Skeletal System: Bones and Joints

Components of Skeletal System Their characteristics are largely determined

• Bones by the composition of their extracellular
• Cartilages matrix.
• Tendons The matrix always contains collagen,
• Ligaments ground substance, and other organic
molecules, as well as water and minerals.
Bones of the Skeletal System Collagen is a tough, ropelike protein.
Proteoglycans are large molecules
consisting of many polysaccharides
attaching to and encircling core proteins.
The proteoglycans form large aggregates
and attract water.
The extracellular matrix of tendons and
ligaments contains large amounts of
collagen fibers, making these structures
very tough, like ropes or cables.

Cartilage Extracellular Matrix

The extracellular matrix of cartilage
contains collagen and proteoglycans.
Collagen makes cartilage tough, whereas
the water-filled proteoglycans make it
smooth and resilient.
As a result, cartilage is relatively rigid, but it
springs back to its original shape after being
Skeletal System Functions bent or slightly compressed.
• Support It is an excellent shock absorber.
• Protect
• Movement
Bone Extracellular Matrix
• Storage
• Blood cell production The extracellular matrix of bone contains
collagen and minerals, including calcium
and phosphate.
Extracellular Matrix
The ropelike collagen fibers lend flexible
Bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments of strength to the bone.
the skeletal system are all connective
tissues.

ace
The mineral component gives bone
compression (weight-bearing) strength.
Most of the mineral in bone is in the form of
calcium phosphate crystals called
hydroxyapatite.
Shape Classification of Bones
There are four bone shape classifications:
long, short, flat, and irregular.
• Long bones. longer than they are
wide; examples are upper and lower
limb bones.
• Short bones. approximately as wide
as they are long; examples are the
bones of the wrist and ankle.
• Flat bones. have a relatively thin,
flattened shape; examples are bones
of the skull and sternum.
• Irregular bones include the vertebrae
and facial bones, which have shapes
that do not fit readily into the other
three categories.
Long Bone Structure
Diaphysis – shaft; compact bone tissue (on
outside)
Epiphysis – ends spongy bone tissue
Articular cartilage – covers epiphyses;
reduces friction
Periosteum – membrane around bone’s
outer surface
Endosteum – membrane that lines
medullary cavity
Epiphyseal plate – site of growth between
diaphysis and epiphysis
Medullary cavity – center of diaphysis red or
yellow marrow
Bone Marrow
Bones contain cavities, such as the large
medullary cavity in the diaphysis, as well as
smaller cavities in the epiphyses of long
bones and in the interior of other bones.
These spaces are filled with soft tissue called
marrow.
Red marrow is the location of blood forming
cells.
Yellow marrow is mostly fat.
In newborns most bones have blood
making red bone marrow.
In adults red marrow in the diaphysis is
replaced by yellow bone marrow.
In adults most red bone marrow is in the flat
bones and the long bones of the femur and
humerus.
Structure of Bone Tissue
ace
 Compact Bone Tissue
Location: outer part of diaphysis (long
bones) and thinner surfaces of other bones
Osteon – structural unit of compact bone;
includes lamella, lacunae, canaliculus,
central canal, and osteocytes
• Lamella – rings of bone matrix
• Lacunae – spaces between lamella
• Canaliculus – tiny canals; transport
nutrients and remove waste
• Central canal – center of osteon;
contains blood vessels
Spongy (Cancellous) Bone Tissue
Spongy bone – located at the epiphyses of
long bones and center of other bones; has
trabeculae, which are interconnecting
rods, and spaces that contain marrow; has
no osteons
Bone Cells
Osteoblasts – responsible for the formation
of bone and the repair and remodeling of
bone
Osteocytes – cells that maintain bone
matrix and form osteoblast after bone
matric has surrounded it
Osteoclasts – contribute to bone repair and
remodeling by removing existing bone,
called bone reabsorption
Bone Formation
Ossification is the formation of bone by
osteoblasts.
Bone formation that occurs within
connective tissue membranes is called
intramembranous ossification.
Bone formation that occurs inside hyaline
cartilage is called endochondral
ossification.
Both types of bone formation result in
compact and spongy bone.
Intramembranous Ossification
Intramembranous ossification occurs when
osteoblasts begin to produce bone within
connective tissue.
This occurs primarily in the bones of the skull.
Osteoblasts line up on the surface of
connective tissue fibers and begin
depositing bone matrix to form trabeculae.
The process begins in areas called
ossification centers and the trabeculae
radiate out from the centers.
Usually, two or more ossification centers
exist in each flat skull bone and mature skull
bones result from fusion of these centers as
they enlarge.
The trabeculae are constantly remodeled
and they may enlarge or be replaced by
compact bone.
ace
 Bone Formation in the Fetus
Endochondral Ossification
Endochondral bone formation is bone
formation within a cartilage model.
The cartilage model is replaced by bone.
Initially formed is a primary ossification
center, which is bone formation in the
diaphysis of a long bone.
A secondary ossification center is bone
formation in the epiphysis.
Steps in Endochondral Ossification
1. Chondroblasts build a cartilage
model, the chondroblasts become
chondrocytes.
2. Cartilage model calcifies (hardens).
3. Osteoblasts invade calcified
cartilage and a primary ossification
center forms diaphysis.
4. Secondary ossification centers form
epiphysis.
5. Original cartilage model is almost
completely ossified and remaining
cartilage is articular cartilage.
Endochondral Ossification of a Long Bone
Bone Growth in Width
Bone growth occurs by the deposition of
new bone lamellae onto existing bone or
other connective tissue.
As osteoblasts deposit new bone matrix on
the surface of bones between the
periosteum and the existing bone matrix,
the bone increases in width, or diameter.
This process is called appositional growth.
Bone Growth in Length
Growth in the length of a bone, which is the
major source of increased height in an
individual, occurs in the epiphyseal plate.
This type of bone growth occurs through
endochondral ossification.
Chondrocytes increase in number on the
epiphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate.
Then the chondrocytes enlarge and die.
The cartilage matrix becomes calcified.
Much of the cartilage that forms around the
enlarged cells is removed by osteoclasts,
and the dying chondrocytes are replaced
by osteoblasts.
ace
The osteoblasts start forming bone by
depositing bone lamellae on the surface of
the calcified cartilage.
This process produces bone on the
diaphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate.
Endochondral Bone Growth
3. Cartilage model forms first then,
osteoblasts enter the callus and form
cancellous bone this continues for 4-
6 weeks after injury.
4. Cancellous bone is slowly remodeled
to form compact and cancellous
bone.

Bone and Calcium Homeostasis

Bone is a major storage site for calcium.
Movement of calcium in and out of bone
helps determine blood levels of calcium.
Calcium moves into bone as osteoblasts
build new bone.
Calcium moves out of bone as osteoclasts
break down bone.
Calcium homeostasis is maintained by
parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin

Bone Remodeling Calcium Homeostasis

Bone remodeling involves:
• removal of existing bone by
osteoclasts and deposition of new
bone by osteoblasts occurs in all
bones
• responsible for changes in bone
shape, bone repair, adjustment of
bone to stress, and calcium ion
regulation

Bone Repair

Bone Anatomical Terms

• Foramen – hole, e.g., foramen
magnum
• Fossa – depression, e.g., glenoid fossa
• Process – projection, e.g., mastoid
process
• Condyle – smooth and rounded end,
1. Broken bone causes bleeding and a
e.g., occipital condyle
blood clot forms.
• Meatus – canal-like passageway,
2. Callus forms which is a fibrous network
e.g., external auditory meatus
between 2 fragments.

ace
 • Tubercle – lump of bone, e.g., greater
tubercle
Axial Skeleton
The axial skeleton is composed of the skull,
the vertebral column, and the thoracic
cage.
The skull has 22 bones divided into those of
the braincase and those of the face.
The braincase, which encloses the cranial
cavity, consists of 8 bones that immediately
surround and protect the brain.
The bony structure of the face has 14 facial
bones.
Thirteen of the facial bones are rather solidly
connected to form the bulk of the face.
The mandible, however, forms a freely
movable joint with the rest of the skull.
There are also three auditory ossicles in
each middle ear (six total).
Palatine bones – form posterior portion of
hard palate, lateral wall of nasal cavity
Zygomatic bones – cheek bones; also form
floor and lateral wall of each eye orbit
Lacrimal bones – medial surfaces of eye
orbits
Nasal bones – form bridge of nose
Vomer – in midline of nasal cavity; forms
nasal septum with ethmoid bone
Inferior nasal conchae – attached to lateral
walls of nasal cavity
Mandible – lower jawbone; only movable
skull bone
The Skull

Cranial Bones
Frontal bone – anterior part of cranium
Parietal bones – sides and roof of cranium
Occipital bones – posterior portion and floor
of cranium
Temporal bones – inferior to parietal bones
on each side of the cranium;
Temporomandibular joint
Sphenoid bone – forms part of the cranium
floor, lateral posterior portions of eye orbits,
lateral portions of cranium anterior to
temporal bones; Sella turcica
Ethmoid bone – anterior portion of cranium,
including medial surface of eye orbit and
roof of nasal cavity; Nasal conchae

Facial Bones
Maxillae – form upper jaw, anterior portion
of hard palate, part of lateral walls of nasal
cavity, floors of eye orbits; Maxillary sinus

ace
 direct bony attachment to the skull or any
other bones.
The hyoid bone has the unique distinction of
being the only bone in the body that does
not articulate with another bone.
The hyoid bone provides an attachment for
some tongue muscles, and it is an
attachment point for important neck
muscles that elevate the larynx.

