THERMAL COMFORT AND INDOOR CLIMATE

Lecture:
-DUCT DESIGN AND SIZING
-AIR DIFFUSION
Assist. Prof. Igor BALEN

International MSc Programme Sustainable Energy Engineering

Duct design
- ducts are used for transportation of air from the AHU to the conditioned
space
- poor air distribution causes discomfort
(1) low-velocity system – with air velocities up to 10 m/s
(2) high-velocity system – with air velocities up to 30 m/s
- duct system design should consider:
(1) space availability
(2) space air diffusion
(3) noise levels
(4) duct leakage
(5) duct heat gains and losses
(6) balancing
(7) fire and smoke control
(8) initial investment cost
(9) system operating cost
(10) maintenance
Duct design
- ducts can be classified into four types according to their transporting
functions:
1. Supply duct. Conditioned air is supplied to the conditioned space.
2. Return duct. Space air is returned (1) to the fan room where the air-
handling unit is installed or (2) to the packaged unit.
3. Outdoor air duct. Outdoor air is transported to the air-handling unit, to
the fan room, or to the space directly.
4. Exhaust duct. Space air or contaminated air is exhausted from the
space, equipment, fan room, or localized area.

- ducts may also subdivide into headers, main ducts, and branch ducts or
runouts.
Duct design
- general design reccomendations:
Duct design
- basic types:
(a) rectangular

(b) round

(c) flat oval

(d) flexible
Duct design
(a) rectangular
- used for many standard applications – low-velocity, easy fabricated
on-site, reinforcements necessary for large cross-sections

(b) round, spiral seam

- suitable for high-velocity systems, less fluid resistance against airflow,
better rigidity and strength, much smaller radiated noise breakout,
minimized air leakage (≤3%)

(c) flat oval

- cross-sectional shape between rectangular and round, share the
advantages of both the round and the rectangular duct with less large-
scale air turbulence and a small depth of space required during
installation

(d) flexible
- connect the main duct or the diffusers to the terminal box, high friction
losses → should be as short as possible
Duct design
- duct material properties:
- smooth inside
- easy to clean
- not hygroscopic
- not flamable
- corrosion resistant
- low friction
- low mass
- simple production and mounting
- long-life
- galvanized/stainless steel (thickness 0.4 - 3.5 mm), aluminium, fibrous
glass (thickness 25, 38 mm), flexible - multiple-ply polyester film reinforced
by a helical steel wire core or corrugated aluminum spiral strips, insulated
by a fiberglass blanket 25 to 50 mm thick, outer surface of the flexible duct
is usually covered with aluminum foil acting as a vapor barrier.
Duct design
Pressure in air duct system
- equation of continuity:

m& = ρ1w1 A1 = ρ 2 w2 A2 = ρwA

with ρ=const. V& = w A = w A = wA
1 1 2 2

- total pressure = static pressure + dynamic pressure:

pt = ps + pv [Pa]

- dynamic (velocity) pressure: - relationship between the static pressure

ps and the height of a water column H:
ρw2
pv = [Pa] ps = ρ w gH [Pa]
2
Duct design
Measuring pressure in air duct system
- using Pitot tubes and U tube manometers
Duct design
- pressure changes in a fan duct system:
Duct design

The pressure characteristics along the airflow in a fan duct system can be
summarized as follows:
- in most sections, pt of the main air stream decreases along the airflow.
- pt of the main air stream may increase because of the higher velocity of
the combined branch air stream.
- when air flows through the supply fan, pt and ps are raised from a
minimum negative value at the fan inlet to a maximum positive value at the
fan outlet.
- pressure characteristics between any two cross sections of a duct system
are governed by the change of pt and the pressure loss Δpf between these
two cross sections pt1 = pt2 + Δpf. Static pressure is always calculated as
ps = pt - pv.
- in a constant-volume air system, the airflow inside an air duct is
considered steady and continuous. Because the change in ps in a fan duct
system is small when compared with pat, the airflow is also considered
incompressible.
Duct design
Pressure drop in an air duct system
- total pressure drop in ducts:

ΔpT = Δp F + Δp L [Pa]
ΔpF – friction losses [Pa]
ΔpL – dynamic/local losses [Pa]
- friction losses are the result of the duct surface roughness:
Lρw 2
Δp F = λ [Pa]
d 2
λ – friction factor [ - ] ρ – air density [kg/m3]
L – duct section length [m] w – air velocity [m/s]
d – inside diameter of a round duct [m]
Duct design
Pressure drop in an air duct system
- dynamic/local losses in system parts like AHU components, entries,
exits, dampers, elbows, T-junctions...:

ρw 2
Δp L = ζ [Pa]
2
ς – local loss coefficient [-]
- total pressure drop – Darcy-Weisbach equation:

⎛ ⎞ρw
2

∑ ∑ ∑R L+∑Z
L
ΔpT = ⎜ λ + ζ⎟ = [Pa]
⎝ d ⎠ 2
- R, ς, Z can be obtained from tables, equations or charts
- pressure drop inside the AHU also called internal
- pressure drop in supply and/or return ducts also called external
Duct design
Friction chart for round ducts

R
Duct design
Local losses - examples
Duct design
Local losses - examples
Duct design
Local losses - examples
Duct design
Noncircular ducts
- must be converted to a circular equivalent first before determining its ΔpF
from the duct friction chart – conversion is based on equal flow, resistance,
and length
- equivalent diameter for rectangular ducts:

a 5b 5
De = 1.3 8 [mm]
a – length one side of duct [mm]
( a + b) 2 b – length adjacent side of duct [mm]

- equivalent diameter for flat oval ducts:

[(πa 2 / 4) + a ( A − a )]5
De = 1.55 8 [mm]
[πa + 2( A − a )]2
A – major axis of flat oval duct [mm]
a – minor axis of flat oval duct [mm]
Duct design procedure
1. Study the building plans, and arrange the supply and return outlets to
provide proper distribution of air within each space. Adjust calculated air
quantities for duct heat gains or losses and duct leakage. Also, adjust the
supply, return, and/or exhaust air quantities to meet space pressurization
requirements.
2. Select outlet and intake sizes from manufacturers’ data.
3. Sketch the duct system, connecting supply outlets and return intakes
with the air-handling units/air conditioners. Space allocated for supply and
return ducts often dictates system layout and ductwork shape. Use round
ducts whenever feasible and avoid close-coupled fittings.
4. Divide the system into sections and number each section. A duct system
should be divided at all points where flow, size, or shape changes. Assign
fittings to the section toward the supply and return (or exhaust) terminals.
Duct design procedure (continued)
5. Size ducts by the selected design method. Calculate system total
pressure loss; then select the fan.
6. Lay out the system in detail. If duct routing and fittings vary significantly
from the original design, recalculate the pressure losses. Reselect the fan
if necessary.
7. Resize duct sections to approximately balance pressures at each
junction.
8. Analyze the design for objectionable noise levels, and specify sound
attenuators as necessary.
Duct design procedure
Dividing system into sections - example
Duct design procedure
Numbering of sections - example
Duct sizing methods
- determines the dimensions of each duct section in the air duct system.
- after sizing the duct sections, the total pressure loss of the air duct
system can then be calculated, and the supply, return or relief fan total
pressure can be calculated from the total pressure losses of the supply
and return duct systems and the pressure loss in the air-handling unit or
packaged unit.
Four duct-sizing methods are currently used:
1. Equal-friction method with maximum velocity
2. Constant-velocity method
3. Static regain method
4. T method
Duct sizing methods
Equal-friction method
- ducts are sized for a constant pressure loss per unit length.
- shaded area of the friction chart (0.7-5 Pa/m) is the suggested range of
friction rate and air velocity.
- after initial sizing, calculate the total pressure loss for all duct sections,
and then resize sections to balance pressure losses at each junction.
- final dimensions of sized ducts should be rounded to standard size.
- total pressure loss of the duct system ΔpT, equals the sum of the frictional
losses and dynamic losses at various duct sections along the critical path.
- maximum velocity is often used as the upper limit.
- method is still used in many low-pressure systems in which airborne
noise due to higher air velocity is not a problem or for small duct systems.

