Chapter 1

Bagong barrio National high school iii
the english departmenT
CHAPTER 1
THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND
Introduction
Reading is a complex process that involves sensation, perception,
comprehension, application and integration. It is the process of making and
getting meaning from printed words and symbols. Reading as a whole, is a
means of communication and of information and ideas. As a matter of fact,
Aracelo (2014) as cited by Panerio [reported that “85% of the things that people
do involve reading”. Individuals read street signs, advertisements, menus in
restaurants and recipes from cook books, dosage of medicine and others.
Moreover, reading is the foundation of academic success and life learning.
One article from Philippine Star [2017] states that: “The undeniable fact remains
that majority of Filipino students do not possess the ability and motivation to read.
In 2017, the Department of Education reported that 70 percent or our learners
are incapable of reading within the expected level. This is the situation of reading
achievement intensifies in the Philippines as evaluated by Scholastic Inc., the
world’s largest publisher and distributor of children’s book”. Due to the fast
evolving world and changing technology it cannot be denied that sometimes
reading is taken for granted. Former DepEd Sec. Abad deplored the poor
Performance of the pupils’ assessment test and said that, the low scores in
English, Mathematics and Science can be attributed to pupils’ lack of ability in
basic reading and comprehension. In addition, he said Asia Pacific Journal of
Education, Arts and Sciences, Vol. 5 No. 3, July 2018 that one of the major
problems in reading is the poor reading comprehension, which leads to poor
understanding of printed symbols. The Department of Education (DepEd)
intensifies reading literacy in schools by forcing the program called” Every Child a
Reader Program”.
Jonhston [2018] considers reading comprehension as building bridges
between the “new and the unknown” and the importance of prior knowledge are
vital in the reading instruction. Comprehension simply cannot occur when nothing
is already “known” because then there is nothing to which reader could link the
“Unknown”. Indeed, prior knowledge is so necessary for comprehension to
freely flow from easiest to the most complicated. In support to the foregoing view,
the researcher primarily ignited the schema of the pupils by infusing related
portraits in each skill to be developed in the reading primer. Understanding the
meaning of text and knowing the author’s intentions among others are part of
comprehension. Russel [2018] claims that comprehension requires knowledge
not only of words but their relationships in sentences, paragraphs and longer
passages. It involves understanding of the intent of the author and may go
beyond literal and recorded facts to hidden meaning or implications. Hence, it
entails deep thinking and requires skills to infer and read critically. This finding
was confirmed in this study since majority of the pupils were categorized under
frustration level of reading comprehension.
This chapter provides an overview of the research into the development of
children’s reading comprehension skills-skills that are crucial for academic
success. Before children begin reading instruction, they already have well
developed language comprehension skills that will aid them in their acquisition of
word recognition and reading comprehension skills, although there are well
documented developments in oral language skills during the primary school
years (Garton& Pratt, 2018).
Indeed, comprehension of language, whether written or spoken, is a
complex task that involves many different cognitive skills and processes. Skills in
spoken language comprehension serve as a foundation for developing reading
comprehension, but do not in themselves guarantee success in reading. Clearly,
reading comprehension depends on listening comprehension: In order to read a

language with adequate comprehension, one has to understand that language in
its spoken form. Therefore, general language comprehension will constrain the
Development of reading comprehension. Although there is a relation between
reading and listening comprehension, the strength of the relationship.
Correlations between reading and listening comprehension are generally
low in beginning readers (Curtis, 2018; Sticht& James, 2014), but gradually
increase and reach asymptote in high school when decoding differences are
small (Sticht& James, 2014). For college students, correlations of between .82
and .92 have been found (Gernsbacher, Varner, & Faust, 1990; Palmer,
MacLeod, Hunt, & Davidson, 2015).
These studies support the view that we might expect an individual’s
reading comprehension to develop to the same level as his or her listening
comprehension, once limitations in word decoding are over- come. This view has
been termed the “simple view” of reading by Gough and colleagues (Gough &
Tunmer, 2016).
However, typical text is not “speech written down”: written and spoken
language differs along a number of dimensions, so there are reasons why

beginning readers might have problems that are specific to reading. One problem
is that written language makes use of syntactic constructions and vocabulary that
may not be familiar to children from their every- day spoken interactions
(Cunningham, 2015; Garton& Pratt, 2018; Reid, 2017, 2013). In addition, written
Language is "decontextualized”—that is, it is typically not about the “here and
now.” Garton and Pratt (2018) also suggest that written language demands the
integration of information across extended tracts of discourse in a manner that
spoken language usually does not.
Thus, written language will make demands on the reader that are not
apparent in spoken language comprehension, which possibly goes some way in
explaining why many children who are, apparently, perfectly competent speakers
and comprehends of spoken language have problems with reading
comprehension (Cain & Oakhill). In a review of research on word-reading fluency
and comprehension, Paris, Carpenter, Paris, and Hamilton (2015) conclude that
although low levels of word-reading fluency are positively correlated with low
levels of reading comprehension, it is incorrect to conclude that fluent word
reading will ensure good reading comprehension: The data clearly show that it
does not. In addition, strategic processing is likely to be an ability that is

