Switchgear and Protection Sunil S Rao

- - - - -
SUNIL S. RAO
SWITCHGEAR
PROTECTION
AND
POWER SYSTEMS
(Theory, Practice & Solved Problems)
SWITCHGEAR PROTECTION
AND
POWER SYSTEMS
(Theory, Practice and Solved Problems)
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Note : 'l'hese books are of Topical Interesflo Students and Professionals. KHANNA ,PUBLISHERS
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ISBN No. 81-7409-232-3
All Rights Reserved. Reproductions from this book are stricly prohibited except for Reviews.
No written matter and illustrations shall be reproduced without written consent from the
Publishers and the Author. ·
Reproductions in this book are with express permission from the correspondingi
manufacturers. They have been duly acknowledged by the author.
.Dedicated to
Saro), Sheetal and Chetan
First Edition 1973

Eleventh Edition 1999 (10 Reprints)
Twelfth Edition 2007, September
Thirteenth Edition 2008, October
Fourth Reprint : 201 O
Price : Rs. 350. 00
Computertypetset at: Softserve Computer Systems, Delhi
Printed at:. Mohanlal Printers, Delhi.

FOREWORD ')
PREFACE TO THE THIRTEENTH EDITION

" _There has been a long-felt need of a book ivi . , . . The widespread acceptance of the earlier Editions promoted this revised and enlarged edition.
Switchgear and Protection and p S t g ng comprehensive and systematic mformation of· The book presents in-depth knowledge about the principles and practices of modern power system
. ower ys emStud' " Th .
this need by publishing a book I d Ies · e author 1s to be congratulated for fulfilling engineering. It gives an integrated approach to the complex phenomena related with Switchgear,
. · am prou that Sh · s ·i S
student of mine and I am very h t ·t h' n. um .Rao, the author of the book is an old Protection, Fault-Calculations, Power System Analysis-Operation-Control-Automation, Digital relays,
. appy o wn e t 1s foreword. '
The author has a brilliant acade . Micro-processor based Relays and Microprocessor based Integrated Control and Protection Systems,
•
E ngmeermg. m1c career and hold fi -cl B . Energy Systems.
of Karnataka Unive . 't d fi s a irst ass. .E. degree m Electrical
University. He has good pract· rs~ y an .a Irst. class M.E. degree in 'Power Systems' of Poona The book will serve as a regular text book for electrical engineering courses to prepare the
Organisations like Hindustan B/:a ~pen.e~ce m many 0 ~ the reputed Electrical Firms and students for the careers in power sector. The book will also serve as a reference book to electrical
State Electricity Boards ofKarnata~n ~v;1h td., Baroda, Kirlosker Electrical Co Ltd Bangalore engineers working in power sector, electrical manufacturing industry, academic and testing
College of Technology Bhopal asrn ar t a a~ashtra e~c. He is working at Maulana A~ad Regionai institutions, etc.
,"Switchgear Protectio~ and Po~er S;st:~~~~r m Electrical Engineering, and has been teaching Since the publication of the first edition of the book Switchgear and Protection in 1973, many
advances have occured in field of the Switchgear, Protection and Power System Automation. While
The author has presented the sub'ect . . . the conventional protection and switching devices will continue to serve, entirely new type of devices
I deals with principles of current . t~ mt~tter m five sect10ns, spread over 59 chapters Section
· · m errup 10n constr t' 1 d • · and techniques are now available. The development ofSF 6 and Vacuum circuit-breakers have made
circmt breakers including SF c1·r 't b k ' uc 10na an operat10nal aspects of various
· . cui rea ers vacuu · ·t b k the other types nearly obsolete. The static relays have replaced the electro-mechanical relays. ERV-
ch Oice, erect10n, maintenance and t t'
6
f h' h m circm rea ers, and discusses about the AC and HVDC transmission are now commercially successful. Large interconnected networks are
apparatus.ERV A.C. Transmission a ;sHVInDgCot ig :7o~tage/low voltage switchgear and ERV
n ransm1ss10n. being automatically controlled from load control centres by means of on-line SCADA, AGC and EMS
. Section II deals with fault current calc 1 . Systems. The developments in power electronics have resulted in the successful use of static VAR
m the calculation of fault current of l'u attidons, role of network analysers and digital computers Sources (SVS), HVDC Convertors etc. Digital computers and microprocessors are being increasingly
comp ica e system networks used for protection and automation. Fibre-optic cables have been successfully used for data
Section III deals with constructional and . . transmission.
relays and protective systems for gene t t operat10nal aspects of electromagnetic protective
. IV ra ors, ransformers, motors and transmission lines Due to the energy crisis and increasing capital costs of power projects, there is a world-wide
S ec t 10n deals with fi d · trend towards interconnecting adjacent AC Networks by means ofEHV-AC or HVDC links.
S . un amentals of static relays and static protection schemes The techniques of testing and maintenance have advanced with an aim of increased reliability
ect10n V deals with advanced t . . .. .
and microprocessors for load- freq op1cs m powler system controls, applications of digital computer and availability of electrical power supply. Knowledge of specifications, testing, maintenance,
U,ency contra and ba k
L oa d F requency Control, Voltage control t • . commissioning has gained significance. The power system analysis techniques have also advanced
and c. -up pro ect~on, Power-System Stability,
Power System Network Automat1· h b compe.nsation of Reactive Power, Voltage Stability significantly.
on ave een explamed. , India and other developing countries have ambitions development plans in power sector. Some
The matter is presented in a very lucid st le an . . landmarks in the power sector of India include indigenous capability of design, manufacture and
by neat, clear sketches and diagrams and yr h d simple Enghs~. The book is profusely illustrated commissioning of EHV-AC Sub-stations and apparatus, establishment of 400 kV. AC network,
:on~ulted the leading technical journals ing t~~ :i~l~he author IS !o be co1:gratulated for having introduction of HVDC Systems, interconnections between Regional Grids, introduction of static
Switchgear Protection and Power Sy t " an~ pr:sentmg the mformation regarding relays and static protection systems, increasing use of digital computers and microprocessors,
ma,ture art of teaching in the presentatio: e~~ upbt.o-date, m ~Is book. The author has exhibited a expansion of testing facilities, etc.
Some typical solved problems are mven toh e shu ~ect matter mspite of his short teaching experience The technology of protection and automat_ion have been revolutionised by the introduction of
• b' roug out the book. ·
With addition of some unsolved p bl microprocessor based combined protection, control, monitoring systems. Such systems have been
ro ems summary d ·
ch apter, the book may serve as a text b k'. . . ~n provocative questions at the end of each introduced for substation protection, generator protection, HVDC protection. This book covers the
Power Systems" in the under-graduateo;n..m umvers1ties for a. course in "Switchgear Protection and principles and applications of this latest technology and the important topics in Interconnected
a useful guide and reference to Power E ~ postgradu~te ~urnculum. The book should also serve as Power Systems. The new chapters include EHV-AC Transmission, HVDC Transmission Systems,
provides. ngmeers, cons1dermg the volume of practical information it Interconnections, Power System Automation with SCADA Systems, Power System Planning, Latest
Power map of India, Microprocessor based Protection. Energy TechnologyaRenewable and
I am very proud of the young author and ex . Nonconventional and Conventional. The Corelation between Energy Sector and Power sector has
of writing the Foreward to this book of hi/ress my smcere thanks to him for giving me the privilege been illustrated.
Chapters on Power system Calculations and Load Flow Studies, The principles and procedures
B.H.KARAKARADDI of network calculations and load flow studies have been simplified and explained by a few solved
B.Sc. (Hons.), D.I.I.Sc. examples. 'Recent Advances' in Intelligent Circuit Brej:l kers, Fiber-optic Cable Applicaions, Compact
B.,Sc. (Tech.) (Manch.), F.I.E. Intelligent Substations, ISO-9000 and TQMI are coverediµ Appendix-A, while Appendix-B highlights
Sen. M., I.E.E.E. overall system description of Distribution Management System.
Principal
Karnataka Regional Engg. College The patronage of Academic Institutions and Power System Engineers to this book is. hereby
Suratkal, (S.l(.) gratefully acknowledged.
Kamataka.
-Author
')
CONTENTS
ACKNO\VLEDGEMENT·s
SECTION I - SWITCHGEAR AND S~-STATION APPARATUS
The Au th or gratefully acknowledges the assistance by various Manufacturers and Organisations :
1. INTRODUCTION 1-15
111 International Electrotechnical Commission.
111 Indian Bureau of Standards. 1.1. Switchgear and Protection 1
11 British Standards Institution. 1.2. Sub-station Equipment 3
111 AEG, West Germany. 1.3. Faults and Abnormal Conditions 4
111 ABB, Sweden. 1.4. Fault Calculations 4
1.5. Fault Clearing Process 5
1111 The Aluminium Industries Ltd. India.
1.6. Protective Relaying 5
111 Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd., India.
1.7. Neutral Grounding (Earthing) and Equipment Grounding 5
.1111 General Electri_c, U.S.A.
1.8. Over-voltages and Insulat.ion Go-ordination 6
111 GEC Alsthom Ltd., England.
. 1.9. Some Terms in the Test 6
11 Hindustan Brown Boveri ltd (ABB), India. 1.10. Standard Specifications 7
111 Hi-Yelm Industries Pvt. Ltd. India. 1.11. Electro-mechanical Relays and Static Relays 8
111 Indian Aluminium Company Ltd., India. 1.12. Applications of On-line Digital Computers Microprocessors And
111 Jyoti Ltd., India. · Static Protective/control Devices in Power System 8
1111 · ~irlosker Electric Co. Ltd., India. 1.13. Interconnected Power System 9
!Ill Larsen & Toubro Ltd., India. 1.14. Load-frequency Control, Load Shedding 10
·: f!CB (India) Pvt. Ltd., India. _ 1.15. Voltage Levels in Network and Sub-stations 11
'Mitsubishi Electrical Corporation, Japan. 1.16. Voltage Control of AC Network 11
/ 111 Reyrolle Parson Ltd., England. 1.17. Static Var Sources (SVS) 13
' 111 Siemens India Ltd. 1.18. Power System Stability 13
111 Universal Electric Ltd., India. 1.19. HVDC Obtion 14
1111 Westinghouse Electric Corporation., U.S.A. 1.20. Power System Analysis 14
1.21. Power System Network Calculations and Load Flow 15
1.22. Objective and Tasks 15
2. HIGH-VOLTAGE A.C. CIRCUIT-BREAKERS 16-31