Paranasal Sinuses

Vertebral Column

Several of the bones associated with the

nasal cavity have large cavities within
them, called the paranasal sinuses which
open into the nasal cavity.

The paranasal sinuses are:

• Frontal
• Ethmoid
• Sphenoid
• Maxillary
The vertebral column, or spine, is the central
Hyoid Bone axis of the skeleton, extending from the
base of the skull to slightly past the end of
The hyoid bone is an unpaired, U-shaped
the pelvis.
bone that is not part of the skull and has no

ace
In adults, it usually consists of 26 individual Regional Differences in Vertebra
bones, grouped into five regions.
The adult vertebral column has four major
curvatures: cervical, thoracic, lumbar and
sacrococcygeal.

• The cervical region curves anteriorly.

• The thoracic region curves posteriorly.
• The lumbar region curves anteriorly.
• The sacral and coccygeal regions
together curve posteriorly

• 7 cervical vertebra Sacrum

• 12 thoracic vertebra
• 5 lumbar vertebra
• 1 sacrum
• 1 coccyx

Atlas – 1st vertebra; holds head

Axis – 2nd vertebra; rotates head

Thoracic Cage
protects vital organs; 12 pairs of ribs
Functions of Vertebral Column

• Supports body weight

• Protects the spinal cord
• Allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal
cord
• Provides a site for muscle attachment
• Provides movement of the head and
trunk

Vetebra
• Sternum – breastbone
• True ribs – attach directly to sternum
by cartilage
• False ribs – attach indirectly to
sternum by cartilage
• Floating ribs – not attached to
sternum

ace
 Bones of the Pectoral Girdle The Humerus

• Scapula – shoulder blade

• Clavicle – collarbone

Scapula and Clavicle

Ulna and Radius

Upper Limb Bones

Bones of the Wrist and Hand

• Humerus – upper limb

• Ulna – forearm
• Radius – forearm
• Carpals – wrist
• Metacarpals – hand

ace
 Pelvic Girdle Lower Limb Bones
where lower limb attaches to the body

• Pelvis – includes pelvic girdle and

coccyx
• Ischium – inferior and posterior region
• Ilium – most superior region
• Acetabulum – hip socket (joint)

Pelvis

• Femur – thigh
• Patella – knee cap
• Tibia – large lower leg
• Fibula – small lower leg
• Tarsals – ankle
Hip Bones • Metatarsals – foot
• Phalanges – toes and fingers

Bones of the Thigh

Comparison of the Male Pelvis to the

Female Pelvis

ace
 Bones of the Leg Structural Classification of Joints
Fibrous joint – united by fibrous connective
tissue; subclasses are sutures, syndesmosis,
and gomphoses
Cartilaginous – united by means of
cartilage; subclasses are synchondroses
and symphysis
Synovial – joined by a fluid cavity; most
joints of the appendicular skeleton
Synarthrosis – non-movable joint; e.g., skull
bone articulations
Amphiarthrosis – slightly movable joint; e.g.,
between vertebrae
Diarthrosis – freely movable joint; e.g., knee,
elbow, and wrist articulations

Fontanels and Sutures

Bones of the Foot

Articulations
Articulations (joints) are where two bones
come together.
Joints can be classified structurally as
fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial,
according to the major connective tissue
type that binds the bones together and
whether a fluid-filled joint capsule is present.
Joints are also be classified in functional
categories according to their degree of
motion as synarthroses, amphiarthroses, or
diarthroses.

ace
 Structures of a Synovial Joint Supination – rotation of the forearm with
palms up
Rotation – movement of a structure along
the long axis

Types of Synovial Joints

Effects of Aging on the Skeletal System and

Joints
1. Decreased Collagen Production
2. Loss of Bone Density
3. Degenerative Changes

Types of Movement
Flexion – bending
Extension – straightening
Abduction – movement away from midline
Adduction – movement toward the midline
Pronation – rotation of the forearm with
palms down

ace
 Muscular System
Types of Muscles Properties of Muscles
Skeletal – attached to bones; striated; Contractility – the ability of muscle to
voluntarily controlled shorten forcefully, or contract
Cardiac – located in the heart; striated; Excitability – the capacity of muscle to
involuntarily controlled respond to a stimulus
Smooth – located in blood vessels & hollow Extensibility – the ability to be stretched
organs; non-striated; involuntarily controlled beyond its normal resting length and still be
able to contract
The Muscular System Elasticity – the ability of the muscle to recoil
to its original resting length after it has been
stretched

Skeletal Muscle Structure

Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, with its
associated connective tissue, constitutes
approximately 40% of body weight.
Skeletal muscle is so named because many
of the muscles are attached to the skeletal
system.
Some skeletal muscles attach to the skin or
connective tissue sheets.
Skeletal muscle is also called striated muscle
because transverse bands, or striations, can
be seen in the muscle under the
microscope.
Individual skeletal muscles, such as the
biceps brachii, are complete organs, as a
result of being comprised of several tissues:
Functions muscle, nerve, and connective tissue.
1. Movement
2. Maintain posture Connective Tissue Coverings
3. Respiration
Each skeletal muscle is surrounded by a
4. Production of body heat
connective tissue sheath called the
5. Communication
epimysium.
6. Heart beat
7. Contraction of organs and vessels A skeletal muscle is subdivided into groups
of muscle cells, termed fascicles.

ace
Each fascicle is surrounded by a connective
tissue covering, termed the perimysium.
Each skeletal muscle cell (fiber) is
surrounded by a connective tissue
covering, termed the endomysium.
Muscle Fiber Structure
A muscle fiber is a single cylindrical cell, with
several nuclei located at its periphery.
Muscle fibers range in length 1 cm to 30 cm
and are generally 0.15 mm in diameter.
Skeletal muscle fibers contain several nuclei
that are located at the periphery of the
fiber.
The sarcolemma (cell membrane) has
many tubelike inward folds, called
transverse tubules, or T tubules.
T tubules occur at regular intervals along the
muscle fiber and extend into the center of
the muscle fiber.
The T tubules are associated with enlarged
portions of the smooth endoplasmic
reticulum called the sarcoplasmic
reticulum.
The enlarged portions are called terminal
cisternae.
T tubules connect the sarcolemma to the
terminal cisternae to form a muscle triad.
The sarcoplasmic reticulum has a relatively
high concentration of Ca2 +, which plays a
major role in muscle contraction.
The cytoplasm of a muscle fiber is called the
sarcoplasm, which contains many bundles
of protein filaments.
Bundles of protein filaments are called
myofibrils.
Myofibrils consist of the myofilaments, actin
and myosin.
Structure of Skeletal Muscle
The Sarcomere
The sarcomere is the basic structural and
functional unit of a skeletal muscle because
it is the smallest portion of a skeletal muscle
capable of contracting.
Z disks form a network of protein fibers that
both serve as an anchor for actin
myofilaments and separate one sarcomere
from the next.
A sarcomere extends from one Z disk to the
next Z disk.
The organization of actin and myosin
myofilaments gives skeletal muscle its
striated appearance and gives it the ability
to contract.
The myofilaments slide past each other,
causing the sarcomeres to shorten.
Each sarcomere consists of two light-
staining bands separated by a dark-staining
band.
Light bands, consist only of actin, and are
called I bands that extends toward the
center of the sarcomere to the ends of the
myosin myofilaments.
ace
Dark staining bands are called A bands,
that extend the length of the myosin
myofilaments.
Actin and myosin myofilaments overlap for
some distance on both ends of the A band;
this overlap causes the contraction.
Actin myofilaments are made up of three
components: actin, troponin, and
tropomyosin.
Troponin molecules have binding sites for
Ca2 + and tropomyosin filaments block the
myosin myofilament binding sites on the
actin myofilaments.
Myosin myofilaments, or thick
myofilaments, resemble bundles of tiny golf
clubs.
Myosin heads have ATP binding sites,
ATPase and attachment spots for actin.
Skeletal Muscle Fiber
Excitability of Muscle Fibers
The electrical charge difference across the
cell membrane of an unstimulated cell is
called the resting membrane potential.
Muscle cells (fibers) have a resting
membrane potential, but can also perform
action potentials.
The resting membrane potential is due to
the inside of the membrane being
negatively charged in comparison to the
outside of the membrane being positively
charged.
Action potentials are due to the membrane
having gated channels.
Resting Membrane Potential
The resting membrane potential exists
because of:
• The concentration of K+ being higher
on the inside of the cell membrane
and the concentration of Na+ being
higher on the outside
• The presence of many negatively
charged molecules, such as proteins,
inside the cell that are too large to
exit the cell
• The presence of leak protein
channels in the membrane that are
more permeable to K+ than it is to
Na+
Na+ tends to diffuse into the cell and K+
tends to diffuse out.
In order to maintain the resting membrane
potential, the sodium-potassium pump
recreates the Na+ and K+ ion gradient by
pumping Na+ out of the cell and K+ into the
cell.
ace
 Action Potential Depolarization
To initiate a muscle contraction, the resting
membrane potential must be changed to
an action potential.
Changes in the resting membrane potential
occur when gated cell membrane
channels open.
In a skeletal muscle fiber, a nerve impulse • change in charges
triggers gated Na+ channels to open and • inside becomes more + and outside
Na+ diffuses into the cell down its more –
concentration gradient and toward the • Na+ channels open
negative charges inside the cell.
The entry of Na+ causes the inside of the cell Repolarization
membrane to become more positive than
when the cell is at resting membrane
potential.
This increase in positive charge inside the
cell membrane is called depolarization.
If the depolarization changes the
membrane potential to a value called
threshold, an action potential is triggered. • Na+ channels close
• change back to resting potential
An action potential is a rapid change in
charge across the cell membrane.
Depolarization during the action potential is Ion Channels and Action Potential
when the inside of the cell membrane
becomes more positively charged than the
outside of the cell membrane.
Near the end of depolarization, the positive
charge causes gated Na+ channels to
close and gated K+ channels to open.
Opening of gated K+ channels start
repolarization of the cell membrane.
Repolarization is due to the exit of K+ from
the cell.
The outward diffusion of K+ returns the cell
to its resting membrane conditions and the
action potential ends.
In a muscle fiber, an action potential results
in muscle contraction.

