CHAPTER: 6

DATA COMMUNICATION
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
 The communication system is a system model that
describes a communication exchange between two stations,
transmitter, and receiver.
 Signals or information passes from source to destination
through a channel.
 It represents a way in which the signal uses it to move from
a source toward its destination.
 To transmit signals in a communication system, it should
first be processed by beginning from signal representation,
to signal shaping until encoding and modulation.
 After the transmitted signal is prepared, it is passed to the
transmission line of the channel.
 Due to signal crossing this media, it is faced with much
impairment like noise, attenuation, and distortion. Some
terms related to communication system
 The communication process involves—sender of
information, receiver of information, language
used for communication, and medium used to
establish the communication.
 Communication between computers also follows a
similar process.
IMPORTANCE OF NETWORKING
 Resource Sharing
 Sharing of information

 As a communication medium

 Backup and support

DATA TRANSMISSION SPEED
 When the signals are transmitted between two
computers, two factors need to be considered—
(1) Bandwidth, and
(2) Distance.
 Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be
transferred through the underlying hardware i.e.
the communication medium, in a fixed amount of
time.
 Bandwidth is measured in cycles per second (cps)
or Hertz (Hz).
 The bandwidth of the transmission medium
determines the data transfer rate.
 Throughput is the amount of data that is actually
transmitted between the two computers.
 Throughput is specified in bits per second (bps).
 The throughput capability of the communication
medium is also called bandwidth.
 The bandwidth of the communication medium is the
upper bound on the throughput, because data cannot be
sent at a rate more than the throughput of the
communication medium.
 Higher throughput is achieved by using a large part of
the electromagnetic spectrum (large bandwidth).
 Technology that uses large part of the electromagnetic
spectrum to achieve higher throughput is known as
broadband technology.
 The technology that uses small part of the
electromagnetic spectrum is known as baseband
technology.
 Throughput is affected by the distance between the
connected computers or devices.
 Even if a transmission medium is designed for a
specific bandwidth, the throughput is affected by the
distance of communication.
 The bandwidth of transmission medium is limited by
the distance over which the medium needs to
transmit the signal.
 The bandwidth decreases with the increase in the
distance between the connected devices.
 When a signal has to travel long distance, the signal
strength decreases; the signal strength is utilized to
overcome the resistance offered by the connecting
medium (cable or wire).
 The gradual deterioration of signal strength across
long distances is called attenuation.
 Moreover, with increasing distance the external
disturbance increases, which causes the signal to
deteriorate and results in less amount of data to
be transferred.
 The degradation of signal due to internal or
external disturbances is called distortion.
 The bandwidth and distance of the transmission
medium is selected so that it offers minimum
attenuation and minimum distortion.
 The cat-5 UTP cable has a throughput of 100
Mbps over a distance of 100m.
 The 10 base2 coaxial cable has a throughput up
to 10Mbps over a distance of 185 m.
 The 10 base 5 coaxial cable has a throughput up
to 10Mbps over a distance of 500 m.
COMMUNICATION MODES
 Communication mode refers to the mechanism of
transferring of data between two devices
connected over a network. It is also called
Transmission Mode.
 These modes direct the direction of flow of
information.
 Communication between two devices can be

 Simplex,

 Half-duplex or

 Full-duplex
1. SIMPLEX MODE
 In simplex mode, the communication is
unidirectional, as on a one-way street.
 Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit;
the other can only receive. Keyboards and
traditional monitors are examples of simplex
devices. The keyboard can only introduce input; the
monitor can only accept output.
 The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the
channel to send data in one direction.
HALF DUPLEX
 The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with
traffic allowed in both directions.
 When cars are traveling in one direction, cars
going the other way must wait. In a half-duplex
transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is
taken over by whichever of the two devices is
transmitting at the time.
 Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are
both half-duplex systems.
 The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there
is no need for communication in both directions at
the same time; the entire capacity of the channel
can be utilized for each direction.
2. HALF-DUPLEX:
 In half-duplex mode, each station can both
transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only
receive, and vice versa which will represent in the
following figure.
3. FULL-DUPLEX:
 In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both
stations can transmit and receive simultaneously
as shown in the following figure.
 The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street
with traffic flowing in both directions at the same
time.
 One common example of full-duplex
communication is the telephone network.
 When two people are communicating by a
telephone line, both can talk and listen at the
same time.
 The full-duplex mode is used when
communication in both directions is required all
the time.
 The capacity of the channel, however, must be
divided between the two directions.
DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA
 A transmission media is defined as the means of
communication between two networking devices that helps to
transfer data from sender to receiver and vice versa.
 Transmission media is a pathway that carries
the information from sender to receiver.
 We use different types of cables or waves to transmit data.
 Data is transmitted normally through electrical or
electromagnetic signals.
 An electrical signal is in the form of current. An
electromagnetic signal is series of electromagnetic energy
pulses at various frequencies.
 These signals can be transmitted through copper wires,
optical fibers, atmosphere, water and vacuum.
 Different Medias have different properties like bandwidth,
delay, cost and ease of installation and maintenance.
 Transmission media is also
called Communication channel.
TYPES OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA
 Guided media
➢ Twisted Pair Cable