important for text, but not for listening, comprehension or, at least, the strategies
that aid comprehension are likely to be quite different in the two modalities.
Nevertheless, reading and listening comprehension share many
components and it is very likely that some common language skills underlie both.
Thus, it follows that the components of spoken language comprehension that
contribute to language comprehension will be important in the development of
Successful reading comprehension. Comprehension of spoken language will
require competence at many different levels: phonology, semantics, syntax, and
pragmatics (Bishop, 2017). It is reasonable, then, to suppose that these
components also influence the understanding of written language. We explore
each of these different areas in more detail below.
The language base of word reading and reading disabilities has been
extensively researched (Blachman, 2017; Brady & Shank- weiler, 2021;
Catts&Kamhi, 2019, 2015). A strong link between language abilities and reading
has been shown (Bradley & Bryant, 2013; Liberman&Shankweiler, 2015;
Stanovich, 2018; Vellutino, Scanlon, Small, &Tanzman, 2021)

In particular, there is strong evidence for a relation between phonological
skills and reading development and disorders (Brady &Shankweiler, 2021; Muter,
Hulme, Snowling, & Taylor, 2018; Torgesen, Wagner, &Rashotte, 2014).
However, most of this work maps the relation between phonological skills
and the reading of words.
In comparison, relatively few studies examine how early language
influences later reading comprehension. In particular, aspects of language such
as vocabulary and grammar are likely to influence reading development.
Vocabulary knowledge is likely to be important both in learning to recognize
individual words (Plaut, McLelland, Seidenberg, & Patterson, 2016; Nation
&Snowling, 2018) and in text comprehension (McKeown, Beck, Omanson,
&Perfetti, 2013; Stahl, 2013). Grammatical skills might also aid word recognition
through the use of context (Tunmer, 2019) and may contribute to the
development of reading comprehension (Bowey, 2016; Perfetti, 2015). In
addition, a number of higher-order discourse skills are likely to contribute to the
development of reading comprehension, including inference, metacognitive skills,
and understanding text structure (e.g., Oakhill & Cain, 2014).

There are many studies of the predictors of word-reading skill, including
meta studies (Scarborough, 2018), but few such studies of comprehension. In the
studies that are available, the precise relation between different aspects of
language skill and later reading comprehension is not clear-cut. One reason for
the lack of consensus is that these studies typically focus on only a few language
Skills and few have assessed the same set of skills. An additional problem
is that many researchers fail to find a relation between language skills and
subsequent reading development simply because they do not look for such a
relation (Dickinson, McCabe, Anastasopoulos, Peisner-Feinberg, & Poe, 2013).
Indeed, often language variables are relegated to the status of control variables
(a clear exception is the study by Chaney, 2018, which is discussed below, in the
section on vocabulary and syntax).
Thus, it is quite possible that the contributions of oral language skills to later
reading development have been underestimated. A further problem that might
help to account for the lack of consensus in the findings is that there is also
substantial variation in the reading outcome measures used to assess reading
achievement (see, e.g., Cutting & Scarborough, 2016; Paris & Stahl, 2015).
In this chapter, we aim to provide a more detailed analysis of the contributions of
different language skills to reading development. We consider the evidence for a

link between oral language and reading comprehension at the word level
(phonological skills and word decoding), at the sentence level (semantics and
syntax), and at the text level (narrative skills in both comprehension and
production), and we also consider the role of metalinguistic skills in reading
Development. Obviously, some studies have explored a single skill and others
have explored many different language skills. In these latter cases, we include
the study in the section to which it seems to make the most important
contribution.
Background of the Study:
Since the rise of electronic devices, issues related to reading
comprehension have become increasingly prevalent in modern society. Just as
video games can be highly captivating, so too can the act of reading. However, if
neglected, various unhealthy practices and stigmas surrounding reading can
develop. From a simple lack of interest in reading, things can quickly escalate,
impacting various aspects of our lives. Poor reading comprehension can be the
root of various mental, emotional, and cognitive problems, as well as affecting
one's physical and social well-being. A significant percentage of individuals
affected by reading comprehension difficulties are students. This can lead to
complications if left unchecked, as students need to allocate a significant portion
of their time to studying and learning. With the diverse and distinct nature of
reading material available, students could easily become disinterested or
struggle with comprehending various texts, which, in itself, isn't bad. However,
when reading is approached impulsively or infrequently, it can lead to a much
worse outcome.
Several factors contribute to the entirety of reading comprehension
difficulties most people experience. When a person struggles with reading
comprehension, they may neglect other activities and focus solely on what they
Find fulfilling. Likewise, when students struggle with reading
comprehension, they are more likely to abandon their academic responsibilities
and focus on activities that provide instant gratification.
This has been a significant issue, especially here in the Philippines, where
a substantial number of students are affected by reading comprehension
difficulties. As they spend more time on activities other than reading, their brains
may become hardwired to selectively avoid engaging with texts, leading to a
decrease in reading skills. Reading comprehension difficulties have been shown
to alter one's mental and cognitive attributes, including reduced attention span,
impulsive decision-making skills, lack of focus, and decrease in memory
retention. All of these effects are contrary to what students need to succeed
academically and in life. Not only that, but reading comprehension difficulties
have also been related to a range of issues such as reduced academic
performance, emotional stress, and strained relationships. These are only some
of the numerous consequences of poor reading comprehension, and while it can
be treated, it is still preferable to avoid it at all costs, as it can take a heavy toll on
a person's overall well-being.
However, it's essential to acknowledge that reading also has positive
effects on a student's academic performance. Just as with gaming, reading isn't
all about negative effects. Despite the challenges, reading can enhance cognitive
skills, critical thinking abilities, and language proficiency, which are essential for
academic success.
Reading Comprehension:
Reading comprehension is the process by which we understand the texts
we read. Russel (2018) it is the purpose of reading, why we teach it, and why we
care about it. It is also the prerequisite for meaningful learning from text. As I
discuss in this entry, reading comprehension is complex, and we are still far from
a complete understanding of it (Tunmer, 2019). But we have learned a great deal.
My purpose in this paper is to review recent research and theory around three
basic questions: (1) what is reading comprehension? (2) What factors contribute
to the development of reading comprehension? And (3) who are the “poor
comprehenders”? This entry sketches answers to these questions and provides
links to sources in which they are treated in more depth. Reading comprehension
does not develop in a vacuum, in isolation from other language and literacy
processes, so this entry should be read in conjunction with the others in this
section on reading comprehension, and with those in other sections.