2.1. Introduction 16
2.2. The Fault Clearing Process 16
2.3. The Trip-circuit 17
2.4. Recent Advances 17
2.5. Classification Based on Arc Quenching Medium 18
2.6. Technical Particulars of a Circuit-breaker 19
2. 7. Assembly of Outdoor Circuit-breakers 20
2.8. Structural Form of Circuit-breakers 22
2.9. Operating Mechanisms 22
2.9.1. Closing Operation 23
2.9.2. Opening Operation 24
2.9.3. Closing Followed by Ope11ing Operating 24
2.9.4. Types of Mechanisms \\ 24
2.10. Interlocks, Indication and Auxiliary Switch. 26
2.11. Circuit-breaker Time (Total Break Time) 2.7
2.12. Auto Reclosure 27
2.13. Auto Reclosure of EHV Circuit Breakers for Transmission Lines 28
2.14. Auto Reclosure for Distribution Lines (Upto 33 kv) 29
2.15. Weight Operated Reclosing, Pole Mounted Circuit-breakers 29
(x) (xi)
2.16. Trip-free Feature
30 3.18.19. Rated Single Capacitor Bank Breaking Current . 71
2.17. Materials
30 3.18.20. Permissible Maximum Switching Over-voltages When Interrupti~g
2.18. Design and Development
30 Line-Charging, Cable-charging and Single Capacitor Bank Breakmg
Current 71
3. FUNDAMENTALS OF FAULT CLEARING, SWITCHING PHENOMENA 3.18.21. Rated Capacitor Bank Inrush Making Current 71
AND CIRCUIT-BREAKER RATING 3.18.22. Rated Small Inductive Breaking Current 71
32-73
3.1. Jntroduction 3.19. Reignition and Restrike 72
32
3.2. Network Parameters : R, L, C
32
3.3. Voltage Equation of an RLC Series Circuit
34
3.4. Sudden Short Circuit of R.L. Series Circuit 4. THE ARC-EXTINCTION 74-82
34
3.5. Sub-transient, Transient and Steady State 4.1. Introduction 74
38
3.6. Current Interruption in A.C. Circuit-breakers 4.2. The Matter and Plasma 74
41
3.7. Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV) 4.3. Ionization of Gases 75
42
3. 7 .1. Effect of Natural Frequency of TRV 4.4. Deionization 76
44
3.7.2. Effect of Power-factor on TRV 4.5. Electric Arc 76
44
3.7.3. Effect ofReactance-drop on Power-frequency Recovery Voltage 45 4.6. Arc Formation in A.C. Circuit-breakers 77
3.7.4. Effect of Armature Reaction on Recovery Voltage 4.7. Modes At Arc Extinction 78
45
3.7.5. Effect of the First-pole-to-clear 4.7.1. High Resistance Interruption, Blow-out Coils 78
45
3.7.6. The First-pole-to-clear Factor 4.7.2. Low Resistance of Zero Point Extinction 79
45
3.8. Single Frequency Transient 4.8. Arc Interruption Theories 80
46
3.9. Double Frequency Transients 4.9. Arc Extinction in• Oil 81
3.10. Rate of Rise of TRV 47
48 4.10. Arc Extinction in Vacuum 82
3.11. Resistance Switching, Damping ofTRV, Opening Resistors 4.11. Arc Extinction in Air-blast 82
53
3.12. Interruption of Low Magnetizing Current, Current Chopping 4.12. Arc Extinction in SF5 Gas 82
3.13. Use of Opening Resistors 55
56 4.13. Arc 'rime Constant 82
3.13.1. Switching of Capacitor Banks
57
3.13.2. Switching of Unloaded Transmission Lines and Unloaded Cables
3.14. Interrupting the Terminal Faults 58
58 5. AIR-BREAK CIRCUIT-BREAKER 83-88
3.15. Interrupting Short Line Faults (Kilometric Fault)
3.16. Phase Opposition Switching 59 5.1. Introduction 83
3.17. Specifying the TRV Wave 60 5.2. Construction of Air-break Circuit-breaker 83
61 5.3. Arc Extinction in A.C. Air-break C.B. 84
3.18. Rated Characteristics of Circuit-breakers
3.18.1. Rated Voltage 61 5.4. Lengthening of Arc by Means of Magnetic Fields 85
3.18.2. Rated Insulation Level 61 5.5. Description of a Low Voltage Air-breaker Circuit-breaker 85
3.18.3. Rated Frequency 61 5.6. Operating Mechanisms for Air-break Circuit-breakers 87
62 5.7. Series Connected Over Load Tdp Coil Arrangement 87
3.18.4. Rated Normal Current (Rated Current)
63 5.8. Air-break D.C. Circuit-breakers for Medium Voltages 87
3.18.5. Rated Short Circuit-breaking Current
63 5.9. Miniature Circuit-breaker, Moulded Case Circuit-breakers 88
3.18.6. Rated Short-circuit Making Current
64
3.18. 7. Rated Duration of Short-circuit (Rated Short Time Current)
65
3.18.8. Rated Operating Sequence (Duty Cycle)
65 6. AIR BLAST CIRCUIT-BREAKER 89-96
3.18.9. Rated Transient Recovery Voltage for Terminal Faults
66 6.1. Introduction 89
3.18.10. Representation of a TRV Waveform by Four Parameter Method
66 6.2. Construction of an Air Blast Circuit-breaker 89
3.18.11. Representation ofTRV Waveform by Two-parameter Method
3.18.12. Rated Peak Withstand Current 67 6.3. Principle of Arc Quenching in Abcbs · 91
68 6.4. Circuit-breakers with External Extinguishing Energy 92
3.18.13. Rated Quantities for Auxiliary Circuits and Operating Mechanisms For
Opening and Closing 6.5. Resistance Switching in Abeb 93
69 6.6. Voltage Distribution in.Multi-break Circuit-breakers
3.18.14. Rated Pressure of Supply for Pneumatic and Hydraulic Operating Devices
69 (abcb-mocb, SF5) 94
3.18.15. Rated Pressure oflnterrupting Medium and Insulating Medium
69 6.7. Reducing Switching Over-voltages by
3.18.16. Summary of Rated Characteristics of HV (A.C.) Circuit-breakers
69 Pre-closing Resistor 95
3.18.17. Rated Out-of-phase Breaking Current
70 6.8. Generator Circuit Breakers 95
3.18.18. Rated Cable-charging Breaking Current
71 _6.9. Compressed Air System for ABCB 96
(xii) (xiii)
7. SULPHUR HEXAFLUORIDE (SFs) CIRCUIT-BREAKER AND SFs ,- 9. VACUUM INTERRUPTER AND VACCUM CIRCUIT-BREAKER 138-153
INSULATED METALCLAD SWITCHGEAR (GIS) 97-121 ; 9.1. Introduction 138
Part I : Properties of SFs Gas 9.2. Electrical Breakdown in High Vacuum 139
7.1. Introduction 97 9 .3. Arc Extinction in Vacuum Interrupters 140
7.2. Physical Properties of SIB Gas 97 9.4. Construction of a Vacuum Interrupter 140
7.3. Chemical Properties ofSF 6 Gas 98 9.5. Arc Interruption in High Vacuum 142
7.4. Dielectric Properties of SF6 Gas 99 9.6. Degree of Vacuum in Interrupters 142
7.5. Arc Extinction in SF6 Circuit-breakers 9.6.1. Construction of a Vacuum Interrupter 142
100
7.5.1. Single Pressure Puffer Type Circuit-breaker with Single Flow 9.7. Interruption of Short-circuit Currents in Vacuum Interrupters 143
of Quenching Medium 9.8. Design Aspects of Vacuum Interrupters 144
101
7.5.2. Double Flow of Quenching Medium 9.8.1. Length oflnterrupter 144
103
9.8;2. Contact Travel (Contact (GAP)) 144
Part II : Outdoor SFs Circuit Breakers 9.8.3. Contact Shape 144
7.6. Types Design
103 9.8.4. Contact Size and Shape for Required Short-circuit Breaking Current 145
7. 7. Single Pr~ssure Puffer Type SF6 Circuit-breaker 104 9.8.5. Contact Material 147
7.7.1. Configuration of a Single Pressure Puffer Type EHV Circuit-breaker 105 9.9. Time/travel Characteristics 147
7.8. Double Pressure Dead Tank SF 6 C.B. (Now Obsolete) 106 9.10. Contact Pressure 148
7 .9. Merits of SF6 Circuit-breakers 9.11. Contact Acceleration During Opening 148
107
7.10. Some Demerits of SF6 Circuit-breaker 107 9.12. Contact Erosion 148
7.11. SF6 Filled Load Break Switches
107
9.13. Vacuum Level and Shelf Life of Interrupters 149
7.12. Gas Monitoring and Gas Handling Systems 9.14. Checking of Vacuum 149
108
9.15. Range of Vacuum Switchgear, Vacuum Controlgear and Vacuum Circuit-breakers 149
Part III : SFG Insulated Metalcad Switchgear (Sub-Station)
7.13. Introduction to SF6 Switchgear (GIS) 9.16. Merits ofVCB's 151
108 9.17. Demerits ofVCB's 151
7.14. Advantages of Sf~ Switchgear
109 9.18. Switching Phenomena with VCB 151
7.15. Demerits of SF 6 Insulated Switchgear/~ 9.18.1. Reignition in Vacuum Circuit-breakers 151
109
7.16. General Constructional Features of SF~-Gas Insulated '9.18.2. Capabilities of Modern Circuit Breakers for Medium Voltages 152
Switchg~ar (GIS) 9.18.3. Switching Over-voltage Problem with Vcb for Motor Switching Duty,
109
7.17. Gas Monitoring RC Surge Suppressors 152
114
7.18. Gas Filling and Monitoring System for SF6 Switchgear
118
7.19. Transportation and Handling of 6 Gas s/ 118 10, TESTING OF HIGH VOLTAGE A.C. CIRCUIT-BREAKER
7.20. Gas Transfer Units 154-163
118 10.1. Classification of the Test
7.21. SF6 Insulated EHV Transmission Cables (GIC) 154
u§ 10.2. Type Tests 155
7-A. Routine, Site/Field Testing of GIS 10.2.1. Mechanical Test (Endurance 'l'ests) 156
122-130 10.2.2. Temperature-rise Tests 156
7 .22. Routine Testing of GIS
122 10.2.3. Measurement of D.C. Resistance 157
7.23. Site/field Testing of GIS
128 10.2.4. Millivolt Drop Tests 157
10.2.5. No-load Operation Tests and Oscillographic and Other Records 157
8. MINIMUM OIL CIRCUIT-BREAKER AND BULK OIL CIRCUIT-BREAKER 131-137 10.2.6. Dielectric Tests 158
8.1. Introduction 10.2.7. Basic Short-circuit Test Duties
131 158
8.2. Tank Type Bulk Oil Circuit-breaker (Now Obsolete) 10.3. Routine Tests 159
131
8.3. Minimum Oil Circuit-breaker 10.4. Development Tests 159
133
8.4. Principle of Arc-extinction on Oil Breakers 10.5. Reliability Tests 159
134
8.5. Pre-arcing Phenomenon
135 10.6. Commissioning Tests 160
8.6. Sensitivity to TRV \ 10.7. Insulation Resistance Measurement at Site
135 161
8.7. Circuit-breakers with Internal Sources of Extinguishing Energy- 10.8, High Voltage Power Frequency Withstand Test (Routine Test) 162
Critical Current ·
136 10.9. Routine Tests on Circuit-breakers 162
8.8. Contact Assembly/ 10.9.1. Mechanical Operating Tests (Routine Test) 162
136
(xiv) (xv)
11. SHORT CIRCUIT TESTING OF CIRCUIT-BREAKERS 164-189 13.6, Maintenance of Circuit Breakers 203
11.1. Introduction 13.7. Typical Maintenance Record Card . 207
164.
11.2. Stresses on Circuit-breaker During Short-circuit Tests 164 13.8, Maintenance of Air Break Circuit Breaker, Fusegear for Low
And Medium Voltages 207
Part A : Short-Circuit Test Plants 13.9. Maintenance of Vacuum Circuit-breaker 208
11.3. Short-circuit Testing Plants 165 208
13.10. Maintenance of SF6 Circuit-breaker
Part B : Direct Testing 13.11. Insulation Resistance Measurement 210
11.4. Direct Testing 169 210
13.12. Insulation Resistance Measurement at Site
11.5. Rules for Type Tests 170 211
13.13. Likely Troubles and Essential Periodic Checks
11.6. Short-time Current Tests on Circuit-breakers, Isolators, 13.14, Installation of Drawout Metalclad Switchgear 212
Busbars, CTS Etc. 170 13.15. Safety Procedures 214
11.7. Basic Short-circuit Test Duties 173 13.16. Installation of Outdoor Circuit-breakers 216
11.8. Critical Current Tests 174
11.9. Short-line Fault Tests 174 14. HRC FUSES-AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 218-232
11.10. Line Charging Breaking Current Tests 175
11.11. Out-of-phase Switching Tests 14.1. Introduction 218
176
11.12. Capacitive Current Switching Tests 14.2. Types of Devices with Fuse 218
176
14.3. Definitions 218
11.12.1. Single Capacitor Bank Current Breaking Test 178
11.13. Cable~charging Breaking Current Test 14.4. Construction 219
179
11.13.1. Small Inductive Current Breaking Tests 14.4.1. HRC Fuses for Semiconductor Devices and Thyristors 220
179
14.5. Fuse Link of HRC Fuse 222
11.13.2. Recommendations for Small Inductive Current Switching Tests 180
11.14. Reactor Switching Test 14,6. Action of HRC Fuse 222
181
14.7. Shape of Fuse Element 222
Part C : Indirect Testing 14.8. Specification of a Fuse Link 223
11.15. Unit Testing or Element Testing 183 14.9, Ch&racteristic of a Fuse 224
11.16. Synthetic Testing 183 14.10, Cut-off 224
11.17. Substitution Test 186 14.11. Classification and Categories 224
11.18. Capacitance Test 187 14.12. Selection of Fuse Links 225
11.19. Compensation Test 188 14.13. Protection of Motor 227
11.20. Development Testing of Circuit-breakers 188 14.14. Discrimi.nation 228
14.15; Protection of Radial Lines 228
12. INSULATION REQUIREMENT AND HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING 14.16. Protection of Meshed Feeders with Steady Load - by HRC Fuses 230
OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS 190-199 14.17. Equipment Incorporating Fuses 230
12.1. Introduction 190 '14.18. High Voltage Current Limiting Fuses 231
12.2. Overvoltages 191 14.19. Expulsion Type High-voltage Fuse 231
12.3. Design Aspects 191 14.20. Drop-out Fuse 231
12.4. Causes of Failure of Insulation 191 1
•14.21. Test on Fuse 232
12.5. Purpose of H.V. Testing of Circuit-breakers 192
12.6. Tests on a High Voltage Circuit-breakers 193 15-A, METAL-ENCLOSED SWITCHGEAR, CONTROLGEAR AND CONTACTOR 233-248
12.7. Some Terms and Definitions. 194 15.1. Introduction 233
12.8. Impulse Voltage Tests and Standards Impulse Waves 195 15.2. Types of Switchgear 233
12.9. Impulse Generator 195
12.10. Test Plant for Power Frequency Tests Part A : High Voltage Indoor Metal Enclosed Switchgear
196
12.11. H.V. Testing Transformer 15.3. General Features of Indoor Metal-enclosed Switchgear · 234
196
12.12. Sphere Gaps 15.4. Draw-out Type Metal-enclosed Switchgear 235
197
15.5. Switchgear with Vacuum Interrupters 237
13. INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE 200-217 Part B : Low-Voltage Metal Clad Switchgear and Low Voltage Circuit Breakers
13.1. Introduction 15.6. Unit Type Metal Clad Low Voltage Switchgear and Motor
200 237
13.2. Break Down Maintenance Versus Preventive Maintenance Control Centers
200 239
13.3. Inspection, Servicing, Overhaul 15.7. Low Voltage Circuit Breakers
201 '
13.4. Guidelines for Maintenance of Switchgear 15. 7 .1. ·Classification. 239
201
13.5. Field Quality Plans (FQP) 15.7.2. Rated Quantities 239
/ 202
"
$'
(xvi)
15.7.3. Test on Low-voltage Circuit-breakers

15.8. 'Explosion-proof or 'Flame-proof Switchgear 241
241
'
¼
B 16, HVDC CIRCUIT-BREAKER AND METALLIC ttETURN
TRANSFER BREAKER (MRTB)
(xvii)
273-290
15 9 L V It Part C ·. LowV·. o Itage c ontrolgear and Contractors
· · ow o age Control Gear 16.1. Introduction to HVDC Switching System . 273
15.10. Contactors 242 16.2. Schematic of a 2-terminal, Bipolar Long Distance Hvd~Tr1ns-
15.11. Some Terms and Definitions 242 Mission System '. · r'! 276
15.12. Contactor Starters for Motors 243 16.3. Back-to-back HVDC System 278
15.13. Rated Characteristics of Contactors 243 16.4. Multi-terminal HVDC Systems (MTDC) . 280
15.14. Tests on Contactors 244 16.5 .Schematic of DC Switching System and Waveform of
246 IDC with Artificial Current Zeros 281
Part D : Control Boards 16.6. Conclusion , 281
15.15. Control Boards or Control Panels
15.16. Control Room-layouts 246 16.7 .Energy Consideration in Breaking Direct Current In Hvdc Circuit~B 282
247 16.8. Hvdc Switching Syst~m , ' 284
16.8.1. Commutation Principle of Hvdc Circuit-breaker 284
16.9. Control of dlldt and dvldt 285
249-260 16.10. Triggered Vacuum Gaps (TVG) 286
Part I : Applications and Range 16.11. Surge Suppression 286
15.17. Type and Range 16.12, Complete Circuit ofHVDC Switching System 286
15.18. lee and Cired Classification 249 16.13. Main Circuit-breaker for Hvdc Switching 286
249 16.14. Switching Devices in Present Bipolar HVDC Substations
15 19 C fi . Part II : Constructional Aspects 287
. . on 1gurat10n and Variants 16.15. Types of HVDC Circuit-breakers 287
15.20. Drawings and Diagrams 250 16.16. Hvdc Circuit-breaker Capabilities and Characteristics 289
15.21. Designation for the Degree of Protection 252 16.17, Definitions of Switching Time for HVDC Circuit-breakers 289
252 16.18. Short-circuit Ratio (SCR) of HVDC System 290
Part III : Switchgear Phenomens with Medium
16.19. Conclusions 290
15 22 Cabl T . . t· Voltage Switchgear with SFG C.B. with VCB
· · e e1mma 10ns Systems
15.23. General Assessment Criteria 254 17. ELECTRICAL SUBSTATIONS, EQUIPMENT AND BUS-BAR LAYOUTS 291-339
15.24. Interruption of Inductive C. 255 17 .1. Introduction 291
15 •25 . S w1·t ch'mg-on of a Mot V urrents and Small Inductive Currents
.
It
15.26. Motor Switching with';• ffi o ;ge SuSrFge 1?ue
u er ype
:o
Multiple Reignition
6 Circuit-breakers
256
257
17 .2. Substation Equipment and Outdoor Yard Layout
17.3. Isolator and Earthing Switch
292
295
15.27. Capacitor Switching 258 17 .3 .1. Requirement and Definitions 295
259 17.3.2. Types of Construction oflsolators 296
15-C. LOW-VOLTAGE CONTROLGEAR AN 17.3.3. Pantograph Isolator 298
D SWITCHGEAR
15.28. Applications and Basic Requirements 261-272 17.3.4. Ratings oflsolators and Tests 298
261 17.4. Bus-bar Arrangements in Switchyards . I , 299
~55.3209. SCo1?tpho~enDts a~d Modular Structural Configuration
· • WI c mg ev1ces 261 17.4.1. Bus-bar System Recommended for Large Important Sub-stations 303
15.31. Mechanical Rated Life of a Sw1't h' D . 262 17.4.2. Maintenance Zoning 303
15 32 , ' c mg ev1ce . 17.5. Use a Load Break Switches 303
~- · De~ign Asp~cts for Long Mechanical Life 263
L ... 33. Mam Electrical Circuit and C . . . 264 17.6. Switchgear in Generating Stations 304
15 34 M . c· . C omponents m A Sw1tclung Device 17.6.1. Main Switchgear Schemes 304
. . am ircmt omponent A . . . 265
15 35 p t t· A .s. ssociated with Contactor Starters of LV 17.6.2. Unit System of Generator Connections :
· \ • ro ec 1011 spects , , 265
266 (Scheme Without Generator-circuit-breaker) 305
15.36. OContac~ Travei Characteristics of LV Switching Device D .
peratmg and Closin O . t' . . unng 17.6.3. Unit Scheme Employing Generator Circuit Breaker ~06
15 37 C t' g peia wns, Sw1tchmg Time Definitions 17.6.4. Main Switchgear in Generating Stations 306
' . . onnec wn and Cross Sectional Area of Cables . 269
15.38. Contact Configuration and Des1gn . Aspects 267 • 17.6.5. Single and Multiple Generator Transformer Unit 306
15.39. Contact Materials 268 17. 7. Auxiliary Switchgear in Power Stations 307
15.40. Contact Speed During Ope mug .
, 0 perat10n 268 17 .8. Isolated Phase Bus Systems 309
15.41. Auxiliary Switches 269 17.9. Continuqus Housing Type Isolated-phase Buses 310
15.42. Tripping Device and Relays 269 17 .10. Switching Sub-stations 316
15.43. Degree of Protection, IP Code 270 17.11. Layout the Switchyard Equipment 316
15.44. Medium Voltage Vacuum Contactors for 3.6 to 12 KV 271 ·..'f7.12. Location of Current Transformers 318
271 17.13. Typical Substation in Distribution System 318,
(xviii) (xix)
17.14. Switchgear for a Medium Size Industrial Works . 18.30. Earth Electrodes . 378
17.15. Bus-bars 31&1
17.16. Some Terms and Definitions 31~ 18.31. Integrated Earthing Systems for Two or More Installat10ns 381
17.17. Materials for Bus-bars 32, 18.32. Step Potential and Touch Potential 381
17.18. Bus-bar Design 32~ 18.33. Earth-resistance of Earthing System 382
321i 18.34. Earth Resistance Measurement 383
1}.1~. Electrodynamic Forces on Bus-bars During Short-circuits
327t i18.35. Earthed Screens 385
17 .20. Important Techno-economic Consideration for Construction
of Sub-stations/switchyards SECTION II - FAULT CALCULATIONS
17.20.1. Activities in Construction of Sub-station 33~----=--c::-:::==~::;--;;;~::;--:..'rr,;:,,::;"TTC'T'n'-:im,riN~---------~:389~~
17.20.2. Cost Effectiveness 33~ 19, INTRODUCTION TO FAULT CALCULATIONS 389-402
17.20.3. Ways and Means of Economizing 3311 19.1. Introduction 389
17.20.4. Construction Activities 3311 19.2. Procedure of Fault Calculations 390
17.20.5. Maintenance of Over-head Transmission Lines 334( 19.3. Representation of Power Systems 391
17.20.6. Maintenanc~ and Repair 334f 19.4. Per Unit Method ~!~
3371 19.5. Advantages of Per Unit System
18-A. TRANSIENT OVERVOLTAGE SURGES, SURG~ ARRESTERS _,.i 19.6. Selection of Bases . 392
AND INSULATION CO-ORDINATION * 19 _7 _ Single Pl1ase Circuits : Determinations of Base-unpedance
18.1. Introduction 340-359l (or Resistance or Reactance) 393
18.2. Terms and Definitions 340!- 19.8. Change of Base 3~
18.3. Choice of Insulation Levels of Sub-station Equipment 346f 19.9. Circuits Connected by Transformer 394
395
18.4. Protective Ratio,' Protective Margin 3481 19.10. Reactances of Circuit Elem_1mts
18.5. Lightning 349 f 19.11. Induction Motors 395
18.6. Overhead Shielding Screen (Earthed) 349( 19.12. Synchronous Motor 395
18.7. Lightning Stroke on OH Lines (Overhead Line) 35J 19.13. Thevenin's Theorem 396
18.8. Protective Devices Against Lightning Surges 3511 19.14. Some Terms 399
00
18.9. Rod Gaps or Spark Gap 4
18.10. Surge Arresters (Lightning Arresters) 5 ___1_9--.1--5--.--S-=t=ar:::-:::d::-:e::-:lt::;-a-;-T:;-r-;a;:;n-;s-:;-fo,:;r:--;m:;;-a;:;t-:io.;n~·nrorom~rii"l~ITT'Til\JefR~\fTim~-----4(}3-~7
35LI
18.11. Surge Arrester Specifications and Terms 3 21
3521 20. SYMMETRICAL FAULTS AND CURRENT LIMITING RE ACTORS 403-437
18.12. Tests on Surge Arresters 355f 20.1. Fault Mva and Fault Current (Steady State) · 403
18.13. Rated Voltage of Surge Arrester 356j 20.2. Solved Examples 403
18.14. Coefficient of Earthing (Ce) is the Ratio : 356! 20.3. Procedure Recommended by Standards for Short-circuit
357; Calculations in Distribution Systems. 414
18-B. NEUTRAL GROUNDING (NEUTRAL EARTHING) 20.4. Reactors in Power Systems 418
20.5. Principle of Current Limiting Reactors 418
18.15. Introduction to Neutral Grounding
18.16. Terms and Definitions 20.6. Design Features of Current Limiting Reactors 419
20.7. Dry, Air Cored Series Reactor 420
18.17. Disadvantages of Ungrounded Systems
20.8. Oil Immersed Non-magnetically Shielded Reactor 420
18.18. Advantages of Neutral Grounding
18.19. Types of Grounding 20.9. Oil Immersed Shielded Reactors 420
18.20. Reactance in Neutral Connection 20.10. Terms and Definitions 420
20.11. Physical Arrangement of Series Reactors 421
18.21. Connection of the ARC Suppression Coil
20 .12. Selection of Reactors 421
18.22. Neutral Point Earthing of Transformer L.V. Circuits.
18.23. Neutral Grounding Practice 20.13. Location of Series Reactors 422
18.24. Earthing Transformer · 20.14. Effective Short Circuit Level (ESCL) by Considering Kvar
18.25. Ratings of Neutral Devi~es Contribution of Shunt Capacitor Banks 432
20.15. Effective Short Circuit Ratio (ESCR) 433
18-C. SUBSTATION EARTH~NG.,9-YSTEM AND EQUIPMENT EARTHING 21. SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 438-447
18.26. Equipment Earthing (Grounding) · ·
18.27. Functions of Substation Earthing System
21.2. Symmetrical Components of 3-phase Systems 438
18.28. Connection of Electrical Equipment to Station-earthing System 439
18.29. Substation Earthing System 21.3. Operator 'a'
21.4. Some Trigonometric Relations 440
" (xxi)
(xx)
l.:..•--=-==~;-;-;:~arm:~~Av"~--------------75f<ioio.o-:S51919
26, ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS 500
21.5. Zero Sequence Currents
21.6. Phase Displacement in Star-delta Transformers
446) 26.2. Basic Connections of Trip Circuit
ii
26.3. Auxiliary Switch, Sealing, and Auxiliary Re1ays 501
22. Unsymmetrical Faults on an Unloaded Generator
448-46ij 26.3.1. Auxiliary Switch
22.1. Sequence Impedances 26.3.2. 'sealing', 'holding', 'repeat Operation, 501
448!
22.2. Sequence Networks of Alternator 26.4. Measurement in Relays 502
4481
22.3. Voltage Equations 503
449) 26 .4.1. Magnitude Measurement
22.4. Single Line to Ground Fault on an Unloaded Three-phase 26.4.2. Product Measurement 503
Alternator at Rated Terminal Voltage 26.4.3. Ratio Measurement 503
450f
22.5. Double Line to Ground Fault on an Unloaded Generator 26.4.4. Vector Difference (or Vector Sum) 50 3
4521
22.6. Line to Line Fault on Unloaded Alternator (Generator) 26.5. Type of Relays Units 503
456iAt
26.6. Pick-up 503
504
--=2:-:::3-.:::::F-:-A-::::-:U;;:-L-:::;T;-;::S:-:O;::--:N:-:;-:::P::--:O::-::W=E:::::R-S::--Y,:-,S-:-T---E_M_S_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
46-3--4-7-d
26. 7. Reset or Drop-off 504
23.1. S!;lquence Networks 463£ 26.8. Drop Offi'pick-up Ratio · .
\ I 26.9. Attracted Armature Relay (Electromagnetic Attract10~) . 504
24. USE OF A.C. NETWORK ANALYSER AND DIGITAL COMPUTER 26.10. Balanced Beam Relay (Electromagnetic Attraction Prmc1ple) 506
IN FAULT CALCULATIONS J 26.11. Induction Disc Relay (Electromagnetic) . . 507
476-484)
24.1. Introduction 26.11.1. Plug Setting and Time Setting in Induct10n Disc Relays 510
4761y:, 26.11.2. Effect of Time-setting 510
24.2. A.c. Network Analyzer (A.C. Calculating Board)
24.3. Digital Computers 476J 26.12. Induction Cup Relay (Electromagnetic) 510
24.4. Organization of a Digital Computers 4781 26.13. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Relay 511
478t 26.14. Rectifier Relay Systems 512
24.5. Process of Solving Engineering Problems on Digital Computers
473f 26.14.1. Relays for One Quantity 512
24.6. (i) Short Circuit Studies on Digital Computer
479} 26.14.2. Relays for Two Quantities 513
SECTION III - POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION
26.15. Thermal Relays, Bimetal R_elays, Thermocouples 513
:i
---;2;-;5--c.l:;;;N~T;;,;R:;-;O~D~Un";:;C;;;;Ti.':IO~N~T;-;:O~P;::,R~O~TE=c=T=IVE=-R=E-:::i~-:-A=YI=N-=-G::::------------.:...4_8_5_-4_9_9J 26.16. Directional Relays 514
26.16.1. Principle of Measurements 514
25.1.About Protective Relaying / 435 i
25.2.Faults, Causes and Effects 486 f 26.16.2. Directional Relays
26.16.3. Principle of Operation of Directional Element
514
515
25.3.Importance of Protective Relaying 487 j
26.17. Polarized Moving Iron Relays 516
25.4.Protective Zones 487 t
26.18. Frequency Relays 516
25.5.Primary and Back-up Protection 488}
26.19. Under-voltage Relays ~~;
25.6.Back Up Protection by Time Grading Principle 489 ! 26.20. D.C. Relays
25.6.1. Back-up Protection by Duplication Principle 490 } 26.21. All-or-nothing Relays 517
25.6.2. Monitoring 490 !
26.22. Plug Setting 518
25.7. Desirable Qualities of Protective Relaying 7
490 26.23. Time Setting ~~:

25.7.1. Selectivity and Discrimination
490 26.24. Test Facility
25.7.2. Relay Time and Fault Clearing Time
25. 7 .3. Sensitivity 491 1
25. 7.4. Stability 492 I 27. OVERCURRENT PROTECTION AND EARTH FAULT PROTECTION 520-530
25.7.5. Reliability 493 27 .1. Introduction 520
25.7.6. Adequateness 27 .2. Applications of Over-current Protection 521
25.8. Some Terms in Protective Relaying 27.3; Relays Used in Over-current Protection . 521
27.4. Characteristics of Relay Units for Over-current Protection 521
25.9 .Distinction Between Relay Unit, Protective Scheme and Protective System
25.10. Protective Current Transformers and Voltage Transformers 27.4.1. Connection Scheme with Three Over-current Relays 522
25.11. Actuating Quantities 27.5. Earth-fault Protection 523
25.12. Electro-mechanical Relays and Static Relays 27.6. Connections of Ct's for Earth-fault Protection 523
25.13. Power Line Carrier Channel (PLC) 27.6.1. Residually Connected Earth-fault Relay 523
25.14. Programmable Relay 27.6.2. Earth-fault Relay Connected in Neutral to Earth Circuit 524
25.15. System Security 27.7. Combined Earth-fault and Phase-fault Protection 525
25.16. Role of Engineers 27.8. Earth-fault Protection with Core Balance Curren Transformers. (Zero Sequence CT) 525
(xxii)
Ii
(xxiii)
27.9. Frame-leakage Protection
52?1 Part B : Distance Protection of Transmission Lines
27 .10. Directional Over-current Protection 30.9. Introduction to Distance Protection of H.V. and E.H.V. Lines 557
27.11. Directional Earth-fault Protection 52si
529! 30.9.1. Plain Impedance Protection 559
30.9.2. Directional Impedance Relay 559
28. DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION , 30.9.3. Reactance Relay 560
531-535l
28.1. Differential Protection 30.9.4. Mho Relay Admittance Relays 560
531{
28.2. Applications of Differential Protection . 30.9.5. Offset Mho Characteristic 561
531f 561
28.3. P~·incipl~J of.Circulating Current Differential (merz-prize) Protection 30.10. Distance Schemes
28.4. D1fficult1es m Differential Protection 5311
30.11. Starting Element (Fault Detectors) 562
28.5. Differential Protection of 3-phase Circuits 532!
30.12. Stepped Characteristic 563
28.6. Biased or Per Cent Differential Relay 533j
30.13. Three Step Distance-time Characteristic 564
28. 7. Settings of Differential Relays 533f
30.14. Power Swings 564
28.8. Balanced Voltage Differential Protection 534f
30.15. Carrier Assisted Distance Protection 565
I
534f
30.15.1. Carrier Transfer (Intertripping) 565
· 29. DISTANCE PROTECTION 30.15.2. Carrier Blocking Scheme (Directional Comparison Method) 566
536-549l 30.15.3. Carrier Acceleration 567
29.1. Introduction to Distance Protection
29.2. Principle of R-X Diagram 5i61 30.16. Distance S.chemes for Single Pole and Triple-pole Auto-Reclosing 567
29.3. Theory of Impedance Measurement 536i 30.17. Connections of Distance Relays · 567
29.3.1. R-X Diagrams of Plain Impedance Relay 5371
Part C : Prote,ction of Based on Unit Principle Lines
29.3.2. Plain Impedance Characteristics. 538, 30.18. Pilot Wire Protection Using Circulating Current Differential Relaying 568
539t
29.3.3. D.isadvantages o-\ Plain Impedance Relay. Part D ·: Carrier Current Protection of Transmission Lines
539l
29.3.4. Tune Characteristic of High Speed Impedance Relay 30.19. Carrier Current Protection 571
29.4. Methods of Analysis •
5401w
1
540i 30.20. Phase Comparison Carrier Current Protection 574
29.5, Directional Impedance Relay
30.21. Applications of Carrier Current Relaying 577
29.6. Torque Equation of Directional Impedance Relay
29. 7. Modified (Shifted) Characteristic
;:~, 30.22. Radio Links or Microwave Links 577
29.8. Reactance Type Distance Relay 5421 --------------,-::-:-=-::=-c:::----------------::-:::-::--=:::-
542( 31. PROTECTION OF INDUCTION MOTORS 579-592
29.9. Mho Type Distance Relay ·
29.10. Application of Distance Protection 543 f 31.1. Introduction 579
29.10.1. Rf Diagram 544 l1 31.2. Abnormal Operating Conditions and Causes of Failures in Induction Motors 580
544 i 31.3. Protection Requirements 581
29.10.2. ·g:ne Characteristics
29.10.3. ondition for Relay Operation
544 i 31.4. Protection of Low Voltage Induction Motor. (below 1000V AC) 581
29.10.4 .. perating Time 545 i 31.4.1. Scheme of Starting Circuit 581
29.10.5/stages of Relay Time Characteristics
545 i 31.4.2. Bimetal Overload Devices 582
29 545; 31.4.3. Short Circuit Protection by Hrc Fuses 583
,lO.q·. C~-0 :dinated Characteristics of Distaiy(e Relays in Three Stations. 546 [ 31.5. Protection of Large Motors 584
29.10.7. S1gmficance ofR-X Diagram and M~thod of Analysis
547 i 31.6. Overload Protection oflnduction Motors 584
29.10.8. Load Impedance
29.10.9. Line Impedance
. ··
547 ! 31.7. Protection Against Unbalance 586
29.10.10. Power Swings 547 t 31.8. Protection Against Single-phasing (Phase Failure) 587
548 ;; 31.9. Phase Reversal Relay 588
29.10.11. Choice of Characteristic Mho/reactance Mho/static
548 ; 31.10. Phase to Phase Fault Protection · 588
7 31.11. Stator Earth-fault Protection 590
30. PROTECTION OF TRAI\fSMISSION LINES
30.1. Introduction
550' f 31.12. Faults in Rotor Winding 591
Part A : Overcurrent Protection of Transmission Lines

550 ! 32. PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS 593-613
30.2. N?n-d~recti~~al Time Graded System of Feeder (or Line) Protection 32.1. Protection Requirements 593
30.3. D1rect10nal rune and Current-graded System .551
553 32.2. Safety Devices with Power Transformers 595
30A. Setting of Directional Over-current Relays of a Ring Main 32.3. Low Oil Level-Fluid Level Gauge 595
30.5. Current Graded Systems 554
554 32.4. Gas Actuated Devices 595
30.6. Definite Time Overcurremt Protection of Lines
30. 7. Earth Fault Protec.tion of Lines 556 32.4.1. Pressure Relief and Pressure Relay 595
30.8. Summary of Overcurrent Protection of Lines 556 32.4.2. Rate-of-rise Pressure Relay 596
557
(xxiv) (xxv)
32.4.3. Buchholz Relay (Gas Actuated Relay)