ace
 Nerve Supply Function of the
Motor neuron – a nerve cell stimulates Neuromuscular Junction
muscle cells.
Neuromuscular junction – a synapse where
the fiber of a nerve connects with a muscle
fiber.
Synapse – refers to the cell-to-cell junction
between a nerve cell and either another
nerve cell or an effector cell, such as in a
muscle or a gland.
Motor unit – a group of muscle fibers that a
motor neuron stimulates.
Presynaptic terminal – the end of a neuron
cell axon fiber.
Synaptic cleft – space between the
presynaptic terminal and postsynaptic
membrane.
Postsynaptic membrane – muscle fiber
membrane (sarcolemma).
Synaptic vesicle – a vesicle in the
presynaptic terminal that stores and
releases neurotransmitter chemicals.
Neurotransmitters – chemicals that
stimulate or inhibit postsynaptic cells.
Acetylcholine – the neurotransmitter that
stimulates skeletal muscles.
Muscle Contraction

Neuromuscular Junction 1. An action potential travels down

motor neuron to presynaptic terminal
causing Ca2+ channels to open.
2. Ca2+ causes synaptic vesicles to
release acetylcholine into synaptic
cleft.
3. Acetylcholine binds to receptor sites
on Na+ channels, Na+ channels
open, and Na+ rushes into
postsynaptic terminal
(depolarization).
4. Na+ causes sarcolemma and t-
tubules to increase the permeability
of sarcoplasmic reticulum which
releases stored calcium.

ace
5. Ca2+ binds to troponin which is
attached to actin.
6. Ca2+ binding to troponin causes
tropomyosin to move exposing
attachment sites for myosin.
7. Myosin heads bind to actin.
8. ATP is released from myosin heads
and heads bend toward center of
sarcomere.
9. Bending forces actin to slide over
myosin.
10. Acetylcholinesterase (enzyme breaks
down acetylcholine) is released, Na+
channels close, and muscle
contraction stops.

Skeletal Muscle Excitation

ace
 ATP Breakdown and
Cross-Bridge Movement

Muscle Twitch

ATP and Muscle Contractions

Energy for muscle contractions is supplied
by ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)
Energy is released as ATP → ADP + P
ATP is stored in myosin heads
ATP help form cross-bridge formation
between myosin and actin
New ATP must bind to myosin before cross-
bridge is released
A muscle twitch is a single contraction of a
Rigor mortis will occur when a person dies
muscle fiber in response to a stimulus.
and no ATP is available to release cross-
A muscle twitch has three phases: latent
bridges
phase, contraction phase, and relaxation
phase.
The latent phase is the time between the
application of a stimulus and the beginning
of contraction.
The contraction phase is the time during
which the muscle contracts and the

ace
relaxation phase is the time during which
the muscle relaxes.
Summation and Recruitment
In summation, individual muscles contract
more forcefully.
Tetanus is a sustained contraction that
occurs when the frequency of stimulation is
so rapid that no relaxation occurs.
Recruitment is the stimulation of several
motor units.
Multiple-Wave Summation
Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types
Slow twitch fibers
• contract slowly
• fatigue slowly
• have a considerable amount of
myoglobin
• use aerobic respiration
• are dark in color
• used by long distance runners
Fast twitch fibers
• contract quickly
• fatigue quickly
• use anaerobic respiration
• energy from glycogen
• light color
• used by sprinters
A muscle has a blend of types, with one
type dominating. Humans have both types
of fibers.
The distribution of fibers is genetically
determined.
Energy for Muscle Contractions
Muscle fibers are very energy-demanding
cells whether at rest or during any form of
exercise.
This energy comes from either aerobic (with
O2) or anaerobic (without O2) ATP
production
ATP is derived from four processes in skeletal
muscle.
1. Aerobic production of ATP during
most exercise and normal conditions.
2. Anaerobic production of ATP during
intensive short-term work
3. Conversion of a molecule called
creatine phosphate to ATP
4. Conversion of two ADP to one ATP
and one AMP (adenosine
monophosphate) during heavy
exercise
Muscle Fatigue
Fatigue is a temporary state of reduced
work capacity.
Without fatigue, muscle fibers would be
worked to the point of structural damage to
them and their supportive tissues.
Mechanisms of fatigue include:
• Acidosis and ATP depletion due to
either an increased ATP consumption
or a decreased ATP production
• Oxidative stress, which is
characterized by the buildup of
ace
 excess reactive oxygen species (ROS;
free radicals)
• Local inflammatory reactions
Types of Contractions
There are two types of muscle contractions:
isometric and isotonic.
The isometric contraction has an increase in
muscle tension, but no change in length.
The isotonic contraction has a change in
muscle length with no change in tension.
• Concentric contractions are isotonic
contractions in which muscle tension
increases as the muscle shortens.
• Eccentric contractions are isotonic
contractions in which tension is
maintained in a muscle, but the
opposing resistance causes the
muscle to lengthen.
Muscle Tone
Muscle tone is the constant tension
produced by body muscles over long
periods of time.
Muscle tone is responsible for keeping the
back and legs straight, the head in an
upright position, and the abdomen from
bulging.
Muscle tone depends on a small
percentage of all the motor units in a
muscle being stimulated at any point in
time, causing their muscle fibers to contract
tetanically and out of phase with one
another.
The cells comprise organs controlled
involuntarily, except the heart.
Neurotransmitter substances, hormones,
and other substances can stimulate smooth
muscle.
Cardiac Muscle
Cardiac muscle cells are long, striated, and
branching, with usually only one nucleus
per cell.
Cardiac muscle is striated as a result of the
sarcomere arrangement.
Cardiac muscle contraction is
autorhythmic.
Cardiac muscle cells are connected to one
another by specialized structures that
include desmosomes and gap junctions
called intercalated disks.
Cardiac muscle cells function as a single
unit in that action potential in one cardiac
muscle cell can stimulate action potentials
in adjacent cells.
Skeletal Muscles

Smooth Muscle
Smooth muscle cells are non-striated small,
spindle-shaped muscle cells, usually with
one nucleus per cell.
The myofilaments are not organized into
sarcomeres.

ace
 Muscle Attachment

Nomenclature
Muscles are named according to:
1. Location – a pectoralis muscle is
located in the chest.
2. Size – the size could be large or small,
short or long.
3. Shape - the shape could be
Skeletal Muscle Anatomy triangular, quadrate, rectangular, or
Tendon – connects skeletal muscle to bone. round.
4. Orientation of fascicles – fascicles
Aponeuroses – broad, sheetlike tendons.
could run straight (rectus) or at an
Retinaculum – a band of connective tissue angle (oblique).
that holds down the tendons at each wrist 5. Origin and insertion – the
and ankle. sternocleidomastoid have its origin
Skeletal muscle attachments have an origin on the sternum and clavicle and its
and an insertion, with the origin being the insertion on the mastoid process of
attachment at the least mobile location. the temporal bone.
The insertion is the end of the muscle 6. Number of heads – a biceps muscle
attached to the bone undergoing the has two heads (origins), and a triceps
greatest movement. muscle has three heads (origins).
The part of the muscle between the origin 7. Function – abductors and adductors
and the insertion is the belly. are the muscles that cause
abduction and adduction
A group of muscles working together are
movements.
called agonists.
A muscle or group of muscles that oppose
muscle actions are termed antagonists. Muscles of Mastication
• Temporalis
• Masseter

ace
• Pterygoids (two pairs) Deep Neck and Back Muscles

Muscles of Facial Expression

and Mastication

Thoracic Muscles
External intercostals – elevate ribs for
inspiration
Internal intercostals – depress ribs during
forced expiration
Tongue and Swallowing Muscles
Diaphragm – moves during quiet breathing

Muscles of the Thorax

ace
 Abdominal Wall Muscles Upper Limb Muscles
Rectus abdominis – center of abdomen;
compresses abdomen
External abdominal oblique – sides of
abdomen; compresses abdomen
Internal abdominal oblique – compresses
abdomen
Transverse abdominis – compresses
abdomen
Forearm Muscles
Muscles of the Anterior Abdominal • Flexor longus
• Flexor carpi radialis
• Flexor carpi ulnaris
• Flexor digitorum profundus
• Flexor digitorum superficialis
• Pronator
• Brachioradialis
• Extensor carpi radialis brevis