Factors Affecting Reading Comprehension:
Written text comprehension is one of the abilities that is most often
evaluated in schools all over the world. And every day teachers deal with children
who have not completely understood what they have read. It is difficult to doubt
the existence and the importance of the problem. However, this problem is not
always presented in terms of a specific “reading comprehension difficulty” or
“disability." (e.g., Oakhill & Cain, 2014). Comprehension difficulties are often an
aspect of learning disabilities or of developmental cognitive difficulties more
generally.
In a sense, however, these problems can be related to written text
comprehension, for example, language disorders (occasionally with specific
mention of the receptive aspect) or a text decoding problem (e.g., developmental
dyslexia) (Scarborough, 2018),. The scientific literature reflects this trend,

because problems with decoding, dyslexia, and language disorders have
attracted more interest from researchers than have specific comprehension
problems, and have occupied more room in specialized journals. On the contrary,
normal reading comprehension has been a favorite with researchers. Over the
last 20 years, great efforts have been made to investigate the normal processes
of text comprehension. On the other hand, scarce interest has been paid to
subjects who have comprehension difficulties. This neglect really is a shame for
several reasons but especially because we do not have enough direct
information enabling us to understand and help children with these disabilities.
Moreover, research does not take advantage of the precious information
that can be gathered from these children in order to reach a better understanding
of the nature of written text comprehension in the population more generally. This
book is an attempt to remedy this situation. Although the existence of a text
comprehension problem cannot be denied, it is unlikely to be presented as such.
We have already mentioned the fact that this problem is sometimes only
identified in association with other problems, such as written text decoding,
communication abilities, and spoken language.
In other cases, because of its pervasiveness (inevitably a written text
comprehension problem reflects on a very large variety of school difficulties), it is
"covered" by a wider definition of school difficulties, such as a general learning

disability, slow learning, study problems, and so on. It is apparent that students
who find it difficult to fully understand what they read will no doubt have
difficulties in studying, assimilating new information, and in many other situations
(from problem solving to reasoning with linguistic contents) requiring text
comprehension.
Foreign Studies:
Data from the most recent U.S. Census indicate the number of people
who speak a language other than English in the home doubled between 1980
and 2000 while the overall population grew by one quarter during that same time
period (U.S. Census, 2017). State education agencies reported more than 480
different languages were spoken in the homes of limited English proficient
students in 2000–2001 Kindler (2022). The majority of these students spoke
Spanish (79.2%) with Vietnamese, Hmong, Cantonese, and Korean speakers
making up an additional 5.6%. All other languages reported comprised less than
1% of the limited English proficient student population Kindler (2022).
During the 2003–2004 school years, 11% of the total enrollment in U.S.
public schools, an estimated 3.8 million students, received English as a second
language services. California, with 26% of all limited English proficient students
and Texas, with 16% of all limited English proficient students, led the nation in
reported number of students receiving English as a second language services
(National Center for Educational Statistics, 2016). This increase is seen mostly in
the elementary and middle school grades with 44% of all limited English
proficient students enrolled in pre-Kindergarten through third grade and another
34% enrolled in fourth grade through eighth grade.
Less than 20% of all limited English proficient students were enrolled in
high school (Kindler, 2022). This increase in students learning English as a
second language challenges state education agencies, local school agencies,
and classroom teachers to adjust instructional practices to meet the needs of
culturally and linguistically diverse students.
Reading is also a problem-solving behavior that actively involves the
reader in the process of deriving and assigning meaning. During this problem
solving activity, readers have to draw on contextual information that contains
syntactic, semantic, and discourse constraints which affect their interpretation of
the passage (Rivers, 2018). Syntactic constraints are provided by the word order
and the syntactic rules of the language. Semantic constraints include the
distribution of meaning within a specific language and culture.

