BME 324

BIOMEDICAL SENSORS
AND TRANSDUCER

DISPLACEMENT SENSORS I

Assoc. Prof. Gökhan ERTAŞ

Dept. of Biomedical Engineering

DISPLACEMENT SENSORS
In biomedical engineering, displacement sensors have
been used to measure directly and indirectly the size,
shape, and position of the organs, tissue or etc..
 Direct: diameter of blood vessel

 Indirect: movement of a microphone diaphragm to quantify

liquid movement through the heart

Displacement measurements can be made using sensors

designed to exhibit a
1) Resistive (potentiometers and strain gages),
2) Capacitive,
3) Inductive or
4) Piezoelectric change as a function of changes in 2/46
position.

1
POT as RESISTIVE DISPLACEMENT SENSOR
Resistive displacement sensors are commonly termed
potentiometers or “POTs”.

Rotary Motion
Potentiometer Linear Motion
Potentiometer (LCP12S-12)

Schematic diagrams depict a

potentiometer as a resistor with an
arrow representing the wiper. 3/46

POT as RESISTIVE DISPLACEMENT SENSOR

A potentiometer is an
electromechanical device
containing an electrically conductive wiper that slides
against a fixed resistive element according to the
position or angle of an external shaft

Rotary POT Linear Motion POT 4/46

2
POT as RESISTIVE DISPLACEMENT SENSOR

A single-turn rotary pot offers

~ 300o angular displacement from
minimum to maximum resistance

This schematic shows a pot used

as a variable voltage divider

 RP : Total resistance of the pot

 RL : Load resistance

 vr : Reference or Supply voltage

 vo : Output voltage 5/46

Ideal output function No Displacement (0%)

(occurs when RL = ∞) i.e. x = 0
 x : Position of the wiper

 xP : Maximum position

vo = 0 and vo / vr = 0%

MAX Displacement (100%)

i.e. x = xP

vo x

vr xP vo = vr : vo / vr = 100% 6/46

3
Practical output function
(RL ≠ ∞)

7/46

Example
Design a mechanism and
electronic measuring circuit
to assess the angular
displacement of knee during
leg extension exercise.

θ KNEE = 90o
θ KNEE = 0o θ POT
θ POT 8/46

4
 θ KNEE = 90o = θ POT

θ KNEE = 0o = θ POT

θ Voltmeter
Reading
degrees
volts
300o Voltmeter 0 0
30
30 vr
300
90
0o 90 vr
300
150
150 300
vr
Assuming that the pot offers
300o angular displacement @ max 300 vr
9/46
and RL > 10 RP

θ Voltmeter
Reading
degrees
volts
0 0
θ
30 voltmeter reading  KNEE vr
30 vr
300
300
50
50 vr
300
70
70 vr
300 voltmeter reading
90 θ KNEE =  300
90
300
vr vr

The angular displacement of knee during leg extension exercise

can be easily assessed by
Measuring the potential dropping between the wiper and one fixed terminals of
the pot
Multiplying the measured value by the maximum angular displacement by10/46
the pot
and then dividing the result to the supply voltage

5
STRAIN GAGE as DISPLACEMENT SENSOR

Strain gages are among the resistive displacement

sensors designed to exhibit a change in resistance as
a result of experiencing strain.

11/46

BIOMEDICAL APPs of STRAIN GAGES

The strains on the supporting alveolar bone

External and Internal Cortical Strain

with Prosthesis in the Femur

12/46

The strain on artery

6
RESISTANCE of a WIRE under STRAIN

Resistance of a resistor is related to its length l and

cross-sectional area A and the resistivity of the material
ρ it is produced from.

For a simple wire:

When the wire is strained (stretched):

 Its length increases and its diameter decreases.

 This results in increased resistance

13/46
Dimensional Piezoresistance

RESISTANCE of a WIRE under STRAIN

 For a circular wire : A = (D/2)2

 Poissions ratio, µ relates change in diameter D to change in

length L.
For most metals, µ = 0.3

 Gage Factor, GF (depends on the material)

14/46

7
GAGE FACTOR, GF

GF depends on the
material used to produce
the strain gage.

 for Constantan,
GF = 2.0

Larger GF  higher sensitivity to temperature

When subject to strain, its resistance R changes, the fractional

change in resistance ΔR/R is being proportional ONLY to the
mechanical strain ΔL/L since gage factor GF does not change!
ΔR/R = GF * ΔL/L
15/46

RESISTANCE CHANGE

R SG1 INCREASES
R SG1

R SG2
R SG2 DECREASES

16/46

8
STRAIN GAGE - EXAMPLE
Assume a gage with GF = 4.0, length of 0.9 inch and
resistance of 2 kOhms.

 If it is subjected to a strain resulting in a 0.004 inch change in

length, calculate the change in resistance.