- 34, STATION BUS-ZONE PROTECTION 644-655
32.5. Biased Differential Protection, Percentage Differential
Protection of Power Transformer 34.1. Introduction . . 644
32.6. Problems Arising in Differential Protection Applied to Transformers 34.2. Bus Protection by Overcurrent Relays of Conne~ted ?1rcmts 645
32.7. Harmonic Restraint and Harmonic Blocking 34.3. Bus Protection by Distance Protection of Incommg Lme as a Remote Back-up 646
32.8. Differential Protection of Three-winding Transformer 34.4. Bus-zone Protection by Directional Interlock 646
32.9. Differential Protection of Auto-transformers 34.5. Bus-zone Protection by Differential Princi~le 647
32.10. Earth-fault Protection 34.6. Problems in Bus-zone Differential Protection 648
32.11. Restricted Earth Fault Protection 34. 7. Selection of CTS for Bus-zone Protection 649
32.12. Protection of'rransformers in Parallel 34.8. Biased Differential Bus-zone Protection . 650
32.13. Overcurrent Protection of Power Transformers 34.9. High Impedance Circulating Current Differential Bus-zone P_rotection 650
32.13.1. Overload Protection 34.10. High Impedance Differential Protection Based on Voltage Drop 650
32.14. Thermal Over-heating Protection of Large Transformers 34.11. High Impedance-voltage Differential System 651
32.15. Over-fluxing Protection 34.12. Check Features in Bus Protection_ 652
32.16. Protection of Arc Furnace Transformers 34.13. Locaticlll\ Qf CT's 652
32.16.1, Power Supply Requirements of Arc Furnace Plants of
34.14. Monitoring Sec_ondary Circuits . 652
32.17. Protection of Rectifier Transformer 34.15. Interlocked Overcurrent P:otection for Buszone and Gen~rator-umt Zone 653
32.18. Protection of Grounding Transformer 34.16. Non-auto Reclosure and Simultan_eous Three-pole Operation_ . 654
34.17. Bus Transfer Schemes for Auxiliary Switchgear and Industrial Switchgear 654
33. PROTECTION OF GENERATORS
614-643i 35, CURRENT TRANSFORMERS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
33.1. Introduction 656-675
33.2. Abnormal Conditions and Protection Systems
33.2.1. External Faults. 6161 35.2. Terms and Definitions 657
33.2.2. Thermal Overloading. 6161 35.3. Accuracy Class 658
6161 35.4. Burden. on CT 659
33.2.3. Unbalanced Loading.
6171 35.5. Vector Diagram of CT 661
33.2.4. Stator Winding Faults.
33.2.5. Field Winding Faults. 617! 35.6. Magnetisation Curve of CT 663
33.2.6. Overvoltages 6181 35.7. Open Circuited Secondary of CT 664
33.2.7. Other Abnormal C;onditioni'j', 6181 35.8. Polarity of CT and Connections 664
:~n
619 f 35.9. Selection of Current Transformers of Protection Ratings 665
33.3. Percentage Differential Protection of Alternator Stator Windings
33.4. Restricted Earth-fault Protection by bifferential System 35.10. CT's for Circulating Current Differential Protection . 666
33.5. Ov~rcurrent and Earth-fault Protection for Generator Back-up 35.11. CT's for Other Protection Systems ; CT's for Distance Protection 668
33.6. (a) Sensitive Stator Earth-fault Protection 627 ! 35.12. Type of Construction CT's 668
628 ! 35.13. Core Shapes for Multiturn Wound Primary Type CT 669
33.7. Protection Against Turn-to-turn Fault on Stator Winding
629 f
33.8. Rotor Earth Fault Protection
33.9. Rotor Temperature Alarm 631
632
! 35.14. Current Transformer for High Voltage Installations
35.15. Intermediate CT
670
670
33.10. Negative Sequence Protection of Generators Against Unbalanced Loads 35.16. Testing of CT's (Brief) 672
33.11. Negative Phase Sequence Circuit 632 35.17. Transient Behaviour of CT's 673
33.12. Stator-heating Protection 633
33.13. Loss of Field Protection 635 '£ 36. VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 676-689
33.14. Reverse Power Protection 635 1:
33.15. Over-speed Protection 635
36.2. Theory of Voltage Transformers 676
33.16. Field Suppression 636
36.3. Specifications for Voltage Transformers 678
33.17. Other Protections 637
36.4. Terms and Definitions 678
637
33.18. Protection of Small, Standby Generators 36.5. Accuracy Classes and Uses [B.S. 3914 (1965)] 679
33.19. Generator Transformer Unit Protection
638
36.6. Burdens on Voltage Transformer 679
639
33.19.1. Combined Differential Protection for Generator Main Transformer 36.7. Connections ofVT's 680
639
33.20. Static Protection of Large Turbogenerators And Main Transformer 36.8. Residually Connected VT (Zero Sequence Voltage Filter) 682
639
33.21. Static, Digital, Programmable Protection System For 36.9. Electromagnetic Voltage Transformer 682
Generator and Generator-transformer Unit 36.10 .. Capacitor Voltage Transformers (CVT) 683
641
36.10.1. CVT with Stepped Output 684
(xxui) (xxuii)
36.10,2. Protection of Voltage Transformers 684 38.20.3. Pnpn Devices and Thyristor Tripping Circuit 725
36.11. CVT as Coupling Capacitor for Carrier Current Applications 684 38.20.4. Power Switching Techniques with "Thyristors" 726
36.12. Choice of Capacitance Values for CVT · 684 726
38.20.5. Triac
36.13. Transient of Behaviour of CVT - 686 726
38.20.6. Thermistors
36.14. Ferro-resonance (FR) in CVT 686 726
38.20.7. Resistors
36.15. Testing of Voltage Transformer (BRIEF) 687 38.20.8. Capacitors 727
36.16. Application of Capacitor Type Voltage Transformer for Protective Relaying 687 38.21. Printed Circuit Boards with Discrete Components 727
38.22. Stati~ Relays with Integrated Circuits 727
37. TESTING AND MAINTENANCE OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS 690-702~ 38.22.1. Reed Relays 728
37.1. Importance of Maintenance and Setting 690 38.23. Static Directional Units . 729
37.2. Tests on Relays · 690 Section II : Digital Circuits and thier Applications in Protective Relaying
37.3. Test Equipment 691 730
38.24. Logic Circuits
37.4. Routine Maint.enance Tests 692 38,25. And Function 731
87.5. Inspection and Testing fo; Acceptance 693 38.26. Or Function 733
37.6. Some Tests on CT's 694 38;27. Not Function 734
37.7. Some Tests on PT's 694 38.28. Combined Functions 1 734
37.8. Smne Test Circuits and Procedures for Secondary Injection Tests 695 38.29. Memory Function. (St6rage Function) 735
37.9. Manufacturer's Tests · 698 38.30. Families of Logic Clcuits 736
37.10. Commissioning Tests 699 38.31. Applications of Logjc Circuits in Protective Relaying 738
SECTION N - STATIC RELAYS AND STATIC PROTECTION SCHEMES 38.32. Definition and Ap~lication 738
38.33. Symbol of Operayonal Amplifier 739
38-A. INTRODUCTION TO STATIC AND MICROPROCESSOR-BASED 38.34. Characteristics ?f Ideal OperaY,onal Amplifier . 739
INTEGRATED PROGRAMMABLE PROTECTION, MONITORING 38.35. Some Applications of Operational Amplifiers 740
AND CONTROL SYSTEMS 703-720 38.35.1. Anal~ue Level Detector or Comparator 742
38.1. Introduction and Definition 703 38.35.2. Analogue/digital Conversion 743
38.2. Static Versus Electromagnetic Relays 706 38.35.3. Digital to Analogue Conversion 745
38.3. Limitations of Static Relays 708 38.35.4. D,{gital Multiplexers 745
38.4. Reliability and Security of Static Relays 38.35Ji.•,Encoders and Decoders 745
709
38.5. Historical Review in Brief 38.35.6/Programmable System . 745
710
38.6. Recent Development of Static Relays 38.35.!'t. Microproc~ssor 1 746
710 1
38.7. Present Trends in Protection and Control Technology 38.35.8. Microprocessor Module 746
711
38.8. Modular Concept, Building-block Principle Used in Predominantly 38.35.9. Hybrid of Analogue and Digital Systems 746
Static Protection Systems · 38.36. Auxiliary Voltage Supply for Static Relays 746
714
38.9. Static Relay Functional Circuits and Index of Functions 38.37. Full-wave Rectifier 747
714
38.10. Types of Measuring and All-or-nothing Relay Units 38.38. Smoothing Circuits 747
715
38.11. Analogue and Digital Subssystems in Protective Relaying 38.39. Voltage Stabilization (Regulation) by Zener Diodes 748
716
38.12. Analogue Protection Systems 38.40. Time-delay Circuits 748
716
38.13. Limitations of Analogue Systems 38.41. Frequency Filters 749
718
38.14. Digital and Prognlmmable Electronic. Static Relays 38.42. Symmetrical Component Filters 750
718
38.15; Hardwire Digital Systems 718
38.16. Programmable Digiyal Protective and Control Systems 719 39, COMPARATORS AND LEVEL DE'l'ECTORS 753-765
38.17. Forms of Digital Electronic Circuits 719 39.1. Static Relay Functional Circuits 753
38.18. Integration a Contr.ol and Protection for High Voitage AC Substation 719 39.2. Comparators 754
39.3. Amplitude Comparators 755
38-B. INTRODUCTION TO ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL STATIC RELAYS 721-752 39.4. Phase Comparators 756
Section I : Solid State Devices 39.5. Phase Comparator Based on Rectangular (or Squa_Jed) Pulses· 756
38.19. Semiconducting Materials 39,6. Phase Comparators Based on Vector Product Devices 757
721
38.20. Solid-state Devices : (Brief Introduction) 39.7. Direct (Instantaneous) and Integrating Type Comparators 758
722
38.20.1. Semiconductor Diode 39.8. Integrating Amplitude Comparator 758
722
38.20.2. Zener-Diodes (Voltage Regulating Diodes) 39.9. Operating Time 759
723
39.10. Coincidence Techniques in Phase Comparators 7~9
(xxviii)
I (xxix)
39.11. Spikes and Block Coincidence Technique in Phase Comparator 7601
39.12. Phase Comparator with Phase Splitting Technique 761i 43.3. Protection of Static Relay Circuit . . 806
39.13. Hybrid Comparator
761I 43.4. Recommended Protection Practices for Static Relaymg Equ~pment 807
39.14. Level Detector
39.15. Level Detector by pnp Transistor
762 l 43.5. Testing of Static Relays with Regard to Over-voltage Transients 808
762! 43.6. Reliability, Dependability, Security 809
39.16. Npn Transistor as Level Detector
763 ! 43.7. Static Relay for Motor Protection . 811
39.17. Schmitt Trigger with Operational Amplifier 763 t 43.8. Static Busbar Protection Based on Directional Co~_Panson 814
39.18. Schmitt Trigger with Two NPN Transistor
764 l 43.9. Disconnection of Mains Supply From Inplant Aux1hary Supply
During System Faults 816
40. STATIC OVERCURRENT RELAYS 766-778f 43.10. Breaker Back-up Local Back-up 817
40.1. Introduction to Static Overcurrent Relays 7661 43.11. Use of Micro Processor for Local Back-up 818
40.2. Single Actuating Quantity Relays 766' 43.12. Computer Based Centrally Coordinated Back-up 820
40.3. Double Actuating Quantity Relays 43.13. Programmable Equipment for Protective Relaying Me '!Ure
767
40.4. Basic Principle of Static Overcurrent Relays 768 Ments and Control (PPRMC) 820
40.5. Time Characteristic 43.14. Principle of Centralized Back-up Protection (CBP) 821
769
40.6. Timing Circuit 43.15. Post-faulty Control (PFC) by Digital Computers 822
770
40.7. Directional Overcurrent Relay 43.16. Communication Links for Protection Signalling 823
771
40.8. Static Instantaneous A.C. Measuring Relays 43 .17. Fib~e Optic Data Transmission . 823
773
40.9. Static Time-lag Over-current Relays 43.18. Local Breaker Back-up Protection: Breaker Fail Pr9tect10n;
774
40.10. Static Directional Relay Stuck-breaker Protection 824
776
43.19. Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) . . 825
-4-1-.=sT=A-=-T=1:c-C:c-D:::-I=F=F=E""R:-:E=N=T=IALc-,----P-,R_O_T_E_C~T_I_O_N
__O_F__P_o:-:w=E=R-::T=RANc-:-=-::-s=F=-o:-:R::-:MEcc:::::::::R-::::S---7=7=--=9:--=.7=--=8~4;l
43.20. Directional Wave Relays for Fault Detection And Protect10n of Overhead Lmes, 826
41.1. Introduction
779
41.2. Differential Protection of Two-winding Transformer 43-B. DIGITAL RELAYS, MICROPROCESSORS BASED R~LAYS,
780 FAULT RECORDERS AND FAULT LOCATORS
41.3. Differential Protection of Three Winding Transformer 828-854
781
41.4. Inrush-proof Qualities. 43.21. Enter Microprocessors in Protection Technology , 828
782
41.5. Requirements to be Fulfilled by the Main CT 43.22. Block Diagram and Components of a Digital Relay ., 829
41.6. Auxiliary C.T. 783 y
43.23. Basic Principles of Digital Relays 831
783
43.24. Microprocessor Based Relays . 834
42. STATIC DISTANCE RELAYS AND DISTANCE PROTE(:)TlbN OF ERV LINES 785-802 43.25. Description of a Microprocessor Based Protective Relay for Motor Pr~tect10n 834
42.1. Introduction 43.26. Advantages of and Special Features of Microprocessor Based Protective Relays 837
785 43.27. Block Diagram of a Microprocessor Based Distance Relay for
42.2. Voltage Comparator and Current Comparator
786 Protection of Transmission Line · 838
42.3. Three-input Amplitude Comparator
42.4. Hybrid Comparator 790 43.28. Architecture of a Microprocessor 841
791 43 .29. Programming of Microprocessors Based Relays 847
42.5. Follr Input Phase Comparator with Quadrangular Characteristic
792 43.30. Self-checking And/or Self Monitoring in Microprocessor based Relay 847
42.6. Errors in Distance Measurement
792 43.31. On Line Microprocessor Based Fault Monitoring 849
42. 7. Influence of Power Swings on Distance- Protection
793 43.32. Microprocessor Based Fault Locators 849
42.7.1. Power Swings
793 43.33. Principle of Fault Detection in on Line Digital Relays, Fault
42. 7 .2. Effect of Power Swing on the Starting Elements in Distance Schemes. 793 Locators and Fault Recorders 851
42.7.3. Effect of Power Swing on the Measuring Elements in Distance Schemes. 794
42. 7.4. Representation of Power Swing on R-X Diagram
794 43-C. MODERN PROTECTION SYSTEM 855-864
42.8. Protection of Teed Lines by Distance Relays
796
42.9. Back-up Protection with Intermediate Infeed 43.34. Introduction 856
796 43.35. Numerical Relays
42.10. Compensation or Compounding in Distance Relays 856
797 43.36. Traditionally Separate Networks.
42.11. Setting of Distance Relays 857
798,
42.12. Solved Examples on Distance Relay Setting 43.37. Ethernet just a Physical Layer Standard 858
798 43.38. The IEC's Initiative 859
43-A. IMPORTANT ASSORTED TOPICS AND STATIC PROTECTION SCHEMES 803-827
4;3.1. Combating Electrical Noise and Interferences 43-D, MICROPROCESSOR BASED SUBSTATION PROTECTION CONTROL
803 AND MONITORING 865-871
43.2. Transient Overvoltages in Static Relays
43.40. Equipment to Automatic Control Substations 865
(xxx) (xxxi)
43.41. Two Subsystems in Substations 866 45-A, LOAD-FREQUENCY CONTROL, LOAD SHEDDING
43.42. Two Hierarchical Levels in a Substation 866 AND STATIC FREQUENCY RELAY 920-930
43.43. Substation Level (Upper Level) 867
45.1. Introduction to System Frequency Control 920
43.43.1. Unit Level 868
45.2. Load-frequency Characteristics of Rotath1g Machines 921
43.43.2. Inter-tevel Communication 869
45.3. Pririi,ary Load-frequency Control 921
43.44. Functions Performed by Protection and Control Equipment 870 921
45.4. Seco~dary Load Frequency Control
43.45. Protection and Control Configuratio,r 871 922
45.5. Load-frequency Control of a Grid
45.6. Load, Shedding 923
SECTION V - POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS, INTERCONNECTION AND 45. 7. Us~ '?f Frequency Relays for Load Shedding . ·. 923
. POWER SYSTEM CONTROL SJ)ADA SYSTEMS 45.8; Stailic Frequency Relay . 924
. 4511. Turbine Frequency Capability and Under-frequency Limits 925
44. POWER SYSTEM STABILITY, AUTO-RECLOSING SCHEMES, ME'l'HODS 45.9. Netw~~k Islanding .i 927
OF ANALYSIS AND IMPROVEMENT OF TRANSIENT STABILITY 875-919 45.10. Other ~ppHca~ion of Frequency Relay 927
'~-- ' '
Part A : Concept of Power System 45.11. Load D~patchmg and Network Controller 927
44.1.. Powei' System Stability 875
44.2. Concept of Power System Stability 877 45-B. VOLTAGE C?NTROL AND COMPENSATION OF REACTIVE POWER 931-958
44.3. Single Machine Against Infinite Bus 880 45.12. Voltage Control in Network (Power System) 931
Part B : Swing Cm·ves and Swing Equation, Equal Area Criterion 45.13. Permissible Voltage_J'ariation 932
~
44.4. Dynamics of Synchronous Machines, Kinetic Energy, Inertia 45.14. Methods of Voltage Control·--- 933
Constant and Stored Energy · · 884 45.15. Compensation of Reactive Power 937
44.4.1. Kinetic Energy of a Rotating Mass 884 45.16. Effect of Reactive Power Flow on Voltage at Sending-end and
44.4.2. Inertia Constant H 88 Receiving end of Transmission Line 938
44.4.3. Stored Energy in Rotor of a Syn. Machine 88 45.17. Series Capacitors 938
44.5. Swing Curve 888 45.18. Applications of Power Capacitors in Electric Power Systems 940
44.6. Derivation of Swing Equation From Fµndamentals 889 45.19. Installation of Shunt Capacitors 947
44.7. Equal Area Criterion of Transient Stability 891 45.20. Reactive Power Requirements and Voltage Regulation Of
44.8. Critical Clearing Angle 894 Ehv/uhv A.C. Lines. Surge Impedance Loading 949
44.9. Method of Improving Transient Stability Limit 897 45.21. Reactiye Power Management 952
Part C : High Speed Protection and Circuit Breakers
44.10. High Speed Circuit Breakers and Fast Protective Relaying for 45-C; VOLTAGE ~TABILITY OF ELECTRICAL NETWORK 959-966
Improved Transient Stability 8981 45.22. Introduction to Voltage Stability Studies 959
44.11. Auto-reclosure Improves Transient Stability 900 • 45.23. Explaini~g Voltage Instability 959
44.12. Single Pole Reclosing of Circuit-breakers 9011 45.24. lncreasin~ Voltage Stability Limit by Supply of Reactive Power 960
44.13. Independent Pole Mechanism 902j 45.25. Sequence 6f Switching-on and Switching-off Shunt Capacitor Banks 961
44.14. Single Pole Tripping 902f 45.26. Q-V Characteristics 962
44.15. Selective Pole Tripping 9021 45.27. Voltage Collapse Occurances, and Their Time-spans 963
44.16. Segregated Phase Comparison Relaying (SPCR) 902) 45.28. Preventive Measures Against Voltage Collaps~ 965
44.17. Influence of Power Swings on Transmission Line Protection 9031 45.29. Definitions 965
.fc
Part D: Autoreclosing
44.18. Autoreclosing Schemes 904t 45-D. AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATORS, VOLTAGE CONTROL AND
44.19. Terms and Definitions Regarding Autoreclosing 9041 ! STABILITY OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS 967~991
I
44.20. Rapid Autoreclosing Scheme 9051 45.30. Introduction 967
44.21. Delayed Autoreclosing Scheme 907J 45.31. Operation of Synchronous Generator 971
44.22. Synchronism Check 9071 45.32. EMF and No Load Terminal Voltage, Saturation Curve and ~.ir Line. 973
44.23. Control Schemes for Auto-reclosing 0osi... 45.33. Terminal Voltage of an Isolated Gmierator with Constant
Part E : Modern Definitions of Power System Disturbance, Stability ,1 Field Current and Without AVR 974
44.24. Terms and Definitions in Power System Stability Studies (1980) 45.34. Types of Excitation Systems and AVRS 975
44.25. Operational Limits with Reference to Steady State Stability 45.35. Synchronous Generator in Parallel with the Grid (Infinite Bus) 976
Limit and Transient Stability Limit 45.36. Types of AVR and Excitation Systems 977
44.26. Methods of Improving Transient Stability Limit 45.37. Terms and Definitions on AVR and Excitation Systems 980.
(xxxiii)
(xxxii) . C . n of Bipolar HDVC Transmission System

