UNIT II

POWER
FLOW
ANALYSIS
Significance of Power Flow Analysis in
planning and operation - Formulation of
Power Flow problem in polar coordinates
- Bus classification - Power flow solution
using Gauss-Seidel method - Handling of
Voltage controlled buses - Power Flow
Solution by Newton-Raphson method.
 Significance of Power Flow Analysis in
Planning and Operation of Power Systems
Load flow study in power system deals with the steady
state solution of the power system network

The power system is modelled by an electric network and

solved for the steady state powers and voltages at various buses

The direct analysis of the circuit is not possible, as the

loads are given in terms of complex powers rather than
impedances and the generators behave more like power source
than voltage sources
 The main information obtained form the load flow study
comprises of magnitudes and phase angles of load bus
voltages, reactive powers and voltage phase angles at generator
buses, real and reactive power flow on transmission lines
together with power at the reference bus, other variables being
specified

This information is essential for the continuous

monitoring of the current state of the system and for analysing
the effectiveness of the alternative plans for future, such as
adding new generator sites, meeting increased load demand and
locating new transmission sites
Formulation of Power Flow problem in polar
coordinates
The complex power injected by the source into the ith bus of a power
system is
Si = Pi + jQi = Vi Ii* i = 1,2,…,n (1)
where Vi is the voltage at the ith bus with respect to ground and Ii is the
source current injected at the bus
Since it is convenient to work with Ii instead of Ii*, we take the complex
conjugate of the above equation.
Si* = Pi – jQi = Vi*Ii i = 1,2,…,n (2)

We know Ibus = [Ybus]Vbus (2.1)

Ii = Yi1V1 + Yi2V2 + …. + YikVk (2.2)

n
Ii =  YikVk (2.3)
k 1
Substituting for Ii , in equation (2)
n
Pi – jQi = Vi* Y V
k 1
ik k i = 1,2,…,n (3)

Equating real and imaginary parts

 * n 
Pi (real power) = Re  V i  Y ik V k  (4)
 k 1 
 * n 
Qi (reactive power) = - Im  V i  Y ik V k  (5)
 k 1 
In polar form
Vi = |Vi| e jδi = |Vi|(cos δi + j sin δi)
V*i = |Vi| e -jδi = |Vi|(cos δi – j sin δi) (6)
Yik = |Yik| e jθik = |Yik| (cos θik + j sin θik )
Using equations (4), (5) and (6) Real and reactive powers can be expressed as:
n
Pi (Real power) = | V i| |V k ||Y ik | cos ( ik   k   i ) (7)
k 1 i = 1,2,…,n
n
Qi (Reactive power) = -| V i|  |V ||Y
k 1
k ik | sin ( ik   k   i ) (8)
i = 1,2,…,n

Equations (7) and (8) represents 2n power flow equations at n buses

of a power system (n real power flow equations and n reactive power flow
equations)
Each bus is characterized by four variables; Pi, Qi, |Vi| and δi resulting
in a total of 4n variables.
Equations (7) and (8) can be solved for 2n variables if the remaining
2n variables are specified
 Practical considerations allow a power system analyst to fix a priori
two variables at each bus

The solution for the remaining 2n variables is rendered difficult by

the fact that equations (7) and (8) are non-linear algebraic equations (bus
voltages are involved in product form and sine and cosine terms are present)
and therefore, explicit solution is not possible.

Solution can only be obtained by iterative numerical techniques.

 Gauss Seidel method
 Newton Raphson method
 Fast Decoupled Load Flow (FDLF) Method
Classification of buses:
Based on the quantities specified, buses can be classified as:
1) PQ bus or Load bus
2) PV bus or Generator bus
3) Slack bus / Reference bus / Swing bus

Bus Type Specified Unknown Approximate

Quantities Quantities number
Load bus or PQ bus Pi , Qi Vi , δi 85%
Generator bus or PV bus
Pi , Vi Qi , δi 15%
or Voltage controlled bus
Reference bus or
Slack bus or V 1 , δ1 = 0 P1 , Q1 1
Swing bus
Load bus: These buses are the most common in the power supply network.
At these buses Pi and Qi are known because PDi and QDi are known from the
load forecast data and PGi and QGi are either zero (No generation at these
buses) or specified.

Generator bus: At this buses the governor control and excitation control
allow us to specify PGi and Vi. Since PDi is known (from load forecast data),
Pi is known. Voltage controlled bus has voltage control capabilities and use
a tap-adjustable transformer and /or a Static Var Compensator instead of a
generator.

Slack bus: The need to designate one of the buses as swing or slack bus is
evident from the fact that the system power losses are not known initially.
Therefore, the net power flow into the system cannot be fixed in advance.
 The swing bus is a generator bus and the generators at this bus supply
the difference between the specified real power injected into system at other
buses and the total system output plus losses.

Since the voltage throughout the system must be close to 1 pu, we

generally specify the voltage at the swing bus equal to 1 pu.

Any one phasor can be selected as reference and we select the voltage
of the swing bus as reference making its angle δ1 = 0.

Generally the bus of the largest generating station is selected as swing

bus and numbered as bus 1.
Equations (7) and (8) can be written and called as Static Load Flow Equations (SLFE)
n
Pi = (PGi – PDi) = | V i| |V ||Y k ik | cos ( ik   k   i ) (9)
k 1 i = 1,2,…,n
n
Qi = (QGi – QDi ) = - | V i|  |V ||Y k ik | sin ( ik   k   i ) (10)
k 1 i = 1,2,…,n
By transposing all the variables to one side,
n
| V i| |V k ||Y ik | cos ( ik   k   i ) - (PGi – PDi) = 0 ; i = 1,2,…,n (11)
k 1
n
| V i| |V k||Y ik | sin ( ik   k   i ) + (QGi – QDi ) = 0 ; i = 1,2,…,n (12)
k 1
Equation (11) and (12) can be written in the vector form,
f (x, y) = 0 (13)
where f = vector function of dimension 2n × 1
x = vector of dependent or state variables (state vector) of dimension
2n × 1 (2n unspecified variables)
y = vector of independent variables of dimension 2n × 1
(2n independent variables specified a priori)
some of the independent variables in y can be used to manipulate some of
the state variables. These adjustable independent variables are called
control parameters. The remaining independent variables which are fixed
are called fixed parameters. Vector y can be partitioned into a vector of u of
control parameters and a vector p of fixed parameters,

u 
y=   (14)
 p
 Vi on slack all specified by us
Control Vector = u = Vi on P-V bus Governor control – PG
PG on P-V bus Excitation control - Vi