ΔR/R = GF * ΔL/L  ΔR = GF * (ΔL/L) * R

ΔR = 4 * (0.004 / 0.9)* 2 kOhms

= 35.5 Ohms

This corresponds to a 1.7% change (=35.5/2000) in resistance !

17/46

STRAIN GAGE - EXAMPLE

Assume a gage with GF = 2.0 and resistance of 120 Ohms.

 If it is subjected to a strain of 5microstrain then calculate the

change in resistance.

ΔR/R = GF * ΔL/L  ΔR = GF * (ΔL/L) * R

ΔR = 2 * (5 * 10-6) * 120 Ohms

= 0.0012 Ohms

This corresponds to a 0.001% change (= 0.0012/120) in resistance !

18/46

9
STRAIN GAGE - EXAMPLE
Now assume the same gage is subjected to a strain of
5000microstrain. Calculate the change in resistance.

ΔR/R = GF * ΔL/L  ΔR = GF * (ΔL/L) * R

ΔR = 2 * (5000 * 10-6) * 120 Ohms

= 1.2 Ohms

This corresponds to a 1% change (=1.2/120) in resistance !

 The change in resistance of the strain gage is very small.

19/46

MEASURING MINUTE CHANGES in RESISTANCE

Typical strain gauge resistances range from 30 Ohms to

3 kOhms (unstressed).

 This resistance may change only a fraction of a percent

for the full force range of the gauge, given the limitations
imposed by the elastic limits of the gauge material and of the
test specimen.

 In order to use the strain gauge as a practical

instrument, it must be connected to an electric circuit
that is capable of measuring the minute changes
in resistance corresponding to strain!

 Wheatstone bridge 20/46

10
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure
an unknown electrical resistance by balancing two legs of
a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown component.

Known Leg Unknown Leg

R1, R2 and R3
Known resistance

Rx
Unknown resistance to
be measured.

It was invented by Samuel Hunter Christie in 1833 and improved and

popularized by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1843. 21/46

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
From voltage divider rule
R2
VD  Vs
- + R1  R2
Vs
Rx
VB  Vs
R3  Rx

 Rx R2 
VG  VB  VD VG     Vs
 R3  Rx R1  R2 

 If the ratio of the two resistances in the known leg is equal

to the ratio of the two in the unknown leg then
22/46
The voltage between the two midpoints (D and B) will be 0

11
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE - EXAMPLE
Assume a Wheatstone bridge with Vs=10V and
R1=2kΩ, R2 = 1kΩ and R3=3kΩ. Rx is a strain
gage with GF = 4.0, length of 0.9 inch and
resistance of 2kΩ. - +

 If the gage is subjected to a strain

resulting in a 0.004 inch change in
length, calculate the output of the bridge
at rest and strain.

Rx @ Rest : Rx = 2kΩ = 2000Ω

V @ Rest = 10V * [(2000/5000) – (1000/3000)] = (4 – 3.33)V = 0.67V

Rx @ Strain : ΔR = GF * (ΔL/L) * R = 4 * (0.004 / 0.9)* 2kΩ = 35.5Ω

Rx = R + ΔR = (2000 + 35.5) Ohms = 2035.5Ω
23/46
V @ Strain = 10V * [(2035.5/5035.5) – (1000/3000)] ≈ (4.04 – 3.33) = 0.71V

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE - EXAMPLE

Consider the Wheatstone bridge seen.

 The output of the bridge at rest (gage is

unstressed) and at strain (gage is - +
stressed) are 0.7V and 0.8V respectively.

 The strain leads to 0.004 inch change in

length of the strain gage, calculate the
sensitivity of the bridge.

Sensitivity = ΔV / ΔL

ΔV = V @ Strain - V @ Rest = (0.8 – 0.7)V = 0.1V

ΔL = 0.004inch

ΔV / ΔL = 0.1V / 0.004 inch = 25V/inch 24/46

12
TEMPERATURE AND STRAIN RESISTANCE
An unfortunate characteristic of strain gauges:
Resistance changes with changes in temperature.

To minimize this artifact, temperature compensation is performed

using two strain ages and the following Wheatstone bridge:

 Resistors R1 and R2 are of equal

resistance value and the strain
gages are identical to one another.
dummy
 With no applied force, the bridge
should be in a perfectly balanced
condition and V would be 0.
active 25/46

TEMPERATURE AND STRAIN RESISTANCE

 Both gages are bonded to the same test specimen!