➢ Coaxial Cable

➢ Optical Fibers

o Unguided Media
➢ Radio Transmission

➢ Microware Transmission

➢ Satellite Transmission
TWISTED PAIR CABLE
 A twisted pair cable consists of four pairs of copper
wires coated with an insulating material like plastic or
Teflon, twisted together.
 The twisting of wires reduces electromagnetic
interference from external sources.
 Twisted pair cabling is often used in data networks for
short and medium length connections because of its
relatively lower costs compared to optical fiber and
coaxial cable.
 Twisted pair is of two kinds—Shielded Twisted Pair
(STP), and Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP).
 STP cable has an extra layer of metal foil between the
twisted pair of copper wires and the outer covering.
 The metal foil covering provides additional protection
from external disturbances.
 However, the covering increases the resistance to
the signal and thus decreases the length of the
cable.
 STP is costly and is generally used in networks
where cables pass closer to devices that cause
external disturbances.
 UTP is the most commonly used medium for
transmission over short distances up to 100m.
 Out of the four pairs of wires in a UTP cable, only
two pairs are used for communication.
 UTP cables are defined in different categories.

 The commonly used UTP cable is the Cat-5 cable

which is used with fast Ethernet.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN UTP AND STP
2. COAXIAL CABLE:
 The coaxial cables have a central copper conductor,
surrounded by an insulating layer, a conducting
shield, and the outermost plastic sheath.
 Thus, there are three insulation layers for the inner
copper cable.
 It has an outer plastic covering containing 2
parallel conductors each having a separate
insulated protection cover.
 The coaxial cable transmits information in two
modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth)
and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into
separate ranges).
 Cable TVs and analog television networks widely
use Coaxial cables.
 The commonly used coaxial cable is 10base2 that
transmits over a distance of 185 m, and 10base5
that transmits over a distance of 500 m.
Advantages:
 High Bandwidth

 Better noise Immunity

 Easy to install and expand

 Inexpensive

Disadvantages:
 Single cable failure can disrupt the entire
network
3. OPTICAL FIBER CABLE

 It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core

made up of glass or plastic.
 The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic
covering called the cladding.
 It is used for the transmission of large volumes of
data.
 The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional.
 The WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexer) supports
two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional
mode.
 The main advantages of this cable include lightweight,
capacity & bandwidth will be increased, signal
attenuation is less, etc.
 The disadvantages are high cost, fragile, installation &
maintenance is difficult and unidirectional.
Advantages:
 Increased capacity and bandwidth

 Lightweight

 Less signal attenuation

 Immunity to electromagnetic interference

 Resistance to corrosive materials

Disadvantages:
 Difficult to install and maintain

 High cost

 Fragile
RADIO TRANSMISSION
 The electromagnetic radio waves that operate at
the radio frequency are also used to transmit
computer data. This transmission is also known
as Radio Frequency RF) transmission.
 The computers using RF transmission do not
require a direct physical connection like wires or
cable.
 Each computer attaches to an antenna hat can
both send and receive radio transmission.
 Frequency Range: 3KHz – 1GHz.