Muscles of the Forearm

Upper Scapular and Limb Muscle
Trapezius – shoulders and upper back;
extends neck and head
Pectoralis major – chest; elevates ribs
Serratus anterior – between ribs; elevates
ribs
Deltoid – shoulder; abductor or upper limbs

Upper Limb Muscles

Triceps brachii – 3 heads; extends elbow
Biceps brachii – “flexing muscle”; flexes Pelvic Floor Muscles
elbow and shoulder • Levator ani
Brachialis – flexes elbow • Ischiocavernosus
• Bulbospongiosus
Latissimus dorsi – lower back; extends
• Deep transverse perineal
shoulder
• Superficial transverse perineal

ace
 Pelvic Floor Muscles Muscles of the Hip and Thigh

Muscles of Hips and Thighs

Iliopsoas – flexes hip
Gluteus maximus – buttocks; extends hip
and abducts thigh
Gluteus medius – hip; abducts and rotates
thigh

Muscles of the Upper Leg

The quadriceps femoris is comprised of 4

thigh muscles:
• rectus femoris – front of thigh; extends
knee and flexes hip
• vastus lateralis – extends knee
• vastus medialis – extends knee
• vastus intermedius – extends knee
Muscles of Lower Leg
Tibialis anterior – front of lower leg; inverts
foot
Gastrocnemius – calf; flexes foot and leg
Soleus – attaches to ankle; flexes foot

Gracilis – adducts thigh and flexes knee Lower Leg Muscles

Biceps femoris, semimembranosus,
semitendinosus – hamstring; back of thigh;
flexes knee, rotates leg, extends hip
Rectus femoris – front of thigh; extends knee
and flexes hip
Vastus lateralis – extends knee
Vastus medialis – extends knee
Vastus intermedius – extends knee

ace
 Heart
The Cardiovascular System through vessels of the pulmonary
circulation.
The left side of the heart pumps blood to all
other tissues of the body and back to the
right side of the heart through vessels of the
systemic circulation.

The Circulatory System

The heart is a muscular organ that is

essential for life because it pumps blood
through the body. Functions of the Heart
The heart is a member organ of the 1. Generates blood pressure
cardiovascular system, which consists of the 2. Routes blood
heart, blood vessels, and blood. 3. Ensures one-way blood flow
The heart of a healthy adult, at rest, pumps 4. Regulates blood supply
approximately 5 liters (L) of blood per
minute. Heart Characteristics
For most people, the heart continues to Size: size of a fist and weighs less than 1 lb.
pump at approximately that rate for more Location: between lungs in thoracic cavity
than 75 years.
Orientation: apex (bottom) towards left side
The heart is a member organ of the
cardiovascular system, which consists of the
heart, blood vessels, and blood.
The heart is actually two pumps in one, with
the heart’s right-side pumping to the lungs
and back to the left side of the heart

ace
 Pericardial cavity – space around heart

Heart External Anatomy

A coronary sulcus extends around the
heart, separating the atria from the
ventricles.
Two grooves, or sulci, which indicate the
division between the right and left
ventricles, extend inferiorly from the
coronary sulcus.
The anterior interventricular sulcus extends
inferiorly from the coronary sulcus on the
anterior surface of the heart.
The posterior interventricular sulcus extends
inferiorly from the coronary sulcus on the
posterior surface of the heart.
The superior vena cava and inferior vena
cava carry blood from the body to the right
atrium, and four pulmonary veins carry
blood from the lungs to the left atrium.
Two arteries, often called the great vessels
or great arteries, carry blood away from the
ventricles of the heart.
The pulmonary trunk, arising from the right
Pericardia
ventricle, splits into the right and left
pulmonary arteries, which carry blood to
the lungs.
The aorta arising from the left ventricle,
carries blood to the rest of the body.

Surface Anatomy of the Heart

Pericardium – double-layered sac that

anchors and protects heart
Parietal pericardium – membrane around
heart’s cavity
Visceral pericardium – membrane on
heart’s surface

ace
 Bicuspid valve (mitral) – AV valve between
LA and LV; 2 cusps

Valvular Control
Each ventricle contains cone-shaped,
muscular pillars called papillary muscles.
These muscles are attached by strong,
connective tissue strings called chordae
tendineae to the free margins of the cusps
of the atrioventricular valves.
When the ventricles contract, the papillary
muscles contract and prevent the valves
Heart Chambers
from opening into the atria by pulling on the
chordae tendineae attached to the valve
Four Chambers: cusps.
• left atrium (LA)
• right atrium (RA) Semilunar Heart Valves
• left ventricle (LV)
The semilunar valves have three half-moon
• right ventricle (RV)
shaped cusps, and are valves between the
pulmonary trunk and aorta.
Coronary sulcus – separates atria from Pulmonary valve – between RV and
ventricles
pulmonary trunk
The Atria Aortic valve – between LV and aorta
Superior chambers; holding chambers;
small, thin walled; contract minimally to
Internal Anatomy of the Heart
push blood into ventricles
Interatrial septum – separates right and left
atria

Ventricles
Inferior chambers; pumping chambers;
thick, strong walled; contract forcefully to
propel blood out of heart
Interventricular septum – separates right
and left ventricles

Atrioventricular Heart Valves

Valves between the atria and ventricles
Tricuspid valve – AV valve between RA and
RV; 3 cusps

ace
 Heart Valves 5. Pulmonary trunk
6. Pulmonary arteries
7. Lungs
8. Pulmonary veins
9. LA
10. Bicuspid valve
11. LV
12. Aortic semilunar valve
13. Aorta
14. Body

Cardiac Skeleton
A plate of connective tissue, sometimes
called the cardiac skeleton, or fibrous
skeleton, consists mainly of fibrous rings that
surround the atrioventricular and semilunar
valves and give them solid support.
This connective tissue plate also serves as
electrical insulation between the atria and
the ventricles and provides a rigid
attachment site for cardiac muscle.

Blood Supply to the Heart

Blood Flow through Heart Coronary arteries – supply blood to heart

1. RA wall; originate from base of aorta (above
2. Tricuspid valve aortic semilunar valve)
3. RV
4. Pulmonary semilunar valve

ace
Left coronary artery – has 3 branches;
supply blood to anterior heart wall and left
ventricle
Right coronary artery – originates on right
side of aorta; supply blood to right ventricle
Cardiac veins – drain blood from the
cardiac muscle; parallel to the coronary
arteries; most drain blood into the coronary
sinus; from the coronary sinus into the right
atrium
Heart Wall
Epicardium – surface of heart (outside)
Myocardium – thick, middle layer
composed of cardiac muscle
Endocardium – smooth, inner surface
Cardiac Muscle
1 centrally located nucleus; branching cells;
rich in mitochondria; striated (actin and
myosin); Ca2+ and ATP used for
contraction; intercalated disks connect
cells
Cardiac Muscle Action Potentials
Changes in membrane channels’
permeability are responsible for producing
action potentials and is called pacemaker
potential.
Depolarization phase – Na+ channels open;
Ca2+ channels open
Plateau phase – Na+ channels close; some
K+ channels open; Ca2+ channels remain
open
Repolarization phase – K+ channels are
open; Ca2+ channels close
Plateau phase prolongs action potential by
keeping Ca2+ channels open.
In skeletal muscle action potentials take 2
msec, in cardiac muscle they take 200-500
msec.
Conduction System of Heart
Contraction of the atria and ventricles is
coordinated by specialized cardiac muscle
cells in the heart wall that form the
conduction system of the heart.
All the cells of the conduction system can
produce spontaneous action potentials.
The conduction system of the heart includes
the sinoatrial node, atrioventricular node,
atrioventricular bundle, right and left
bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers.
Sinoatrial node (SA node) – In RA; where
action potential originates; functions as
ace
pacemaker; large number of Ca2+ Components of ECG/EKG
channels P wave – depolarization of atria
Atrioventricular node (AV node) – located QRS complex – depolarization of ventricles;
in the lower portion of the right atrium; contains Q, R, S waves
action potentials from SA node sent to this
T wave – repolarization of ventricles
node; action potentials spread slowly
through it; slow rate of action potential
conduction allows the atria to complete Electrocardiogram
their contraction before action potentials
are delivered to the ventricles
Atrioventricular bundle – action potentials
from AV node travel to AV bundle; AV
bundle divides into a left and right bundle
branches
Purkinje Fibers – at the tips of the left and
right bundle branches, are Purkinje fibers;
Purkinje fibers pass to the apex of the heart
and then extend to the cardiac muscle of
the ventricle walls; action potentials are
rapidly delivered to all the cardiac muscle
of the ventricles

Action Potential Path through Heart

1. SA node
2. AV node (atrioventricular)
3. AV bundle Cardiac Cycle
4. Right and Left Bundle branches
5. Purkinje fibers The cardiac cycle is a summative
description of all the events that occur
during one single heartbeat.
Conduction System of the Heart
The heart is a two-sided pump, with the atria
being primers for pumps and the ventricles
being the actual pumps.