ΔpT = R (∑ L + ∑ Le ) [Pa]
where equivalent length for a local loss is:
d
Le = ζ [m]
λ
Duct sizing methods
Constant-velocity method
- ducts are sized for a constant velocity in one section according to the
comfort requirements.
- shaded area of the friction chart is the suggested range of friction rate
and air velocity.
- on the basis of the determined air velocity, the cross-sectional area and,
therefore, the dimension of the duct can be estimated and then rounded to
a standard size.
- velocity is reduced along the path from AHU to the end of the duct
system where supply outlets and return intakes are mounted.

⎛ L 2 2⎞ ρ
ΔpT = ⎜ ∑ λ w + ∑ ζ w ⎟ [Pa]
⎝ d ⎠2
Duct sizing methods
Static regain method
- used in high-pressure systems, applied only to supply duct systems.
- for a start, maximum velocity is selected for the root section (duct section
upstream and/or downstream of a fan).
- the increase of static pressure (static regain) due to the reduction of air
velocity in the supply main duct after each branch takeoff nearly offsets the
pressure loss of the succeeding duct section along the main duct → static
pressure at the common end of the diverging tee or wye of the sized duct
section remains approximately the same as that of the preceding section.

ρ ( w12 − w22 ) ρw12

= R L +ζ
2 2
- mean velocity of the sized section:

(1 − ζ ) w − 2 R L
2
w2 = 1
[m/s]
ρ
Duct sizing methods
T method
- an optimizing procedure to size air ducts by minimizing the life-cycle cost.
- based on the tree-staging idea and is therefore called the T method. The
goal of this method is to optimize the ratio between the velocities in all
sections of the duct system.
- method consists of the following procedures:
1. System condensing - condensing various duct sections of a duct system
into a single imaginary duct section having the same hydraulic
characteristics and installation costs as the duct system.
2. Fan selection - selecting a fan that provides the optimum system
pressure loss
3. System expansion - expanding the imaginary duct section into the
original duct system before condensing with the optimum distribution of
total pressure loss between various duct sections
- during optimization, local loss coefficients are considered constant at
various stages of iteration.
Duct design
System balancing

- above equations must be satisfied to attain pressure balancing for

design airflow.
- relying entirely on dampers is not economical and may create
objectionable flow-generated noise.
Air diffusion
Principles
- objective in warm-air heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning is to create
the proper combination of temperature, humidity, and air motion in the
occupied zone of the conditioned room (from the floor to 1.8 m above
floor).
- the term describes distribution of the conditioned air containing outdoor
air to the occupied zone (or a given enclosure) in a conditioned space
according to the occupants’ requirements.
- satisfactory position of air outlets and inlets evenly distributes the
conditioned and outdoor air to provide a healthful and comfortable indoor
environment for the occupants or the appropriate environment for a
specific manufacturing process, at optimum cost.
- velocity control is important (0.1-0.25 m/s in the occupied zone).
- desirable mean space air velocity is closely related to the space air
temperature to be maintained, the metabolic rate, and the clothing
insulation of the occupants.
Air diffusion
Effective draft temperature
- the temperature difference which combines the effects of uneven space
air temperature and air movement

θ = (t x − t rm ) − 8( wx − wrm ) [ºC]
tx – local airstream dry-bulb temperature [ºC]
wx – local airstream centerline velocity [m/s]
trm – average room (control) dry-bulb temperature [ºC]
wrm – average airstream velocity in the occupied zone (usually =0.15) [m/s]

- it is possible to have zero difference in effective temperature between

location x and the control point in winter (tx> trm and wx> wrm), but not in
summer (tx< trm and wx> wrm).
Air diffusion
Effective draft temperature - charts