47.2.7. Economic ompanso 1037
45.38. Excitation Systems and AVR (Synchronous Machine Regulators) 98 with Ehv-ac System 1038
45.39. Steady State Performance Excitation Systems and AVRS 984 1039
47 2 8 EHV-AC Versus HVD.C ..
. . .
45.40. Transient Performance of AVRS 984 47.2.9. HVDC Cable Transmiss10n .. 1040
45.41. Excitation System Voltage Response 931, 47.2.10. HVDC System Interconnection 1041
987 1042
45.42. Generator Capability Curves 47 2 .11 . HVDC Coupling System . .
45.43. Electrical Load Diagram of a Synchronous Generator Operating 47:2.12. EHV-AC Versus HVDC Trans~i~s10n 1044
In Parallel with the Grid (VT Constant) · 47.2.13. Limitations ofHVDC Transmi~s10n 1044
45.44. Cq_ntrol and Protective Circuits of an Excitation System 47.2.14. Terms and Definitions Regardmg Hvdc 1045
45.45. Voltage-reactive Power Characteristic for Constant Power 1045
47 .3 . Control of Hvdc Link
t t UD/ID Characteristic of Converters.
46-A. DIGITAL COMPUTER AIDED PROTECTION AND AUTOMATION !~:!·.~: ~:;:;:;:ti:: Characteristics of Rectifier and Inverter Under Normal 1046
46.1. Introduction to Power System Control and Operation 992 Operating Mode ..
994 47 3.3. Intersecting Characteristic Under Steady Condit10n 1047
46.2. Terms Related with Computers and Microprocessors
· 'th Current Margin Control .
46.3. Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System for Power- wi T . . n Characteristic with Constant Current Regulat10n
997 1047
System Operation and Control 47.3.4. Power. ransmdisCs10 t t Extinction Angle Regulation of Inverter.
46.4. Data Collection Equipment, Data Loggers 99 of Rectifier an ons an . . .
Through an HVDC Lmk: Necessity of 1048
46.5. Data Transmission Equipment (Telemetry) 1001 47.3.5. Reversal of Power
1003 Reversal of Power. 1050
46.6. Applications of Power Line Carrier
1004 47.3.6. Alternatives of HVDC Control 1053
46.7. Man-machine Interface
1004 47.4. Circuit Arrangements . 1054
46.8. Application of Computers in Network Automation
1005 47.5. Thyristor Valves for HVDC Convertor 1056
46.9. Microprocessors
1007 47 6 Reversal of Power . 1056
46.10. Micro-processor Based Micro-computer
47: 7: Typical Layout of HVDC C~nversion of Sub-stat10n 1057
46.11. Applications of Digital Computer and Micro-processors in
Power System Protection. 1008 4 7 .8. Over-voltage Surge Protect10n 1057
1058
46.12. Microprocessor Based Inverse Time Overcurrent (IOT) Relay 1009 47 .9. D.C. Surge Arrestors
1058
46.13. Digital Computers for Power System Operation 1009 47.10. Line Protection System
1010 47.11. AC Harmonics 1058
46.14. On Line Digital Computer for Protection of Line
47.12. Harmonic Filters 1059
47.13. HVDC Simulator . 1060
46-B. ECONOMIC OPERATION OF POWER SYSTEM AND AUTOMATIC
47.14. Protectiqn Systems in HVDC Sub-sta~10~ 1060
ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH 1013-1028
47.14.1. Protection ofHVDC Transmiss10n System 1062
46.15. Classical Method of Loading the Units in a Plant 1014
47.15. Line Insulation 1063
46.16. Economic Load Distribution Within a Generating Station by Modern Method 1015
47.16. Maintenance ofHVDC Links 1063
46.17. Modern Method of Economic Load Distribution Between
47.17. D.C. Breakers and Load Switches 1064
Various Generating Stations in a Region 1017
47.18. Control and Protective Equipment
46.18. Distribution of Load Between Generating Stations by Taking
Into Account the Transmission Losses : Penalty Factor
46.19. Automatic Load Dispatch Incorporating Load Frequency
1020 I
IIf!
48-A. EHV -AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS AND STATIC VAR SOURCES
1067-1088
1067
Control and Economic Load Dispatch 10211 48.1. General Background of EHV-AC Transmission 1068
I 1068
46.20. Transmission Loss as a Function of Output Power of Generating Station 1024 f 48.2. Voltage Levels for Transmission Lines . . .
46.21. Network Controller in Load Control Centre 1024 ;i 48.3. Hierarchical Levels of Transmission and Distribution 1070
1
---:4:::7--,.nvn=::::::-::c~T;:::,R;:::--;-AN=s:::-M::::Ic:::S::::S=cIO::-:N:-=-.:S:-::-Y-:,S""T_E_M_S_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _l_0_29---10-6---6 j
48.4. Tasks of Transmission Systems
" . lR .
. . d D ; Aspects
ts of Transmission Systems an es.gn .
1070
48.5. F unct10na eqmremen . . S te d Bipolar Hvdc Transmission System 1071
48.6. Configuration of EHV-AC Transmiss10n ys m an 1072
4 7.1. Introduction Choice of HVDC Transmission 10291
47.2. HVDC Transmission Systems 1029 J 48.7. Power Transfera)Jility of AC Line 1072
1073
47.2.1. Applications ofHVDC Transmission Systems 10291 48.8. Line Losses
1074
4 7.2.2. Choice of HVDC Transmission System 1030 I 48.9. Conductor Cost
'!r
48.10. Transient Stability Limit of AC L~ne 1074
47.2.3. Types ofHVDC Systems and Brief Description 1031 f
48.11. Control of Power Flow Through Lme 1075
47.2.4. Long Distance, High Power Bipolar HVDC Transmission Systems 1035 J 10-75-
\,~
47.2.5. Power Rating of Long Bipole HVDC Transmission System 10351_: 48 12 Short Circuit Levels . p .
48:13: Voltage Control of AC Lines and Compensation of Reactive ower
47.2.6. Configuration and Description of a Bipolar Scheme 1035 ,
j
Ii
'yfS
(xxxiu)
(xxxv)
48.14. Insulation Co-ordinat· d
48.15. Line Insulation CJ ion an Surge Arrester Protection
48 ·16 • Right-of-way
. ' earance and Creepage D'1stances 50.4.1. Division of Tasks Between Various Control Centres 1112
(ROW) · ·
50.4.2. Functions of Scada Systems 1112
48.17. Corona
50,4;3. Common Features of All Scada Systems 1113
48.18. Towers (Supports) 1116
50.4.4. Alarm Functions
48.19. Bundle Conductors (M . 50.4.5. Integration of Measurement Control and Protection Functions
48 .20 . S w1'tch'mg Phenomen ultiple
A . Conductor) . by SCADA Systems 1116
48.21. Audible Noise (AN) a ssociated with EHV-AC Line Switching 1116
50.5. Automatic Sub-station Control
48,22. Biological Effect of Electric . . . , 50.6. Scada Configurations 1120
Electric Field Strength Field and L1m1tmg Value of 1120
50.7. Energy Management Systems (EMS)
48.23. Radio Interference and . . . 1123
48.24. Rapid-auto Reel . Telev1s10n Interference 108 50.8. System Operating States
osmg and Del dA 108 50.8.1. Normal State (Secure State) 1123
Breakers aye uto-reclosing of Circuit
50.8,2. Alert State (Insecure State) 1123
48.25. Surge Im d
pe ance Loading of AC ' . . 50.8.3. Emergency State 1124
48.26. Sub-synchronous R . rransm1ss10n Lines
48 27 S . esonance m S . C 50.8.4. Islanding (In Extermis) State 1124
. . tati_c V~r System (SVS) enes ompensated Ac Lines
48 -28 - Applications 50.8.5. Restoration State 1124
·
50.9. System Security 1124
50.9.1. Security Control 1125
49, INTERCONNECTED POW .
ER SYSTEMS 50.10. State Estimation 112'5
49 .1, Introduction
1089-1104 50.11. Expert Systems Using Artificial Intelligence For Power System Operation 1126
49.2. System Configuration and p . . 50.11.1. What is an Expert System? · · 1126
49.2.1. Individual S t rmc~ple of Interconnection 1089
50.11.2. Components of Expert System 1126
49.2.2. Total G y~ e~ CReg10n or Area). 1090
49 3 M . eneration m Inte. 50.11.3. Example ofan Expert System's Working 1126
. . ents ofinterconnected p Siconnected Systems (national Grid) 1090
50.11.4. Applications in Power Systems 1127
49.4. Limitations of I t ower ystem 1090
50.12. Centralised Diagnostic Expert System Using Artificial Intelligence 1128
49 .5. Obligations of E·n erconnected
I
Po S
wer ystems 1091
ac11 nterco t d 1092
50.13. Scada Systems for Power System 1130
49.6. Objectives ofAut .. nnec e Systems
omat1c Ge t' 1092
49.7. ~ver~ll Objective and Co-re~:;:~o; ~ontrol and 'I'ie-line Power Flow Control 51. POWER SYS'l'EM PLANNING 1134-1137
,eact1ve Power Control d T' . e ween Real Power and 1093
49.8. Tie-line Power Fl C an . ie-lme Power Flow 51.1. Scope of Power System Planning and Design 1134
49...
9 Ti e-hne. ow ontrol m 2- S 1094 51.2. Significance of System Planning and Design 1134
Power Fl . area ystem
49.10. Alternative p , ?wl m 3-area System . 1096 51.3. Computer Programmes for Planning 1 1135
49 rmc1p es of Contr I 1096
.11. Equations of Tie-lin p o and the Tie-line Bias Control
49,12. Actions b.y the C tel Rower Flow Control Reviewed 1097 52. IMPROVING DYNAMIC STABILITY BY FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION
49 1 on ro oom O 1098 SYSTEM (FACT) AND FVDC SYSTEMS 1138-1149
. 3. Actions by Control Room O . perators to Change Tie-line Power
49.14. Controlling Tie-11' p perators for Voltage Control 1100 52.1. Inter-relationship Between Voltage, Active Power, Reactive
F ne owerby M 1100 Power, Power Angle, Oscillations and Various Types of Stabilities 1138
. 49 15 ormer (Regulating Transforme1:ns of Phase Shifting Trans-
. . Phase Shifting Transform 52.1.1. Review of Concepts of Power System Stability and Basic equations 1138
49.16. Types of Interchanges , Ier (Regulating Transformer) . : 1100 52.2. Parameters for Dynamic Control · 1139
49.16.1. Control of p m ;terconnected System 1101 52.3. Fundamental Requirements of AC Transmission System 1140
49.17, National Grid and Gowerh low Through Interconnector 1102 52.4. Time Ranges of Abnormal Conditions and Disturbances 1140
rowt. of Power System in India 1103 52.5. Enter Thyristor Control 1140
50. OPERATION AND CON 1103 52.6. First Swing Period and Oscillators Period 1141
AGC AND SCADA TROL OF INTERCONNECTED POWER SYST 52.7. Review of Power System Problems and Methods for Improvement 1141
50.1. Introduction EMS, 52.8. Flexible AC Transmission (FACT) 1144
1105-1133 52.9. Damping of Oscillations in AC Networks by Means ofHVDC Damping Control 1145
50.2. Main Tasks in Power S
50 2 1 Pl , YS t em Operation 1105 52.10. Stabilisation of Adjacent AC Lines 1146
· · · annmg of Operations 52.11. Damping of AC Networks Oscillations with Different
50,2.2. Operational Tasks 1105
1106 Conditions of DC Control for Synchronous. HVDC Link 1147
50.2.3. Operating Accountin . .
50.3, Automatic Gener t' C g and Fmancial Control 1106
50 4 · a IOn ontrol (AGC) 1108 53. COMPUTER AIDED POWER SYSTEM STUDIES 1150-1154
. . Supervisory Cont I
ro and Data Acquisition (SCADA) System 1108 53.1. Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) for Power System Studies 1150
1109 53.2. Purpose and Need of System Studies 1150
(xxxuiii)
58.5.5. Switchgear Installations 12

58.6. High-voltage Switchgear 12
58.6.1. Definitions and Electrical Characteristics for HV Switchgear Apparatus 123
58.6.2. Electrical Characteristics 12
58. 7. Disconnectors and Earth Switches 12
58.7.1. Circuit Breakers Function 12
58. 7 .2. Quenching Medium and Operating Principle for Different Insulating &
Quenching Medium 12
58.7.3. Different Types of Operating Mechanisms ofHV, CB 12
58. 7.4. Electrical Control of H.V. Circuit Breakers 12
58.7.5. Instrument Transformers for Switchgear Installations 12
58.7.6. Current Transformers 12
58.7.7. Inductive Voltage Transformers 12
58.7.8. Capacitive Voltage Transformers 12
58.8. Surge Arresters 12
58.8.1. Types of Surge Arresters 12
58.8.2. Application and Selection 1
58.8.3. Typical Values of Surge Arresters for the Major Voltage Ratings 1
58.8.4. Circuit Configurations for High- and Medium-voltage Switchgear Installations
59. ELECTRICAL SAFETY

5~.1. Introduction
59.2. Requirements for Electrical Safety
59.3. Relevant Indian Standards 1
59.4. Special Precautions in Design, Installation Maintenance of
Electrical Equipment in Hazardous Locations
59.4.1. Elements for Ignition
59.4.2. Classifications of Hazardous Areas & its Sub-groups
59.5. Hazardous Areas Classification-zones/divisions
59.6. Gas/dust/fibre Groups
59.7. Temperature Class
59.8. Weather Protection
59.9. Material of Construction, Design Characteristics and
Conformity Type Test Report
59.10. Marking on Ex-protected Design Electrical Equipment
59.11. Maintenance of Ex-protected Equipment
59.12. Duties and Obligations
59.13. Selection of Right Variety of Ex-protected Equipment
59.14. Explosion Protection Techniques
59.15. Lightning Protection of Structures with Explosive or Highly Flammable Contents
59.16. General Principles of Protection
59.17. Types of Lightning Protection System
59.18. Bonding
59.19. Other Considerations
59.20. Group Classification of Inflammable Gas/vapor
Appendix-A : Recent Trends and Advances Towards 21st Century

Appendix:B : Distribution Ma11agement System
Bibliography
Index
SECTION I
SWITCHGEAR AND
SUB-STATION APPARATUS
Significance-Energy Management System-Switchgear Protection and Network Automation-Power
Systems-Network Phenomena-Normal and Abnormal Conditions-Faults-Fault clearing-Network
Configurations-Switchgear-Circuit ~re~lrnrs-Protective Relays -Substations-ERV AC
Transmission Systems-HVDC Transm1ss1on Systems -Interconnected Systems-Load Flow
Studies-Grounding of Neutrals-Transient Overvoltages and Surge Arresters-Static
i:~lays-Microprocessor based integrated protection and control-Power System Calculations-Load
Flow Calculations--Computer and Microprocessor in Energy System Studies-Scope of Subject.
Significance of Switchgear, Protection and Power Systems

Electrical Energy Management system ensures supply of energy to every consumer at all times
at rated voltage, rated frequency and specified wave form, at lowest cost and with minimum en-
vironmental degradation. The Switchgear, Protection and Network Automation are integral part
of the Modern Energy Management System and National Economy. The modern 3 phase, 50 Hz,
AC interconnected power system has several conventional and non-conventional power plants, EHV
AC and HVDC Transmission Systems, Back-to-back HVDC Coupling Stations, HV Transmission
network, Substations, MV and LV Distribution Systems, and Connected Electrical Loads. The ener-
gy in electrical form is supplied to various consumers located in a vast geographical area, instantly,
automatically and safely with required quality at all times. The service continuity and high-quality
of power supply have become very important.
Generation Planning, Transmission Planning, System Expansion, Installation, Operation Con-
trol and Maintenance of Electrical Energy Systems, Fault Calculations, Network Calculations, Load
Flow Studies have become very essential functions of Modern Power Engineers. Switchgear and
Controlgear are also essential with every power consuming devices at Utilization Level.
Switchgear and Protection/Control-Panels are installed at each voltage levels at each switching
point for
(1) normal routine switching, control and monitoring and
(2) automatic switching during abnormal and faulty operating conditions such as short circuits,
undervoltage, overloads.
The Computer Controlled Network Automation by Load Control Centre, Power Station Control
Rooms and Substation Control Rooms and communication channels together ensures the Control
of National and Regional Grids and control of Voltage, frequency, Power and waveform under
prevailing and ever changing load conditions. This Text-Book covers the principles and practice in
Modern Power Systems, Switchgear. Protection, Fault Calculation. Load Flow Calculations and
Computer Aided Energy Management Systems. This Chapter gives an Overview and the Scope.
1.1. SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION

Everyone is familiar with low voltage switches and rewirable fuses. A switch is used for opening
and closing in electric circuit and a fuse is used for over-current protection. Every electric circuit
needs a switching device and a protective device. 'l'he switching and protective devices have been
developed in various forms. Switchgear is a general term covering a wide range of equipment con-
cerned with switching and protection.
r
2
I
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTI°'1NTRODUCTION 3
A circuit-breaker is a switching and current-interrupting device in a switchgear The circ ,;applications, the requirements of switchgear vary depending upon the location, ratings and switch-
breaker sc.rve~ two b~sic purposes: · Utjng duty. Besid~s the supply n~twor~, ~witchgear is neces_sary in iridus~ria~ works, indust~ial
(1) Sw1tchmg durmg normal operating conditi'ons f'or the pui·pose f
. . . o opera 10n an mam enanc&,~proiects,
t· d . t , · dand· commercial bmldmgs. A controlgear 1s used for sw1tchmg and controllmg
domestic
(2) Sw1tchmg durmg abnormal conditions such as short circuits and interrupting the fault cuJpower-consummg ev1ces.
rents. I
The fir~t function mentioned above is relatively simple as it involves normal currents wh'1
are easy to mterrupt. The second functi 1· 1 th £ 1 . .
h.2.lJ
SUB-STATION EQUIPMENT
• sub-stat10n,
• there are generally vanous · · · · ·
they should be i t , t d t t'. on .s c?mp ex as . e au t currents are relatively high anJ In every electncal mdoor and outdoor switchgear eqmp-
11 !
in 50 Hz systemnt:~r~pl/~O au oma ica withm a short time of the order of a few cycles. One cyclment. Each equipment has a certain functional requirement (Ref. Table 1.1). The equipment are
fault currents can d:ma e t~:c~ nd : Thei e are several typ~s of faul~s a;11d abnormal conditions. Tfeither indoor or outdoor, depending upon the voltage rating and local conditions. Generally indoor
duration In order to avo~d 1 h qmpment and the supply mstallat10n if allowed to flow for a longjequipment is preferred for voltages up to 33 kV. For voltage of 33 kV and above, outdoor switchgear
tive rela;ing s stem d sue a_ damag~ ev~ry part_ of the power SJ_"Stem is provided with a protefis generally preferred. However, in heavily polluted areas indoor equipment may be preferred even
which can senre the ~:ltn ~s~oc~a~edtw1t?hmg device. Th~ prote_ctiv~ relays are automatic devicffor higher voltages. SF6 Gas Insulated Substations (GIS) are preferred in large cities for voltages
b k 81, d anh sen ms ruct10ns to the associated c1rcmt-breaker to open. The circui bOve 33 kV
rea opens an c1ears t e fault. All equipment associated 'th th 8 £ lt 1 · ~a •
converted by the term 'Switchgear' Switchgear . t' wit f au c earmg process a!f The outdoor equipment is installed under the open sky. The indoor switchgear is generally in
t8
of any electric circuit. In addition t~ circuit-breat: an e~sen 1{?m} 0 a po~er sy st ~m a nd al~o thtlfotm of metal enclosed factory assembled units called metal-clad switchgear.
1
~or controlli;11g, regulating_an~ measuring can als~rb:nco~!fd:~e~:;:;r:d~ :a~s1oc~ated;q~up~ne1 Ci:cuit-breakers are the switching and current interrupting devices. Basically a circuit-breaker
mcludes switches, fuses, circmts-breakers isolators relays c0 nt 1
rent ~r~nsformers and various associated' equipmei~ts. ' 1
1·
ht ~vices. witc geicompnses a set of fixed and movable contacts. The contacts can be separated by means ofan operat-
ro pane s, ig mng arre st ers, cuJ in~ mechanism: The sepa_ration of cur~ent c~rry_ing. contacts produces an arc: Th_e arc is extin-
Sw1tchgear are necessary at every swi'tchi'r1g p • t. AC t B J gmshed by a smtable medmm such as dielectric ml, air, vacuum, SF6 gas. The c1rcmt-breakers are
t · om m power sys em etween the generat' 0
,· Ill necessary at every switching point in AC sub-station (Ref. Fig. 1.1)
•
s abon and final load point, there are several voltage levels and cault lev ·1~ H . th
AUXl'liAf!IY
1, e ~- ence, 1n e va110~ :i; l so ators are 1sconnect'mg sw1't che s w h'1ch can b e use d !'1or d'1sconnect'mg a c1rcm
l d' . 't un d er no cur-
u~ *k* SWll CH GEAR 6rent condition. They are generally installed along with the circuit breaker. An isolator, can be ·
Lj-1 4 '• l opened after the circuit breaker. After opening the isolator, the earthing switch can be closed to
* ·-X- SWITCHGEAR f discharge the trapped electrical charges to the ground. The curr;ent transformers and potential
AU"II -([)-TRANSFORM 4 transformers are used for transforming the current and voltage to a lower value for the purpose of
GEN ERATO~
MAIN ~ A
0 IAR
TRANSF·oiMER
0-GENERATOR
ER Jmeasurement, protection and control. Lightning arresters (surge arresters) divert the over-voltages
1to earth and protect the sub-station equipment from over-voltages. The further details about the
TRANSFORMER? -~
1)fMA:N Jsub-station equipment are given in Section I of this book.
SW~TCHGEAR · Table 1.1
1 Ij x-,-'----,-..,_ / AC Sub-stationequipment*
~ X J/ S.No. Symbol Equipment Function
I SUB-STATION 1.
----a- Circuit-breaker Switching during normal and abnormal
conditions, interrupt the fault currents.
· L·-·-xtx-<ll)-1t-;=1;x-
L x- 'UISTRI-
j . 2.
~ Isolator Disconnecting a part of the system from live
TRANS-
MISSION
·-,--x><. ;~ 'x:_= ,-
BUTION
(Disconnecting switch) parts under no load condition.
3. Earthing-switch Discharge the voltage on the lines to earth after
~:~
i
disconnecting them.
x X
~2~
I STATl~N_ _J-,
1'I!I1rf
II
4.
~
Surge arrester Diverting the high voltage surges to earth and
maintaining continuity during normal voltage.
11
,) X
1 *W' fXXX
r 5. T Current transformer Stepping down the current for measurement
k
GENERATING
I
f ' protection and control.
/
f
6.
I J;- Potential transformer '. Stepping down the voltage for the purpose of
(Voltage transformer) protection, measurement and control.
cur
* For 400 kV, and above Series Capacitors are used for increasing power transfer ability. Shunt reactors are
used for compensation of reactive power.
rj
4 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIOf UCTION 5
1.3. FAULTS AND ABNORMAL CONDITIONS 1rNTROD
A f: lt · I · · !15 THE FAULT CLEARING PROCESS
au ~n ~n e ectncal eqmpment is defined as a defect in its electrical circuit due to h' ! • · • · · ·
the current is diverted from the intended path Faults are g
t ors or f:ai·1 ure of.msu 1at10n.
.
. ll db b
1
. lei
w The protective relays are connected m the secondary circmts or current transformers and/or
The other causes of. faults include
ene1a hy cause . 1 f: . y rea nng 'd of conduc'lpotentia . 1 trans fiormers. Th ere1ays sense t h eab norma1 cond'1t10ns . an d c1ose t h e trip
. circmt
. . of t h e
. . t d mec an1ca ai 1ure acci ents excesr d . 't b k Th . . b k ·t t t An ·
s1ve m erna1 an external stresses etc The fault impedan b . 1 th ,: lt ' :iassociate circm - rea er. e circmt- rea er opens 1 s con ac s. arc is rawn e ween th econ-
d b t
1 t' 1 h' h D . ' · ce eing ow e 1au currents a~" . . .
re a ive Y ig . urmg the faults, the voltages of the three ph b ' . b
1
d Th f tacts as they separate. The arc is extmgmshed at a natural current zero of the AC wave by smtab . 1
e
. . h
curren t s bemg excessive, t ey can damage the faulty equipme t d th ases ecome un . a tance
ll t· · e fault
•4'medium an d t ec h .
mque. Th e stresses .
occurrmg on t h e .
circm 't b rea1rnr w h'l
i e .
m t .
erruptmg th e arc,
th e f:au lt s, th e power fl ow is 1 a a wn
. .
diverted towards the fault and thn an 1 e tsupp O
th Yms . hb . · DurinJ!!I can be analyse d b y studymg . the followmg. transient
. p h enomena:
affected. Voltage becomes unbalanced. e supp y e neig ourmg zone iC _ transient variation of the short-circuit currents .
. The faults can be minimised by improving the system design quality of th . t ,I. - transient variation of the voltage after final arc interruption (transient recovery voltage)
mamtenance · How ever th e f:au lt s cannot be eliminated completely. ' ' •e equipmen an112f - the arc extinguishing phenomenon
For the purpose of analysis, AC faults can be classified as I After final arc extinction and final current zero, a high voltage wave appears across the cir-
- single line to ground fault _ line to lin f: It I cuit-breaker contacts tending to re-establish the arc. This transient voltage wave i$ called Transient
- double line to ground fault e au r.·.f.~ Recovery Voltage (TRV). The TRV comprises a high frequency transient component superimposed
- simultaneous fault '
- three phase fault _ . • •
0 pen cncmt., etc.
.I on a power-frequency recovery voltage.
~. h h fi d . fl h b h . f h . . b k d h
The other abnormal conditions · AC t . d .'.!' These p enomena ave a pro oun m uence on t e e av10ur o t e circmt- rea ers an t e
u1 sys em inc1u e· 0 • d · ) ·
_ voltage d . t b · .i associate eqmpment (Ref. Ch. 3, 4 .
an cun en un a 1ance - over-voltages 'I
- under frequency .J&
- temperature nse
. - reversal of power
. •
l.(
1.6. PROTECTIVE RELAYING
- instability, etc. - powei swmgs I AC power system is covered by several protective zones. Each protective zone covers one or two
Some of th b
1
d' i components of the system. The neighbouring protective zones overlap so that no part of the system
breaker I eh a norma th con itions . are not . ous enough t o ca 11 fior tnppmg
. seri · · of the circuiflL is 1et f unpro t ec t e d . E ach component of t h e power system is
· protecte d b ya protective
· system com-
cases th n s t c~~es f ;hprotective relaymg is arranged for giving an alarm. In more serioul prising protective transformers, protective relays, all-or-nothing relays, auxiliaries, trip-circuit, trip
the f~ult; ~::/n~a ;~nho d. e a normal condition (such as a fault) can be harmful. In such cased coil etc. During the abnormal condition, the protective relaying senses the condition and closes the
by protective f 0
.u ed is~~°:ilected the system without any delay. This function is performeJ trip circuit of the circuit-breaker. Thereby the circuit-breaker opens and the faulty part of the sys-
re aym~ an swi c gear. i tern is disconnected from the remaining system.
As a fault occurs m a power syste th . t • . l • · · ·
because of the 1 f: It . d m, e cmren mcreases to several times the normal currentl. The vanous power, system elements mclude generators, transformers, bus-bars, transm1ss10n
faulty point a do: ~ut tT?pe ;nee. The value of the fault current depends on the voltage at thd lines, motors, etc. The protective relaying requirements ofthevarTous elements differ. Various types
its normal va~ Fe ~t ~~~ ance ~pto the fault. The voltage at the fault location changes froni( of protective systems have been developed to satisfy these requirements. For example, the over-
D . e. au is reactive MVAr. J current protection responds to increased currents. The differential protection responds to the vector
b urdmg th e fault, the current and voltage undergo a continuous change and th h l difference between two or more similar electrical quantities.
o serve are called 'transient phenom , Th d, e P enomena~
which lasts for
to three cy , ~hs
1
t h t d t' . ena · e wor transient' refers to a 'temporary happening'! The protective schemes for large electrical equipment comprise several types of protective systems.
It ura wn °.f time. T~e fault current varies with time. During the first one! For low voltage equipment of relatively small ratings, fuses and thermal relays are generally adequate.
current is ~e:..,, h' \ a~ t c;rrent 18 very high but decreases very rapidly. This zone in which thei The protective schemes oflarge power system-equipment are generally designed with due regards to
few cycles th yd ig ' u. ecreases_ very rapidly is called the Sub-transient State. After the first~ power swings, power system stability and associated problems. (Ref. Sec. III and IV).
' e ecrease m current m less rapid Th' . f 1 d .
current is called the Transient Stat . . · is region ° s ow ecreases m the short-circuiL
state Steady State is reach d D ~- Thehtransient st ate lasts for several cycles. After the transient! 1.7. NEUTRAL GROUNDING (EARTHING) AND EQUIPMENT GROUNDING
'. . , e • urmg t e Steady State the r m 1 f tl h · · •
remams almost constant. · .s va ue O le s ort-circmt current; The term Grounding or Earthing refers to the connecting of a conductor to earth. The neutral
The circuit-breakers operate during the Transient State. f points of generator and transformer are deliberately connected to the earth. In 3 phase a.c. systems
f the earthing is provided at each voltage level. If a neutral point is not available, a special Earthing
1.4. FAULT CALCULATIONS f Transformer is installed to obtain the neutral point for the purpose of earthing. Neutral points of
Tl i star connected VTs and CTs are earthed. The neutral earthing has several advantages such as :
1e knowledge of the fault currents is fi 1 • . . I
rating designing the sub-station equi men:e;essar~ _or se ectmg the c~rcmt-breakers of adequatef - Freedom from persistent arcing grounds. The capacitance between the line and earth gets
tions provide the information about fhe fa~ltetermmmg the relay settmgs, etc. _The fa~lt calcula•t charged from supply voltage. During the flash-over the capacitance get discharged to the
power system under different fault conditions. currents and the voltages at various pomts of the; earth. The supply voltage charges it again. Such alternate charging and discharging
produces repeated arcs called Arcing Grounds. The neutral grounding eliminates the prob-
The per-unit system is normally d fi f: 1 · . i
phase faults are anal zed on er use ~~ au t ca1culat~ons. The symmetrical faults such as three l lem of 'arcing grounds'.
of Symmetrical ComJonents fs a~!1'Pa:eedbaT"h1s. Fotr calkculatilons on unsymmetrical faults, the method j - The neutral grounding stabilises the neutral point. The voltages of healthy phases with
.
f:au It caIculations • e ne wor ana yzer and dimtal comput d fi x respect to neutral are stabilised by neutral earthing.
of larger systems. (Ref: Sec. II). . E,• ers are use or f
- The neutral earthing is useful in discharging over-voltages due to lightning to the earth.
6
INTRODUCTION 7
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECT!
- Simplified design of earth fault protection. Lighting Arrester (Surge Arresters). The equipment connected between the conductor and
- The grounded systems require r 1 t' 1 1 . ground, to discharge the excessive voltages to earth.
grounded systems. e a ive y ower msulation levels as compared with u.
Fault Clearing Time. The time elapsed between the instant of the occurrence of a fault and
The modern power syste h
Th E . . ms are 3 p ase a.c systems with grounded neutrals . the instant of final arc extinction in the circuit-breaker. The fault clearing time is usually expressed
e qu1pment Grounding refers to the d. . in cycles. One cycle of 50 Hz system is equal to 1/50 second. The fault clearing time is the sum of
earth. It is used for safety of perso 1 If groun m~ of non-current carrying metal parts the relay time and the circuit breaker time.
earth does not rise to a dangerous! n~~ h ~ metal part is grounded, its voltage with respect
avoided (Ref. Ch. 18). y ig va ue and the danger of a severe shock to personnel Auto-reclosure ,
Auto:ni'atic closing of the circuit breaker after its opening. Auto reclosure is provided to
restore the.service continuity after interrupting a transient fault. High voltage circuit-breakers used
LS. OVER-VOLTAGES AND INSULATION CO-ORDINATION for controll~ng overhead transmission lines are provided with such a feature.
The over-voltage surges in power s st · Contaetor. Contactor is a switching device capable of making carrying and breaking electric
switcl)'ing resonance etc. y ems are caused by various causes such as : lightni current under normal and overload conditions.
The power sysfom elements should 'th HRC fuse. High rupturing capacity cartridge fuse is used for over-current protection of low
insulation level of a power system 1 wit s;and the over-voltages without insulation failure T voltage and high voltages circuits.
• e emen reiers to its v I f f · Protective Scheme. A selected set of protective systems which protect one or two components
age withstand. The insulation levels f . a ues o power requency and impulse vo
that the damage caused by the over- \ var10_us p_o-:er system elements are graded in such a w of the power system against abnormal conditions, e.g., generator protection scheme, transformer
ment is economical. The protectiv~ vo ages is m~mmum and the design of insulation of the equi protection scheme, etc.
- use of overhead d . measures agamst over-voltages due to lightning include.
groun wires 1.10. STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
- low tower footing resistance
The various standards institutions in the world publish the standards specifications of high
- use of lightning arresters (surge arresters)
voltage circuit breakers, isolators and other substation equipment. Standards have been published
Over-voltages are also caused durin switch' . on various types of protections and protective relaying schemes for various electrical equipment.
the switching over-voltages depend u gth 1 mg operat10ns. The magnitude and wave shape
t ance m· ' pon e va ues of e · 1 t · d These standards protective the guide-line to the manufactures and users regarding the following :
the system, the magnitude of the cur _qmva en m uctance, capacitance and res·
voltages are produced during openi'ng 0 f . re~t tho be mterrupted and other local conditions Ov - terms and definitions (vocabulary)
,
bere d uced by mcorporating open1'ng a
. t circmt- reaker
. Th l't d ·
. . e amp i u e of such o_ ver-voltages c - ratings
res1s ors across th · ·t b 1 .
are also produced during the closing t' . e ~Ircm - rea rnr mterrupters. Over-voltag - conditions of service
loaded transmission lines Such ov opltera IOU of circmt-breaker especially while closing on u - constructional details
t . . . er-vo age can be . . . d b . .
ms across the mterrupters of the ci'r ·t b k mm1m1ze y mcorporatmg pre-closing resis - tests to be performed, standard test procedures, methods of evaluation of the test results.
cu1 - rea ers.
The surge arresters offer I • - guidelines for selection, erection and maintenance.
ow resistance to over-voltages and divert and over-voltages to eart
The standards are generally drafted for a wider application and they generally do not cover
1.9. SOME TERMS IN THE TEST specific cases. IEC (International Elector-Technical Commission) recommendations are generally
. Controlgear. Controlgear is a general t
~1th associated control, measuring and
. . . ' i accepted all over the world and the IS (Indian standards) specifications Published by Bureau of
t e;~ cove~mg sw1_tchmg devices and their combinationf Indian Standards (BIS) are generally based on IEC recommendations.
1,ng devices. (Ch. 15) pro ec ive eqmpment mtended for control of power consumJ Quality St!¼ndards
c·1rcu1t-breaker.
. A device capable of m k' . It The following Standards Organisations are associated with the Standards on Quality.
abnormal c.onditions such as short circuits. a mg, breakmg an electric circuit under normal an<lj - International Standards Organisation (ISO), Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland.
Isolator (Disconnecting Switch) A 't . ! - Bureau of Xndian Standards, New Delhi (BIS) ·
under no current condition. It provides i~ola~:~ c;ng _dev~ce which can be opened or closed only( - Bureau Veritas Quality International (BVQI)
Earthing Switch. It is a s 't h h' h a c1rcmt for the purpose of maintenance. f The ISO and IS Standards on Quality are:
th h wi c w ic connect d t -~
e c ~rges on the conductor to the earth. Ea th. s ~ con uc or to the e~rth so as to discharge(
of the ISolators. r mg switches are generally mstalled on the frames! ISO IS Title
Relay. An automatic device which clo , f ISO: 9000 IS: 14000 Quality Management and Quality Assurance Standard. Selection and Use: 20
reach a certain predetermined magnitude/shes its contacts when the actuating quantity/quantities; System Elements
C . tT p ase. i
unen ransformer (CT) The curre t . i ISO: 9001 IS: 14001 Level 1: Design/Development Production, Testing in factory, installation and
500 N5A) and volt-ampere capacity is relat· nl ~atio(of current transformers is generally high (e.g. i Servicing
transforme~s. ive Y ow e.g. 50 VA) as compared with that of the power (
ISO: 9002 IS: 14002 Level 2: Production and installation all elements, some less stringent
Potential Transformer (PT) V I'-~ T t
t t' 1t , o "age ransformer (VT) Th
po en rn ransformer is low (e.g. 100 VA) and t
lt
. . • . e vo -ampere capacity of a i
' ISO: 9003 IS: 14003 Level 3: Final Inspection and Tests-half the elements, low stringency
he volta~e r~t10 is relatively high (e.g: 132 kV/lO0V). ~
-
The protective relays are connected . th ISO: 9004 IS: 14004 Guidelines: Maximising benefits and minimising costs.
. m e secondary circmts of CTs and PTs. !
l
8
9
SWITCHGEt\RAND PROTECTI(l · INTRODUCTION . l f stem are either fixed wire or programmable
Q The ISO 9000 Cect_iffo~te is giv_en to ma~ufaetums and Organisations as a re_cogn,twn
. . of\\• The ":'.,";~dude,
i ments for automatic contra .o power sy .
·
marketing and customers Satrnfact10n. . .
uality ISO Certificat10n IS essential for Switchgear and Controllgear Manufactmers for effect1 ·
. . type. The ll t'on and processing eqmpment
- Data co ec 1· · n (telemetry)
•
. . . . . . . .:
. Switchg:ar and Protection are vital eqmpment m the electrical mstallations. It should ha·.I•· 1 __ Data transm1ss10
_ Data moni~ori~g equipment .
Pe,fect Qual,ty. . • - Man-machme mted0ee. t L ad Contrnl Cenke receives the followmg'