 But only one is placed in a position and orientation so as to be

exposed to physical strain (active gage).

 The other gage is isolated from all mechanical stress and acts
only as a temperature compensation device (dummy gage).

 When the temperature changes, both gage resistances will

change by the same percentage!

 The bridge's state of balance will remain unaffected.

 Only a differential resistance (difference of resistance between

the two strain gauges) produced by physical force on the test
specimen can alter the balance of the bridge. 26/46

13
CAPACITIVE DISPLACEMENT SENSORS
 The basic sensing element of a typical capacitive
displacement sensor consists of two simple electrodes
with capacitance C.

Q=A : charge density

V = Ed = d/ε E: electric field
C=Q/V x

 C is a function of the distance, d between the electrodes of a

structure, the surface area, A of the electrodes and the
permittivity of the dielectric between the electrodes, ε:

C = εA/d = f(ε, A, d) 27/46

RECTANGULAR vs. CYLINDRICAL CAPACITORS

For a rectangular capacitor

C = εA/d

 A: Plate area and d: distance between

the two plates.

For a cylindrical capacitor

C = ε2πh/ln(b/a)

 h: height and a,b: inside and outside

radius values.

28/46

14
RELATIVE DIELECTRIC CONSTANT OF MATERIAL @ 25oC

Permitivity, ε = εo εr
 εo : dielectric constant of vacuum ( ≈ 8.85*10-12F/m)
 εr : relative dielectric constant

 Relative dielectric constant, εr in vacuum or air is 1.

29/46
 Glass and mica are very good dielectrics

Example
Consider a rectangular (parallel plate) capacitor with a
plate area of 1.0m2 and a mica dielectric material of 5.0
relative dielectric constant.
Find the capacitance of the capacitor if distance between the two
plates of the capacitor is 10.0cm.

For a rectangular capacitor, C = εA/d = εo εrA/d

here εo: dielectric constant of vacuum, εr: relative dielectric

constant, A: plate area and d: distance between the two plates.

From the question: εr=5.0, A= 1.0m2, d=10.0cm=0.1m

εo ≈ 8.85*10-12F/m
30/46
So C = (8.85*10-12*5*1) / 0.1 = 442.5*10-12F

15
CAPACITIVE DISPLACEMENT SENSORS
A
C    C  f ( , A, d )
d

There are three basic methods for realizing a

capacitive displacement sensor:
1. by varying d (Variable Distance)

2. by varying A (Variable Area)

3. by varying ε (Variable Dielectric)

1 2 3 31/46

VARIABLE DISTANCE CAP. DISP. SENSOR

A rectangular capacitive-displacement sensor has
been designed to monitor small changes in work-piece
position. The relative dielectric constant is given as 2.5. The plate
area is 1.0m2.
Find the range of capacity if distance between the two plates of the
capacitor varies from 10.0 to 20.0 cm?

For a rectangular capacitor, C = εA/x = εo εrA/x

32/46

16
VARIABLE DISTANCE CAP. DISP. SENSOR
From the question: εr=2.5, A= 1.0m2, x1=10.0cm=0.1m
and x2=20.0cm=0.2m (εo ≈ 8.85*10-12F/m)

0.1m 0.2m

C0.1 = (8.85*10-12*2.5*1) / 0.1 C0.2 = (8.85*10-12*2.5*1) / 0.2

= 221.25*10-12F = 119.62*10-12F

0.2m ≤ x ≤ 0.1m

119.62*10-12F ≤ C ≤ 221.25*10-12F 33/46

Example - Homework
A cylindrical capacitive-displacement sensor designed
to monitor small changes in work-piece position.

 The relative dielectric constant is given as 2.5.

 The inside and outside radiuses are 0.5mm and 2.5mm,

respectively.

Find the range of capacity if height of the capacitor varies from

1.0 to 2.0 cm?

C = ε2πh/ln(b/a)

34/46

17
 VARIABLE DISTANCE CAP. DISP. SENSOR

The capacitance, C is
nonlinear with respect
to distance x:
1.5E-11

1E-11 The sensitivity of capacitance

C (F)

5E-12 to changes in plate separation:

0
0.8 1.3 1.8
x (m) 35/46

VARIABLE AREA CAP. DISP. SENSOR

The capacitance, C is linear

with displacement wx:
8E-12
6E-12 This type of sensor is normally
C (F)

4E-12 implemented as a rotating

2E-12 capacitor for measuring
0
0 0.5 1
angular displacement.
wx (m) 36/46

18
VARIABLE DIELECTRIC CAP. DISP. SENSOR

The capacitance, C is linear with displacement x.