PD , QD at all buses
Parameter Vector = p =
Y

Vi and δi at P-Q buses

State vector = x = unknown
δi at P-V buses

Equations (11) and (12) can be written as

f (x, u, p) = 0 (15)
 For SLFE solution to have practical significance, all the state and
control variables must be within specified practical limits. These limits are
dictated by specifications of power system hardware and operating
constraints and are described below,
1. Voltage magnitude |Vi| must satisfy the inequality
|Vi|min ≤ |Vi| ≤ |Vi|max (16)
The limit arises due to the fact that the power system equipment is designed
to operate at fixed voltages with allowable variations of ± (5-10)% of rated
values.
2. Certain of the δi’s (state variables) must satisfy
|δi - δk | ≤ |δi - δk |max (17)
This constraint limits the maximum permissible power angle of
transmission line connecting buses i and k and is imposed by considerations
of stability.
3. Owing to physical limitations of P and /or Q generation sources, PGi and
QGi are constrained as follows,
PGi min ≤ PGi ≤ PGi max
QGi min ≤ QGi ≤ QGi max (18)
Also, we have

P
i
Gi   (P
i
Di )  PLoss
(19)
Q
i
Gi   (Q
i
Di )  QLoss

where PLoss and QLoss are system real and reactive power losses.
An Approximate Load Flow Solution
Let us make the following assumptions and approximations in the load flow
Eqs (7) and (8),

1) Line resistance, being small are neglected (shunt conductance of

overhead line is always negligible), i.e. PLoss, the active power loss of the
system is zero. Thus in Eqs (7) and (8), θik = 90o and θii = - 90o .
(Yik = - jBik = Bik ∠900 ; Yii = jBii = Bii ∠- 900)

2) (δi - δk ) is small [< (π/6)], so that sin (δi - δk ) ≃ (δi - δk ). This is justified
from considerations of stability.

3) All the buses other than the slack bus (numbered as 1) are PV buses, ie
voltage magnitude at all the buses, including the slack bus are specified.
 n
Pi (real power) = | V i| |V k||Y ik | cos ( ik   k   i )
k 1 i = 1,2,…,n
n
Pi = | V i| |V k||Y ik | ( i   k ) i = 1,2,…,n (20)
k 1

cos (90 + δk – δi) = - sin (δk – δi) = sin (δi – δk) = (δi – δk)
n
Qi (reactive power) = - | V i|  |V ||Y
k 1
k ik | sin ( ik   k   i )
i = 1,2,…,n
n
2
 |V ||Y
Qi = - | V i |
k 1
k ik | cos ( i   k )  V i Y ii i = 1,2,…,n (21)
k i

sin (90 + δk – δi) = cos (δk – δi) = cos (δi – δk)

 Since |Vi|s are specified Eq. (20) represents a set of linear algebraic
equation. δi s, which are (n - 1) in number as δ1 is specified at the slack
bus (δ1 = 0).
Equation (20) can be solved explicitly (non-iterative) for δ1, δ2 , ..., δn
which, when substituted in Eq. (21), yields Qis, the reactive power bus
injections. It may be noted that the assumptions have made Eqs (20) and
(21) decoupled , so that these need not be solved simultaneously but can be
solved sequentially.
Solution of Eq. (21) follows immediately upon simultaneous solution
of Eq. (20).

Since the solution is non-iterative and the dimension is reduced to

(n - 1) from 2n, it is computationally highly economical.

Approximate load flow solution can be used for planning studies

where load flow solutions have to be carried out repeatedly but a high
degree of accuracy is not needed.
 Ex 1: Fig shows a four bus system. Line resistance may be neglected and
pu line reactances are as shown. The voltages at all buses should be 1 pu. The
pu values of loads and active power generated at the different buses are also
shown. Find (a) reactive power generation at buses (b) active and reactive line
losses (c) real and reactive power transfer over lines.
a) Let bus 1 be the swing bus. The active and reactive power
generations at this bus can be controlled. At buses 2 and 4 there is no active
power generation but these buses have reactive power compensation
equipment. Bus 3 has a generator whose active power output is 3.5 pu but
reactive power output can be controlled.
The generation and loads at the buses can be combined so that the net
power injected into the buses are:
Si = SGi – SDi = (PGi – PDi) + j(QGi – QDi) = Pi + jQi
S1 = SG1 – SD1 = (PG1 – 1.5) + j(QG1 – 1)
S2 = SG2 – SD2 = – 2 + j(QG2 – 0.5)
S3 = SG3 – SD3 = 3.5 + jQG3
S4 = SG4 – SD4 = – 2 + j(QG4 – 0.8)
Since there is no active power loss, the net total active power
generated must be equal to the sum of all active power loads. Thus PG1 can
be straightway found,
PG1 = 2 + 2 + 1.5 – 3.5 = 2 pu
 Thus the net active power injected into the buses are
P1 = 0.5, P2 = -2, P3 = 3.5, P4 == -2
The admittance between the different buses are:
y12 = y13 = y14 = - j5.0 pu and y23 = y34 = - j10.0 pu
Ybus using inspection method is,
– j15.0 j5.0 j5.0 j5.0 
 j5.0  j15.0 j10.0 0 
 
Ybus =  j5.0 j10  j 25.0 j10.0 
 
 j5.0 0 j10.0  j15.0

Voltage at all buses is 1 pu, δ1 = 0. Using Eq. (20) the net active powers
injected into the buses can be written as:
P1 = 0.5 = -5δ2 -5δ3 -5δ4
P2 = -2 = 5δ2 + 10(δ2 - δ3 ) = 15δ2 - 10δ3
P3 = 3.5 = 5δ3 + 10(δ3 – δ2 ) + 10(δ3 – δ4 ) = -10δ2 + 25δ3 - 10 δ4
P4 = -2 = 5δ4 + 10(δ4 - δ3 ) = -10δ3 + 10δ4

Solving the equations for P2, P3 and P4 we get

δ2 = δ4 = - 0.0857 rad = - 0.0857 ×(180/π) = - 4.910

δ3 = 0.071428 rad = 4.0930

Substituting these values in Eq. (21) we get

Q1 = -5 cos (4.910) - 5 cos (4.0930) -5 cos (4.910) + 15 = 0.0494 pu
Q2 = -5 cos (4.910) - 10 cos (9.0030) + 15 = 0.1415 pu
Q3 = -5 cos (4.0930) - 10 cos (9.0030) -10 cos (9.0030) + 25 = 0.259 pu
Q4 = -5 cos (4.910) - 10cos (9.0030) + 15 = 0.1415 pu
 Reactive power generation at the buses is

QG1 = Q1 + 1 = 1.0494 pu
QG2 = Q2 + 0.5 = 0.6415 pu
QG3 = Q3 = 0.259 pu
QG4 = Q4 + 0.8 = 0.9415 pu

b) Since line resistance has been neglected, active power loss in the lines
is zero. Reactive line losses = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4 = 0.5914 pu
c) Since the line shunt capacitances have been neglected, the lines
behaves as short lines.
The real power transfer over a short line in general:

| V i |2 | V i || V p |
P ip  cos   cos(    i   p )
|Z | |Z |
Substituting |Z| = |Xip| and θ = 900

| V i || V p |
P ip  sin ( i   p )
| X ip |

Where Pip is the real power transferred from ith bus to pth bus, Xip is
the total reactance of line connecting the ith and pth buses and δi, δp are the
bus voltage angles with respect to a common reference (swing bus voltage).
Substituting the values of X and δ
P12 = - P21 = (1/0.2) sin (δ1- δ2) = 5 sin (4.910) = 0.428 pu
P14 = - P41 = (1/0.2) sin (δ1- δ4) = 5 sin (4.910) = 0.428 pu
P31 = - P31 = (1/0.2) sin (δ1- δ3) = 5 sin (-4.0930) = - 0.357 pu
P23 = - P32 = (1/0.1) sin (δ2- δ3) = 10 sin (-9.0030) = - 1.565 pu
P34 = - P43 = (1/0.1) sin (δ3- δ4) = 10 sin (9.0030) = 1.565 pu