Heart Chamber Contractions

Electrocardiogram (EKG)
ECG (EKG) – record of electrical events in
heart; diagnoses cardiac abnormalities;
uses electrodes; contains P wave, QRS
complex, T wave
Cardiac muscle contractions produce
pressure changes within heart chambers.
Pressure changes are responsible for blood
movement.
Blood moves from areas of high to low
pressure.

ace
 Cardiac Cycle
• Atrial systole – contraction of atria
• Ventricular systole – contraction of
ventricles
• Atrial diastole – relaxation of atria
• Ventricular diastole – relaxation of
ventricles
Heart Sounds
Heart sounds are produced due to the
closure of heart valves.
A stethoscope is used to hear heart sounds
The first heart sound makes a ‘lubb’ sound.
The second heart sound makes a ‘dupp’
sound.
The first heart sound is due to the closure of
the atrioventricular valves.
The second heart sound is due to the
closure of the semilunar valves.
Heart Valve Locations
Regulation of Heart Function
Stroke Volume – volume of blood pumped
per ventricle per contraction; 70
milliliters/beat
Heart Rate – number of heart beats in 1 min;
72 beats/min
Cardiac Output – volume of blood pumped
by a ventricle in 1 min; 5 Liters/min
Cardiac output equals stroke volume
multiplied times heart rate
CO = SV x HR
Regulation of the Heart
Intrinsic regulation refers to the mechanisms
contained within the heart itself that control
cardiac output.
Venous return – the amount of blood that
returns to heart
Preload – the degree ventricular walls are
stretched at end of diastole
Venous return, preload, and stroke volume
are related to each other
Intrinsic Regulation of the Heart
Starlings Law of the Heart – relationship
between preload and stroke; volume;
influences cardiac output; example –
exercise increases venous return, preload,
stroke volume, and cardiac output
After load – pressure against which
ventricles must pump blood
Baroreceptor Reflex
The baroreceptor reflex is a mechanism of
the nervous system that plays an important
role in regulating heart function.
Baroreceptors – monitor blood pressure in
the aorta and carotid arteries; changes in
blood pressure cause changes in;
frequency of action potentials; involves the
medulla oblongata
Chemoreceptor Reflex
The chemoreceptor reflex involves
chemical regulation of the heart.
Chemicals can affect heart rate and stroke
volume.
ace
 Chemical actions:
• epinephrine and norepinephrine
from the adrenal medulla can
increase heart rate and stroke
volume
• excitement, anxiety, and anger can
increase cardiac output
• depression can decrease cardiac
output
• medulla oblongata has
chemoreceptors for changes in pH
and CO2
• K+, Ca2+, and Na+ affect cardiac
function

Heart Disease
Coronary Artery Disease – due to decrease
blood supply to the heart; coronary arteries
are narrowed for some reason
Myocardial Infarction (heart attack) – due
to closure of one or more coronary arteries;
area(s) of cardiac muscle lacking
adequate blood supply die, and scars
(infarct)

Heart Procedures
Angioplasty – procedure opens blocked
blood vessels
Stent – structures inserted to keep vessels
open
Bypass – procedure reroutes blood away
from blocked arteries

ace
 Blood Vessels and Circulation
Blood Vessels Blood Vessel Walls

Blood vessels outside the heart are divided Tunica intima – Innermost layer; simple
into two classes: squamous
The pulmonary vessels, which transport Tunica media – middle layer; smooth
blood from the right ventricle of the heart muscle with elastic and collagen
through the lungs and back to the left Tunica adventitia – outermost layer;
atrium connective tissue
The systemic vessels, which transport blood
from the left ventricle of the heart through Artery and Vein
all parts of the body and back to the right
atrium

Blood Vessel Functions

1. Carry blood
2. Exchange nutrients, waste products,
gases within tissues
3. Transport substances
4. Regulate blood pressure
5. Direct blood flow to tissues

Vessel Structures
Arteries – carry blood away from heart;
thick with a lot of elastic
Types of Arteries
Veins – carry blood toward heart; think with
Elastic arteries – largest in diameter; thickest
less elastic
walls; example - aorta and pulmonary trunk
Capillaries – exchange occurs between
Muscular arteries – medium to small size;
blood and tissue fluids
thick in diameter; contain smooth muscle
cells; can control blood flow to body
Blood Flow regions
• Blood flows from arteries into
arterioles
Arteries
• Arterioles into capillaries
• Capillaries into venules
• Venules to small veins
• Veins return to heart

ace
 Capillaries Blood Vessel Structure
Blood flows from arterioles into capillaries
Capillaries branch to form networks
Blood flow is regulated by smooth muscle
cells, precapillary sphincters

Capillary Network

Valves
Capillary Structure

Types of Veins
Blood flows from capillaries into venules
Blood flows from venules into small veins
All 3 tunics are present in small veins
Medium sized veins – collect blood from
small veins and deliver to large veins
Large veins – contain valves

ace
 Pulmonary Circulation Vessels
Pulmonary circulation – blood vessels that
carry blood from right ventricle to lungs and
back from left atrium of heart
Pulmonary trunk – blood pump from right
ventricle towards lung
Pulmonary veins – exit lungs and carry O2
rich blood to left atrium
Systemic Circulation Vessels
The systemic circulation carries blood from
the left ventricle to the tissues of the body
and back to the right atrium.
Oxygenated blood from the pulmonary
veins passes from the left atrium into the left
ventricle and from the left ventricle into the
aorta.
Arteries distribute blood from the aorta to all
portions of the body
Blood Flow through the Circulation
Parts of the Aorta
Ascending – passes superiorly from left
ventricle
Aortic arch – 3 major arteries which carry
blood to head and upper limbs
Descending – extends through thorax and
abdomen to pelvis
Thoracic – part of descending aorta that
extends through thorax to diaphragm
Abdominal – descending aorta that
extends from diaphragm where it divides at
the common iliac arteries
Major Arteries
ace
 Branches of the Aorta Arteries of the Head and Neck

Cerebral Arterial Circle

Arteries of the Head and Neck

Branches of aortic arch:

• brachiocephalic artery
• left common carotid artery
• left subclavian

Major Arteries of the Head and Thorax

Brachiocephalic artery – first branch off
aortic arch; supplies blood to right side of
head and neck
Left common carotid artery – 2nd branch off
aortic arch; supplies blood to the left side of
head and neck
Left subclavian artery – 3rd branch off aortic
arch; supplies blood to left upper limbs
Right common carotid artery – branches off
brachiocephalic artery; supplies blood to
right side of head and neck
Right subclavian artery – branches off
brachiocephalic artery; supplies blood to
right upper limbs

ace
 Arteries of the Upper Limbs Ovarian arteries – supply blood to ovaries
Inferior phrenic arteries – supply blood to
diaphragm
Lumbar arteries – supply blood to lumbar
vertebra and back muscles

Arteries of Pelvis
Common iliac arteries – branches from
abdominal aorta; divides into internal iliac
arteries
• External iliac arteries – division of
common iliac artery; supply blood to
lower limbs
• Internal iliac arteries – division of
common iliac; supply blood to pelvic
area

Major Arteries of the Abdomen and Pelvis

Axillary arteries – continuation of
subclavian; supply blood deep in clavicle
Brachial arteries – continuation of axillary;
where blood pressure measurements are
taken
• Ulnar arteries – branch of brachial
artery; near elbow
• Radial arteries – branch of brachial
artery; supply blood to forearm and
hand; pulse taken here

Abdominal Aorta Branches

Celiac trunk arteries – supply blood to
stomach, pancreas, spleen, liver, upper
duodenum
Superior mesenteric arteries – supply blood
to small intestines and upper portion of
colon
Inferior mesenteric arteries – supply blood to
Arteries of the Lower Limbs
colon
Femoral arteries – supply to thigh
Renal arteries – supply blood to kidneys
Popliteal arteries – supply blood to knee
Hepatic arteries – supply blood to liver
Anterior and posterior arteries – supply
Testicular arteries – supply blood to testes
blood to leg and foot

ace
Fibular arteries – supply blood to lateral leg Inferior vena cava – returns blood from
and foot abdomen, pelvis, lower limbs; empties into
right atrium of heart

Major Veins

Veins of the Head and Neck

Veins
Veins return blood to the heart.
In the systemic circulation, the blood
returning to the heart is deoxygenated.
In the pulmonary circulation, the blood
returning to the heart in the pulmonary veins
is oxygenated.
Superior vena cava – returns blood from
head, neck, thorax, and right upper limbs;
External jugular vein – drain blood from
empties into right atrium of heart
head and neck; empties into subclavian
veins

ace
Internal jugular vein – drain blood from Right and left brachiocephalic veins – drain
brain, face, neck; empty into subclavian blood from thorax into superior vena cava
veins Azygos veins – drain blood from thorax into
Subclavian veins – forms brachiocephalic superior vena cava
veins Internal thoracic veins – empty into
Brachiocephalic veins – join to form superior brachiocephalic veins
vena cava Posterior intercostal veins – drain blood from
posterior thoracic wall; drains into azygos
Veins of the Upper Limbs vein on right side
Hemiazygos vein – receives blood from
azygos vein of left side

Veins of the Abdomen and Pelvis

Common iliac vein – formed from external
and internal iliacs; empty into inferior vena
cava
• External iliac vein – drains blood from
lower limbs; empty into common iliac
vein
• Internal iliac vein – drains blood from
pelvic region; empties into common
iliac vein
Renal vein – drains blood from kidneys

Major Veins of the Abdomen and Pelvis

Brachial veins – empty into axillary vein

Cephalic veins – empty into axillary vein
and basilic vein
Median cubital veins – connects to
cephalic vein; near elbow