Discourse constraints are those provided by the topic of the text and its
development. According to Chastain (2018) these constrains make reading
comprehension a highly cognitively demanding skill which involves careful
attention, memory, perceptual processes, and comprehension processes. It also
includes understanding words, sentences, or even text, along with a complex
integration of the prior knowledge, language proficiency, and meta-cognitive
strategies.
Language learners may have various problems in reading
comprehension. Some may have specific difficulties with phonological skills,
others with word recognition. Most, however, have some difficulties in more than
one area. Of course, reading difficulties can be the result of many factors such as
cognitive, affective, and so forth and it is never easy to find the causes.
Developing reading abilities assists students in overcoming their reading
problems and in becoming competent readers. Another important factor that
contributes to students reading ability is the extent of their knowledge about
various reading strategies (Chastain, 2018; Rivers & Temperley, 2018).
Beginners have fewer strategies at their disposal and are less skilled than
more experienced readers. Good readers try to create a structure on what they
are reading and this stimulates further expectations about what is to come next.
According to Rivers (2020, p. 30), students can progress in reading if the

knowledge of the language in the oral form precedes reading, as this is the order
of learning the mother tongue. Therefore, it becomes easier for readers to
recognize what they already know orally, in its graphic form. Oral reading fluency
has attracted considerable attention as a potentially reliable indictors of reading
competence (Kame’enui& Simmons, 2021, p. 208). Practice in reading aloud can
be considered as a primary step to both reading and writing.
Local Studies:
A study conducted by Mule (2014) shows that inadequate English reading
material, improper teaching methodology and insufficient English language
development were causes of reading difficulties. Lerner (2020, p.389) reports that
learners who get off to a poor start in reading rarely catch up; poor first grade
readers are likely to continue to be poor readers. A number of studies in the area
of reading, for example, conducted by Chall (2017), Dickinson and Neuman
(2016), and Lerner (2020) point out difficulties learning to read in English when
it’s not a first language.
One program that has been adopted as intervention is differentiated
instruction. Differentiated instruction is a “buzz word” in Philippine education for
many years. Research has shown that different strategies are inconsistently
implemented in many reading classrooms and are rarely used across the country
(Archambault et al., 2013; Reis et al., 2014; Reis & Purcell, 2013; Westberg et
al., 2013). The requirement to differentiate instruction and curriculum has never
been more apparent because the needs of academically talented students are
increasingly less of a spotlight in heterogeneous classrooms.
Subsequently, reading programs are built up by and large school divisions
by every open and non-public school for the researchers to build up a
respectable reading habit. Alongside the slogan "Reading Skills, Key to
Learning," the ECARP (Each Kid a Peruser Program) and DEAR (Drop
Everything and Read) were made which were intended to outfit understudies with
vital perusing and composing aptitudes (Ocampo, 2018). In differentiated
instruction, teaching is anchored on the curriculum and on the student’s learning
needs.
Reading comprehension comes in. It plays a significant role in the total
functioning of our community. It is also one of the pillars of reading. A person may
know how to read certain words, but comprehension is something that is
developed, practiced, learned, and experienced over time. One can read terms
like “dog,” “banana,” or “walk,” simple words with known meanings but, Reading
Comprehension is way more profound than that. It is the ability to define word by
word and create a profound idea from the talks given or read (K12 Reader,
2018).
Moreover, reading comprehension also includes the ability of a person to
translate the essence of the sentences using his own words. This also consists of
applying the text read in one’s life. One aspect of reading comprehension is when
a person articulates some of his life experiences and relates them to the text
written. It is a sign that a person truly comprehends because some personal
emotions are attached to it (Wilhelm, 2018).
The recent 2018 research conducted by the Program for International
Student Assessment (PISA) tested around 600,000 students aged 15-year-old
over 79 participating countries. The study found out that the Philippines ranked
the lowest in terms of Reading Comprehension with 340, which is the lowest
score in all countries surveyed.
Meron (2018) argued that poverty is one reason for this. In the Philippine
context of the education system, students from low-income families tend to put
work first at an early age instead of formal schooling. Poverty and lack of
academic resources also affect their cognitive development and socialization with
people in the academe. A child surrounded by teachers, books, or any reading