- neutral line established by using the effective draft temperature equation

- data show that a person tolerates higher velocities and lower temperatu-
res at ankle level than at neck level → conditions in the zone extending
from approximately 0.75 to 1.5 m above the floor are more critical than
conditions nearer the floor.
Air diffusion
Air diffusion performance index (ADPI)
- during cooling mode in commercial and public buildings, if the space
temperature is maintained between 23.5 and 25.5°C), space air velocity
below 0.3 m/s, and the space relative humidity is between 30 and 70%,
then most sedentary occupants feel comfortable when -1.7°C < θ < 1°C.
- ADPI, which evaluates the performance of space air diffusion, is
calculated as:
Nθ
ADPI = 100 [%]
N
Nθ – number of measured points in the occupied zone with -1.7°C<θ<1°C
N – total number of points measured in the occupied zone
- the higher the ADPI, the higher the percentage of occupants who feel
comfortable. Maximum ADPI approaches 100%.
- for heating mode operation, temperature gradient between two points in
the occupied zone may be a better indicator of the thermal comfort (<3ºC).
Air jets
Terminology
- free jet - the air jet which is not obstructed by walls, ceiling, or other
obstructions.
- attached jet - the air jet is attached to a surface (Coanda effect).
- confined jet - the air jet in a room influenced by reverse flows created by
the same jet entraining the ambient air.
- isothermal jet – when the temperature of the supplied air is equal to the
temperature of the ambient room air.
- nonisothermal jet - the air jet with an initial temperature different from the
temperature of the ambient air.
- axial flow jet - stream of air whose motion is approximately symmetrical
along a line, although some spreading and drop or rise can occur from
diffusion and buoyancy effects.
- radial flow jet - formed by ceiling cylindrical air diffusers with flat disks or
multidiffusers that direct the air horizontally in all directions.
Free isothermal jet

0.25 m/s

- angle of divergence – usually 2α of a free isothermal jet discharged from

a round nozzle is about 22° (20-24°); for an air jet discharged from a slot,
2α perpendicular to the slot is about 33°.
Free isothermal jet
-four jet expansion zones:
1. Core zone (Zone 1) – extends about 4Do from the surface of the outlet;
the centerline velocity (temperature) remains unchanged.
2. Transition zone (Zone 2) – extends about 8Do in length; the centerline
velocity decreases inversely with the square root of the distance from the
surface of the outlet.
3. Main zone (Zone 3) – extends about 25 to 100Do in length; turbulent
flow is fully developed, and the maximum velocity decreases inversely with
the distance from the surface of the outlet. Even when the air jet is
discharged from a rectangular outlet, the cross section of the airstream
becomes circular in the main zone.
4. Terminal zone (Zone 4) – the maximum air velocity (temperature)
decreases rapidly to a value less than 0.25 m/s within a distance of a few
outlet diameters.

Zone 3 is of major engineering importance because, in most cases, the

diffuser jet enters the occupied area within this zone.
Free isothermal jet
Centerline velocity in Zone 3

wc 1.13K Ao
= - use x/Ho for radial
wo X jets, instead of x/ Ao

1.13Kwo Ao 1.13K V&

wc = = [m/s]
X X Ao
K – centerline velocity constant [-]
wo – mean velocity at outlet/vena contracta [m/s]
V – discharge from outlet [m3/s]
X – distance from outlet to measurement of centerline velocity [m]
Ao – effective surface area of outlet, minimum area at vena contracta [m2]

Ao = Ac Cd R fa [m2] Ac – core surface area of outlet [m2]

Cd – discharge coefficient, usually 0.65-0.9
Rfa – ratio of net opening to gross area
Free isothermal jet
Centerline velocity in Zone 3

Low-velocity test results, in the range

wx < 0.75 m/s, indicate that normal
values of K should be reduced about
20% for wx = 0.25 m/s.
Free isothermal jet
Jet throw

1.13K V&
X= [m]
wc Ao
Maximum throw
- the distance from the outlet face to where the centerline velocity is
0.25 m/s.