1.11. ELECTRO-MECHANICAL RELAYS AND STATIC RELAYS _TheData
Da~aregarding
includes cun·ent,
genemtmg~ower, v?ltage, status e c. o
stabons .
The ~lectromechanical relays, are based on the comparison between operating torque/force an . _ Data regarding major sub-statrnns
restraining torque/force. The VA burden of such relays is high. The eharaderisties have limitation _ Data regarding receiving stations· d t load conkol centres as required.
Each relay unit can perform only one protective function. Such relays are used for simple and les: The variables are scanned periodically a con~."ye sod in data loggers. It is transmitted
costly protection purposes. For important and costly equipment and iustallation, static relays •r, nd
The data is collected at sources by kansduc:,';f~~;;;'P:h~~~els,
O
preferred. . . t load control centres through on~ or _more of fi l g

In static relays the sensing, comparison and measurement are made by static (electromc) c11'1} O - Power me earn . .
• •
cuits having no moving parts. Static relays were developed during 1960's and have been accepteilf
.I 1- commum~ati~n
_ Pilot wire
·er commumcahon channe s
all over the world for almost all protective relaying, control and automation purposes. i: _ Microwave commumcat10n
- Static relays have versatile ehaeacteristies; offer low burden, and incorporate several prote'.
tive/control/monitoring functions in one compaet unit. Recently (1980's) progrummabl
- Satellite "'.""':"nkation .
Now fibre-opt,cs rn be~g used for s
1
eng
h
r
ths of upto SO km for data transmission. Data is
t
l
static relays incorporating microprocessor have been introduced. Microprocessor base converted into digital form m AID conver o~s. . wer system protection are described
relays have severa '.upenor eatuees sue as ,
· fi h
. . . .
jJ
l
Applications ofD,g,ta compu er
• • l t s and m1eroprocessors m po
.
-
.f
Indicat10n or operatmg values on demand and thereby no need of separate md1catmg in·J·•. in Section V.
struments on panel.
-
A single relay can perform 10 or mo,e different protective functions thereby reducing nu"\t 1.13. INTERCONNECTED POWER SYSTEM t d AC Networks. The total network is
her of separate relays and increasing reliabiHty. f Modern electrical power systems are large mter~onfe\ e wn loud frequency and geneeation.
- Internal monitoring of own relays circuit. ';' ·divided a few regional zones (Areas). Each A_rea con ro : 1d\~ from a Regional/National Grid.
- Memory function e.g. a relay which has tripped on fault can remember and flash on th • d d tly controlled areas are mterconnec e
display, the magnitude of current and instant of time at the time of tripping. •1 Adjacent
F le the Power Map of India 1s covere Y
m epen, en, . .
.
- Better properties and extended range of application for generation, kansmission, diskibu'. or examp _ dWestern
b the following
zone five regional zones:
I -
tion and industrial application. · Central zone _ Northern zone
- Southern zone
The range of static relays in rapidly speeading. Details about atatierelays are covered in sectio"} _ North eastern zone th R . Grids Each zone has its load con-
IV. APPLICATIONS OF ON-LINE DIGITAL

1.12. · COMPUTERS MICROPROCESSORS AND]j• trol Some
l zones are already intereonnecte~ to_ fobm lh' e H~;;~~=r1 the t~tal National Grid is hunde,
tNational
centre, load control centre is m e 1.
STATIC PROTECTIVE/CONTROL DEVICES IN POWER SYSTEM

