FRICTION

The subject ‘Friction’ is studied at various stages of schools and colleges. In this
lesson we have to study the friction in relation with mechanical maintenance. Friction
is further associated with other lessons such as wear, bearing, scraping, lubrication etc.
All these lessons covers a topic called as “SCIENCE OF FRICTION” which is known
as TRIBOLOGY. This book covers the essential theory on Tribology which starts
from friction.

What is Friction?

How is it related to mechanical maintenance?

Friction is an important factor in our common life. There should be a frictional

resistance between our shoes & road, otherwise we will slip & fall down. In
Engineering field sometimes friction is desirable as well as sometimes it is
undesirable. Where there friction is undesirable there should be the consideration of
reduction of ‘Friction’. So first we shall study what is friction?

There are so many solid matters are observed in our common life among which
some of the solids are used in Mechanical Engineering; mostly they are metals (and
few non-metals also). Every solids surface has some roughness may be less or more.
Quality of this roughness is depending upon several factors (latter on we shall study it
in separate lesson). If the object is placed on microscope this roughness will be
observed as shown in figure.

This roughness basically may be called as asperities on the surface of the

object. Suppose there is a machine bed prepared as shown in Figure No.2.
 Fig. No.2 shows a machine bed be prepared and a slide is just to move on that
bed manually. The force exerted for pulling the slide can be noted by observing
spring balance reading. Suppose, the slide has weight of 100 kgf. For which the
pulling force observed on spring balance is 40 kgf. This shows that in this condition,
force 40 kgf is necessary for just to pull the slide of 100 kgf. The surfaces are directly
in contact and no lublicant is used between these contacting surfaces (of bed and
slide). It means asperities of the both contacting surfaces are resisting each other
which causes a resisting force. This is nothing but called as frictional force or in brief
‘Friction’.

DEFINITION:

Thus it is defined as, ‘when a part moves on another part its motion is opposed
by a resistance along the surface of contact of the two parts, this resisting force is
called ‘Friction’ or in other words say, “Resistance in relative motion between two
bodies in contact is called Friction”.

Observe above figure No.2 again. It shows that one part is fixed or is at rest, we call it
as bed, and a moving part is slide. Slides weight is 1000N but it can just to move by
applying pulling force of 400N we can put these two quantities as follow:-

FORCE needed just to move, say F F 400

------------------------------------------ = --- = ------- = 0.4
Weight of the slide or load say W W 1000

This ratio is called as ‘coefficient of Friction’ and it is denoted by Greek letter

mu. This ratio is helpful for maintenance activity. Suppose in above case the material
of bed in C.I. (Cast Iron) and material of slide is steel, coefficient of friction for these
two metals steel to C.I. If given 0.35 but while testing we get5 0.4 (as above). It
means there must be some deficiency in preparing these two contacting surfaces.
There must be unevenness or asperities in these two surfaces which should be
rectified.

Observations:-

1) Above case discussed is for un-lubricated surfaces. We may get different

results if the surfaces are lubricated, in other sense we will get less value of this
coefficient of friction.

2) Above result is at the rest or it is in position of just to move. But we will get
different results if it is in motion or say it is in dynamic state. When the
surfaces are contacting in rapid motion (dynamic state) then the value of
coefficient of friction will be reduced.
 3) Value of the coefficient of friction will be very less if these two contacting
surfaces are kept separate by means of using proper lubricant.

4) Friction may be again reduced by reducing the contacting area, by forming

small cavities just close to each other by using rollers etc. This is necessary if
force (load) per unit area (which is further called as pressure) is greater.

Above observations shows that ‘theory about friction’ is closely related to

mechanical maintenance, in other sense ‘reduction of friction’ should be studied
carefully. Therefore first we have to find out the types of friction. Friction can be
broadly classified in two ways i.e.

1) Static friction or friction at rest.

2) Kinetic friction or sliding friction or rolling friction.

STATIC FRICTION:-

When one part rests upon another one, and friction opposes and prevents the
motion, provided the force applied is not large enough to overcome the friction. This
frictional force is called as Static Friction or the friction at rest. Greatest amount,
when motion is about to begin (to move) is called the ‘LIMIT OF STATIC
FRICTION’.

Coefficient of friction at static state is denoted by Fs OR µs.

KINETIC FRICTION:-

When one part is moving upon another one and while it is in motion the
friction opposes the motion, this frictional force is called as sliding friction if it is
rolling or in general called as kinetic friction.

Coefficient of friction at kinetic state is denoted by Fk OR µk.

FACTS ABOUT FRICTION:-

To find out the other facts about friction, it is necessary to do some more experiments
which are given as below. Examples about machine bed & slide is given already, for
the same take another example of a table with smooth surface and the slides of known
weight.

EXPERIMENT NO:- 1
 i) Keep the table surface parallel to ground level i.e. perfectly in horizontal
position shown angle 0 (Zero).

ii) Keep the slider W at one end of the table. Tie a cord to it and to the pan-
shown in hanging position.

iii) Observe how much Force F should be added just to overcome the frictional
force which opposes the motion.

iv) Find the coefficient of the friction.

Force needed just to move, say effort F F 20N

---------------------------------------------- = --- = ------- = 0.4
Weight of the slide or load W W 50N

Observe following figure.

Here normal reaction of W will be equal to R and Reaction of F will be equal to F.