The reactive power transfer in general:

| Vi |2 | Vi | | Vp |
Qip  sin   sin(  i  p )
|Z | |Z |
Substituting θ = 900 and |Z| = |Xip|

| Vi |2 | Vi | | Vp |
Q ip   cos(  i   p )
| X ip | | X ip |
where Qip is the reactive power flow from ith bus to pth bus. It is evident
that Qip = Qpi, Substituting the values of X and δ:

Q12 = Q21 = (1/0.2) – (1/0.2) cos(δ1- δ2) = 5 – 5cos(4.910) = 0.0183 pu

Q13 = Q13 = (1/0.2) – (1/0.2) cos(δ1- δ3) = 5 – 5cos(-4.0930) = 0.01275 pu
Q14 = Q14 = (1/0.2) – (1/0.2) cos(δ1- δ4) = 5 – 5cos(4.910) = 0.0183 pu
Q23 = Q32 = (1/0.1) – (1/0.1) cos(δ2- δ3) = 10 – 10cos(-9.0030) = 0.123 pu
Q34 = Q43 = (1/0.1) – (1/0.1) cos(δ3- δ4) = 10 – 10cos(49.0030) = 0.123 pu

P12 = - P21 = 0.428 means that the bus 1 exports 0.428 pu real power
to bus 2 or bus 2 imports 0.428 pu real power from bus 1.

Q12 = Q21 = 0.0183 pu means that bus 1 exports 0.0183 pu reactive

power (lagging) to bus 2 or imports - 0.0183 pu reactive power (leading)
from bus 1.
 Therefore, the complex power export from bus 1 to bus 2 has been
shown as 0.428 + j0.0183 pu and the complex power import by bus 2 from
bus 1 has been shown as 0.428 – j0.0183 pu.
Following a similar reasoning for other lines, the real and reactive
generation, loads and line flows can be shown as in figure.
 Gauss-Seidel Method
Solution of Algebraic Equations:
A set of simultaneous non-linear equations cannot be solved by usual
methods.
For the solution of these equations iterative techniques are necessary.
In an iterative technique we progressively compute more accurate estimates
of the unknown until results are obtained to a desired degree of accuracy in
a finite number of iterations.
When this happens the solution is said to converge. The iterative
methods are applicable to those systems of equations in which the diagonal
elements of the coefficient matrix are large in comparison with the off-
diagonal elements.
 Consider a system of n non-linear equations having x1, x2, ..., xn as n
unknowns. After some manipulations these equations can be put in the
form:
xi = fi (x10, x20, x30, ...., xn0) (1)
where 1≤ i ≤ n

We start with initial known (or assumed) approximate values of x’s

written as x10, x20, ..., xn0 . Our first approximation for xi is
x11 = f1 (x10, x20, x30, ...., xn0) (2)
the first approximation for x2 is
x21 = f2 (x11, x20, x30, ...., xn0) (3)
and the first approximation for xi is
xi1 = fi (x11, x21, ...., xi-11, xi0, xi+10, ...., xn0) (4)
In general the kth approximation for xi is computed as;
xik = fi (x1k, x2k, ...., xi-1k, xik-1, xi+1k-1, ...., xnk-1) (5)
we examine the change in each variable

∆xi = xik – xik-1 (6)

when ∆xi < ε (tolerance value) for i = 1, 2, ...., n, we say that the solution
has converged. From experience with practical problems the number of
iterations required to reach convergence can be reduced if update the old
value by something more than ∆xi , we use the equation

xik = xik-1 + α ∆xi (7)

α is known as acceleration factor and has a value equal to or greater than

unity.
Ex 1: Find the value of x, accurate upto 5 decimal places, in the equation
2x – log x = 7 by Gauss-Seidel method.
Sol:
2x – log x = 7
or x = 0.5 (7 + log x)
We assume that x0 = 1,
x1 = 0.5 (7 + log 1) = 3.5
x2 = 0.5 (7 + log 3.5) = 3.772034
x3 = 0.5 (7 + log 3.772034) = 3.788287
x4 = 0.5 (7 + log 3.788287) = 3.789221
x5 = 0.5 (7 + log 3.789221) = 3.789274
x6 = 0.5 (7 + log 3.789274) = 3.789278
Since the values of x5 and x6 are the same upto 5 decimal places, the
iteration need not be continued further and 3.789278 can be taken as the
value of x.
Ex 2: Obtain the values of x and y after 4 G-S iterations for the equations
x = 0.7 sin x + 0.2 cos y
y = 0.7 cos x – 0.2 sin y
Assume x0 = y0 = 0.5

[Ans: x = 0.5225205 , y = 0.5090078]

Gauss-Seidel Method for Load Flow Studies
To solve a load flow problem by GS method, we consider two cases
depending on the type of buses present.
In the first case we assume all the buses other than the slack bus are
PQ buses.
In the second case, we assume the presence of both PQ and PV buses,
other than the slack bus.

Case I:
The slack bus is numbered one, and the remaining (n – 1) buses are PQ
buses (i = 2, 3, ..., n). With slack bus voltage assumed, the remaining
(n – 1) bus voltages are found through iterative process as follows:
The complex power injected into the ith bus is,

Si = Pi + jQi = ViIi* (1)

 P i  jQ i (2)
Ii 
V i*
n n
We know Ii = Y
k 1
ik V k  Y ii V i  Yk 1
ik Vk (3)
k i
 n

1   i = 2,3,...,n (4)
Vi   Ii 
Y ii 
 Y ik V k 
k 1 
 k i 
Substituting Ii from Eq (2) in Eqn (4)

 n

1  P i  jQ i 
Vi  
Y ii  Vi *
  ( Y ik V k )  i = 2,3,...,n (5)
k 1 
 k i 
 We assume a starting values for Vi (i = 2, 3, ..., n).
These values are then updated using Eqn (5).
The voltages substituted at the right hand side of Eqn (5) are
the most recently updated values for the corresponding buses.
Iterations are repeated till no bus voltage magnitude changes by
more than a prescribed value.

