circuit as shown in Fig 2. Here jY/2 is termed as “Half line
charging Admittance”

Fig 2
Modelling of Transformers:
Transformer is a static device to step up or step down the voltage level. Power
transformers and distribution transformers are used in the power system network.
While arriving the equivalent circuit of a transformer, we refer all the quantities to
either primary or secondary side of the transformer.

Fig 3 Fig 4

If we refer all the voltages, currents and impedances to the primary side, the
equivalent circuit of the transformer is shown in Fig 3. Fig 4 shows the simplified
transformer model. Bm – Magnetizing susceptance
As the magnetising current is very small as compared to the usual load currents,
it is neglected.
R1 = r1 + a2r2; X1= x1 + a2x2 r – winding resistance, x – leakage reactance
Modelling of Loads:
Load drawn by consumers is the toughest parameter to assess scientifically.
The loads are composite in nature consisting of industrial and domestic
components.
An industrial load mainly consists of large three phase induction motors with
sufficient load constancy and predictable duty cycle.
The domestic load consists of lighting, heating and single phase devices used
randomly.
For various power system studies such as load flow and stability studies,
three types of representation of passive loads are used:

1) Constant Power Representation:

This is used in load flow studies. Both the specified MW and MVAR are taken
to be constant
2) Constant Current Representation:
Here the load current is given by,
P  jQ
I  I (   )
V*
where V = |V|∠δ and θ = tan-1 Q/P is the power factor angle. It is known
as constant current representation because the magnitude of current is regarded
as constant in the study

3) Constant Impedance Representation:

This is quite often used in stability studies. The load specified in MW and
MVAR at nominal voltage is used to compute the load impedance. Thus
2
V VV * V 1
Z   
I P  jQ P  jQ Y
Which then is regarded as constant throughout the study.