1.13K V&
L0.25 = [m]
0.25 Ao
Free isothermal jet
Entrainment ratio
- important in determining total air movement at a given distance from an
outlet.
- at a given centerline and outlet velocity, a circular jet has greater
entrainment and total air movement than a long slot.
- entrainment ratio at a given distance is less with a large K than with a
small K.

V&x wo
=2 - for circular jets
V&o wc

V&x wo
= 2 - for long slots
V&o wc
Confined jet
Surface jet

- the throw of a surface air jet is longer, and the drop from the horizontal
axis smaller, than that of a free air jet.
- values of K are approximately those for a free jet multiplied by 2
Free nonisothermal jet

- the buoyancy of the fluid particles causes the trajectory of the air jet to
deviate from the axis of the free isothermal jet.
- cold air jet will descend (above figure), and warm air jet will ascend.
Free nonisothermal jet
- the vertical drop of a cold air jet and the vertical rise of the warm air jet
discharged from a nozzle is determined from:
3
y x ⎛ x ⎞
= tan α + K Ar ⎜ cos α ⎟
Ao Ao ⎜ A ⎟
⎝ o ⎠
Archimedes’ number:

g Ao Ts − Tr
Ar = 2
wo Tr
α – angle between centerline of nozzle and horizontal axis of nozzle [º]
K – constant (for free jets =0.065) [-]
Ts – supply air temperature [K]
Tr – room air temperature [K]
Air diffusion methods – mixing flow
- outlets classified into five groups (ASHRAE):

Group A. Outlets mounted in or near the ceiling that discharge air

horizontally.
Group B. Outlets mounted in or near the floor that discharge air vertically
in a nonspreading jet.
Group C. Outlets mounted in or near the floor that discharge air vertically
in a spreading jet.
Group D. Outlets mounted in or near the floor that discharge air
horizontally.
Group E. Outlets mounted in or near the ceiling that project primary air
vertically.
Air diffusion methods – mixing flow
Group A
- includes high sidewall grilles, sidewall diffusers, ceiling diffusers, linear
ceiling diffusers, and other similar outlets.
- COOLING - the total air drops into the occupied zone at a distance from
the outlet that depends on air quantity, supply velocity, temperature
differential between supply and room air, deflection setting, ceiling effect,
and type of loading within the space → temperature variations in the room
are minimized, with minimal stagnant volume → outlets are capable of
handling relatively large quantities of air at large temperature differentials.
- HEATING - warm supply air introduced at the ceiling can cause
stratification in the space if there is insufficient induction of room air at the
outlet. When using the same air velocities as for cooling, the total air might
not descend along the wall. Consequently, higher velocities might be
beneficial in eliminating the stagnant zone, since high velocity causes
some warm air to reach floor level and counteract stratification of the
stagnant region.
Air diffusion methods – mixing flow
Group A
- should not be used with temperature differentials exceeding 15ºC during
heating; it’s recommended not to exceed 8ºC during heating.
- such outlets should be used for heating buildings located in regions
where winter heating is only a minor problem.
- these outlets are particularly suited for cooling and can be used with high
airflow rates and large temperature differentials.
- to avoid drop, several small outlets may be better in a room than one
large outlet, because for constant temperature differential, airflow rate
affects drop more than velocity.
- preferably, the throw is selected for the entire distance between the outlet
and wall. For outlets in opposite walls, the throw should be one-half the
distance between the walls.To provide higher air motion in rooms with high
ceilings, it may be necessary to select a longer throw. If the throw is too
short, the air jet drops and may enter the occupied zone directly.
Air diffusion methods – mixing flow
GROUP A – high side outlet
Air diffusion methods – mixing flow
GROUP A – ceiling diffuser
Air diffusion methods – mixing flow
GROUP A – linear diffuser