Veins of the Thorax

ace
 Hepatic Portal System
Liver is a major processing center for
substances absorbed by intestinal tract.
Portal system – vascular system that begins
with capillaries in viscera and ends with
capillaries in liver; uses splenic vein and
superior mesenteric vein
Veins of the Hepatic Portal System
Veins of the Lower Limbs
Femoral veins – drain blood from thigh and
empty into external iliac vein
Great saphenous veins – drain from foot
and empty into femoral vein
Popliteal veins – drain blood from knee and
empty into femoral vein
Blood Pressure
Blood pressure is the measure of force
blood exerts against blood vessel walls.
Systolic pressure: contraction of heart
Diastolic pressure: relaxation of heart
Average Blood Pressure: 120/80
Measuring Blood Pressure
Pulse Pressure
Pulse pressure is the difference between
systolic and diastolic blood pressures; pulse
pressure points can be felt near large
arteries
Example - 120 for systolic / 80 for diastolic;
pulse pressure is 40 mm Hg
ace
 Body Locations to Evaluate Pulses
Capillary Exchange
Most exchange across capillary wall’s
occurs by diffusion
Blood pressure, capillary permeability and
osmosis affect movement of fluids across
capillary walls.
Net movement of fluid from blood into
tissues
Fluid gained in tissues is removed by
lymphatic system
Local Control of Blood Flow
Local control achieved by relaxation and
contraction of precapillary sphincters
Sphincters relax blood flow increases
Precapillary sphincters controlled by
metabolic needs of tissues
Concentration of nutrients also control
blood flow
Blood flow increases when oxygen levels
decrease
Local Control of Blood Flow through
Capillary Beds
Nervous Control of Blood Flow
Vasomotor center – sympathetic division;
controls blood vessel diameter
Vasomotor tone – state of partial
constriction of blood vessels; increase
causes blood vessels to constrict and blood
pressure to go up
Hormonal Control of Blood Flow
The sympathetic division also regulates
hormonal control of blood flow through the
release of epinephrine and norepinephrine
from the adrenal medulla.
In most blood vessels, these hormones
cause constriction, which reduces blood
flow.
In some tissues, such as skeletal muscle and
cardiac muscle, these hormones cause the
blood vessels to dilate, increasing blood
flow.
ace
 Nervous Regulation of Blood Vessels MAP is about 70 mm Hg at birth.
It is maintained at about 95 mm Hg from
adolescence to middle age, and may
reach 110 mm Hg in a healthy older person.

Baroreceptor Reflexes
Baroreceptor reflexes activate responses to
blood pressure in normal range
Baroreceptors respond to stretch in arteries
due to increased pressure
Located in carotid sinuses and aortic arch
Change peripheral resistance, heart rate,
stroke volume in response to blood pressure

Baroreceptor Reflex Mechanisms

Mean Arterial Pressure

An adequate blood pressure is required to
maintain blood flow through the blood
vessels of the body.
Several regulatory mechanisms ensure that
blood pressure remains adequate for this
task.
Baroreceptor Effects on Blood Pressure
Mean arterial pressure (MAP) is a
calculated value that reflects an average
arterial pressure in various vessels of the
body.
The body’s MAP is equal to the cardiac
output (CO) times the peripheral resistance
(PR)
Cardiac output is equal to the heart rate
(HR) times the stroke volume (SV)
Peripheral resistance is the resistance to
blood flow in all the blood vessels
MAP = CO x PR
The MAP changes in response to changes in
HR, SV, or PR.
The mean arterial pressure changes over
our lifetime.

ace
 Chemoreceptor Reflex
Chemoreceptors are sensitive to changes in
blood oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH
Chemoreceptors are located in carotid
bodies and aortic bodies which lie near
carotid sinuses and aortic arch
They send action potentials along sensory
nerve to medulla oblongata
Chemoreceptor Reflex Mechanisms
Adrenal Medullary Mechanism
1. Stimuli increase sympathetic
stimulation to adrenal medulla
2. Adrenal medulla secretes
epinephrine and norepinephrine into
blood
3. This causes increased heart rate and
stroke volume and vasoconstriction
4. Vasodilation of blood vessels in
skeletal and cardiac muscle
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone
Mechanism
1. Reduce blood flow causes kidneys to
release renin
2. Renin acts on angiotensinogen to
produce angiotensin I
3. Angiotensin-converting enzyme
converts angiotensin I to angiotensin
II
4. Angiotensin II causes vasoconstriction
5. Angiotensin II acts on adrenal cortex
to release aldosterone
6. Aldosterone acts on kidneys causes
them to conserve sodium and water
7. Result less water lost in urine and
blood pressure maintained
Antidiuretic Hormone Mechanism
1. Nerve cells in hypothalamus release
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) when
concentration of solutes in plasma
increases or blood pressure decrease
2. ADH acts of kidneys and they absorb
more water (decrease urine volume)
3. Result is maintained blood volume
and blood pressure
ace
 Aging and Blood Vessels
Arteriosclerosis – makes arteries less elastic
Atherosclerosis – type of arteriosclerosis;
from deposit of materials in artery walls
(plaque)

Factors that contribute to

atherosclerosis:
• lack of exercise
• smoking
• obesity
• diet high in cholesterol and trans fats
• some genetics

Atherosclerotic Plaque

Long-Term Control of Blood Pressure

ace
 Nervous System Part 1
Nervous System
Nervous System Functions
1. Receiving sensory input
2. Integrating information
3. Controlling muscles and glands
4. Maintaining homeostasis
5. Establishing and maintaining mental
activity
Main Divisions of Nervous System
Central nervous system (CNS) – brain and
spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – all the
nervous tissue outside the CNS
Sensory division – conducts action
potentials from sensory receptors to the CNS
Motor division – conducts action potentials
to effector organs, such as muscles and
glands
Somatic nervous system – transmits action
potentials from the CNS to skeletal muscles.
Autonomic nervous system – transmits
action potentials from the CNS to cardiac
muscle, smooth muscle, and glands
Enteric nervous system – a special nervous
system found only in the digestive tract
Organization of the Nervous System
Cells of the Nervous System
Neurons – receive stimuli, conduct action
potentials, and transmit signals to other
neurons or effector organs.
Glial cells – supportive cells of the CNS and
PNS, meaning these cells do not conduct
action potentials. Instead, glial cells carry
out different functions that enhance neuron
function and maintain normal conditions
within nervous tissue
Neurons
A neuron (nerve cell) has a:
Cell body – which contains a single nucleus
Dendrite – which is a cytoplasmic extension
from the cell body, that usually receives
information from other neurons and
transmits the information to the cell body
Axon – which is a single long cell process
that leaves the cell body at the axon hillock
and conducts sensory signals to the CNS
and motor signals away from the CNS
ace
 Typical Neuron
Structural Types of Neurons
Multipolar neurons have many dendrites
and a single axon.; most of the neurons
within the CNS and nearly all motor neurons
are multipolar.
Bipolar neurons have two processes: one
dendrite and one axon.; bipolar neurons
are located in some sensory organs, such as
in the retina of the eye and in the nasal
cavity
Pseudo-unipolar neurons have a single
process extending from the cell body,
which divides into two processes as short
distance from the cell body; one process
extends to the periphery, and the other
extends to the CNS; the two extensions
function as a single axon with small,
dendrite-like sensory receptors at the
periphery.
Types of Neurons
Glial Cells
Glial cells are the supportive cells of the
CNS and PNS.
Astrocytes serve as the major supporting
cells in the CNS.
Astrocytes can stimulate or inhibit the
signaling activity of nearby neurons and
form the blood-brain barrier.
Ependymal cells line the cavities in the brain
that contains cerebrospinal fluid.
Microglial cells act in an immune function
in the CNS by removing bacteria and cell
debris.
Oligodendrocytes provide myelin to
neurons in the CNS.
Schwann cells provide myelin to neurons in
the PNS.
ace
 Types of Glial Cells These axons rest in indentations of the
oligodendrocytes in the CNS and the
Schwann cells in the PNS.
A typical small nerve, which consists of
axons of multiple neurons, usually contains
more unmyelinated axons than myelinated
axons.

Myelinated and Unmyelinated Axons

Organization of Nervous Tissue

The nervous tissue varies in color due to the
abundance or absence of myelinated
axons.
Nervous tissue exists as gray matter and
Myelin Sheath
white matter.
Myelin sheaths are specialized layers that
Gray matter consists of groups of neuron
wrap around the axons of some neurons,
cell bodies and their dendrites, where there
those neurons are termed, myelinated.
is very little myelin.
The sheaths are formed by
White matter consists of bundles of parallel
oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann
axons with their myelin sheaths, which are
cells in the PNS.
whitish in color
Myelin is an excellent insulator that prevents
almost all ion movement across the cell
Membrane Potentials
membrane.
Gaps in the myelin sheath, called nodes of Resting membrane potentials and action
Ranvier, occur about every millimeter. potentials occur in neurons.