This type of sensor is predominantly used in the form of two

concentric cylinders for measuring the level of fluids in tanks.

A nonconducting fluid forms the dielectric material. 37/46

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE - EXAMPLE

Consider the Wheatstone bridge seen
with R1=10kΩ, R2 = 5kΩ, C1=1uF and Cx
variable capacitor Cx.
A - + B
Find the value of Cx that Vs
balances the bridge (ie. V = 0)
C1

 ZC1 R2 
V  VB  V A     Vs
Z
 Cx  Z C1 R1  R2 

ZC1 R2 ZC1 5kΩ 1

V = 0 when   
ZCx  ZC1 R1  R2 ZCx  ZC1 10kΩ  5kΩ 3

3ZC1  ZCx  ZC1  2ZC1  ZCx

1 1 C1 1uF
ZC = 1 / jwC 2   Cx    0.5uF 38/46
jwC1 jwCx 2 2

19
 OP-AMP - EXAMPLE
Consider the op-amp circuit seen. Cx
is capacitive-displacement sensor
with variable distance (the distance
between the parallel plates).

Find e0 in terms of Cx and eex

Remember: The voltage gain of an

inverting op-amp, A = - ZCx / ZCf

39/46

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE - EXAMPLE

Consider the Wheatstone bridge seen
with C1=C2=C3=C and variable C1 C3
capacitor Cx.
Here Cx is capacitive-displacement A - + B
Vs
sensor with variable dielectric and
Cx= C when displecement is zero. C2 Cx

Find V in terms of Vs
 ZCx ZC 2 
V  VB  V A     Vs
Z
 Cx  Z C3 Z C2  Z C1 

 1 1   1 1 
V   V
jwCx jwC 2
  s  V  Cx  C2 V
 1 jwCx  1 jwC 3 1  1  1  1 1  1  s
 jwC 2 jwC1   Cx C3 C2 C1 

 C3 C1 
V    Vs 40/46
 C 3  Cx C1  C 2 

20
 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE - EXAMPLE

x=0 C
x = ∆x  C+∆C assuming ε2 < ε1

 C3 C1   C C 
V    Vs     Vs
 C 3  Cx C1  C 2   C  C  C C C 

 
C C
1  1
1  1 if  1
V    1 Vs C 2C 2C
2  1  C  1
  2C
 2C 

1 C  C
V  1   1 Vs   Vs
2 2C  4C 41/46

DIFFERENTIAL CAPACITIVE SENSOR

Some of the nonlinearity in capacitive sensors can be
eliminated using differential capacitive arrangements.
These sensors are basically three-terminal capacitors

xmaximum ≈ d
xminimum = 0 42/46

21
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE - EXAMPLE
Consider the Wheatstone bridge seen, x
with R1=R2 = R and differential
capacitive sensor. Find the output A - + B
voltage V in terms of supply voltage Vs. Vs

x=0 0≤x<d
d

A A A A
C1  and C2  C1  and C2 
d 0 d 0 dx dx
43/46
Therefore, C1  C2

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE - EXAMPLE

 ZC 2 R2  x
V  VB  V A     Vs
 ZC1  ZC 2 R1  R2 
A - + B
 ZC2 R  Vs
   Vs
 ZC  ZC RR
 1 2 

 1 
 jwC2 1  C1 1
V    Vs     Vs
 jwC  jwC
1 1 2   2
C  C1 2
 1 2 
 A  
dx 1 ( d  x)( d  x) 1
V    Vs     Vs
A   A 2   ( d  x )( d  x  d  x ) 2
 dx dx 

 xd 1 x
V    Vs  V  Vs
 2d 2 2d 44/46

22
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE - EXAMPLE
 If the output voltage V of the
Wheatstone bridge seen with R1, R2
and differential capacitive sensor is A - + B
given as Vs
x
V  Vs
2d
Draw the V vs. x graph.

d and Vs are constant

V
x is variable.

when x=0  V = 0

when x=d  V = Vs/2

x
45/46

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE - EXAMPLE

x Assume Vs = 10V and d = 1mm and find
V  Vs the sensitivity.
2d

Sensitivity = V / x or Sensitivity is the slope of the graph.

x V V
V  Vs   s
2d x 2d

Vs 10V
Sensitivity    5V/mm
2d 2  1mm
46/46

23