- the air velocity where two air jets collide should be less than 0.6 m/s in
order to maintain an air velocity below 0.25 m/s 1.5 m above the floor.
Air diffusion methods – mixing flow
Group B
- includes floor registers, baseboard units, low sidewall units, linear-type
grilles in the floor or windowsill, and similar outlets.
- COOLING - if total airflow is projected upward for 2.4 m, the region from
this level down to the floor will be cooled satisfactorily. This, however, does
not apply to an extremely large space. Judgment to determine the
acceptable size of the space outside the total air is needed. A distance of
4.5 to 6 m between the drop region and the exposed wall is a conservative
design value. Below the stagnant zone, air temperature is uniform,
effecting complete cooling. Also, the space below the terminal point of the
total air is cooled satisfactorily.
- HEATING - the stagnant region is smaller than for Group A outlets
because the air entrained in the immediate vicinity of the outlet is taken
mainly from the stagnant region, which is the coolest air in the room. This
results in greater temperature equalization and less buoyancy in the total
air than would occur with Group A outlets.
Air diffusion methods – mixing flow
Group B
- important to provide enough throw to project the air high enough for
proper cooling in the occupied zone. An increase in supply air velocity
improves air diffusion during both heating and cooling.
- outlets should be selected with throw based on a terminal velocity of
0.75 m/s.
- to reduce scrubbing of the wall, outlets should be installed some distance
from the wall, or the supply air should be deflected at an angle away from
the wall. To prevent the air from dropping into the occupied zone before it
reaches maximum projection, the distance should not be too large nor the
angle too wide. A distance of 150 mm and an angle of 15° is satisfactory.
- if installed correctly, outlets of this type handle large airflow rates with
uniform air motion and temperatures → sufficient outlets must be installed
around the perimeter of the space - preferably in locations of greatest heat
gain or loss (under windows).
Air diffusion methods – mixing flow
GROUP B – floor outlet; nonspreading jet
Air diffusion methods – mixing flow
Group C
- includes floor diffusers, sidewall diffusers, linear-type diffusers, and other
outlets installed in the floor or windowsill.
- related to Group B outlets, characterized by wide-spreading jets and
diffusing action. Total air and room air characteristics are similar to those
of Group B, although the stagnant zone formed is larger during cooling and
smaller during heating.
- COOLING - diffusion of the primary air usually causes the total air to fold
back on the primary air, instead of following the ceiling. This diffusing
action of the outlets makes it more difficult to project the cool air, but it also
provides a greater area for induction of room air.
- HEATING - diffusing action is beneficial during heating because the
induced air comes from the lower regions of the room.
Air diffusion methods – mixing flow
Group C
- can be used for heating, even with severe heat load conditions.
- higher supply velocities produce better room air diffusion than lower
velocities, but velocity is not critical in selecting these units for heating.
- to achieve the required projection for cooling, the outlets should be used
with temperature differentials of less than 8ºC. With higher temperature
differentials, supply air velocity is not sufficient to project the total air up to
the desired level.
- used successfully for residential heating, but they may also offer a
solution for applications where heating requirements are severe and
cooling requirements are moderate.
Air diffusion methods – mixing flow
GROUP C – floor outlet; spreading jet
Air diffusion methods – mixing flow
Group D
- includes baseboard and low sidewall registers and similar outlets that
discharge the primary air in single or multiple jets.
- COOLING - the total air remains near the floor, and a large stagnant zone
forms in the entire upper region, because the air is discharged horizontally
across the floor of the room. These outlets direct high-velocity total air into
the occupied zone, and, therefore, are not recommended for comfort,
particularly for summer cooling.
- HEATING - the total air rises toward the ceiling because of the buoyant
effect of warm air. For heating, outlet velocities should not be higher than
1.5 m/s, so that air velocities in the occupied zone will not be excessive.
These outlets have been applied successfully to process installations
where controlled air velocities are desired.
Air diffusion methods – mixing flow
GROUP D – outlet near the floor; horizontal discharge
Air diffusion methods – mixing flow
Group E
- includes ceiling diffusers, linear type grilles, sidewall diffusers and grilles,
and similar outlets mounted or designed for vertical downward air
projection.
- COOLING - total air projects to and follows the floor, producing a
stagnant region near the ceiling. Temperature differential, supply air
velocity, and airflow rate have considerable influence on projection → low
values of each should be selected.
- HEATING - total airflow reaches the floor and folds back toward the
ceiling. If projected air does not reach the floor, a stagnant zone results.
It’s important to select the correct supply air velocity to project the warm air
into the occupied zone. Temperature differential is also critical because a
small temperature differential reduces variation of the throw.
- the total air enters the occupied zone for both cooling and heating, outlets
are used for either cooling or heating, but seldom for both.
Air diffusion methods – mixing flow
GROUP E – ceiling diffuser; vertical discharge
Air diffusion methods – mixing flow
Beamed ceilings and obstructions

