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Nutrition and energy

6.1 explain the importance of a balanced diet including the recommended dietary intake of
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins A and C, calcium, iron and fibre

6.2 understand variations in diet related to age, pregnancy, climate and occupation

6.3 know the sources and functions of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids (fats and oils), vitamins A, C
and D, and the mineral ions, calcium and iron

6.4 describe the causes and symptoms of deficiency diseases limited to scurvy (lack of vitamin C),
anaemia (lack of iron), blindness (lack of vitamin A) and Kwashiorkor (lack of protein)

6.5 know the structures of the human alimentary canal and describe the functions of the mouth,
oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and pancreas in digestion

6.6 explain how food is moved through the gut by peristalsis including the role of dietary fibre in the
process

6.7 understand the role of digestive enzymes including: • their site of production and action • the
digestion of starch to glucose by amylase and maltase • the digestion of proteins to amino acids by
proteases (pepsin, trypsin) • the digestion of lipids to fatty acids and glycerol by lipases.

6.8 know that bile is produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder and understand the role of
bile in neutralising stomach acid and emulsifying lipids

6.9 understand how the structure of the villus helps absorption of the products of digestion in the
small intestine

6.10 know the types, structure and functions of teeth, the factors that affect their growth and how
to care for teeth and gums

6.11 understand BMI, including the calculation of BMI, and the role of obesity as a risk factor in early
onset of diabetes and the significance of high cholesterol levels in atherosclerosis

6.12 explain the importance of hygienic methods of food preparation, cooking, storage and
preservation

Diet
• A balanced diet consists of all of the food groups in the correct proportions
• The necessary food groups are:
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Lipids
• Vitamins
• Minerals
• Dietary Fibre
• Water
Dietary Needs of Different Individuals

Dietary requirements
Food group Elements Good Function Malnutrition/deficiency
present Sources disease
Carbohydrates C, H, O Rice, Easily Marasmus (deficiency of
cereal, available carb and protein
bread energy
Proteins C, H, O, Red Stored Kwashiorkor
N, S meats, energy
lentils Growth and
repair of cell
membranes,
enzymes,
antibodies,
haemoglobin
etc
Fats/Lipids C, H, O Oil, butter, Insulation Excess fats/lipids leads
nuts Cell to obesity which
membranes increases chances of
Stored CHD (due to increased
energy cholesterol and higher
blood pressure)
Water H, O Water, Solvent for Dehydration
juice metabolic
reaction
Transport in
the blood
Fibre - Wheat, Peristalsis – Constipation
cereal movement of
 (Cellulose food through
from plant the
cell walls) alimentary
canal in a
wave-like
motion
Vitamin A - Carrots, Formation of Night blindness
broccoli, the retina
liver, fish
Vitamin C - Citrus Formation of Scurvy- symptoms
fruits collagen include bleeding gums
(lemon, protein- and painful joints
orange, stretchy
kiwi etc) protein found
in connective
tissue
Vitamin D - Egg yolk, Formation of Rickets- symptoms
butter- protein include brittle bones,
exposed to responsible bow legs
sunlight for absorption
of calcium
Mineral (Iron) Fe Liver, red Formation of Anaemia- symptoms
meat, dark haemoglobin- include fatigue, pale
green protein in red skin, breathlessness
vegetables blood cells
(spinach, that
broccoli) transports
oxygen
Mineral Ca Dairy Formation of Weak bones and teeth
(Calcium) products- bones and
milk, teeth
yogurt etc

THE ALIMENTARY CANAL

The Stages of Food Breakdown

• Food taken into the body goes through 5 different stages during its passage
through the alimentary canal
• Ingestion – the taking of substances, e.g. food and drink, into the body
through the mouth
• Mechanical digestion – the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without
chemical change to the food molecules. This increases the surface area to
speed up the rate of enzyme action. Eg. Chewing in the mouth, churning in the
stomach and emulsification of fat in the small intestine by bile.
• Chemical digestion – the breakdown of large, insoluble molecules into small,
soluble molecules. This occurs with the help of enzymes.
• Absorption – the movement of small food molecules and ions through the
wall of the intestine into the blood
 • Assimilation – the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the
body where they are used, becoming part of the cells
• Egestion – the passing out of food that has not been digested or absorbed, as
faeces, through the anus. This bulk is made of fibre.