materials has a clear vision of the importance of education. The survey also
shows that the Philippines ranked second to the lowest in Science and
Mathematics.
Many academicians argue why the Philippines, one of the best English-
speaking countries globally, ranks lowest in the survey. They say that education
in reading here focuses on the primary word definition; this is important, but it is a
problem in the context of reading comprehension. Filipino students should be
surrounded by essays and try to relate and reflect on them, enhancing their
comprehension. They also suggested that learning the mother tongue by heart
will lead to the proper understanding of the second language. The first language
should be mastered before focusing on the second language, English. According
to them, students are having confusion when they study their mother tongue and
English language at the same time (Manlapig, 2020).
There are two vital elements in Reading Comprehension. These are
Vocabulary knowledge and Text Comprehension. Vocabulary Knowledge is the
more profound understanding of the words. It includes the correct definition,
pronunciation, written form of the word, spelling, and synonyms of that specific
word (Moghadam et al., 2013). On the other hand, Text Comprehension happens
when readers put the context of the text written in their own life. This element
occurs when the readers have a clear visual representation or, somehow,
imagine a picture in their brain reenacting the text’s message. As stated in a
Malaysian journal article by (Sidek Het. Al., 2015), students with deficient scores
in vocabulary knowledge tend to fail to understand the overall message of the
text that they have read.
The study argued that insufficient vocabulary knowledge hinders students’
ability to appreciate the story and answer several questions. It also happens
when the readers reflect on their personal experiences while or after reading.
Another manifestation of practicing text comprehension is when the readers have
an insight or predict what will happen next to the story they are reading since
there is a personal emotion attached to it (National Institute for Literacy, 2013).
According to the National Center for Education Statistics research, 43% of
adults with a low reading comprehension and literacy level lived in poverty. It also
shows that people who have an average or high literacy can break the cycle of
poverty because they can have many opportunities to work full time (Bales,
2018).
One factor why people with low literacy and low level of reading
comprehension struggle to be successful is the social impact. They have low self-
esteem, fear, and powerlessness. Due to these factors, persons with low reading
comprehension levels cannot perform well at their jobs or school. Since low-level
readers cannot communicate well, there is a wall between their interaction with
the world and they will eventually leave (Gunn, 2018).
Synthesis:
Reading comprehension is a multifaceted skill crucial for understanding
and interpreting written texts effectively. It involves the integration of various
cognitive processes such as decoding words, extracting meaning from
sentences, and making inferences based on context. Effective comprehension
requires readers to engage with the text actively, employing strategies like
predicting, summarizing, questioning, and clarifying.
Moreover, proficiency in comprehension is nurtured through
exposure to diverse genres and texts, as well as explicit instruction in
comprehension strategies. Ultimately, mastering reading comprehension

empowers individuals to navigate complex information, think critically, and derive
deeper insights from written material across various contexts and disciplines.
In the development of the reading skill, the danger which must be avoided
lies in the almost universal practice of requiring students to read materials which
are linguistically too complicated for their level of language ability. Reading
assignments which degenerate into "thumbing exercises serve no purpose
except to convince the students of the impossibility of what they are being
asked to do. Students who must look up twenty to thirty words per page in order
to understand the content of the story cannot possibly absorb all this material,
and the enjoyment of such an assignment is rather unlikely." (Chastain, 2017)
Reading can be so much more.
Knowing the function of the word in the sentence helps the student to
guess meanings. Even if this knowledge does not provide them with any
illuminating clues, they still have the advantage in that they know which words to
look. up in the dictionary. The fact that they can concentrate on nouns and verbs
makes the task more realistic and decreases the amount of time spent in
consulting the dictionary. In short, it is important that they realize that a dictionary
definition is not necessary for each word in the reading, and that normally nouns
and verbs are the key words in the process of unlocking the meanings of difficult
passages. (Ibid, 2021)
Even if the students understand the goals of reading for comprehension,
pleasure, and appreciation, they may still not have a definite idea of how to
proceed to accomplish these goals. One of the most difficult tasks facing them as
they begin a new activity is the development of a learning strategy. They must
formulate some method of attack if their efforts are to be efficient and successful.
Undoubtedly, many
Theoretical diagram:
The Simple View of Reading (SVR) (Gough &Tunmer, 2016) holds that
reading comprehension is the product of two distinct yet related skills: decoding,
the ability to recognize individual written words, and language comprehension,
the process of interpreting words and connected discourse. During the early
stages of learning to read, the ability to decode is the most crucial factor in the
reading process (Castles, Rastle, & Nation, 2018; Juel, 2018).
Once children have achieved accuracy and fluency with decoding,
complementary models exist to explain the activity of reading comprehension.

Reading involves the interaction between the skills and cognitive processes of
the reader and the linguistic characteristics of a text. The reader needs to
integrate text information with prior knowledge to form a mental representation of
the meaning of the text (Van Dijk, Kintsch, & Van Dijk, 2013).
Elements of this text base are then integrated with the reader’s preexisting
schemata, contained in long-term memory, to form a representation of the
meaning of the text (the situation model). The situation model differs from the text
base in that it is not a verbatim record of the text. Instead, it is dynamically
constructed representation of the text and its interaction with the reader’s
preexisting schemata.
Schematic views of reading, such as the Construction Integration model,
postulate that reading is comprised of interactions between the literal,
propositional representation of a text and a related schema formed from
background knowledge (Kintsch, 2018; & Van Dijk, 2018). The text base, held in
working memory, includes explicit information from the text, as well as local
inferences user to construct meaning. For most readers, the text base is
automatically constructed and requires little conscious effort (Tapiero, 2017).
Situation models are cumulative; as a person reads and learns more
about a given topic, the schemata and any resultant situation model will change
through growth, reorganization and error correction (Kintsch, 2019). Low skilled
readers (those in the lowest quartile of the population) typically construct a less
detailed situation model than skilled readers because they are less likely to have
a coherent textbase and/or well-formed schemata (Kintsch, 2018; McNamara,
Ozuru, & Floyd, 2021).
Without an effective textbase that is coherent with the content of the text,
the reader has access to little information that can be integrated with any related
schemata (Kintsch, 2018). A less coherent textbase results in a poorer
understanding of the text; an inability to recognize differences between
characters or recall information from the text would exemplify a poor
understanding due to an incoherent textbase.
In contrast, problems associated with schemata tend to manifest as
inference generation difficulties. Differencing is the process by which a reader
integrates information from the text with background knowledge in order to fill in
detail and links not explicitly stated in a text (McNamara &Magliano, 2019). The
ability to infer meaning from text has been recognized as a predictor of reading
comprehension at a range of developmental stages and is one of the drivers of
sophisticated reading ability (Cain & Oakhill, 2019; Oakhill & Cain, 2017).
Conceptual Framework:
Dependent
Variable:
Reading Comprehension
Independent
Variables:
Factors Affecting Reading
Comprehension
Statement of the Problem:
1. What is the demographic profile of the student respondents in terms of:

1.1 Age
1.2 Sex
2. What are the factors affecting the reading comprehension of the student’s
respondents?
3. What are the coping strategies of the student’s respondents for difficult text?
Significance of the Study:

Students’ Proficient reading comprehension is directly linked to academic
success. Students who can understand and interpret texts effectively are better
equipped to grasp information presented in various subjects, leading to higher
grades and overall achievement.
Reading comprehension fosters critical thinking by requiring students to
analyze, evaluate, and synthesize information from texts. This skill set extends
beyond the classroom, empowering students to approach challenges with a
thoughtful and analytical mindset.
Parents Supporting Academic Achievement: Parents can actively
contribute to their child's academic success by fostering strong reading
comprehension skills. This support aids in better understanding academic
materials across various subjects.
Improved reading comprehension equips children with the ability to
express them more clearly. Parents benefit from enhanced communication, as
their children can articulate thoughts, ideas, and concerns effectively.
Parents play a key role in cultivating a love for reading. When children
develop strong reading comprehension skills, they are more likely to view
learning as an enjoyable and lifelong pursuit.

Teachers Comprehension is essential for teachers because it allows
them to assess the understanding of their students and to tailor their instruction
accordingly. When teachers have a thorough understanding of their students’
comprehension levels, they can provide appropriate support and guidance to
help students progress academically.
Administrators Administrators use data on reading comprehension to
inform educational policies and planning. Understanding the reading levels and
needs of students helps in designing effective curriculum, interventions, and
resource allocation.
Reading comprehension assessments provide administrators with a tool to
monitor the educational progress of students and identify areas where additional
support or interventions may be needed.
Researchers explore the cognitive processes involved in reading
comprehension, contributing to the development of educational theories. This

deeper understanding informs the creation of more effective teaching methods
and interventions.
Research in reading comprehension helps identify and understand
learning disabilities related to reading. This knowledge is crucial for early
intervention and support for students with dyslexia or other reading difficulties.
Researchers contribute to the development of curricula by studying
effective strategies for enhancing reading comprehension. Their findings guide
educators and curriculum developers in creating materials that promote optimal
learning outcomes.
Future researchers Building on Existing Knowledge: Future researchers
benefit from the foundational research on reading comprehension, allowing them
to build on existing knowledge and explore new avenues of inquiry. This iterative
process contributes to the continuous improvement of educational practices.
Reading comprehension research helps future researchers address
emerging challenges in education, such as the impact of technology on literacy,
changing reading habits, and evolving educational environments.

Future researchers play a role in informing educational policies by
providing evidence-based recommendations. Their work contributes to the
ongoing dialogue on how educational systems can be improved to meet the
evolving needs of students.
Definition of terms:
Reading is defined as a cognitive process that involves decoding
symbols to arrive at meaning. Reading is an active process of constructing
meanings of words. Reading with a purpose helps the reader to direct
information towards a goal and focuses their attention.
Comprehension An ability to understand the meaning or importance of
something (or the knowledge acquired as a result) “how you can do that is
beyond my comprehension” “he was famous for his comprehension of American
literature
Reading Comprehension Reading comprehension is the ability to read
text, process it and understand its meaning. It relies on two, interconnected
abilities: word reading (being able to decode the symbols on the page) and
language comprehension (being able to understand the meaning of the words
and sentences).
Disability is any condition of the body or mind (impairment) that makes it
more difficult for the person with the condition to do certain activities (activity
limitation) and interact with the world around them (participation restrictions).
Communication is the sending and receiving of information and can be
one-on-one or between groups of people, and can be face-to-face or through
communication devices. Communication requires a sender, the person who
initiates communication, to transfer their thoughts or encode a message.
Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It
is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by
poor spelling and decoding abilities.
Language, a system of conventional spoken, manual (signed), or written
symbols by means of which human beings, as members of a social group and
participants in its culture, express themselves.
Poverty refers to the lack of adequate financial resources such that
individuals, households, and entire communities don’t have the means to subsist
or acquire the basic necessities for a flourishing life. This means being so poor
as to struggle to obtain food, clothing, shelter, and medicines.

