CHEMISTRY REVIEWER

REPORTER 1
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS

- The law of conservation of mass states that the mass can neither be created nor
destroyed in a chemical reaction.

- This implies, in a closed system the mass of the elements involved initially in a chemical
reaction is equal to the mass of the product obtained by the reaction.

- The substances that originally react, that is to say that they gain, lose or share
electrons, are known as the REACTANTS.

- The new substances that are produced are known as the PRODUCTS.

“Mass can neither be created nor destroyed in Chemical Reaction”

HISTORICAL CONTEXT

The law of conservation of mass is a scientific law popularized and systematized by the
18th-century French chemist Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794).

ANTOINE-LAURANT DE LAVOISIER - was an 18th century French scientist and nobleman

who is considered the father of modern chemistry.
- he recognized and named OXYGEN and HYDROGEN, was one of the scientists who
developed the metric system and through his experiments confirmed that although
matter may change its form, the total mass remains constant.
- developed and proved this LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS by performing
COMBUSTION REACTIONS in a closed container with careful measurements. He was
then able to show, by weighing the system before and after the reaction, that the mass
had not changed.

COMBUSTION REACTION is a reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen gas,

releasing energy in the form of light and heat. Combustion reactions must involve O2 as
one reactant.

Lavoisier developed a device to trap the gases that were given off, then he performed
many experiments where he showed that the mass of products, including the gas, was
equal to the original mass of the reactants.

Why is there no change in mass during chemical reactions?

- Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed. Hence atoms in a chemical reaction only
change their bond and position while transforming from reactant to product and hence
the total mass of the chemical reaction is conserved and there is no change in mass
during the chemical reaction.

REPORTER 2
LAW OF CONSTANT COMPOSITION

LAW OF CONSTANT COMPOSITION

- is also known as the Law of Definite Proportions.
- States that a given chemical compound always contains its component elements in
fixed ratio (by mass).

Joseph Proust - discovered the LAW OF CONSTANT COMPOSITION.

- he did this by making artificial copper carbonate and comparing it to
natural copper carbonate.

REPORTER 3
LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS

HISTORY
- The pioneer of the law of multiple proportions is John Dalton. He initiated this
law of multiple proportions in 1804. This law was mentioned in his work “A New System
Of Chemical Philosophy”.
- This law is also termed Dalton’s law.
Dalton pioneered this law of multiple proportions after he observed the atmospheric
gases.
- In the late 1700s and early 1800s, scientists began noticing that the reactants in
every chemical reaction for a given compound react in the same proportions by mass.
- As a result, scientists proposed the law of definite proportions which states
that:
- In a given type of chemical substance, the elements always combine in the
same proportions by mass.
- States that if two elements form more than one compound between them,
then the ratios of the masses of the second element which combine with a fixed mass of
the first element will be ratios of small whole numbers.

DALTON’S EXPERIMENT
- Dalton was experimenting with several reactions in which the reactant
elements formed different products, depending on the experimental conditions he
used.
- One common reaction that he studied was the reaction between carbon and
oxygen. When carbon and oxygen react, they produce two different substances. It
turned out that, given the same amount of carbon, forming B always required exactly
twice as much oxygen as forming A.
 - The situation became even stranger when Dalton tried similar experiments with
different substances. For example, when he reacted nitrogen and oxygen, Dalton
discovered that he could make three different substances – we’ll call them C, D, and E.
As it turned out, for the same amount of nitrogen, D always required twice as much
oxygen as C does. Similarly, E always required exactly four times as much oxygen as C
does. Once again, Dalton noticed that small whole numbers (2 and 4) seemed to be the
rule. Dalton used his experimental results to propose the law of multiple proportions:

SIGNIFICANCE
 Basis for chemical formulas for compounds
 Helped to create the atomic theory
 Helped to develop stoichiometry.

LIMITATIONS
 If this law is applied to complex compounds, it turns out to be contradictory.
 The law of multiple proportions cannot be applicable to non-stoichiometric
compounds.
 Further, this law is inefficient for polymers and oligomers.

REPORTER 4
DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

JOHN DALTON (1766-1844)

- As chemists learned to measure the amounts of elements that reacted with one
another to form new substances, the ground was laid for an atomic theory that linked
the idea of elements with the idea of atoms. That theory came from the work of an
English school teacher, John Dalton.

DALTONS ATOMIC THEORY INVOLVES THE FOLLOWING POSTULATES:

1. Each element is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical to one another in mass and other
properties, but the atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all other
elements.
3. The atoms of one element cannot be changed into atoms of a different element by
chemical reactions; atoms are neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions.
4. Compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element combine; a given
compound always has the same relative number and kind of atoms.
5. All chemical reactions are due to the combination and separation of atoms.
6. Different elements combine in a simple whole number ratio to form compound.

LIMITATIONS OF DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

- With the discovery of sub-atomic particle. e.g., electrons. neutrons, and
protons. The atom can no longer be considered indivisible particles.
 - The atoms of the same elements are not similar in all respects. They may VARY
IN MASS AND DENSITY, these are known as ISOTOPES.
- This theory states that the masses of the atoms of two different elements must
differ. However, TWO DIFFERENT ELEMENTS can share the SAME MASS NUMBER, such
atoms are called ISOBARS.

REPORTER 5
ISOTOPES
ISOTOPES - The word 'isotopes' comes from the Greek words; ISOS, meaning "same,"
and TOPOS, meaning place.

The existence of isotopes was first suggested in 1913 by the radiochemist Frederick
Soddy, based on studies of radioactive decay chains that indicated about 40 different
species referred to as RADIOELEMENTS.