 AM and FM radios and cordless phones use radio

waves for transmission.
MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION
 Microwave transmission refers to the technique of transmitting
information over a microwave link.
 Microwaves have a higher frequency than radio waves.
 Microwave transmission can be aimed at a single direction,
instead of broadcasting in all directions (like in radio waves).
 Microwaves can carry more information than radio waves but
cannot penetrate metals.
 Microwaves are used where there is a clear path between the
transmitter and the receiver.
 Microwave transmission has the advantage of not requiring
access to all contiguous land along the path of the system, since it
does not need cables.
 They suffer from the disadvantages:
a) needing expensive towers and repeaters, and
b) are subject to interference from passing airplanes and rain.
 Because microwave systems are line-of-sight media, radio towers
must be spaced approximately every 42 km along the route.
SATELLITE TRANSMISSION
 The communication across longer distances can be
provided by combining radio frequency transmission
with satellites.
 Geosynchronous satellites are placed in an orbit
synchronized with the rotation of the earth at a
distance of 36,000 km above the surface of the earth.
 Geosynchronous satellites appear to be stationary
when viewed from the earth.
 The satellite consists of transponder that can receive
RF signals and transmit them back to the ground at a
different angle.
 A ground station on one side of the ocean transmits
signal to the satellite which in turn sends the signal
to the ground station on the other side of the ocean
BASIC CONCEPT OF NETWORK
ARCHITECTURE
A. On The Basis of Architecture/Services
 Based on how the computers in a network are
configured and how they access information,
networks are classified into two types:
i. Peer-to-Peer Network
ii. Client-Server Network
i. Peer to Peer Network (P2P)
 In a peer-to-peer network, all computers have an
equal relation to one another.
 There is not any computer, which can be regarded,
as superior to another computer.
 All computers are equal and therefore are known as
peers. Any computer in peer-to-peer network can
functions as both client and a server
simultaneously.
 Any computer in the network is capable of accessing
data, software and other resources directly without
any central controlling mechanism.
 Peer-to-peer network are also called as workgroups.
P2P NETWORK FIGURE
❖ Advantages of peer-to-peer network

• Peer-to-peer networks are easy to build and operate

• Peer-to-peer networks are inexpensive to operate

• The network software used to operate peer-to-peer

networks are simple and easy to operate.

• If any computer in a peer-to-peer network fails, then

the resources on only that computer becomes
unavailable without hampering the availability of
resources on other computers.
❖ Disadvantages of using peer-to-peer network

• The required resources are difficult to find quickly

because it could be in any one of the computers.

• Peer-to-peer networks are not very secure.

• A peer-to-peer network becomes very difficult to

manage and operate when the number of computer
involved exceeds 15 to 20.
ii. Client-Server Network

 Client server networks have become standard

models for networking.
 In client-server network, there is a clear distinction
between the computers depending upon their
functionality; clients and servers.
 Servers are powerful computers dedicated to
managing files or documents (file server), printers
(print servers), web pages (web servers) etc.
 Client are less powerful computer on which users do
their job.
 Client depends upon server computers to access
required resources
CLIENT SERVER NETWORK FIGURE
❖ Advantages of using client-server network

• Since the resources are usually located in servers,

the resources are easy to find.

• Client-server network can be made very secure. The

resources on the server can be controlled very tightly
by identifying, who can access the resources and who
cannot.

• Client-server network are very scalable. i.e. the

number of clients that can be connected in a client-
server network is not limited.
❖ Disadvantages of using client-server network

• It cost more to implement and operate than the

peer-to-peer network.

• If the server in a client-server network fails, then

the clients cannot access any resources.