Coping Strategies are behavioural and cognitive tactics used to manage
crises, conditions, and demands that are appraised as distressing.
Difficult Text They include difficult words, difficult combinations of nouns
and difficult sentences.
CHAPTER 2:
METHODOLOGY
Research Design:
This research study used quantitative research design as it
aims to gather data from selected students using associated surveys and
questionnaires. According to Bryman (2018), Quantitative research is a research
strategy that focuses on quantifying the collection and analysis of data and is
formed from a deductive approach where emphasis is placed on the testing of
theory shaped by positivist and empiricist philosophies. Due to the fact that it
depends on collecting numerical data points through online surveys and other
means, quantitative research will be utilized and is crucial in this study.
Furthermore, this study harbored Descriptive-Correlational research
design, in which a researcher measured two variables to understand and assess
the statistical relationship between them with no influence from any extraneous
variable, preferably using systematic methods such as surveying or interviewing.
According to McBurney & White (2019), Descriptive correlational design is used
in research studies that aim to provide static pictures of situations as well as
Establish the relationship between different variables. This research
design would fit by the reason of obtaining more reliable and accurate data from
set variables, allowing the researchers to assess and implement the data
collected appropriately.
The researchers will gather information from a variety of Grade 10
students at Bagong Barrio National High School using various questionnaires
regarding Factors affecting their reading comprehension. This would make it
easier to know the factors affecting the reading comprehension of selected grade
10 students.
Population and Sample:

A population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about
(Bhandari, 2020). A sample is the specific group that you will collect data from.
The size of the sample is always less than the total size of the population this
research study accommodated selected Grade 10 students from Bagong Barrio
National High School, for the sake of convenience and minimizing resource
expense. The researchers gathered data using respondents from each of the 17
sections out of 18 sections of Bagong Barrio National High School (excluding
OHSP), namely: Shakespeare, Bacon, Chekhov, Emerson, Frost, Hardy,
Hemingway, Irving, Miller, Milton, Poe, Twain, Bronte, Chaucer, Tolstoy, Williams,
and Wordsworth.
The population size of the study was composed of 808 students from the
entirety of Grade 10 students of Bagong Barrio National High School. The
sample size is a minimum of 250 students, wherein the researchers decided to
accumulate data from any student available in each section, where:
Shakespeare = ; Bacon = ; Chekhov = ; Emerson = ; Frost = ; Hardy = ;
Hemingway = ; Irving = ; Miller = ; Milton =; Poe = ; Twain = ; Bronte = ; Chaucer
= ; Tolstoy = ; Williams = ; Wordsworth =; excluding OHST, where the
researchers would not be using said section as part of the population sample.
The population size and sample size of the study as shown below:
The researchers hoped to fulfill the designated number of respondents per
section, with the help of a standardized instrument containing various questions
that would aid the data collection and assessment of the study.
Sampling Technique:
Convenience Sampling (also known as Haphazard Sampling or Accidental
Sampling) is a type of non-probability or nonrandom sampling where members of
the target population that meet certain practical criteria, such as easy
accessibility, geographical proximity, availability at a given time, or the willingness
to participate are included for the purpose of the study (Dörnyei, 2017). It is also
referred to the researching subjects of the population that are easily accessible to
the researcher (Given, 2018).
This sampling technique would be useful in amassing data from the given
sample for the sake of convenience and maximization of respondents available
for conducting a survey. This sampling technique would also allow the
researchers to gather more accurate and stronger data due to the nature of the
respondents relating most to this study’s objective.
For that purpose, the researchers will conveniently conduct a survey on 17
out of 18 sections of the Grade 10 level, excluding OHST.
Research Instrument:
The researchers will be conducting a survey with various sets of
conveniently selected Grade 10 students of Bagong Barrio National High school.
This Instrument is a reading comprehension questionnaire that asks students to
answer questions about their reading habits anonymously.
It explains that there are no right or wrong answers and encourages
students to answer truthfully so their teachers can help them become better
readers. The questionnaire consists of questions that assess how well students
understand stories and information, use context clues and illustrations to
determine meaning, employ strategies when having difficulty, and visualize what
they are reading.
The first part of the survey determined the demographic profile of the
respondent (the section of the respondent, and age & sex of the respondent).
The second part of the survey is the factors affecting the reading comprehension
of the student’s respondents, which helped the researchers in assessing the
respondent’s reading comprehension and the factors affecting it.

The last part is an evaluation of the respondent’s: What are the coping
strategies of the student’s respondents for difficult text, which will aid in
identifying the factors and coping strategies for reading difficult text.
Data Gathering Procedure:
The Researchers asked permission from their research adviser to allow
the Grade 10 - Hardy to survey selected sections of Grade 10 students in
Bagong Barrio National High School to answer the survey questionnaire. They
will answer such questions then, and then the researchers will gather responses
that will be coded and it will be the subject of our research.

Statistical Treatment:
Frequency
The researchers used Frequency Count & Percentage, Weighted Mean,
and Pearson R or Pearson Correlation Coefficient treatment for this study.
Pearson R is defined in statistics as the measurement of the strength of the
relationship between two variables and their association with each other.
Pearson R
The researchers used Pearson R to test an associative research
hypothesis as long as the variables being analyzed are both quantitative.