Structure & Function of the Alimentary Canal

CHEMICAL DIGESTION
Enzyme Action in the Alimentary Canal

• The purpose of digestion is to break down large, insoluble molecules

(carbohydrates, proteins and lipids) into small, soluble molecules that can
be absorbed into the bloodstream
• Food is partially digested mechanically (by chewing, churning and
emulsification) in order to break large pieces of food into smaller pieces of food
which increases the surface area for enzymes to work on
• Digestion mainly takes place chemically, where bonds holding the large
molecules together are broken to make smaller and smaller molecules
• Chemical digestion is controlled by enzymes which are produced in different
areas of the digestive system
• There are three main types of digestive enzymes – carbohydrases, proteases
and lipases

Carbohydrases: Basics

• Amylases are produced in the mouth and the pancreas (secreted into
the duodenum)
 • Amylases digest starch into smaller sugars

Carbohydrases

• Amylase is secreted into the alimentary canal in the mouth and

the duodenum (from the pancreas) and digests starch to maltose (a
disaccharide)
• Maltose is digested by the enzyme maltase into glucose on the membranes of the
epithelium lining the small intestine

Proteases: Basics

• Proteases break down proteins into amino acids in the stomach and small
intestine (using an enzyme produced in the pancreas)

Proteases

• Protein digestion takes place in the stomach and duodenum with two main
enzymes produced:
• Pepsin is produced in the stomach
• Trypsin is produced in the pancreas and secreted into the duodenum
Lipases

• Lipase enzymes are produced in the pancreas and secreted into the duodenum
• They digest lipids into fatty acids and glycerol

The Role of Hydrochloric Acid

• The stomach produces several fluids which together are known as gastric juice
• One of the fluids produced is hydrochloric acid
• This kills bacteria in food and gives an acid pH for enzymes to work in the
stomach

How is a Low pH Helpful in the Stomach?

• The low pH kills bacteria in food that we have ingested as it denatures the
enzymes in their cells, meaning they cannot carry out any cell reactions to
maintain life
• Pepsin, produced in the stomach, is an example of an enzyme which has a very
low optimum pH – around pH 2
• The hydrochloric acid produced in the stomach ensures that conditions in the
stomach remain within the optimum range for pepsin to work at its fastest rate

The Role of Bile

• Cells in the liver produce bile which is then stored in the gallbladder
Bile has two main roles:

• It is alkaline to neutralise the hydrochloric acid which comes from the

stomach. The enzymes in the small intestine have a higher (more alkaline)
optimum pH than those in the stomach
• It breaks down large drops of fat into smaller ones. This is known
as emulsification. The larger surface area allows lipase to chemically break
down the lipid into glycerol and fatty acids faster.

ABSORPTION
How is the Ileum Adapted for Absorption?

• The ileum is adapted for absorption as it is very long and has a highly folded
surface with millions of villi (tiny, finger like projections)
• These adaptations massively increase the surface area of the ileum, allowing
absorption to take place faster and more efficiently

Structure and Adaptations of a Villus

• Microvilli on the surface of the villus further increase surface area for faster
absorption of nutrients
• Wall of villus is one cell thick meaning that there is only a short distance for
absorption to happen by diffusion and active transport
• Well supplied with a network of blood capillaries that transport glucose and
amino acids away from the small intestine in the blood
• Lacteal runs through the centre of the villus to transport fatty acids and glycerol
away from the small intestine in the lymph

MECHANICAL DIGESTION
• Mechanical digestion is the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without
chemical change to the food molecules
• It is mainly carried out by the chewing action of the teeth, the churning action of
the stomach and the emulsification of fats by bile in the duodenum

Types of Teeth
• Teeth are held firmly in the bone of the jaw
• They are used for chewing to increase the surface area of the food so that it can
be exposed to saliva and other digestive juices and broken down more quickly
• Teeth are produced by the skin covering the jaws and are set into the socket
in the jaw bone. The number & arrangement of teeth in the jaws is called
dentition.
• In humans, a set of milk teeth developed first and are later pushed out and
replaced by permanent teeth or adult teeth.
• The differing shapes and sizes of teeth enable them to perform slightly different
functions:

TYPE POSITION IN THE APPEARANCE FUNCTION

JAW
Incisor At the front Chisel shaped Biting, Cutting
single root
Canine Behind incisor Pointed, single root Ripping, Tearing

Premolar Behind canines Flat, 2 cusps, ½ Grinding, Crushing

root/s
Molar Behind premolar Flat, 4 cusps, ¾ Grinding, Crushing
roots
Structure of a Typical Tooth

• Crown – it is the part which is exposed to the mouth cavity.

• Neck – it is the part surrounded by the soft, red gum.
• Root – it is the part which is embedded in the socket.
• Enamel – it is the non-living, very hard, white, shiny material made of 96% of
mineral salts mainly calcium phosphate.
• Dentine – it is the main tooth substance, yellowish or ivory, like bone but
harder, has fine canals, contains cytoplasm passing through it. It is living.
• Pulp cavity – it contains small blood vessels to supply dentine with food and
oxygen. It has nerve fibres, pain and sensory receptions and tooth farming
cells.
• Cement – it is like bone and it helps to fit the tooth in the socket.

Dental Decay
There are 2 types of dental disorders which can lead to loss of teeth
• Tooth decay or dental caries
• Gum disorder or periodontal disease

Both the diseases involve an accumulation of a layer of plaque on the teeth.

plaque is a mixture of saliva, food and bacteria.

The bacteria respire the sugar in plaque to release acids which corrode the teeth and
gums.
The acid dissolves the mineral salts first in the tooth enamel and then in the dentine
forming a cavity.
If left untreated the pulp may become infected resulting in tooth ache.
Repair of the damaged tooth consists of removing the decayed area using a drill and
replacing it with a filling usually of silver and tin mixed with copper and zinc
Gum disease is caused by the accumulation of plaque around the neck of the tooth.
To begin with, plaque is soft and easy to remove, however if it hardens and forms tartar,
it cannot be removed by brushing
Tartar around the edges of teeth and gums can allow bacteria to work their way into
roots, causing gum disease and loss of teeth
Poisons released by bacteria in the plaque irritate the gums and causes swelling.
The gums may bleed slightly when teeth are brushed.
The retreats leaving more of the gum exposed.
Eventually, poisons released by the bacteria destroys the fibrous membrane holding
the tooth in the socket and the tooth falls out
There are 2 types of dental disorders which can lead to loss of teeth
• Tooth decay or dental caries
• Gum disorder or periodontal disease

Care of teeth
Tooth decay & gum disease can be effectively prevented by the following measures:
1. Restricting the amount of sugar in the diet. The presence of the sugar in
the mouth provides food for the acid-producing bacteria. Chewing gums
and sweets between meals should be avoided.
2. Removal of plaque by regular cleaning. The teeth should be cleaned
thoroughly with a toothbrush and toothpaste after each meal or first thing
in the morning and last thing at night. The brushing action should be
downwards for the top teeth & and upward for the bottom teeth to prevent
food being pushed back to the neck of the teeth. Brush for at-least 2
minutes, the closed gap between 2 teeth can be cleaned using dental
floss.
3. Fluoride – it is a natural component in our teeth which strengthens and
makes it more acid-resistant. It can be added to drinking water or
toothpaste to prevent tooth decay.
4. Regular visits to the dentist – visit the dentist every 6 months for check-
up.
Calculating BMI body mass index

Ideally you should have a BMI between 18.5 and 25. Outside this range, person is
overweight or obese. This can be caused by:

Excess carbohydrates and fats

Hormonal problems
Unbalanced diet
Lack of exercise
Overeating
Leading to:
High cholesterol levels
Some cancers
Heart disease
High blood pressure
Arthritis
Type 2 diabetes

Obesity is a common disease in developed countries. It is defined as being 20% (or

more) over the recommended body mass
Food Hygiene
Fill in the table below showing different methods of food preservation [page 72]

method Technique and principles Examples of food preserved

involved
salting

pasteurisation

UHT

canning

drying

freezing

irradiation

pickling