Ion movement can occur at the nodes of These potentials are mainly due to
Ranvier. differences in concentrations of ions across
the membrane, membrane channels, and
Myelination of an axon increases the speed
the sodium-potassium pump.
and efficiency of action potential
generation along the axon. Membrane channels include leak channels
and gated channels.
Multiple sclerosis is a disease of the myelin
sheath that causes loss of muscle function. Leak channels are always open, whereas
gated channels are generally closed, but
can be opened due to voltage or
Unmyelinated Neurons chemicals.
Unmyelinated axons lack the myelin
sheaths.

ace
 Leak Membrane Channels • The concentration of K+ being higher
Leak channels are always open are and on the inside of the cell membrane
ions can “leak” across the membrane down and the concentration of Na+ being
their concentration gradient. higher on the outside
• The presence of many negatively
Because there are 50 to 100 times more K+
charged molecules, such as proteins,
leak channels than Na+ leak channels, the
inside the cell that are too large to
resting membrane has much greater
exit the cell
permeability to K+ than to Na+; therefore,
• The presence of leak protein
the K+ leak channels have the greatest
channels in the membrane that are
contribution to the resting membrane
more permeable to K+ than it is to
potential.
Na+

Gated Membrane Channels

Na+ tends to diffuse into the cell and K+
Gated channels are closed until opened by tends to diffuse out.
specific signals.
In order to maintain the resting membrane
Chemically gated channels are opened by potential, the sodium-potassium pump
neurotransmitters or other chemicals, recreates the Na+ and K+ ion gradient by
whereas voltage-gated channels are pumping Na+ out of the cell and K+ into the
opened by a change in membrane cell.
potential.
When opened, the gated channels can
change the membrane potential and are
thus responsible for the action potential.

Sodium-Potassium Pump
The sodium-potassium pump compensates
for the constant leakage of ions through
leak channels.
The sodium-potassium pump is required to
maintain the greater concentration of Na+
outside the cell membrane and K+ inside.
The pump actively transports K+ into the cell
and Na+ out of the cell.
Action Potential
It is estimated that the sodium-potassium
pump consumes 25% of all the ATP in a Action potentials allow conductivity along
typical cell and 70% of the ATP in a neuron. nerve or muscle membrane, similar to
electricity going along an electrical wire.
The channels responsible for the action
Resting Membrane Potential
potential are voltage-gated Na+ and K+
The resting membrane potential exists channels, which are closed during rest
because of: (resting membrane potential).

ace
When a stimulus is applied to the nerve cell, All-or-none refers to the fact that if
following neurotransmitter activation of threshold is reached, an action potential
chemically gated channels, Na+ channels occurs; if the threshold is not reached, no
open very briefly, and Na+ diffuses quickly action potential occurs.
into the cell. The sodium-potassium pump assists in
This movement of Na+, which is called a restoring the resting membrane potential
local current, causes the inside of the cell
membrane to become positive, a change
called depolarization.
If depolarization is not strong enough, the
Na+ channels close again, and the local
potential disappears without being
conducted along the nerve cell
membrane.
If depolarization is large enough, Na+ enters
the cell so that the local potential reaches
a threshold value.
This threshold depolarization causes
voltage-gated Na+ channels to open,
generally at the axon hillock.
The opening of these channels causes a
massive, 600- fold increase in membrane
permeability to Na+.
Voltage-gated K+ channels also begin to
open.
As more Na+ enters the cell, depolarization
continues at a much faster pace, causing a
brief reversal of charge – the inside of the
cell membrane becomes positive relative
to the outside of the cell membrane.
The charge reversal causes Na+ channels
to close and Na+ then stops entering the
cell.
During this time, more K+ channels are
opening and K+ leaves the cell, resulting in
repolarization.
At the end of repolarization, the charge on
the cell membrane briefly becomes more
negative than the resting membrane Unmyelinated and Myelinated Axon Action
potential; this condition is called Potentials
hyperpolarization and occurs briefly. Action potentials are conducted slowly in
Action potentials occur in an all-or-none unmyelinated axons and more rapidly in
fashion myelinated axons.

ace
Action potentials along unmyelinated Synapse
axons occur along the entire membrane.
Action potentials on myelinated axons
occur in a jumping pattern at the nodes of
Ranvier.
This type of action potential conduction is
called saltatory conduction.

Myelinated Axon Conduction

A neuroneuronal synapse is a junction

where the axon of one neuron interacts with
another neuron.
Axon Conduction Speed The end of the axon forms a presynaptic
The speed of action potential conduction terminal and the membrane of the next
varies widely, even among myelinated neuron forms the postsynaptic membrane,
axons; it is based on the diameter of axon with a synaptic cleft between the two
fibers. membranes.
Medium-diameter, lightly myelinated Chemical substances called
axons, characteristic of autonomic neurons, neurotransmitters are stored in synaptic
conduct action potentials at the rate of vesicles in the presynaptic terminal.
about 3 to 15 meters per second (m/s). An action potential reaching the
Large-diameter, heavily myelinated axons presynaptic terminal causes voltage-gated
conduct action potentials at the rate of 15 Ca2 + channels to open, and Ca2 + moves
to 120 m/s. into the cell.

ace
This influx of Ca2+ causes the release of Reflex
neurotransmitters by exocytosis from the A reflex is an involuntary reaction in
presynaptic terminal. response to a stimulus applied to the
The neurotransmitters diffuse across the periphery and transmitted to the CNS.
synaptic cleft and bind to specific receptor Reflexes allow a person to react to stimuli
molecules on the postsynaptic membrane. more quickly than is possible if conscious
The binding of neurotransmitters to these thought is involved.
membrane receptors causes chemically Most reflexes occur in the spinal cord or
gated channels for Na+, K+, or Cl− to open brainstem rather than in the higher brain
or close in the postsynaptic membrane. centers.
The specific channel type and whether or A reflex arc is the neuronal pathway by
not the channel opens or closes depend on which a reflex occurs and has five basic
the type of neurotransmitter in the components.
presynaptic terminal and the type of
receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.
Reflex Arc Components
The response may be either stimulation or
inhibition of an action potential in the 1. A sensory receptor
postsynaptic cell. 2. A sensory neuron
3. Interneurons, which are neurons
If Na+ channels open, the postsynaptic cell
located between and
becomes depolarized, and an action
communicating with two other
potential will result if threshold is reached.
neurons
If K+ or Cl− channels open, the inside of the 4. A motor neuron
postsynaptic cell tends to become more 5. An effector organ (muscles or
negative, or hyperpolarized, and an action glands).
potential is inhibited from occurring.
There are many neurotransmitters, with the
Note: The simplest reflex arcs do not involve
best-known being acetylcholine and
interneurons.
norepinephrine.
Neurotransmitters do not normally remain in
the synaptic cleft indefinitely, thus their Reflex Arc
effects are short duration.
These substances become reduced in
concentration when they are either rapidly
broken down by enzymes within the
synaptic cleft or are transported back into
the presynaptic terminal.
An enzyme called acetylcholinesterase
breaks down the acetylcholine.
Norepinephrine is either actively Neuronal Pathway (Converging)
transported back into the presynaptic The CNS has simple to complex neuronal
terminal or broken down by enzymes. pathways.

ace
A converging pathway is a simple pathway
in which two or more neurons synapse with
the same postsynaptic neuron.
This allows information transmitted in more
than one neuronal pathway to converge
into a single pathway.
Neuronal Pathway (Diverging)
A diverging pathway is a simple pathway in
which an axon from one neuron divides and
synapses with more than one other
postsynaptic neuron.
This allows information transmitted in one
neuronal pathway to diverge into two or
more pathways.
Spatial summation occurs when the local
potentials originate from different locations
on the postsynaptic neuron—for example,
from converging pathways.
Temporal summation occurs when local
potentials overlap in time.
This can occur from a single input that fires
rapidly, which allows the resulting local
potentials to overlap briefly.
Spatial and temporal summation can lead
to stimulation or inhibition, depending on
the type of signal.

Neuronal Pathways

Summation
A single presynaptic action potential usually
does not cause a sufficiently large
postsynaptic local potential to reach
threshold and produce an action potential
in the target cell.
Many presynaptic action potentials are
needed in a process called summation.
Summation of signals in neuronal pathways
allows integration of multiple subthreshold
local potentials.
Summation of the local potentials can bring
the membrane potential to threshold and
trigger an action potential.

ace
 Nervous System Part 2
Functions of the Nervous System Two subdivisions of Motor division
Sensory input – gathering information; to • Somatic nervous system – voluntary
monitor changes occurring inside and • Autonomic nervous system –
outside the body (changes = stimuli) involuntary
Integration – to process and interpret
sensory input and decide if action is Organization of the Nervous System
needed.
Motor output – a response to integrated
stimuli; the response activates muscles or
glands

Structural Classification of the Nervous

System
• Central nervous system (CNS) – brain
& spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS) –
nerve outside the brain and spinal
cord

Functional Classification of the Peripheral

Nervous System

Sensory (afferent) division – nerve fibers that

carry information to the central nervous
system
Motor (efferent) division – nerve fibers that
carry impulses away from the central
nervous system

ace
Nervous Tissue: Support Cells (Neuroglia or
Glia)
Astrocytes – abundant, star-shaped cells;
brace neurons; form barrier between
capillaries and neurons; control the
chemical environment of the brain (CNS)

Support Cells of the PNS

Satellite cells – protect neuron cell bodies
Schwann cells – form myelin sheath in the
peripheral nervous system
Microglia (CNS) – spider-like phagocytes;
dispose of debris

Nervous Tissue: Neurons

Neurons – nerve cells; cells specialized to
transmit messages

Major regions of Neurons

• Cell body – nucleus and metabolic
center of the cell
• Processes – fibers that extend from
Ependymal cells (CNS) – line cavities of the the cell body (dendrites and axons)
brain and spinal cord; circulate
cerebrospinal fluid
Neuron Anatomy

Oligodendrocytes (CNS) – produce myelin

sheath around nerve fibers in the central
nervous system

ace
 Cell body
• Nucleus
• Large nucleolus
Extensions outside the cell body
• Dendrites – conduct impulses toward
the cell body
• Axons – conduct impulses away from
the cell body (only 1!)

