1.

Explain why GIS technology is accepted as an essential tool for the effective
use of geographic information?
GIS innovation is broadly recognized as an fundamental instrument for successful
utilize of geographic data due to its capacity to coordinated different information sources,
empowering comprehensive examination and visualization of spatial information. It
underpins decision-making by giving apparatuses for spatial investigation, recreation, and
situation assessment. GIS encourages proficient information administration, guaranteeing
information keenness and openness for different clients. Moreover, it upgrades
effectiveness, decreases costs, and helps in spatial arranging and approach advancement by
giving bits of knowledge into arrive utilize, framework, and natural impacts. Generally, GIS
innovation offers a effective system for leveraging geographic data and optimizing decision-
making forms.

2 . Describe the following terms frequently used in GIS:

i- Spatial information iii- Attribute or Aspatial data

ii- Non-Spatial information iv- Coverage, Theme, Feature, Layers

a. Spatial information: information about a particular location called spatial data. E.g
land use, soil, slope, drainage, road etc. consisting of maps and which have been
prepared either by field surveys or by the interpretation of remotely sensed data. Ex.
soil survey map, geological map, land use map, etc. which could be available in analog
or digital format.
b. Non-Spatial information: Description of spatial data in the form of table or statistics.
E.g. rainfall, chemical data of soil, temperature data, soil depth, texture are indicated
by attribute. Attributes complimentary to the spatial data and that describe what is at
a point, along a line or in a polygon.
c. Attribute or A spatial data: characteristics of geographical features that are
quantitative and qualitative in nature.
d. Coverage, Theme, Feature, Layers:
Layer: a reference to a data source that defines how the data should be shown
on a map.
Coverage: is a georelational data model that stores vector data that uses a set
of features to represent geographic features.
Theme: is a collection of similar geographical things such as individual roads or
Stream segments.
Feature: is a single entity in GIS that has both geometry and attribute data.
3. Objectives of GIS?
 Maximize the efficiency of planning and decision making
 Provide efficient means for data distribution and handling
 Elimination of redundant data base – minimize duplication
 Capacity to integrate information from many sources
 Complex analysis / query involving geographic reference data to generate new
information
4. Describe the five generic questions GIS can answer
Location: what exist at a particular location?
Condition: identify location where certain condition exists
Trends: what has changed since?
Pattern: what spatial pattern exist?
Modeling: what if ……………..?
5. Explain the Capabilities of GIS
There are 4 capabilities of GIS. Those are Data inputs, Data management (data storage and
retrieval) Manipulation and analysis and at last Output.

A. Data input: The function of data input to convert data from their existing form into
one that can be used by GIS by using techniques like digitization which converts the analog
information into digital one.

B. Data management (data storage and retrieval): The data storage and management
are the functions of database management system of GIS. They are concerned with the way the
data is structured, handled, accessed and perceived by the user of the system.
C. Manipulation and analysis: to interpret and to analyze qualitatively and
quantitatively the information that has been collected. analysis involves combining data from
multiple spatial data categories and performing analysis/statistical operations on the GIS datasets
to transform the data into information suitable for a given application.
D. output: Display and conversion operations produce graphic output and reports such
as maps and color display drawn on a graphic terminal as well as formulated reports of tabular
information, where geographic entities are represented as a series of points, lines and symbols.
6. Explain Vector data model and Raster data Model

Vector based model: A vector based GIS is defined by the vector representation of its
geographic data. According with the characteristics of this data model, geographic objects are
explicitly represented and, within the spatial characteristics, the thematic aspects are associated.

Raster based model: Raster based spatial models regard space as a tessellation (resembled
mosaic) of cells, each of which is associated with a record of classification or identity of the
phenomena that occupies it. It represents the 2D location of phenomena as a matrix of grid cell.

7. Describe the three basic entities used for representing all geographic data in
GIS
The three basic entities that used to represent all geographical data are point, line and
polygon
Point Features: A zero-dimensional abstraction of an object represented by a single X,Y
co-ordinate. A point normally represents a geographic feature too small to be displayed as a
line or area; for example, the location of a building location on a small-scale map, or the
location of a service cover on a medium scale map.
Line Features: A set of ordered co-ordinates that represent the shape of geographic
features too narrow to be displayed as an area at the given scale (contours, street centrelines,
or streams), or linear features with no area (county boundary lines).

Area Features (Polygon Features): A feature used to represent areas. A polygon is defined
by the lines that make up its boundary and a point inside its boundary for identification.
Polygons have attributes that describe the geographic feature they represent .