If instead of updating voltages at every step of an

iteration, updating is carried out at the end of a complete
iteration, the process is known as Gauss Iterative Method

It converges much slower and may sometimes fail to do

so.
Algorithm for Load Flow solution (Case I):

Step 1: Slack bus voltage magnitude and angle are assumed, usually
V1 = 1∠00 pu. With the load profile known at each bus (i.e. PDi and
QDi known), we allocate PGi and QGi to all generating stations. With
this the, bus injections (Pi + jQi) are known at all buses other than the
slack bus.
Step 2: Assembly of bus admittance matrix (Ybus): With the line Impedance
and shunt admittance values given, calculate the line and shunt
admittance, Ybus is formed using either Inspection method or Singular
transformation method.
Step 3: Iterative computations of bus voltages (Vi : i = 2, 3, ..., n): To start
the iteration, a set of initial values is assumed.
Since, in a power system the voltage spread is not too wide, it is
normal practice to use a flat voltage start, i.e., initially all the voltages
are set equal to (1 + j0), except the slack bus voltage, which is fixed.
 This reduces the n equations to (n-1) equations in complex form
(Eqn (5)) which are to be solved iteratively for finding complex
voltages V2, V3, ..., Vn.

P i  jQ i
Let us define: Ai  i = 2,3,...,n (6)
Y ii
Yik i = 2,3,...,n; k = 2,3,...,n; k ≠ i (7)
Bik 
Yii
Now, for (r + 1)th iteration, the voltage equation (5) becomes
i 1 n
( r 1)  Ai ( r 1) (r ) 
Vi   r *
  (B ik V k )  (B ik V k ) 
 (Vi ) k 1 k  i 1 
i = 2,3,...,n (8)
 The iterative process is continued till the change in magnitude of bus
voltage , |∆Vi(r+1)|, between two consecutive iterations is less than a certain
tolerance for all bus voltages, i.e.

|∆Vi(r+1)| = |Vi(r+1) - Vi(r)| ≤ ε i = 2,3,...,n (9)

Also, we see if |Vi|min ≤ |Vi| ≤ |Vi|max i = 2,3,...,n

If not, we fix |Vi| at one of the extreme values, i.e.

|Vi|min If |Vi| ≤ |Vi|min or |Vi|max If |Vi| ≥ |Vi|max

Depending on the nature of the problem, we can also check

if |δi – δk| ≤ |δi – δk|max i = 2,3,...,n; k = 2,3,...,n; k ≠ i

Step 4: Computation of slack bus power: Substitution of all bus voltages
computed in step 3 with Vi in Eqn (7*) and (8*) with i =1 yields real
and reactive power at the bus i.e., S1 = P1 + jQ1.
Step 5: Computation of line flows: This is the last step in load flow analysis
wherein the power flows on the various lines of the network are
computed. This also enables us to check whether any line is
overloaded. Consider the line connecting bus i and k. The line and
transformers at each end can be represented by a circuit with series
admittance yik and two shunt admittances yik0 and yki0 as shown in
figure.
The current fed by bus i into the line can be expressed as
Iik = Iik1 + Iik0 = (Vi - Vk)yik + Viyik0 (10)

The power fed into the line from bus i is:

Sik = Pik + jQik
= ViIik* = Vi(Vi* - Vk*)yik* + ViVi*yik0* (11)

Similarly, the power fed into the line from bus k is:
Ski = Vk(Vk* - Vi*)yik* + VkVk*yki0* (12)

The power loss in the (i-k)th line is the sum of the power flow
determined from Eqn (11) and (12). Total transmission loss can be
computed by summing all the line flows (i.e. Sik + Ski for all i, k)
The slack bus power can also be found by summing up the flows on
the lines terminating at the slack bus
Acceleration of Convergence:
Convergence in the GS method can sometimes be speeded up by the
use of the acceleration factor. For the ith bus, the accelerated value of
voltage at the (r + 1)th iteration is given by

Vi(r+1) (accelerated) = Vi(r) + α (Vi(r+1) – Vi(r))

where α is a real number called as “acceleration factor”. A suitable

value of α for any system can be obtained by trial load flow studies.
Generally recommended value is α = 1.6. A wrong choice of α may indeed
slow down convergence or even cause the method to diverge.
Algorithm for Load Flow solution (Case II):

Here we consider (m – 1) PQ buses, (n – m –1) PV buses and the slack bus.

Given: V1, (P2, Q2), . . . , (Pm, Qm), (Pm + 1, |Vm + 1|), . . . , (Pn, |Vn|)
To find: S1, V2, . . . , Vm, (Qm + 1, δm + 1), . . , (Qn, δn).

Algorithm (Case II) We first repeat the iteration for PQ buses as in case I,
then continue the iteration for PV buses.
At the PV buses, P and |V| are specified and Q and δ are unknowns to
be determined. Therefore, the values of Q and δ are to be updated in every
GS iteration through appropriate bus equations.

Step 1: From Eq. (5*)

n
 * 
Qi = - Im
 Vi


k 1
Y ik V k 

i = m + 1, . . . , n
 The revised value of Qi is obtained from the above equation by
substituting most updated values of voltages on the right hand side. For the
(r + 1)th iteration we can write

( r 1 )  ( r ) * i 1 ( r 1 ) (r ) *
n
(r ) 
Q i   Im  (V i )  Y ik V k  (V i )  Y ik V k 
 k 1 k i 
i = m + 1, . . . , n (13)
Step 2: The revised value of δi is obtained from Eqn (8) immediately after
step 1.
δi (r+1) = ∠Vi(r+1)
i 1 n
 Ai( r 1) ( r 1) (r ) 
= Angle 
 (V ( r ) )*   (B ik V k )  (B ik V k ) 
 i k 1 k  i 1 
Pi  jQi( r 1)
where Ai( r 1)  i = m + 1, . . . , n (14)
Yii
 Physical limitations of Q generation requires that Q demand at any
bus must be in the range Qmin to Qmax.
If at any stage during iteration, Q at any bus goes outside these limits,
it is fixed at Qmin or Qmax as the case may be and the bus voltage
specification is dropped, i.e. the bus is now treated like a PQ bus.

Step3: If Qi(r+1) ≤ Qi min we set Qi(r+1) = Qi min

or
if Qi(r+1) ≥ Qi max we set Qi(r+1) = Qi max
and treat bus i as a PQ bus. We compute Ai(r+1) and Vi(r+1) from Eqs (14)
and (8) respectively.
EX 1: For the four bus system, assuming a flat voltage start, find the
voltages and bus angles at the three buses at the end of first GS iteration.

Line data: Buses Impedance pu.