Hence,

F Fi
µs = --- = ---- = 0.4
W R

This result will depend upon several factors just as roughness of the surface,
hardness of the surface material, direction of application of pulling force, angle of
table surface to the ground level.

EXPERIMENT NO:- 2

i) Now instead of pulling the weight lift the table upto such an angle at which
the slider will be in just to move position.

Observe the angle.

Slider is in just
to move position
 ii) Measure the angle – it is about 21º - 48º.
At this angle we find that the slider will be in just to move position. It
means this angle will work same work like Force F. This angle is known as
‘Angle of Repose’.

iii) Draw a vector diagram as better taking the experiment No.1 F = 400 N; W
= 1000N

Find the angle Ø in above vector diagram. Hence, Tan Ø F/W = 400/1000 = 0.4
i.e. 21º- 48

This experiment shows that if we have to move anybody or part without

applying external force it will move if the resting surface (table is fitted just above the
‘angle of repose’.

EXPERIMENT NO.: 3

i) Keep another slider W2 on W1

ii) Find out – frictional Force F

It will observe that as the W1 + W2 which is two times of W1. It will take
the pulling force two time of appeared force i.e 2 x F1.

Hence, W1 + W2 = 2 x F1  W1 = W2

iii) If slider W2 is joined as shown below:-

 Here there will be no change in (2xF1) pulling force even though the
contacting surface is double.

LAWS OF FRICTION:-

‘Laws of Friction’ may be proved by attending the experiments in physical

lab., but these experiments are done in lab at very low weights and mostly on
unlubricated surfaces. As we are interested to study ‘Friction’ with relation to
‘Mechanical Maintenance’, the original laws of friction (readers may have already
studies in physics) are described with discriminating other facts applicable in
mechanical engineering.

i) The frictional force is directly proportional to normal reaction of the body,

i.e. frictional force will increase or decrease as the load or normal reaction
increases or decreases.

Limitation: This law stands upto certain liit but if the load (normal
reaction) is increased heavily in respect to area, then the body may seize
and it may not be possible to pull or push the body.

ii) Frictional force is independent of the area of contact. There will be no

effect if the same total weight is distributed in large area. This law stands
true for static friction (for kinetic friction – see law iv)

Increment in contacting area will show the effect in rising of friction if the
same time the total weight (or say normal reaction) is increased.

iii) Value of the frictional force is higher in static state or at very low velocity,
but if the body is moving at the higher velocity (say kinetic state) then its
value will reduce.

In other words static friction is greater than kinetic friction at low velocity.

µ s > µ k

iv) Value of kinetic friction will increase and comes nearly to static friction
value at higher velocity if the area of contacting surface is more and it is
lubricated. It is due to loss of viscosity in rising of heat at higher velocity.

Value of kinetic friction will also increase if the both contacting surfaces
are soft. Therefore it is better to keep the bed (resting surface) sufficient –
hard and reduce the area of contact by various means (as suitable).

v) Angle of repose is equal to tan Ø, i.e. equal to coefficient of static friction.

Application of Angle of Repose:-

For designing purpose the ‘angle of repose’ is considered for self locking.
For example in screw threads if the helix angle of screw threads is less than angle of
repose then normally there will be no possibility of slip of nut. Whereas in screw
threaded fly presses the helix angle of screw thread is kept more than angle of repose
which causes the freely coming down the screws ram without any effort applied.

vi) Frictional force is self adjustable force. When the force is applied to pull
the body, it will resist up to its limiting friction value and will start to move
after crossing the limiting friction value.

FRICTION AT LUBRICATED SURFACES:-

Above laws of friction are true for unlubricated or dry surface, whereas in
engineering field we mostly avoid to keep the surface dry except where friction is
desirable. If a layer of lubricant separates the contacting surface successfully then
following results will be observed.

a) Frictional force will be independent of force / cm2, if the surfaces are separated
with oil (it will be depend upon the viscosity of oil and changes in viscosity
during operation).

b) Lower velocity of moving part will not affect the nature of lubricant (such as
fluid friction). But higher velocity will affect it and frictional force will
increase by very great value and also causes to heat up the lubricating fluid.

c) Cooling system will reduce the kinetic friction in lubricated surfaces as friction
generates the heat and this generated heat effects the viscosity of the lubricating
fluid.

REDUCTION OF FRICTIONAL FORCE

While designing the machines or maintenance of the machine, ‘reduction of

friction’ is an important aspect which is considered carefully. Practical experience
about these activities is only suitable source to make good attempts for this aspect.
Following main points are given which will be explained from time to time in further
lessons.

Factors influence the frictional force.

1. Nature of the material of contacting surfaces.

2. Roughness of contacting surfaces.

3. Weight of the upper moving part (considering force per unit area).
 4. Hardness of the surface.

5. Type of motion of the moving bodies & their position (application of

load / direction o0f load). i.e. Reciprocating motion at horizontal
position. Reciprocating motion at vertical position. Rotary motion
without thrust load. Rotary motion with radial and thrust load., etc.

6. Direction of efforts:-

- Parallel to horizontal plane

- Parallel to inclined plane

- Making an angle with inclined plane

7. Speed of the moving parts – velocity

8. Lubrication system

9. Other operating conditions.

SOURCES FOR REDUCTION OF FRICTION:-

1. Keep resting surface sufficient hard

2. Use rollers & reduce the area of contact

3. Form closed cavities on bearing surface by scraper, (i.e. oil pockets).

4. Spring cut on long surface such as machine bed.

5. Arrange full flooded lubrication.