• Specialized software is needed to implement a

client-server network.
NETWORK CONNECTING DEVICES
1. Network Interface Card
2. MODEM
3. Hub
4. Switch
5. Bridge
6. Router
7. Brouter
8. Repeater
9. Gateway
10. Bluetooth
11. Wi-Fi
12. Workstations
MODEM
 A modem or broadband modem is a hardware
device that connects a computer or router to
a broadband network.
 a modem is a hardware device that allows a
computer to send and receive information
over telephone lines.
 When sending a signal, the device converts
("modulates") digital data to an analog audio
signal, and transmits it over a telephone line.
 Similarly, when an analog signal is received, the
modem converts it back ("demodulates" it) to a
digital signal.
Types of computer modems
 Onboard modem - Modem built onto the
computer motherboard. These modems cannot be
removed, but can be disabled through
a jumper or BIOS setup.
 Internal modem - Modem that connects to
a PCI slot inside a newer desktop computer,
or ISA slot on an older computer. The internal
modem shown above is an example of a PCI modem.
 External modem - Modem in a box that connects to
the computer externally, using a serial
port or USB port. The picture is an example of
an external US Robotics modem.
 Removable modem - Modem used with
older laptops PCMCIA slot and can be added or
removed as needed.
CONCEPT OF LAN AND WAN
 Based on size and distance coverage (or
geographical spread) of networks, the computer
network is divided into three types:
i. Local Area Network (LAN)
ii. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
iii. Wide Area Network (WAN)
I. LOCAL AREA NETWORK
 Local Area Network (LAN) is the interconnection of computers in a
limited geographical area like in a single room, rooms within a
building, or buildings on one site.
 It is smaller, simpler and cheaper than other networks.
 In a typical LAN, there is a server which consists of additional
software and hardware.
 A LAN is useful for sharing resources like files, software programs,
printers, plotters, disk drives, games or other applications services.
 The LAN can operate at a speed of several 100 Mbps. Most local area
networks are built with relatively cheap hardware such as Ethernet
cables, network adapters, and hubs.
 Wireless LAN and other more advanced LAN hardware are also used
at present. The network operating system is required for Local Area
Network.
 For example, Microsoft Windows provides a software package called
Internet Connection Sharing (ICS) that supports controlled access to
LAN resources.
 Advantages of the LAN
i. Data transmission speed is faster than MAN and WAN.
ii. It has higher security to resources of the network.
iii. It is cheaper to establish.
iv. It is easier to establish, manage and operate.
 Disadvantages of the LAN
i. It is limited only to a small area.
ii. It comparatively connects a small number of computers.
iii. Lack of backup provision compares to MAN and WAN.
iv. The LAN can only connect several computers that are in
a particular area such as a school, in a building, and in a
space that is often associated with a PC. However, rarely
LAN covers more area than MAN and WAN.
II. METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK:
 A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network
that is larger than a LAN.
 It is called metropolitan since it normally covers the
area of city.
 Different hardware and transmission media are often
used in MAN because they don’t require complete
access to locations between the network sites.
 The features of the MAN are:
➢ It covers large geographical area with respect to LAN.
➢ MANs typically used when you need to connect
dissimilar system within a single metropolitan.
➢ It is owned by single or multiple organizations.
➢ It uses private or public connection mediums.
III. WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN):
 A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance
transmission of data, image, audio, and video
information over large geographic areas that may
comprise a country, a continent, or even the whole
world.
 A WAN can be as complex as the backbones that
connect the Internet or as simple as a dial-up line that
connects a home computer to the Internet.
 The switched WAN connects the end systems, which
usually comprise a router (internetworking connecting
device) that connects to another LAN or WAN.
 The point-to-point WAN is normally a line leased from
a telephone or cable TV provider that connects a home
computer or a small LAN to an Internet service
provider (ISP).
 This type of WAN is often used to provide Internet
access.
 Advantages of WAN
 It is spread to a large area than LAN and MAN.
 It connects comparatively larger number of computers
than LAN and MAN.
 It also connects dissimilar systems and networks.
WAN network seeks to connect places in Kathmandu
with other places in the world as Tokyo or Moscow in
just minutes, without the need to afford a big sum of
money for a payphone.
 Disadvantages of WAN
 It uses comparatively expensive devices than used in
LAN and MAN.
 Transmission speed is usually slower (using same
types of transmission media) compare to LAN and
MAN.
 It is complex to establish, manage and provide
security. High qualified technical personnel and
government agencies are worked together to establish
this type of network. Thus, invest money and effort is
very top.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
 A network topology is the physical arrangement of
computers, cables and other components on a
network.
 The type of topology you use affect the speed and
performance of the computer network.
 The common used physical network topologies are:
➢ Bus Topology
➢ Ring Topology
➢ Star Topology
➢ Mesh Topology
➢ Tree Topology
➢ Hybrid Topology
A)BUS TOPOLOGY

 In a bus topology, all of the computers in a network

are attached to a continuous cable or segment, that
connects them in a linear format.
 It uses a common cable or backbone to connect all
the nodes is called as Bus.
 Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines
and T-connector or taps.
 A drop line is a connection running between the
device and the main cable.
 In this topology, a packet or data is transmitted to
all network adapter on that segment.
Advantages:
• Bus topology is simple, reliable (in very small
network), easy to use and easy to understand.
• It is less expensive.
• It is easy to add a new node in the network.

Disadvantages:
• Heavy network traffic can slow a bus considerably.
• It is difficult to troubleshoot.
• If problem occurs on the backbone, the entire
network will go down.
B) STAR TOPOLOGY

 In a star topology, all cables runs from the computer

to a central location, where they are all connected by
a device called a hub or switch.
 Each nodes on a star topology must be located
relatively close to the hub.
Advantages:
• It is easy to set up and configure.
• It is easy to modify and add new computers to a star
topology without disturbing the rest of the network.
• Single computer failure does not necessarily bring
down the whole star network.
• It is easy to detect the errors in star topology

Disadvantages:
• If the central device fails, the whole network stops.
• It costs more to cable a star topology because all
network cable must be pulled to central point (hub).
C) RING TOPOLOGY

 In a ring topology, each computer is connected to the

next computer with the last one connected to the
first.
 The ring topology provides equal access for all
computers on the network.
 The information on a ring network travels in one
direction either clockwise or anti clockwise direction.
Advantages:
• Ring topology is easy to setup and reconfigure.
• Each computer is given equal opportunity to access
the network resources.
• Single cable connects between the nodes.