1-2 0.05 + j0.15
1-3 0.1 + j0.3
2-3 0.15 + j0.45
2-4 0.1 + j0.3
3-4 0.05 + j0.15

Bus data: Bus no. Type V (pu) Pi pu Qi pu

1 Slack bus 1.04∠00 - -
2 PQ bus - 0.5 -0.2
3 PQ bus - -1.0 0.5
4 PQ bus - 0.3 -0.1
Sol:
Step 1: Assume all the voltages other than slack bus voltage as
1 + j0 (1∠00)
Step 2: Form Ybus using inspection method:

 3  j9  2  j6 1  j3 0 
 2  j6 3.666 j11  0.666 j2 1  j3
[Ybus] =  
 1  j3  0.666 j2 3.666 j11  2  j6
 
 0  1  j3  2  j6 3  j9 

Step 3: Calculation of Bus voltages:

1 1  P 2  jQ 2 0 0
V 
2  0 *
 Y 21V 1  Y 23V3  Y 24V4 
Y 22  (V2 ) 
1 1  0.5  j 0.2 
V 
2   1.04(2  j 6)  (0.666  j 2)  (1  j 3)
Y 22  (1  j 0) 
. 4.246  j11.04
1
V 
2  1.019  j 0.046 pu
3.666  j11

Voltage at bus 3:

1 1  P 3  jQ 3 1 0
V 
3  0 *
 Y 31V 1  Y 32V2  Y 34V4 
Y 33  (V3 ) 

1  1 j0.5 
V31   1.04(1 j3)  (0.666 j 2)(1.019 j0.046)  (2  j 6)
Y 33  (1 j0) 


12.81  j11.627
V 
3  1.028  j 0.087 pu
3.666  j11
Voltage at bus 4:

11  P 4  jQ 4 1 1
V 4  0 *
 Y 41V 1  Y 42V2  Y 43V3 
Y 44  (V4 ) 

1 1 0.3 j0.1 
V 
4   (1 j3)(1.019 j0.046)  (2  j6)(1.028 j0.087)
Y 44  (1 j0) 

2.991  j9.253
V41   1.025  j 0.0093 pu
3  j9
EX 2: In example 1, let bus 2 be a PV bus, with V2 = 1.04 pu. Once again
assuming a float voltage start, find Q2, δ2, V3, V4 at the end of first GS
iteration. Given 0.2 ≤ Q2 ≤ 1 pu
Sol: From Eq. (13)
i 1 n
( r 1)  (r) * ( r 1) (r) * (r) 
Q i   Im  (V i )  Y ik V k  (V i )  Y ik V k 
 k 1 k i 
i = m + 1, . . . , n
Reactive Power at bus 2 is,
Q21   Im ((V 2 0 )* Y 21V10  (V 2 0 )* (Y 22V20  Y 23V30  Y 24V40 ))

  Im (1 . 04 (  2  j 6 )1 . 04  1 . 04 (( 3 . 666  j11 )1 . 04 
(  0 . 666  j 2 )  (  1  j 3 ))

= – Im (– 0.0693 – j0.2097) = 0.2079 pu

From Eq. (14),
Voltage Angle at bus 2 is,
1
1 1  P 2  jQ 2 0 0
2    0 *
 Y 21V 1  Y 23V3  Y 24V4 
Y 22  (V2 ) 

 0.5  j 0.2079 
1   ( 2  j 6)(1 .04)  
 1.04  j 0
Y 22  
 (0.666  j 2)  (1  j 3) 

 4.2267  j11.439 
   (1.0512  j 0.0339)
 3.666  j11 
= 1.846580 = 0.032 rad.
 V21  1.04 (cos  21  j sin  21 )
= 1.04(0.99948 + j0.0322)
= 1.03946 + j0.03351

Voltage at bus 3:

1 1  P 3  jQ 3 1 0
V 
3  0 *
 Y 31V 1  Y 32V2  Y 34V4 
Y 33  (V3 ) 
 1 j0.5 
1 1   1.04(1 j3)  (0.666 j2)(1.03946 j0.03351) 
V3  (1 j0)
Y 33  
  (2  j6) 
2.7992  j11.6766
V31   1.0317  j 0.08937 pu
3.666  j11
Voltage at bus 4:

1 1  P 4  jQ 4 1 1
V 
4  0 *
 Y 41V 1  Y 42V2  Y 43V3 
Y 44  (V4 ) 

 0.3  j0.1 
1 1   ( 1  j 3)(1.0394  j 0.0335) 
V4  (1  j0)
Y 44  
  (2  j6)(1.0317  j 0.08937)

2.9671  j8.9962
V41   0.9985  j 0.0031 pu
3  j9
EX 3: In the same problem limits of Q2 (reactive power injection) are
revised as follows:
0.25 ≤ Q2 ≤ 1.0 pu
Sol: It is clear that other data remaining the same, the calculated
Q2 (= 0.2079) is now less than the Q2,min . Hence Q2 is equal to Q2,min i.e.
Q2 = 0.25 pu
Bus 2, therefore, becomes a PQ bus from a PV bus. Therefore , |V2|
can no longer remain fixed at 1.04 pu. The value of V2 at the end of the
first iteration is calculated as follows. (Now V20 = 1+j0)

Voltage at bus 2:

1 1  P 2  jQ 2 0 0
V 
2  0 *
 Y 21V 1  Y 23V3  Y 24V4 
Y 22  (V2 ) 

1 1  0.5  j 0.25 
V 
2   1.04(2  j 6)  (0.666  j 2)  (1  j3)
Y 22  (1  j 0) 
 4.246  j11.49
1
V  2  1.0559  j 0.0341 pu
3.666  j11

Voltage at bus 3:

1 1  P 3  jQ 3 1 0
V 
3  0 *
 Y 31V 1  Y 32V2  Y 34V4 
Y 33  (V3 ) 

 1  j0.5 
1 1   1.04(1  j3)  (0.666 j 2)(1.0559 j 0.0341) 
V3  (1  j0)
Y 33  
  (2  j6) 

1 2 .8112  j11 .709

V 
3  1 .0347  j 0 .0893 pu
3 .666  j11
Voltage at bus 4:

1 1  P 4  jQ 4 1 1
V 
4  0 *
 Y 41V 1  Y 42V2  Y 43V3 
Y 44  (V4 ) 

 0.3  j0.1 
1 1   ( 1  j 3)(1.0509  j 0.0341) 
V4  (1  j 0)
Y 44  
  (2  j 6)(1.0347  j0.0893)

4.0630  j9.4204
V41   1.0775  j 0.0923 pu
3  j9
Advantages of GS method:
1. The simplicity of the technique
2. Small computer memory requirement
3. Less computational time per iteration

Disadvantages of GS method:
1. Slow rate of convergence and therefore large number of
iterations.
2. Increase of number of iterations directly with the increase in
the number of buses
3. Effect on convergence due to choice of slack bus
EX 2: Carryout two iterations of load flow analysis of the system given
below using Gauss Seidal method.
The Q limits are given as 1 ≤ Q2 ≤ 2.5 pu
Line data:
Buses Admittance pu.
1-2 2–j5
2-3 3–j9
3-1 1–j4

Bus data:
Generation Load (pu)
Bus V (pu)
Type
no. (pu)
P Q P Q
1 Slack bus 1.05 - - - -
2 PV bus 1.2 3 - - -
3 PQ bus - 4 2
Ex 3: Carryout two iterations of load flow analysis of the system given
below by Gauss-Seidal method.
Line data: Admittance pu.
Buses
1–2 2–j8
1–3 1–j4
2–3 0.6 – j 2.6
2–4 1–j4
3-4 2–j8