8. Describe how point, line, and polygon features are represented in Raster data
model, use figures for more clarifications

In raster structure a single cell represents a point. A line by a number of neighboring cells
string out in a given direction and area by agglomeration (mass) of neighboring cells. Fig: 4d
show the raster representation of discrete features, Point, Line and Area.
9. Explain the meaning of resolution in raster data model, give an example
In the Raster data model, resolution refers to the size of the individual cells or pixels that
make up the grid. It determines the level of detail and precision at which spatial data is represented
in the raster dataset. A smaller cell size provides higher resolution, capturing more fine-grained
details, while a larger cell size provides lower resolution, representing data at a coarser level. For
example, consider a raster dataset representing land cover types. If the resolution is 10 meters, each
cell in the grid represents a square area of 10 meters by 10 meters on the ground. This finer
resolution allows for more detailed representation of smaller features on the landscape, such as
individual trees or small buildings.

10. - Compare and contrast raster and vector data models (i.e. Advantages and
disadvantages) and explain based on what to depend to choose raster or vector
based data model
The choice between raster and vector based model depend upon the type of data analysis and
other operations to be carried out for a project. However, there is always scope to convert one form
to other. i.e., raster to vector or vector to raster
 Raster method for spatial data structure requires large memory space as compared to vector
data.
 Certain kinds of data manipulation such as polygon intersection, union, clipping, merging
etc are complex in raster data model as compared to vector.
 However, multi-theme overlay operations are more easy in raster data model.
 Similarly, representation of surfaces is more common in raster-based model.

Vector Data Model:

Advantages:
 Good and real representation of geographic data
 Compact data structure
 Topology can be completely described
 Accurate graphic output
 Less storage space.
Disadvantages:
 Data structure is complex
 Combination of several vector polygons create difficulties in handling
 Simulation is difficult because each unit has a different topological form
 Display and plotting are expensive.

Raster Data Model:

Advantages:
 Simple data structure
 The overlay of mapped data with remote sensing data is easy
 Simulation is easy because each spatial unit has same size and shape
 Good for multiplayer overlay.
Disadvantages:
 Data is voluminous and require large storage space
 Use of large cell to reduce data volume loses significant information
 Crude raster maps have ugly look
  Network linkages are difficult to establish.

11. Explain about Relational Operators with sufficient examples

In GIS, relational operators are used to perform spatial queries and analyze spatial relationships
between geographic features. These operators are specifically designed to evaluate spatial conditions
rather than comparing simple values. Here are some commonly used relational operators in GIS:

1. Intersects: Checks if two spatial features have any spatial intersection. Example:
Determine if a point feature intersects with a polygon feature.

2. Contains: Checks if one spatial feature completely contains another feature. Example:
Determine if a polygon feature contains a point feature.

3. Within: Checks if one spatial feature is completely within another feature. Example:
Determine if a point feature is within a polygon feature.

4. Touches: Checks if two spatial features share a common boundary or touch each other.
Example: Determine if a line feature touches a polygon feature.

5. Overlaps: Checks if two spatial features have a spatial overlap or share some common
area. Example: Determine if two polygon features overlap each other.

6. Crosses: Checks if a line feature crosses another feature. Example: Determine if a road
network crosses a river feature.

12. Discuss the Important Features of Relational database

In GIS, the important features of a relational database include:

1. Support for spatial data types: Relational databases in GIS can handle spatial data types
like points, lines, polygons, and spatial collections.

2. Spatial indexing: They employ spatial indexing techniques to efficiently store and
retrieve spatial data, improving query performance.

3. Spatial querying capabilities: GIS relational databases provide spatial querying

functionalities to perform operations such as intersection, buffering, and distance
calculations.

4. Topological relationships: They enable the determination of topological relationships

between spatial features, such as adjacency and containment.

5. Coordinate Reference Systems (CRS): GIS databases support the storage and
transformation of spatial data in different coordinate reference systems.
 6. Spatial analysis functions: They offer built-in functions for advanced spatial analysis,
including buffering, overlay operations, and proximity analysis.

7. Data integration: Relational databases in GIS allow for the integration of spatial data with
non-spatial attribute data, enabling comprehensive analysis.

8. Multi-user environment: They support concurrent access by multiple users, facilitating

collaborative editing and analysis of spatial data.

9. Metadata management: GIS databases provide features for storing and retrieving
metadata associated with spatial data, enhancing data understanding and quality.

10. Data versioning and history: Some GIS databases offer versioning capabilities to track
and manage changes to spatial data over time.

13. In the Design Philosophy of GIS; Implementing process of GIS can be divided
broadly into five major stages, discuss about these stage
The implementation process of GIS can be divided into five stages:

1. Requirement Analysis: Understand project goals and gather user requirements.

2. Data Acquisition and Preparation: Collect and clean relevant spatial data.

3. Database Design and Implementation: Design and implement the GIS database
structure.

4. System Development and Customization: Develop and customize the GIS system to
meet project requirements.

5. Deployment, Training, and Maintenance: Deploy the system, provide user training,
and ensure ongoing maintenance.