USES OF ISOTOPES

 Carbon dating makes use of Carbon-14, an isotope of Carbon. This isotope of carbon
is present in the atmosphere as radioactive carbon. The amount of carbon-14
obtained in fossils help palaeontologists to calculate the age of the fossils.

 Uranium Isotopes are popular for its use in nuclear reactors. U-235 is used as a fuel
in nuclear reactors.

 Radioactive Isotopes are used for medicinal purposes. They are used for detection
of tumours, blood clots, etc. Arsenic-74, An isotope of arsenic, is used for
determining the presence of a tumour.

 Similarly, sodium-24 is used for the detection of blood clots.

 Cobalt (cobalt-60) isotope of carbon is applied in cancer treatments.

 Iodine (Iodine-131) isotope of carbon helps in the treatment of goitre.

REPORTER 6
SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULA

JÖNS JACOB BERZELIUS

He discovered the elements cerium, selenium, silicon, zirconium, titanium, and thorium.

EMPIRICAL FORMULA
 - a chemical formula showing the simplest ratio of elements in a compound
rather than the total number of atoms in the molecule.

MOLECULAR FORMULA
- a formula giving the number of atoms of each of the elements present in one
molecule of a specific compound.

SIMILARITIES
If a compound's molecular formula cannot be reduced any more, then the
empirical formula is the same as the molecular formula.

DIFFERENCE
The molecular formula shows the exact number of atoms in a compound, while
the empirical formula shows the simplified or most reduced number of atoms in a
compound.

REPORTER 7
RELATIVE AND AVERAGE ATOMIC MASS

AVERAGE ATOMIC MASS

The first scientists to measure atomic mass were John Dalton (between
1803 and 1805) and Jons Jacoband Berzelius (between 1808 and 1826).
- it is the AVERAGE MASS OF ALL NATURALLY OCCURRING ISOTOPES of an
element. It uses the unit a.m.u or u

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS

The first scientists to determine relative atomic masses were JOHN
DALTON and THOMAS THOMSON between 1803 and 1805 and JÖNS JACOB BERZELIUS
between 1808 and 1826.
- The WEIGHTED AVERAGE OF THE MASSES OF AN ELEMENT’S ISOTOPES in
comparison to the mass of a carbon-12 atom. It has no unit.

CARBON-12 ATOM
By definition, one atom of carbon-12 is assigned a mass of 12 atomic mass units
(amu).

Carbon-12 was selected as the standard element for atomic mass because :
(1) it is a very abundant isotope of carbon, making it easy to obtain and study
(2) it is stable and does not undergo radioactive decay. This means that its mass
will not change over time.
(3) it is chemically inert, meaning that it does not react with other elements
easily. This makes it easy to handle and store.
FORMULA FOR AVERAGE ATOMIC MASS

M is the mass percentage of isotopes

P is the percentage of abundance of isotopes.
Expressed in DECIMALS

FORMULA FOR RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS

An ATOMIC MASS UNIT is defined as A MASS EQUAL TO ONE TWELFTH THE MASS OF AN
ATOM OF CARBON-12. The mass of any isotope of any element is expressed in relation
to the carbon-12 standard.

 1 proton & neutron = 1 amu/u

 carbon-12 is assigned a mass of 12 atomic mass units (amu).

There is no difference numerically, but there is a slight difference in meaning.

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS tells us how heavy an element is compared to other elements
and because it is a way of comparing elements, it doesn’t have any units.

REPORTER 8
DEFINE A MOLE AND ILLUSTRATE AVOGADRO’S NUMBER

MOLE - is a basic measuring unit used to count numbers of particles such as atoms, ions,
molecules, or other specified particles.
 1 mole is equal to 6.02×10²³
EXAMPLE:
1. 1 mole of Ca = 6.02×10²³ Ca atoms
2. 1 mole of He = 6.02×10²³ He atoms

AMADEO AVOGADRO (August 9, 1776–July 9, 1856)

- an Italian scientist, is considered an early figure in atomic theory.
- he is known for formulating THE GAS LAW AVOGADRO'S LAW, which states that
all gases have the same number of molecules per volume.

AVOGADRO’S NUMBER
(6.02214076 x 10²³)

 Avogadro's number is the number of particles in one mole of any substance.

 It's used to make very large numbers easier to handle.
 The conversion between moles and grams depends on Avogadro's number.

REPORTER 9
DETERMINE THE MOLAR MASS OF AN ELEMENT AND A COMPOUND

MOLAR MASS
- Molar mass of a substance is the mass in grams of one mole of the compound.
- The molar mass/molecular weight is the sum of the total mass in grams of the
atoms present to make up a molecule per mole. The unit of molar mass is grams/mole.

The mass of 1 mol of atoms of an element is the molar mass.

An element’s molar mass in grams per mole is numerically equal to the
element’s atomic mass in atomic mass units.
MOLAR MASS OF AN ELEMENT
EXAMPLE: COPPER (Cu)
- For example, copper has an atomic mass of 63.55 amu and a molar mass of
63.55 g/mol. One mole of copper atoms therefore has a mass of 63.55 g.

MOLAR MASS OF A COMPOUND

We just calculated the formula mass of CO2 to be 44.01 amu. The molar mass is,
therefore:
CO2 molar mass = 44.01 g/mol
Carbon- 12.0116
Oxygen- 15.9997 x 2
12.0116 + 15.9997x2=44.01

THE MICROSCOPE
The molar mass of any element is the conversion factor between the mass (in
grams) of that element and the amount (in moles) of that element.
For carbon,
12.01 g C = 1 mol C or 12.01 g C
mol C or 1 mol C