Bus data:
Bus no. Type V (pu) P Q

1 Slack bus 1.04 - -

2 PQ bus - 0.5 0.2

3 PQ bus - 0.4 0.3

4 PQ bus - 0.3 0.1

NEWTON-RAPHSON (NR) METHOD
N-R method for solving non-linear equations:-

Consider the equation

f(x) = x2 – 5x + 4 = 0
let x0 be the initial estimate of x and ∆x be the correction to get the correct
solution.
From Taylors series expansion:-
2 2
f  f x
f ( x 0  x)  f ( x 0 )  x  2  ....  0
x x 2!
Neglecting the higher order terms,

f
f ( x 0  x)  f ( x 0 )  x  0
x
0 f
f ( x )   x
x
or

0 1
 f (x ) 0  f 
x    f ( x ) 
f  x 
x

first estimate is x(1) = x0 + ∆x

 f(x) = x2 – 5x + 4 = 0
let the initial estimate be x0 = 6
partial differentiation of f(x) gives,

f
= 2x – 5 = 2(6) – 5 = 12 – 5 = 7
x
f(x0) = (6)2 – 5(6) + 4 = 36 – 30 + 4 = 10

 f (x0 )
 x  = – 10/7 = – 1.429
f
x
(x1) = 6 – 1.429 = 4.571

After more number of iterations, we get x = 4.002 which is the correct

solution.
N-R method for two equations:-

Consider the equation

f1(x1, x2) = f1(x) = 0 (1)
f2(x1, x2) = f2(x) = 0 (2)
equation (1) and (2) can be written in vector form as

 F 1( x) 
F(x) = 0; i.e.   0
 F 2( x )
let x0 be the initial estimate of x and ∆x be the correction to get the correct
solution.
By Taylors series expansion:-
2 2
f  f x
f ( x 0  x)  f ( x 0 )  x  2  ....  0
x x 2!
(3)
neglecting higher order terms,
0 f0
f ( x  x)  f ( x )  x  0
x
from (1) and (2)
f 1 f 1
f 1( x 0 )  x1  x 2  0
x1 x 2
0 f 2 f 2
f 2( x )  x1  x 2  0
x1 x 2
In matrix form

 f 1 f 1 
0
 f 1( x )   x1 x 2  x1 
 f 2( x 0 )   f 2 f 2  x 2   0
     
 x1 x 2 
 0
x1   f 1( x )
x 2    J   f 2( x 0 ) 
1

   
 f 1 f 1 
where  x1 x 2 
Jacobian Matrix
J    f 2 f 2 
 
 x1 x 2 

updated values:
X1(1) = X1(0) + ∆x1
X2(1) = X2(0) + ∆x2
Let us consider the real and reactive power flow equations:-
n
(PGi – PDi) = | V i| |V k||Y ik | cos ( ik   k   i ) i = 1,2,…,n
k 1

n
(QGi – QDi ) = - | V i| |V ||Y
k 1
k ik | sin ( ik   k   i ) i = 1,2,…,n

No. of Unknowns:-
Let there be m PV buses
No. of unknown voltage magnitudes =N–m–1
No. of unknown phase angles =N–1
= 2N – m – 2

 we have to select 2N – m – 2 equations from 2N equations

Let
Total no. of buses = 5
PV buses =2
PQ buses =2
Slack bus =1
 no. of unknowns = 2N – m – 2 = 2(5) – 2 – 2 = 6

Equations required to solve the unknowns are:

PQ buses 2  2 (Real and Reactive power equations)
PV buses 2  1 (Real power equations)
 Total no. of equations required = 6
 The set of power flow equations:
n
| V i| |V k ||Y ik | cos ( ik   k   i )  ( P Gi  P Di )  0 (4)
k 1 i = 1,2,…,n, ≠ S
n
| V i| |V k||Y ik | sin ( ik   k   i )  ( Q Gi  Q Di )  0 (2)
k 1
i = 1,2,…,n, ≠ S, ≠ PV buses
(6)
N-R method for power flow problem:-
Power flow equations,
n
P i  | V i| |V k ||Y ik | cos ( ik   k   i ) (1)
k 1
n
Q i   | V i| |V k||Y ik | sin ( ik   k   i ) (2)
k 1

Putting (1) and (2) in vector form

F(X, U, P) = 0 (3)
let x0 be the initial estimate of x and ∆x be the correction to get the correct
solution.
By Taylors series expansion:-
2 2
f  f x
f ( x 0  x, U , P)  f ( x 0 , U , P)  x  2  ....  0
x x 2!
(4)
 Neglecting higher order terms,

0 0 f
f ( x  x, U , P)  f ( x ,U , P )  x  0 (5)
x
 f  0

 x  x   f ( x ,U , P) (6)
 
1 1
 f  0  f   P  (7)
x     f ( x , U , P )      
 x   x   Q 

Where P  - Mismatch Vector ;  f  - Jacobian Matrix

Q  x 
   
Mismatch Vector:
Specified Calculated
n
 
( PGi  PDi )  | Vi||Vk||Yik | cos (ik  k  i ) 
k 1
 
0  i  1,2... n,  s 
 f ( x ,U , P)   n 
(QGi  QDi )   | Vi||Vk||Yik | sin (ik  k  i ) 
 k 1 
 
 i  1, 2 ... n ,  s ,  PV bus 
(8)

P 
=   Mismatch vector (9)
Q 
Updated value:
X(1) = X(0) + ∆X (10)

Elements of Jacobian Matrix:

 f  H N
 x  =  J L 
  
where,

 P P 
 H   N
 |V |
|V | 
 
 J  Q L
Q
|V | 
   |V | 
 (n-1) (n-m-1)
1
 P 2 P 2 P 2 P 2 
  |V 2 |  | Vn |
 2   2 n  |V 2 |  | Vn |
  (n-1)   P 2 
   H   N    
n   Pn Pn Pn Pn   
  |V 2 |  | Vn | Pn 
   2 n  |V 2 |  | Vn |
 .......     
.......
  | V 2|
   ........................ .......................................   
 |V 2 |  
Q 2 Q 2 Q2 Q 2  Q 2
  (n-m-1)   | V 2 | | Vn |   
 |V 2 |  | Vn |
    2 n   
  | Vn |   J   L    
 | Vn |     Qn 
 Qn  Qn Qn
| V 2 |
Q 2
| Vn | 
  2 n  |V 2 |  | Vn | 
Correction vector Jacobian matrix Mismatch Vector
(11)
Reason for multiplying Voltage in N and L matrix:

The elements of N and L have voltage-magnitude

multipliers because a simpler and more symmetrical Jacobian
results. In choosing this format, we have used the identity,