- the outlets should be located below the bottom of the lowest beam level,
preferably low enough to employ an upward or arched air path. The air
path should be arched sufficiently to miss the beams and prevent the
primary or induced air stream from striking furniture and obstacles and
producing objectionable drafts.
Air diffusion methods – stratified mixing flow
- example of flow in a large indoor stadium using supply nozzles

- in buildings with a high ceiling, it is more economical to stratify the

building vertically into two zones (the stratified upper zone and the cooled
lower zone) or three zones (upper, transition, and lower zones) during
cooling.
Air diffusion methods – displacement flow
- conditioned air with a temperature slightly lower than the desired room air
temperature (2-5ºC) in the occupied zone is supplied at or near the floor
level from air outlets at low air velocities (0.3 m/s).

- vertical temperature difference between 0.1 and 1.8 m level should not
exceed 3°C. System is designed to minimize mixing of air within
the occupied zone.
Air diffusion methods – unidirectional flow
(1) Air is supplied from the ceiling and exhausted through the floor, or vice
versa.
(2) Air is supplied through the wall and exhausted through returns at the
opposite wall.
- the outlets are uniformly distributed over the ceiling, floor, or wall to
provide a low-turbulence piston-type flow across the entire room.
- contaminants generated in the space cannot move laterally against the
downward airflow, and dust particles will not be carried to higher levels by
recirculating flow.
- to provide parallel stream lines,
air velocity of 0.3 to 0.45 m/s is
required.
- supply temperature differential
depends mainly on the required
space velocity and the cooling
loads to be removed within the
working area.
Air diffusion methods – underfloor air distribution
- underfloor air distribution systems generally have a larger number of
supply diffusers directly in the occupied zone of the building.
- underfloor distribution differs from displacement ventilation in:
(1) it generally uses higher supply volumes, which enable higher cooling
loads to be met
(2) it supplies air at a higher velocity through smaller diffusers.
- the supply air temperature is usually warmer (above about 17.5°C) than
that maintained for conventional ceiling distribution (entering directly in the
occupied zone).
Air flow and supply outlets
- local sources of heat gain or loss determine both the type and location of
the supply outlets.
- outlets should be located to neutralize any undesirable convection
currents set up by a concentrated load. If a concentrated heat source is
located at the occupancy levelof the room, the heating effect can be
counteracted by:
(1) directing cool air toward the heat source
(2) locating an exhaust or return grille adjacent to the heat source
-the second method is more economical for cooling applications, since
heat is withdrawn at its source rather than dissipated into the conditioned
space.
- where lighting loads are heavy (50 W/m2) and ceilings relatively high
(above 4.5 m), outlets should be located below the lighting load and the
stratified warm air should be removed by an exhaust or return fan. These
methods reduce the requirements for supply air.
- enclosed lights are more economical than exposed lights because a
considerable portion of the energy is radiant.
Air flow and return inlets
- best performance when generated heat is removed at its source rather
than distributed throughout the conditioned space.
- in spaces expected to operate in a cooling mode most of the time,
returning the warmest air in the space can effectively reduce energy costs
and increase circulation in the space.
- in spaces having very high ceilings, with atriums, skylights, or large
vertical glass surfaces, and where the highest areas are unoccupied, air
stratification may be used as an energy-saving measure by locating
returns near the occupied zone.
- with a suspended ceiling, low operating static pressure across the ceiling
must be maintained; maximum pressure drop of 5 to 7.5 Pa is acceptable
under most conditions.