Axons and Nerve Impulses

Axons end in axonal terminals
Axonal terminals contain vesicles with
neurotransmitters
Axonal terminals are separated from the
next neuron by a gap
Synaptic cleft – gap between adjacent
neurons
Synapse – junction between nerves

Neuron Cell Body Location

Most are found in the central nervous
system
Gray matter – cell bodies and unmyelinated
fibers
Nuclei – clusters of cell bodies within the
white matter of the central nervous system
Ganglia – collections of cell bodies outside
the central nervous system

Functional Classification of Neurons

Nerve Fiber Coverings
Schwann cells – produce myelin sheaths in
jelly-roll like fashion
Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in myelin sheath
along the axon
Sensory (afferent) neurons – carry impulses
from the sensory receptors; cutaneous
sense organs; proprioceptors – detect
stretch or tension
Motor (efferent) neurons – carry impulses
from the central nervous system

ace
 Structural Classification of Neurons
Multipolar neurons – many extensions from
the cell body
Bipolar neurons – one axon and one
dendrite
Unipolar neurons – have a short single
process leaving the cell body
How Neurons Function (Physiology)
Irritability – ability to respond to stimuli
Conductivity – ability to transmit an impulse
The plasma membrane at rest is polarized
Fewer positive ions are inside the cell than
outside the cell
Starting a Nerve Impulse
Depolarization – a stimulus depolarizes the
neuron’s membrane
A depolarized membrane allows sodium
(Na+) to flow inside the membrane
The exchange of ions initiates an action
potential in the neuron
The Action Potential
If the action potential (nerve impulse) starts,
it is propagated over the entire axon
Potassium ions rush out of the neuron after
sodium ions rush in, which repolarizes the
membrane
The sodium-potassium pump restores the
original configuration
This action requires ATP
Nerve Impulse Propagation
The impulse continues to move toward the
cell body
Impulses travel faster when fibers have a
myelin sheath
ace
 The Reflex Arc

Reflex – rapid, predictable, and involuntary

responses to stimuli
Reflex arc – direct route from a sensory
neuron, to an interneuron, to an effector

Simple Reflex Arc

Continuation of the Nerve Impulse

between Neurons Types of Reflexes and Regulation
Impulses are able to cross the synapse to
another nerve Autonomic reflexes
Neurotransmitter is released from a nerve’s • Smooth muscle regulation
axon terminal • Heart and blood pressure regulation
The dendrite of the next neuron has • Regulation of glands
receptors that are stimulated by the • Digestive system regulation
neurotransmitter Somatic reflexes
• Activation of skeletal muscles
How Neurons Communicate at Synapses
Central Nervous System (CNS)
CNS develops from the embryonic neural
tube; the neural tube becomes the brain
and spinal cord; the opening of the neural
tube becomes the ventricles; four
chambers within the brain; filled with
cerebrospinal fluid

ace
 Regions of the Brain Lobes of the Cerebrum

Fissures (deep grooves) divide the

cerebrum into lobes

• Cerebral hemispheres Surface lobes of the cerebrum:

• Diencephalon
• Frontal lobe
• Brain stem
• Parietal lobe
• Cerebellum
• Occipital lobe
• Temporal lobe
Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum)
Paired (left and right) superior parts of the Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum
brain; include more than half of the brain
mass; the surface is made of ridges (gyri)
and grooves (sulci)

Somatic sensory area – receives impulses

from the body’s sensory receptors
Primary motor area – sends impulses to
skeletal muscles
Broca’s area – involved in our ability to
speak

ace
 Sensory and Motor Areas of the Cerebral spastic, jerky; involved in Huntington’s and
Cortex Parkinson’s Disease

Specialized Area of the Cerebrum

Diencephalon
Cerebral areas involved in special Sits on top of the brain stem; enclosed by
senses the cerebral hemispheres
• Gustatory area (taste)
• Visual area
• Auditory area
• Olfactory area
Interpretation areas of the cerebrum
• Speech/language region
• Language comprehension region
• General interpretation area

Layers of the Cerebrum

Gray matter – outer layer; composed mostly
of neuron cell bodies Made of three parts
White matter – fiber tracts inside the gray • Thalamus
matter; e.g., corpus callosum connects • Hypothalamus
hemispheres • Epithalamus
Basal nuclei – internal islands of gray matter;
regulates voluntary motor activities by Thalamus
modifying info sent to the motor cortex; Surrounds the third ventricle; the relay
problems = i.e., unable to control muscles, station for sensory impulses; transfers

ace
impulses to the correct part of the cortex for
localization and interpretation
Hypothalamus
Under the thalamus; important autonomic
nervous system center; an important part of
the limbic system (emotions); the pituitary
gland is attached to the hypothalamus
• helps regulate body temperature
• controls water balance
• regulates metabolism
Epithalamus
Forms the roof of the third ventricle; houses
the pineal body (an endocrine gland);
includes the choroid plexus – forms
cerebrospinal fluid
Brain Stem
Attaches to the spinal cord
Parts of the brain stem
• Midbrain
• Pons
• Medulla oblongata
Midbrain
Mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers;
reflex centers for vision and hearing;
cerebral aquaduct – 3rd-4th ventricles
Pons
The bulging center part of the brain stem;
mostly composed of fiber tracts; includes
nuclei involved in the control of breathing
Medulla Oblongata
The lowest part of the brain stem; merges
into the spinal cord; includes important fiber
tracts; contains important control centers
• heart rate control
• blood pressure regulation
• breathing
• swallowing
• vomiting
Cerebellum
Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces;
provides involuntary coordination of body
movements
Protection of the Central Nervous System
• Scalp and skin
• Skull and vertebral column
ace
 • Meninges
• Cerebrospinal fluid
• Blood brain barrier
Meninges
Dura mater – double-layered external
covering
• Periosteum – attached to surface of
the skull
• Meningeal layer – outer covering of
the brain
Arachnoid layer – middle layer; web-like
Pia mater – internal layer; clings to the
surface of the brain
Cerebrospinal Fluid
Similar to blood plasma composition;
formed by the choroid plexus; forms a
watery cushion to protect the brain;
circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles,
and central canal of the spinal cord
Ventricles and Location of the
Cerebrospinal Fluid
Blood Brain Barrier
Includes the least permeable capillaries of
the body; excludes many potentially
harmful substances
Useless against some substances:
• Fats and fat-soluble molecules
• Respiratory gases
• Alcohol
• Nicotine
• Anesthesia
Traumatic Brain Injuries (TBI)
Concussion – slight or mild brain injury;
bleeding & tearing of nerve fibers
happened; recovery likely with some
memory loss
Contusion – a more severe TBI; nervous
tissue destruction occurs; nervous tissue
does not regenerate
Cerebral edema – swelling from the
inflammatory response; may compress and
kill brain tissue
Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)
Commonly called a stroke; the result of a
ruptured blood vessel supplying a region of
the brain; brain tissue supplied with oxygen
from that blood source dies; loss of some
functions or death may result
Alzheimer’s Disease
Progressive degenerative brain disease;
mostly seen in the elderly, but may begin in
middle age; structural changes in the brain
include abnormal protein deposits and
twisted fibers within neurons; victims
experience memory loss, irritability,
confusion and ultimately, hallucinations
and death
ace
 Spinal Cord Structure of a Nerve
Extends from the medulla oblongata to the
region of T12; below T12 is the cauda equina
(a collection of spinal nerves);
enlargements occur in the cervical and
lumbar regions

Spinal Cord Anatomy

Exterior white mater – conduction tracts
Internal gray matter - mostly cell bodies

• Dorsal (posterior) horns

• Anterior (ventral) horns

Endoneurium surrounds each fiber

Groups of fibers are bound into fascicles by
perineurium
Central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid Fascicles are bound together by
epineurium
Meninges cover the spinal cord
Nerves leave at the level of each vertebrae
Dorsal root Classification of Nerves

Associated with the dorsal root ganglia – Mixed nerves – both sensory and motor
collections of cell bodies outside the central fibers
nervous system Afferent (sensory) nerves – carry impulses
Ventral root toward the CNS
Efferent (motor) nerves – carry impulses
away from the CNS
Peripheral Nervous System
Nerves and ganglia outside the central
nervous system; nerve = bundle of neuron Spinal Nerves
fibers; neuron fibers are bundled by There is a pair of spinal nerves at the level of
connective tissue each vertebrae.

ace
 Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous
System

Autonomic Nervous System

The involuntary branch of the nervous
system; consists of only motor nerves

Divided into two divisions

• Sympathetic division
• Parasympathetic division

Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Autonomic Functioning

Nervous Systems
Sympathetic – “fight-or-flight”; response to
unusual stimulus; takes over to increase
activities; remember as the “E” division =
exercise, excitement, emergency, and
embarrassment
Parasympathetic – housekeeping activities;
conserves energy; maintains daily
necessary body functions; remember as the
“D” division - digestion, defecation, and
diuresis

Development Aspects of the Nervous

System
The nervous system is formed during the first
month of embryonic development
Any maternal infection can have extremely
harmful effects

ace
The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of
the brain to develop
No more neurons are formed after birth, but
growth and maturation continue for several
years (new evidence!)
The brain reaches maximum weight as a
young adult
However, we can always grow dendrites!

ace