Ethical Consideration:
Anonymity and confidentiality. The identity of the respondent was kept
private or anonymous, and the assurances extend beyond the preservation of
their names to the avoidance of using self-identifying statements and information.
Anonymity and secrecy are crucial stages in protecting participants from danger.
Informed Consent. The purpose of the project, how the findings were
utilized, if there would be any potential negative consequences of their
participation, and who would have access to the findings were all explained to
the respondents. If the respondents become distressed in any way throughout
their involvement, additional information was offered.
Researcher’s bias. Since the researchers and the respondents were not
from the same institution, the researchers did not condition the respondents on
how they will answer the questions. They simply let the answers come to them
naturally. Throughout the study, the researchers remained impartial and ensured
that the respondents' responses were not tampered with in any manner.
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I. Letter to the respondents

II. Ethical Considerations
Anonymity and confidentiality. The identity of the respondent was kept
private or anonymous, and the assurances extend beyond the
preservation of their names to the avoidance of using self-identifying
statements and information. Anonymity and secrecy are crucial stages in
protecting participants from danger.
Informed Consent. The purpose of the project, how the findings were
utilized, if there would be any potential negative consequences of their
participation, and who would have access to the findings were all
explained to the respondents. If the respondents become distressed in any
way throughout their involvement, additional information was offered.
Researcher’s bias. Since the researchers and the respondents were not
from the same institution, the researchers did not condition the
respondents on how they will answer the questions. They simply let the
answers come to them naturally. Throughout the study, the researchers
remained impartial and ensured that the respondents' responses were not
tampered with in any manner.
III. Demographic Profile

IV. Questionnaire

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Bagong barrio National high school iii

the english departmenT

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Reading is a complex process that involves sensation, perception,

comprehension, application and integration. It is the process of making and

getting meaning from printed words and symbols. Reading as a whole, is a

means of communication and of information and ideas. As a matter of fact,

do involve reading”. Individuals read street signs, advertisements, menus in

Moreover, reading is the foundation of academic success and life learning.

In 2017, the Department of Education reported that 70 percent or our learners

achievement intensifies in the Philippines as evaluated by Scholastic Inc., the

evolving world and changing technology it cannot be denied that sometimes

English, Mathematics and Science can be attributed to pupils’ lack of ability in

basic reading and comprehension. In addition, he said Asia Pacific Journal of

problems in reading is the poor reading comprehension, which leads to poor

understanding of printed symbols. The Department of Education (DepEd)

Jonhston [2018] considers reading comprehension as building bridges

“Unknown”. Indeed, prior knowledge is so necessary for comprehension to

portraits in each skill to be developed in the reading primer. Understanding the

comprehension. Russel [2018] claims that comprehension requires knowledge

passages. It involves understanding of the intent of the author and may go

beyond literal and recorded facts to hidden meaning or implications. Hence, it

frustration level of reading comprehension.

This chapter provides an overview of the research into the development of

children’s reading comprehension skills-skills that are crucial for academic

documented developments in oral language skills during the primary school

years (Garton& Pratt, 2018).

Indeed, comprehension of language, whether written or spoken, is a

spoken language comprehension serve as a foundation for developing reading

comprehension, but do not in themselves guarantee success in reading. Clearly,

reading comprehension depends on listening comprehension: In order to read a

language with adequate comprehension, one has to understand that language in

Development of reading comprehension. Although there is a relation between

reading and listening comprehension, the strength of the relationship.

Correlations between reading and listening comprehension are generally

MacLeod, Hunt, & Davidson, 2015).

These studies support the view that we might expect an individual’s

reading comprehension to develop to the same level as his or her listening

language differs along a number of dimensions, so there are reasons why

Language is "decontextualized”—that is, it is typically not about the “here and

integration of information across extended tracts of discourse in a manner that

spoken language usually does not.

apparent in spoken language comprehension, which possibly goes some way in

and comprehends of spoken language have problems with reading

comprehension (Cain & Oakhill). In a review of research on word-reading fluency

levels of reading comprehension, it is incorrect to conclude that fluent word

does not. In addition, strategic processing is likely to be an ability that is

Nevertheless, reading and listening comprehension share many

Thus, it follows that the components of spoken language comprehension that

contribute to language comprehension will be important in the development of

Successful reading comprehension. Comprehension of spoken language will

require competence at many different levels: phonology, semantics, syntax, and

pragmatics (Bishop, 2017). It is reasonable, then, to suppose that these

components also influence the understanding of written language. We explore

each of these different areas in more detail below.

extensively researched (Blachman, 2017; Brady & Shank- weiler, 2021;

has been shown (Bradley & Bryant, 2013; Liberman&Shankweiler, 2015;

Stanovich, 2018; Vellutino, Scanlon, Small, &Tanzman, 2021)

In particular, there is strong evidence for a relation between phonological

Hulme, Snowling, & Taylor, 2018; Torgesen, Wagner, &Rashotte, 2014).

and the reading of words.

In comparison, relatively few studies examine how early language