Pi  | Vk | Pi
| Vk |     | Vk |
 | Vk | | Vk |  | Vk |
Element of N correction
The corrections become ∆|Vk|/|Vk| as shown rather than ∆|Vk|.
We know,
Yik  | Yik |  ik  | Yik | cos ik  j | Yik | sin ik
 Gik  jB ik
Yii  | Yii | ii  | Yii | cos ii  j | Yii | sin ii
(12)
 Gii  jB ii
From Power Flow equations:
n
P i  | V i| |V k ||Y ik | cos ( ik   k   i )  | V i | 2 G ii
k 1
ki
n
Q i   | V i| |V k||Y ik | sin ( ik   k   i )  | V i | 2 B ii
k 1
ki (13)
 Cont. d
(cos x)   sin x
dx
d
cos(  x)  sin(  x) d
dx (cos( x))  sin( x)   sin x
d dx
cos(  x)   sin(  x ) d
dx (sin x)  cos x
d dx
sin(  x)   cos(  x) d
dx (sin( x))   cos( x)   cos x
d dx
sin(  x)  cos(  x)
dx cos( )  cos 
sin( )   sin 
Elements of Jacobian Matrix:
From Eqn (13)
n
Pi
Hii   | Vi||Vk||Yik | sin (ik  k  i )
i k 1
ki
comparing Eqn (13)
n
 ( Q i  | V i | 2 B ii )  | V i| |V k ||Y ik | sin ( ik   k   i )
k 1
ki

2 (14)
Hii   Qi  | Vi | Bii

Pi
Hik    | Vi||Vk||Yik | sin (ik  k  i ) (15)
k
  n

P i
N ii  | V i |  | V i| 2 | V i | G ii   |V k||Y ik | cos ( ik   k   i ) 
 | Vi |  k 1

 ki 

 n

P i
N ii  | V i |   2 | V i | 2 G ii   | V i ||V k||Y ik | cos ( ik   k   i ) 
 | Vi |  k 1

 ki 

Comparing real power Eqn. (13) we get

 
N ii  2 | V i |2 G ii  P i  | V i | 2 G ii  P i  | V i | 2 G ii

N ii  P i  | V i | 2 G ii (16)
 P i
N ik  | V k |  | V k | |V i||Y ik | cos ( ik   k   i ) 
 | Vk |

N ik  |V i| | V k | |Y ik | cos ( ik   k   i ) (17)

n
Q i
J ii   | V i| |V k ||Y ik | cos ( ik   k   i )
i k 1
ki

Comparing real power Eqn. (13) we get

J ii  P i  | V i | 2 G ii (18)

Q i
J ik    | V i||V k ||Y ik | cos ( ik   k   i ) (19)
k
  n 
Q i
L ii  | V i |   | V i|  |V k ||Y ik | sin ( ik   k   i )   2 | V i | 2 B ii
 | Vi |  k 1 
 k  i 
Comparing reactive power Eqn. (13) we get


L ii   2 | V i |2 B ii  Q i  | V i |2 B ii 
(20)
L ii  Q i  | V i |2 B ii
Q i
L ik  | V k |   | V k | |V i||Y ik | sin ( ik   k   i ) 
 | Vk |
L ik   | V k | |V i ||Y ik | sin ( ik   k   i ) (21)
We summarise the above equations as :

Hik = Lik

Nik = – Jik
2
Hii   Qi  | Vi | Bii N ii  P i  | V i | 2 G ii
2
J ii  P i  | V i | G ii L ii  Q i  | Vi |2 B ii
Computational steps of NR method:
Step 1: Assume |V| and δ at all PQ buses and δ at all PV buses or use flat start
Step 2: Form Ybus matrix
Step 3: Compute mismatch ∆P and ∆Q for PQ buses and ∆P for all PV buses
from Eqn. (1) and (2)
n
 P i  ( P Gi  P Di )  | V i| |V k ||Y ik | cos ( ik   k   i ) (1)
k 1

i  1, 2 ... n ,  s
n
 Q i  ( Q Gi  Q Di )  | V i| |V k ||Y ik | sin ( ik   k   i )
k 1

i  1, 2 ... n ,  s ,  PV bus
(2)
Step 4: Check for convergence, if converged go to step 8 otherwise go to
step 5
Step 5: Calculate Jacobian matrix taking at a time one bus along with PV bus
adjustment whenever PV buses is met with
Step 6: Update voltages and phase angles for all PQ buses and Phase angle at
PV buses

      1
H N    P    H N   P 
J   | V |    ;   | V |   
 L   Q   J L  Q 
 | V |   | V | 

| V |new  | V |old  V
 new   old  
Step 7: Go to Step 3
Step 8: Solution is reached calculate the line flows. Slack bus power etc..

PV bus adjustment NR method:

Step5:
Consider ith PV bus

n
compute
Q Gic  Q Di  | V i| |V k ||Y ik | sin ( ik   k   i )
k 1
check the following:-
Case 1: If QGi min ≤ Q cGi ≤ QGi max, proceed no adjustment is needed
Case 2: If Q cGi < QGi min
set Q cGi = QGi min, treat this bus as PQ bus or load bus
Case 3: If Q cGi > QGi max
set Q cGi = QGi max, treat this bus as PQ bus or load bus
Advantages of NR method:
1. It requires less no. of iterations
2. This method is suitable for large size system
3. This method is faster and more accurate
4. No. of iterations are independent of the size of the system
Disadvantages of NR method:
1 The solution technique is difficult
2 The calculation involved in each iteration are more and thus
computer time per iteration is large
3 The computer memory requirement is large
4 As the elements of Jacobian matrix are to be computed in
each iteration, the time taken for each iteration is
considerably large
EX 1: Carryout one iteration of load flow analysis of the system given below
by Newton Raphson method.
Line data:
Buses Impedance pu. Half - line charging
Admittance pu.
1-2 0.02 + j 0.08 j0.03
2-3 0.02 + j 0.08 j0.03
3-1 0.02 + j 0.08 j0.03

Bus data:

Generation (pu) Load (pu)

Bus no. Type V (pu)
P Q P Q
1 Slack bus 1.05 - - - -
2 PV bus 1.03 4.3 - - -
3 PQ bus - 2.6 1.5
  5.88  j 23.469  2.941  j11.764  2.941  j11.764
Ybus =  
  2.941  j11. 764 5 .88  j 23. 469  2. 941  j11. 764 
 2.941  j11.764  2.941  j11.764 5.88  j 23.469 

24.19  75.9 12.12104 12.12104 

Ybus =  12.12104 24. 19  75. 9 12 .12 104 
 
 12.12104 12.12104 24.19  75.9

Mismatch Vector:

| V 2 || Y 21 || V 1 | cos( 21   1   2)  
P 2  ( PG 2  PD 2)  | V 2 || Y 22 || V 2 | cos( 22   2   2)  
| V 2 || Y 23 || V 3 | cos( 23   3   2) 
 (1.03)(12.12)(1.05) cos(104)  
P 2  (4.3  0)  (1.03)(24.195)(1.03) cos(75.9)  
(1.03)(12.12)(1.0) cos(104) 