Disadvantages:
• Failure of one computer on the ring can affect the
entire network.
• Adding or removing computers disturbs the
networks.
• It is difficult to troubleshoot in a ring topology.
D) MESH TOPOLOGY

 In a mesh topology, each node is linked to other

through intermediate nodes with redundant paths.
 All nodes are connected directly to one another,
which helps fast communication between nodes.
Advantages:
• The mesh topology is fault tolerance.
• It is easy to troubleshoot.

Disadvantages:
• Difficult to installation and reconfigure
• It is costlier.
E) HYBRID TOPOLOGY
 A hybrid topology is a type of network topology
that uses two or more differing network topologies.
 These topologies can include a mix of bus
topology, mesh topology, ring topology, star
topology, and tree topology.
 The choice to use a hybrid topology over a standard
topology depends on the needs of a business, school,
or the users.
 The number of computers, their location, and
desired network performance are all factors in the
decision.
Advantages:
 Hybrid network combines the benefits of
different types of topologies
 Can be modified as per requirement
 It is extremely flexible.
 It is very reliable.
 It is easily scalable

Disadvantages:
 Itis expensive
 The design of a hybrid network is complex.
 Hardware changes are required in order to
connect topology to another topology.
COMMUNICATION PROTOCOL
 Data networks are a combination of software and
hardware components.
 The hardware includes transmission media,
devices, and transmission equipment.
 The software allows the hardware to interact
with one another and provide access to the
network.
 The application programs that use the network
do not interact with the hardware directly.
 The application programs interact with the
protocol software, which follows the rules of the
protocol while communicating.
 Protocol is a network term used to indicate the
set of rules used by a network for communication.
OSI REFERENCE MODEL
 OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection.
 It has been developed by ISO – ‘International
Organization of Standardization‘, in 1984.
 It is a 7 layer architecture with each layer having
specific functionality to perform.
 All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit
the data from one person to another across the
globe.
A. Physical Layer (Layer 1) :
 lowest layer of the OSI reference model

 responsible for the actual physical connection

between the devices.
 The physical layer contains information in the form
of bits.
 It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from
one node to the next.
 When receiving data, this layer will get the signal
received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them
to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame
back together.
 Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer
devices.
B. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) :
 The data link layer is responsible for the node to
node delivery of the message.
 The main function of this layer is to make sure
data transfer is error-free from one node to
another, over the physical layer.
 When a packet arrives in a network, it is the
responsibility of DLL to transmit it to the Host
using its MAC address.
 Packet in Data Link layer is referred as Frame.
 Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network
Interface Card) and device drivers of host
machines.
 Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
C. Network Layer (Layer 3) :
 Network layer works for the transmission of data
from one host to the other located in different
networks.
 It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of
the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the
number of routes available.
 The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the
header by the network layer.
 Segment in Network layer is referred as Packet.

 Network layer is implemented by networking

devices such as routers.
D. Transport Layer (Layer 4) :
 Transport layer provides services to application layer
and takes services from network layer.
 The data in the transport layer is referred to as
Segments.
 It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of the
complete message.
 The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement
of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the
data if an error is found.
 Transport layer is operated by the Operating System.

 It is a part of the OS and communicates with the

Application Layer by making system calls.
 Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model.
E. Session Layer (Layer 5) :
 This layer is responsible for establishment of
connection, maintenance of sessions,
authentication and also ensures security.
 The functions of the session layer are :

✓ Session establishment, maintenance and

termination: two processes to establish, use and
terminate a connection.
✓ Synchronization :a process to add checkpoints
which are considered as synchronization points
into the data.
✓ Dialog Controller : two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or
full-duplex.
F. Presentation Layer (Layer 6) :
 Presentation layer is also called the Translation
layer.
 The data from the application layer is extracted here
and manipulated as per the required format to
transmit over the network.
 The functions of the presentation layer are :
✓ Translation : For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
✓ Encryption/ Decryption : Data encryption
translates the data into another form or code. The
encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the
decrypted data is known as plain text.
✓ Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need
to be transmitted on the network.
G. Application Layer (Layer 7) :
 Top most layer of the OSI Reference Model which is
implemented by the network applications.
 These applications produce the data, which has to be
transferred over the network.
 also serves as a window for the application services to
access the network and for displaying the received
information to the user.
 Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger etc.

 Application Layer is also called as Desktop Layer.