Air flow and return inlets
Location. The openings should be located to minimize shortcircuiting of
supply air. If air is supplied by the jets attached to the ceiling, exhaust
openings should be located between the jets or at the side of the room
away from the supply air jets. In rooms with vertical temperature
stratification, such as foundries, computer rooms, theaters, bars, kitchens,
dining rooms, and club rooms, exhaust openings should be located near
the ceiling to collect warm air, odors, and fumes.
For industrial rooms with gas release, selection of exhaust opening
locations depends on the density of the released gases and their
temperature; locations should be specified for each application.
Supply outlets and return inlets
Grilles and registers
- used as an outlet for supply air or an inlet for return
air or exhaust air.
- register is a grille with a volume control damper.
- grilles have a comparatively lower entrainment
ratio, greater drop, longer throw, and higher air
velocities in the occupied zone than slot and ceiling
diffusers.
- operate satisfactorily from high sidewall (double-
deflection grille is usually the most satisfactory
solution) and perimeter locations in the sill or floor
(grilles with curved vanes that discharge parallel to
the mounting surface).
- grilles installed in 2.4 to 3 m high ceilings, which discharge the air stream
down, are generally unacceptable in comfort air-conditioning installations.
- heating and cooling from the same grille must be carefully examined and
is normally not recommended.
Supply outlets and return inlets
Ceiling diffusers
- consists of a series of concentric rings or inner cones
made up of vanes arranged in fixed directions and an
outer shell or frame. Supply air is discharged through
the concentric air passages or directional passages in
one, two, three, or in all directions.
- air discharge pattern of many ceiling diffusers may be
changed from horizontal to vertical. Horizontally
projected ceiling diffusers are suitable for conditioned
spaces with low headroom.
- ceiling diffuser with a higher induction ratio is
beneficial for a higher supply temperature differential
for cold air distribution.
- a ceiling diffuser with a horizontal discharge can
handle large air capacities.
Supply outlets and return inlets
Linear slot diffusers
- used as an outlet for supply air (typically) or an inlet
for return or exhaust air.
- can be installed in multiple sections to achieve long,
continuous lengths or installed as a discrete length in
a modular ceiling.
- discharged air can be projected horizontally or
vertically.
- consists of a single slot or multiple slots.
- usually applied for ceiling installation, but
can be also used for high sidewall
installation, sill installation (works best) or
floor installation.
- for high sidewall installation with device
mounted no more than 15 to 30 cm below
ceiling flow is perpendicular to the
mounting surface. If mounted more than 30
cm below ceiling, angular deflection 15-30º
is recommended.
Supply outlets and return inlets
Nozzles
- nozzle is a round supply outlet.
- air stream discharged from a nozzle is contracted just
before the outlet, which results in a higher flow velocity and
more even distribution.
- purpose of using a nozzle instead of other types of supply
outlets is to provide a longer throw and a smaller spread.
- nozzle diffusers have a high induction ratio and are used
in cold air distribution.
Supply outlets and return inlets
Design procedure
1. Determine the air volumetric flow requirements based on load and room
size. For VAV systems, evaluation should include the range of flow rates
from minimum occupied to design load.
2. Select the tentative diffuser type and location within room.
3. Determine the room’s characteristic length L.
4. Select the recommended throw/characteristic length ratio.
5. Calculate the throw distance by multiplying the recommended
throw/characteristic length ratio by the room length L.
6. Locate appropriate outlet size from the manufacturer’s catalog.
7. Ensure that this outlet meets other imposed specifications, such as for
noise and for static pressure.