= 4.3 – [0.0619]
∆P2 = 4.238 pu
| V 3 || Y 31 || V 1 | cos( 31   1   3)  
P 3  ( PG 3  PD 3)  | V 3 || Y 32 || V 2 | cos( 32   2   3)  
| V 3 || Y 33 || V 3 | cos( 33   3   3) 
(1.0)(12.12)(1.05) cos(104)  
P 3  (2.6)  (1.0)(12.12)(1.03) cos(104)  
(1.0)(24.195)(1.0) cos(75.9)
= (–2.6) – [–0.204]
∆P3 = –2.396 pu
 | V 3 || Y 31 || V 1 | sin( 31   1   3)  
Q 3  (QG 3  QD 3)  | V 3 || Y 32 || V 2 | sin( 32   2   3)  
| V 3 || Y 33 || V 3 | sin( 33   3   3) 

(1.0)(12.12)(1.05) sin(104)  
Q 3  (1.5)  (1.0)(12.12)(1.03) sin(104)  
(1.0)(24.195)(1.0) sin(75.9)

= (–1.5) + [0.99]

∆Q3 = –0.505 pu
 1
  2   P 2 P 2 P 2 
  2 | V 3 |
  3   3  |V 3 | P 2 
   
 P3 P3 P3 P3 
  | V 3 |   | V 3 |  
    2  3  |V 3 | 
 |V 3 |   Q3 Q3 Q3  Q3
   | V 3 |
  2  3  |V 3 | 

Correction vector Jacobian matrix Mismatch Vector

Jacobian Matrix:
 P 2 P 2 P 2 
  2 | V 3 |
 H 22 H 23 N 23   3  |V 3 | 
P 3 P 3 P3
[J] =  H 32 H 33 
N 33   | V 3 |
  2  3  |V 3 | 
 J 32 J 33 L33   Q 3 Q 3 Q 3 
 | V 3 |
  2  3  |V 3 | 
n
P 2
H 22   | V 2| | Vk||Y 2 k | sin ( 2 k  k   2 )
 2 k 1
k i

 | V 2| | V 1||Y 21 | sin ( 21   1   2 )  | V 2| | V 3||Y 23 | sin ( 23   3   2 )

  (1.03)(1.05)(12.12) sin (104)  (1.03)(1.0)(12.12) sin (104)

H22 = 12.718 + 12.11278 = 24.8037

P 2
H 23    | V 2| | V 3||Y 23 | sin ( 23   3   2 )
 3
H 23   (1.03)(1.0)(12.12) sin (104)   12.11278
P 3
H 32    | V 3| | V 2||Y 32 | sin ( 32   2   3 )
 2
H 32   (1.0)(1.03)(12.12) sin (104)   12.11278

.
 n
P 3
H 33   | V 3| | Vk||Y 3k | sin ( 3k  k   3 )
 3 k 1
k i

 | V 3| | V 1||Y 31 | sin ( 31   1  3 )  | V 3| | V 2||Y 32 | sin ( 32   2  3 )

 (1.0)|(1.05)(12.12) sin (104)  (1.0)(1.03)(12.12) sin (104)

H33 = 12.3479 + 12.11278 = 24.46

Q 3
J 32    | V 3||V 2||Y 32 | cos ( 32   2   3 )
.  2
J 32   (1 .0 )(1 . 03 )(12 . 12 ) cos (104 )  3 . 02
 n
Q 3
J 33   | V 3| |V k||Y 3 k | cos ( 3 k   k   3 )
 3 k 1
ki

 | V 3||V1||Y 31 | cos( 31   1  3 )  | V 3||V 2||Y 32 | cos( 32   2  3 )

 (1.0)(1.05)(12.12) cos (104)  (1.0)(1.03)(12.12) cos (104)

J33 = – 3.07869 – 3.02 = – 6.0987

P 2
N 23  | V 3 |  | V 2 | |V 3||Y 23 | cos ( 23   3   2 )
 |V 3 |

N 23  (1 . 03 )(1 . 0 )() 12 . 12 cos (104 )   3 . 02

.
  n

P 3
N 33  | V 3 |   2 | V 3 |2 G 33   | V 3 ||V k||Y 3 k | cos ( 3 k  k   3 ) 
 |V 3 |  k 1

 ki 

 2 | V 3 |2 G 33  | V 3 ||V 1||Y 31 | cos ( 31   1   3 ) 

  
  | V 3 | |V 2||Y 32 | cos ( 32   2   3 ) 

 2 (1 .0 ) 2 24 .19 cos(  75 .9 )  (1.0)(1 .05 )(12 .12 ) cos (104 ) 

  
  (1 . 0 )(1 . 03 )(12 . 12 ) cos (104 ) 

N33 = 11.78609 + (-3.07869) + (-3.02)

N33 = 5.687
  n 
Q 3
L 33  | V 3 |   | V 3|  |V k||Y 3 k | sin ( 3 k   k   3 )   2 | V 3 |2 B 33
 |V 3 |  k 1 
 k  i 

  2 | V 3 | 2 B 33  | V 3| | V 1||Y 31 | sin ( 31   1   3 )
 | V 3| | V 2||Y 32 | sin ( 32   2   3 )

  2 (1.0) 2 ( 24 .19 ) sin(  75 .9)  (1.0)(1.05)(12 .12 ) sin (104 )

 (1.0)(1.03)(12 .12 ) sin (104 )

L33 = 46.922 – 12.34798 – 12.112783

L33 = 22.4613
  24.8307  12.11278  3.02 

[J] =  12.11278 24 .46 5.687 
 
 3.02  6.09875 22.4613

 0.0531 0.0272 0.00387 

[J]-1 =
 0.02629 0 .05319  0 .002828
 
0.0000003394 0.0110779 0.042323 

 
 Δδ2   0.0531 0.0272 0.00387  4.238 
 Δδ3     0.02629 0 .05319  0.002828   2.396
 Δ | V3 |    
  0.0000003394 0.0110779 0.042323   0.505 
 | V3 | 
 
 Δδ2  0.1579 
 Δδ3    0.014598
 Δ | V3 |   
   0.047198
 | V3 | 

| V |new  | V |old  V
 new   old  

| V 3 |new  1.0  0.047198 | V 3 |  0.952802 pu

 2 new  0  0.1579  2  0.1579
.
 3 new  0  0.014598  3   0.014598
Ex 2: Carryout one iteration of load flow analysis of the system given below
by Newton Raphson method.

Line data:
Buses Reactance pu.
1-2 j 0.15
2-3 j 0.15
3-1 j 0.15

Bus data:
Bus Generation (pu) Load (pu)
Type V (pu)
no. P Q P Q
1 Slack bus 1.01 - - - -
2 PV bus 1.0 0.7
3 PQ bus - 1.0 0.4
Ex 3: Carryout one iteration of load flow analysis of the system given
below by NR method.

Bus 1 – Slack bus – V specified = 1.0200

Bus 2 – PQ bus – PL = 4 p.u., QL = 2 p.u.
Bus 3 – PV bus –  V  specified = 1.04 p.u. PG = 3 p.u.

Bus code line

Impedance (p.u.)

1–2 1 + j0.25
2–3 2 + j0.8
3–1 1.5 + j0.75