Complex tasks associated with data logging, monitoring, measurements, protection, control and-l
automation are now being performed with the aid of new type of on-line programmable deviceS!
·1• deveIn
opmen .
an Interconnected .
network, the Na;rnnat
~
between Regional Zones. Regional loa_d co~tr~ cen _ms r;
1L oad Control Centre determines
trol generation the exczone
in the respective ange
quency within target limits 149-51 Hz.)
match the prevailing load so aa to mamtam_ t reg,o:" o:::'er from adjacent surplus region. During
to
including on-line digital computers, microprocessors, static protective and control devices, data··fJ · t power
transmission and processing devices etc. These tasks include. - During the low frequency/high load; the region impor s p
low load/high frequency' the reg10n expor s .
- Checking fault levels periodically IJ Advantages
_ Duringofthe period of need, a Region (Area) ,mpor
Interconnections . t s powec from adjacent region and main-
--- Protection
Loading ofanalysis,
plants forsetting
economical
of tripand reliable
levels operation
to suit network configuration and loading status. ; f. • ,
tains stability and frequency.
. 1· ·t f ch region. . mcrease
1s . d wi'thout increasing the installed
- Back-up protection. I .
_ The transient t 1t'
h stab11ty 1 serve
m
1 0 of a Jacen reg,on
ea d' t . i's used by interconnection. .
- Real-time energy management from National Load Control Centre, Regional Load Control ! _ ~;t::~ma::o:o:i: ;:,:rd~=g of hydro/thermal/nudear generating stations depe mg upon
nd
Centre. I energy reserves. Economic loading of power plants.
The task of power system protection control and automation are performed by SCADA systems*. I _Bulk transfer of energy as per agreed schedule. d . th day During this period, the
Peak loads of each region may occur a t d'fli
1 eren t hours urmg e · .
* Supervisory Control And Data AcquisitioP Systems (Ref. Ch. 50). region imports the power.
t
I 11
10 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIOf RODUCTION
JINT . Dro in frequency and rate of drop (df I dt)
HVDC Back-to-Back HVDC Interconnections
• •
'
f 1 ;"'ing.
4.
The network is quickly segregated _m sma_11 er zones.
. lay for segregation action.
p
After 1975, the Back-to-Back HVDC Couplmg stat10ns have become extremely success u foJis used m frequency re _ _
interconnections between adjacent AC Grids. The rating of HVDC Coupling Stations are in t!rl ORK AND SUB-STATIONS ·
range of 500 MW, 1000 MW. By means of an HVDC Coupling Station, power exchange betweeJi.t5, VOLTAGE LEVELS IN NETW . . . d' t 'b t' tilization
two A? system~ _can be controlled rapid_ly, preci~ely_ ar:id with minimum t_ransmis~ion_ losse~. THJ The network has various voltage levels for generation, transmissrnn is ri u ion, u '
Transient Stability of both the AC Reg10nal Grids 1s improved. The Reg10nal-Gnds m India arJ t 1 and protection. h ) Th' • d t 0 design limita- 1
· mterconnec
gettmg · t ed by B ac k -t o- Back HVD C S tat10ns.
· J _ Generation is at voltages up t o 30 lrV AC r ·m ·s · (phase to P ase · is is ue
:;1 con ro
.
Multiterminal ~ C ~nterconnections has ~een introduced in Canada-USA during 1981 tions of AC gene_rators. . . . . V AC lines rated 22 0 kV, 400 kV, 760 kV
By means of an Multi-Termmal HVDC Interconnect10ns, power, exchange between three or morl _ Long distance high powei tran~mission is by~~ lt conomical and essential.
AC systems can be controlled rapidly, precisely and with minimum transmission losses. The tranl AC. For longer distance and h~gh_er ~owers, hig ;hvo :g~s a~e ;es oflong distance HVDC
sient Stability of entire National Grid i's improved. The MTDC Interconnection is not yet plannef In special cases, HVDC transm1ss10n 1s preferred. era e vo a .
in India (1995). It may be introduced during 2000-2010. I transmission are± 400 kV,± 500 kV, ± 600 kV. . . . ( kV AC)
i~ • · t k is by ERV AC transm1ss1on 1mes 400 ·
Economic Load Despatch. The economic operation of large AC grid can b e contro11 ed froit _ Backbone transm1ssrnn ne wor C d 3 3 kV AC.
a centralized 'load control centre' or 'load despatch centre'. J _ Distribution is at lower AC voltages between 132 ~VA an · t V
· · · · · b ,f .. • • 1 lt ( t 1 kV) and medrnm voltages up o 33 1r ·
The load control centre determmes the allocation of generat10n by various plants on the as11 _ Utilisation 1s at ow vo age up O • • . t O 33 kV and step it down
1
of economic load distribution considering incremental operating costs A and penalty factors foll!,! The factory sub-stations receive power at di st ribution kvVo tagde hup • ternal distribution at
· · · t - f t · · e power at 132 an ave m
transm1ss10n losses (Ln) for each plant. The load control centre sends command to power stat10ns1 to 440 volts AC. Larger 1:c ones receiv .
control rooms periodically by telemetric data transmission. The automatic load-frequency control 3,3 kV, to 440 volts AC.
in the control system of Generator-Turbine-Governor basically aims at maintaining constant fre) TABLE 1
· t 1B h b' ( d 1 df
control) is changed according to the instructions of the load control centre. Thus the input to twj
·ill • lt
==-==-=-=--=~----------
· A.C andHVDC Sub-stations
quency/ spee d as a primary con ro . ut t e setting of governor to tur mes secon ary oa requencj ______R~e~fe:r~e~n~c~e~V~a~.l~u~e~s_1:o~f_:N~o~m~1n~a;l~V~o~;a:g~es~•n~~~·
A.C. Sub-stations
bines of generators gets automatically adjusted by primary load-frequency control and the frequertl ll0kV
220kV 132 kV
cy°is maintained. And the governor setting is determined by economy load dispatch instructions.I 400 kV llkV 6.6 kV
JF
33 kV 22kV
The total load frequency control is achieved jointly by: <t 66 kV
(a) Load Control Centre !
3.3 kV
400 V a.c. rms. phase to phase.
H. V.D. C. Sub-stations
(b) Telemetry and Telecontrol Equipment and
± 250 kV,
(c) Power Station Control Room.
Automatic Economic Load Despatch is illustrated in Chapter 46-B. !
l ± 400 kV, ± 500
kV,±600kV
Station Auxiliaries
1.14. LOAD-FREQUENCY CONTROL, LOAD SHEDDING I Auxiliary A.C. supply: 11 kV, 6.6 kV, 3.3 kV
Load-frequency Control of AC grid is achieved by continuous matching of generation (product 400 V, 3 ph, phase to phase
tion) of electrical power with prevailing load conditions by joint action of control rooms in generatind .230 V a.c. single phase
stations. Voltage control is achieved by appropriate tap-changing and shunt compensation in respec-( Auxiliary L.V.D.C. : 220 V, 110 V, 48 V.D.C.
tive sub-stations. l
The regulations of power supply insist that the supply frequency variation should remain{ 1.16. VOLTAGE CONTROL OF AC NETWORK . .
within 2% about the declared frequency of 50 Hz. · Voltages of various sub-stations buses should be held within specified limits, the variat10n al-
The frequency of a generator and generating station is controlled partly by the action of the\ lowed ± 10% (Refer Table 2). . h
mechanical governors controlling the -turbine speed and partly by changes in load conditions. Thei Whereas the active power flow (P) determines directly the frequency({), it does not affect t e
plants output is increased by increasing input. How much load the plant should share is decidedl
voltages significantly.
by grid control loading engineer, ·
Voltages are affected significantly by the flow of reactive power Q ·
Load Shedding. When the load increases beyond limits of generation, the system frequencyj QX
starts dropping. Drop in frequency below 49 Hz is not permitted. To control the further drop of(
frequency, load is shed (disconnected) at distribution level. Load shedding may cause voltage rise.(
I LlV I =!"RI
Tap changing should be arranged to prevent voltage rise beyond safe limits. ' where I VR I = Receiving end voltage of the line, magnitude
Reduced frequency causes vibrations and failures of stream turbine blades, overfluxing of trans-\ Q = Reactive power flow through the line
former cores, drop in synchronous speed, error in clock time etc. Excellent power system operates': X = Series reactance ofline
within targetted frequency continuously. · I !lV I = Voltage drop in line, Wsl - [VR], magnitude
Network Segregation (Islanding). In case of major fault or outage, the network has a ten· Voltages are controlled by supplying reactive power (Q). This is called compensation.
dency of cascade tripping and large blackout. It is difficult to resynchronise. To avoid such happen-
13
INTRODUCTION
12 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECT!
t,17, STATIC VAr SOURCES (SVS)
Basic Methods of Voltages Control Static VAr sources are installed in receiving sub-stations, load sub-stations for fast, stepless
- Voltages Regulators and Excitation C ci)ntrol of reactive Power compensation for voltage control. In conventional switched schemes the
- Tap-changing transformers t . ontrol of Synchronous Generators. capacitors/reactors are switched in/out by circuit-breakers. In SVS, the capacitors/reactors are con-
a various sub-stat' Off 1 d trolled by controlling the delay angle of thyristor triggering. The duration and magnitude of cun-ent
seaso~al voltage variations. On load ta ch wns. - oa tap changers are used f,
changmg the turns ratio of the t ,.. p angers are used for daily load variation flowing through reactor/capacitor is controlled. Thereby amount of compensation is controlled. Fast
rans1ormer N /N th lt . · static compensation schemes are used for controlling voltage of AC buses in EHV AC sub-stations.
Series compensation (series c 't 1 2 e vo ages ratio V1/V2 is changed.
the 1·me (IXL) is
. compensatedapac1
by thors) d used. for long
. l'mes. The mductive
. . reactance drop i Formerly synchronous compensators were used for similar purpose.
e rop m senes capacito • (TY-) c• · · Voltage control techniques are described in Chapter 45 B.
genera y used for long extra hi h lt . . . is -'--''{) . ...,enes capacitors a
- Shunt 11Capacit g vo age transm1ss10n hnes.
ors are used for voltage t 1. . . t.18, POWER SYSTEM STABILITY
They are connected near the load t .co~ ro m transm1ss10n and distribution network
Capacitors supply reactive power ::;~na s, factory sub-stations, distribution substatio Synchronous generators connected to AC network have a tendency in synchronism with the
heavy loads. mprove power factor, they are switched in duri Network. The tendency to remain in synchron called Stability. The tendency to fall out-of step is
~
called unstable
Steady statecondition.
stability limit denotes the maximum power transfer possible with very small dis-
Shunt capacitors should
TABLE 2 be switched-i
Reference V d urmg
. low voltage and switched off during high vol tag.
turbing forces. This occurs at load angle of 90° electrical. The load angle 8 of a synchronous machine
a ues of Voltage Limits in AC Network is the angle between the emf vector (corresponding to axis ofrotating magnetic field) and the voltage
Permissible Lowest System vector (V). The power transfer is given by equation.
Class System Voltage Nominal Highest Voltage Voltage . u~
IV I·X IE I sin
P-
ph. to ph. R.M.S. ph. to ph. R.M.S. ph. to ph. R.M.S.
where \VI == Terminal voltage, magnitude; IE I = Induced emf, magnitude
LV(l ph) 240V 264 V 216 V
S ::: angle between V and E vectors; X == Synchronous reactance.
MV 415 V 457 V 347V Steady state stability limit occur at 8 == 90° and is equal to
M.H.V. 3.3kV 3.6kV 3 kV \V\·\EI, O \Vl·\EI
P ss == X sm 90 X
M.H.V. 6.6kV 7.2 kV 6kV
However, if a sudden disturbance occurs, the angle delta overshoots beyond 90° and the stability
M.H.V. 11 kV 12 kV l0kV may be lost. Hence the limit ofloading permitted cPts) for given amount of disturbance /1P is defined.
M.H.V. 22kV 24kV 20kV Itis called Transient Stability Limit cPts) A synchronous generator can be loaded safely upto its
M.H.V. 33 kV 36kV 30kV transient stability limit. The transient stability limit cPts) is much lesser than steady state stability
H.V. 66kV 72.5 kV 60kV liniit Assuming safe load angle of 30° electrical,
H.V. 132 kV 145 kV 120kV
\V\·\E\. 0 \V\·\E\ 1
Pts == X sm 30 == X 2
E.H.V. 220kV 245kV 200k.V
400kV
i.e. Pts = 1/2 P88 •
........ for critical 8 == 30°
E.H.V. 420kV 380kV
, Transient state stability limit is half of steady state limit.
U.H.V. 760kV 800kV 750kV , . A similar analysis is applied to power transfer through an AC interconnecting transmission
Note. L.V. = Low Voltage hne ··
M.H.V. = Medium High Voltage M.V. = ~edium Voltage_ \ V1 I · I V2 I .
E.H.~. "'. Extra High Voltage H.V. == High Voltage Pst== X sm 8
Perm1ss1ble variation is approximatel + l0'½ 1:f.;H.V:. = Ultra High Voltage
- Shunt
loads. reactors are used with EH\i ACl'mes
o ommal value.
for compensation of reactive power during low.
where \ V1 I, I V2 I == Sending and receiving voltage magnitudes
X == Series reactance of line ; 8 == Angle between vectors V 1, V 2
Compensationo f LongLines Tr~nsient sta~ility lmit can be improved by several methods associated with switchgear and
protection. These mclude the following:
During Low Loads and Switch-off shunt capacitors. - Use of faster and superior protection system.
High Receiving Voltage Shunt-reactors-unswitched
- Use of faster circuit-breakers.
During High Loads and Switch-in shunt capacitors at load end - Use of rapid auto-reclosing of circuit-breakers.
Low Receiving Voltage shunt-reactors-unswitched By improving transient stability limit, the installed generating stations can be loaded to higher
Varying Load Static VAr Source (SVS)
levels resulting in major economy.
The voltage control of each sub -station bus, is ach ieve d by appropriate action in that sub-station. Details about transient stability limit are covered in Chapter44.
14
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECT{
NTRODUCTION 15
1.19. HVDC OBTION
POWER SYSTEM NETWORK CALCULATIONS AND LOAD FLOW
400 k Va.c.. transmission links and sub-stations were established in India during 1970's. Th 1,2l, · bl V I
HVDC projects have been executed, (1992). By the year 2000, about five HVDC projects are lik Th merical problems in power System Analysis deal with.the power syste~ vana es .' ,
to be commissioned in India, HVDC transmission systems are selected as an alternative to E Fs
e and network constants z, Y, R. A network has several and ~uses and_mterconnectmg
P, Q, S, 'Basic Kirchoffs laws, network theorems, fu_ndamentals electncal equat10ns and ma~he-
and UHV a.c. transmission system for any one of the following reasons only for specific project
- Long distance high power transmission lines (say above 1000 MW and 800 km) for econo bra~chi~~ols are applied to solve numerical problems m power systems. The Network <?alculat10ns
advantage. HVDC links are economical for long distance high power transmission Ii mati~a lified by writing the Kirchoffs Current Law in terms of Nodal Voltage Equat10ns.
are simp I = Y bus V
when the saving in line cost is more than the additional cost of conversion sub-station.
backbone AC network, generation transmission and distribution AC is definitely supe I and v are current and Voltage matrices. Y bus is the Bus-Admittance Matrix for the given
and continues.
- Asynchronous interconnection (Tie) between two a.c. systems having their own load- netw;::·methods of Network Calculations have been explained clearly Ch. 19 to 24 and in Ch. 57
quency control systems. with the help of several solved numerical problems.
- Back-to-back asynchronous tie sub-stations between two a.c. systems without tie-line. Load Flow Calculations .
- Underground/submarine cables at voltages above 66 kV and length more than 25 km Load Flow Studies deal with calculation of the following variables for the va~10us b~~s~s an1
technical reasons. branches of the given network (power system) under given steady state operatmg con 1t10ns o
- Multi-Terminal HVDC Systems. generation and load.
Variables associated with a Load flow study are:
The HVDC obtion introduced in electrical network during early 1970's provides.
- faster and accurate control of real power (e.g. 30 MW/minute), Vk Bus voltage magnitude Pk Real Power entering/leaving bus-k
- higher power system stability-limit for transmission of power without limit of sin o, a ok Phase angle of voltage Qk Reactive Power entering Leaving bus
improved stability of the connected AC Networks,
- HVDC line has no reactive power flow and therefore no need of intermediate compensati
Complex power = p + j Q Pmn Real power flow in branch mn
I mn Branch Current Qmn Imaginary power flow in branch
substations. The line losses are reduced, HVDC Line losses are about 5% of power trans
as against 25% line losses for equivalent AC power Transmission. These variables influence each other and their co-relation is expressed in terms of the Load
Flow Equations. Load Flow Studies are the used for evaluat~ng the steady state performa1;1ce and
Three Phase, 50 Hz AC Systems will continued universally for power system generation, tra
rovide valuable data to power system engin~ers for operat10n, control a~d system plannmg and
mission and distribution networks as it has natural tendency for load-frequency stability a
several economical AC Voltages Levels through Transformers. ~esign. The Gauss Siedel Interactive Method and Newton Raphson Interactive. Method of Load Flow
Studies have been clearly explained in Ch. 58 with the help of solved numerical problems.
Modern Power System is a combination of Interconnected AC Systems with a few HVDC C
pling Stations ; a few Long Distance 2 Terminal Bipolar:HVDC Links and possibly a high pow
Multi Terminal 2-Pole HVDC Interconnecting System, 1.22. OBJECTIVE AND TASKS
Switchgear; Protection and Control ofHVDC Transmission Systems and their interaction wi Every electricity supply company aims at the following:
AC system have been illustrated in Ch. 47, ..:.... Supply of required electrical power to all the consumers continuously at all times.
- Maximum possible coverage of the supply network.
1.!0. P_OWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS - Energy conservation and use of Renewable energy sources.
i Power System ~alysis deals with:_ various network phenomena, interaction between the n - Maximum security of supply.
work and the machm~s, stresses on eqmpment. The System Studies-evaluate the present and futu - Shortest possible fault-duration.
po~er system oper~tmg performance/reliability/availability and to provide data and guidelines t1 - Optimum efficiency of plants and the network.
·, satisfactory operation and control. The scope includes the following topics which have been cover
~ in separate chapters of this book: - Supply of electrical power at specified frequency and waveform.
- Load flow calculations - Supply of electrical power within specified voltage limits.
- Load Frequency Control - Supply of electrical energy to the consumers at the lowest cost.
...:_ Short circuit calculations The work of a power engineer is to cover a wide range of activities such as: .
- Transient overvoltage studies, - design and development of the products, systems stations for systems stat10ns, products
- Insulation-coordination, Neutral grounding, - research and development
- Stability studies - manufacturing, testing, quality control.
- Reliability Studies - project planning, monitoring, execution
- Voltage Control and Reactive Power Flow Control - purchase sale of equipment, specifications
- Erection, testing and commissioning, safety.
--HVDC and ERV-AC Transmission Systems, Interaction with Network.
- Economic Operation of the Power System - Operation and maintenance, energy conservation.
- Computer Aided Power System Studies - Power system control, operation, automation.
This book covers the basis aspects. For gaining expertise in the activities further study and
experience is necessary.
r
,, _
. TAGE A.C. CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
;fGH-VOL b k
. .
ntacts The arc is extinguished in the circmt-breaker by
17
,I - Arc is drawn b_etween thhe e,a ert co ·h~s tinal zero as the arc is extinguished.
:;1 suitable techmques. T e cuiren reac
'I,w THE TRIP-CIRCUIT . . ..
2 J.
!f
3, . t'
. 2 1 illustrates the basic connec rnns o
F 1g. .
fthe circuit-breaker control for the openmg operat10n.
'I 1. Circuit-breaker
High-voltage AC. Circuit-Breakers 1 2. Relay
¥t 3 _Trip coil of c.b. (Shunt Release)
The fault clearing process-Types of circuit breakers-Circuit-breaker assembly-Operating
mechanism-Materials~Summary
Jf 6
4. Trip circuit
5. Battery
6. Relay Contacts
7. Potential transformer
2.1. INTRODUCTION 'I"' 3 4- 8. Current transformer
In this chapter, the constructional aspects of circuit-breakers have been briefly discussed. Ta a Auxiliary switch contacts
theoretical aspects regarding transient variation of current and voltage, arc extinction process a11) la x Protected element.
the various of circuit-breakers have-been described in detail in subsequent chapters. J I
5
The circuit-breakers are automatic switches which can interrupt fault currents. In some a& xi !iii .
plications like single phase traction system, Single pole circuit-breakers are used. The part of t1 Fi . 2 .1. Simplified diagram of circuit-breaker control for th e opening operatwn. . .
circuit-breakers connected in one phase is called the pole. A circuit-breaker suitable for three phasj g . . d· h d l' When a fault occurs in the protected circmt,
system is called a 'triple-pole circuit-breakers'. I The Protected circmt xis shown byPTas ; ;ne. nd closes its contacts (6) Current flows from
Each I?ole of the circuit-breaker comprises o~e or more interr_upters or arc-extinguishing ch?~he relay (2) co~nected t? th.e
bers. The mterrupters are mounted on support msulators. The mterrupter encloses a set of fixf;he battery (5) 111 the t~ip circuh ( .
c1.
a~~ As t~: ~~;sc~l of the ·circuit breaker (3) is _energized, .the
. tuated and it operates for the openmg operation.
and mouing contact. The moving contacts can be drawn apart by means of the operating links;lcircuit-breaker opera~mg mec ~ms~ is hac . 't
the operating mechanism. The operating mechanism of the circuit-breaker gives the necessary enefA.uxiliary switch is an important item 111 t e circm ·
gy for opening and closing of contacts of the circuit-breakers. I
The arc produced by the separation of current carrying contacts is interrupted by a suitabj2 4 RECENT ADVANCES . . .
medium a~d by adopting s~ita?le tech1;1iques for arc extinction. The circuit-breaker can be classifief" · ,, . d' olta e range and high voltage range, air-break; bu_lk-oil; 1:nmmum
on the basis of the arc extmction medmm. i Before 19 1 Os m me mm v g Id k t During 1970s vacuum c1rcmt-breakers were
. .toil air blast circuit breakers ruled the wor marf3e6.kV S'ngle pressure puffer type SF6 breakers
·~ ' - d fi 1' t'10 ns up to rated voltages o • · 1 IS)
2.2. THE FAULT CLEARING PROCESS "fintroduce or app ica kV t 0 760 l V SF 6 Gas Insulated Substations (G
. . . . . . . lwere introduced for rated voltages from · 3 3 t · . · th ' t have increased.
Durmg the normal operatmg cond1t10n the c1rcu1t-breaker can be opened or. closed by a statiof . d d fi kV t 760 kV. Fault levels* and rated voltages m e sys em H
operator for the purpose of switching and maintenance. During the abnormal or faulty condition!.were mtro uc~l b or k 12 ~ . um oil breakers air-blast breakers have become obso1ete. owever
" 1t an d c1ose t h e tnp
t h e re1ays sense t h e 1au · circmt
• • of the c1rcmt-breaker.
• , . •·+** The. bulk-01 h rea. ers
Thereafter the c1rcml.! th' m1mm· t'ng installations 'dunng. 1990s.
brea k er opens. The c1rcmt-
. . brea k er h as two working positions, open and closed. These corresponf•you will find t em m e ex1s 1SF b k. ·e maintenance-free and of supenor . sw1
. .t ch.m g per-
to open circuit-breaker contacts and closed circuit-breaker contacts respectively. The operation~ The vacuum breakers a nd 6 rea _ers ai 't h' . duties in new installations. In low voltage
1
automatic opening and closing the contacts is achieved by means of the operating mechanism ,formance. They are now preferred for various swi cl ~fe mr.rket
the circuit-breaker. As the relay contacts close, the trip circuit is closed and the operatinJrange Air-break circuit-breakers a nd contactors ru ~ a · £ . d 011 in various switching
mechanism of th~ circuit-breaker starts the opening operation. The contacts of the circuit-breake~ During 1970s and 1980s, the research ~nd ~eve~~pmel~v:i:s ;~~::~ Vacuum/SF 6 and HVDC
open and an arc 1s drawn between them. The arc is extinguished at some natural current zero otphenomena, switching overvoltages, short-cll'cmt te stmg, p
a.c. wave. The process of current interruption is completed wh~n t~e arc is extinguished and th! CBs, SF , GIS. . . . ,
6
current reaches final zero value. The fault when the arc is extmgu1shed and the current reaches; . . b k totally revised with the mtroduchon of TRV 1.:oncept
final zero value. The fault is said to be cleared. The process of fault-clearing has the following se, T?e Standar~s on circmt_ re.~ tr~i:;\:boratories with synthetic testing facilities wer~ built
quence: and ngorous testmg. Sho~t Cll'CUl _es f· simpler circuit breakers and compact mdoor
in various countries. Reliable, mamtenance- ree, • 11 d · I d' f rvarious rated
Fault occurs. As the fault occurs the fault impedance being low, the currents increase an~ "'F G t d S bstations (CHS) are now manufactured and msta e m n ia 0
1 1
the relay gets actuated. The moving part of the relay move because of the increase in thB;::, 6 as nsu a e_ k"v\ kV
0 420
operating torque. The relay takes some time to close its contacts. ; voltages from 3 -6 •
- Relay contacts close, the trip circuit of the circuit-breaker closes and trip coil is energized, -~::__------=-----------------------~~~~--,-=~==~
- The operating mechanism starts operating for the opening operations. The circuit-breaker * Fault MVA = ~ x ~ x , where Vis the service voltage in volts a
1 nd th I is e fault current in amperes.
contacts separate. 10
18
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECT! 19
HIGH-VO LTAGE A.C. CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
In low voltage range air-break circuit breakers/contactors; miniature circuit breakers, moul
case circuit breakers and solid state switching devices, HRC fuses have been developed to meet Table 2.1 Comparison of C1rcm·t . b reakers
requirements of control gear. Voltage-Breaking
Type Medium Design Features Remarks
The Circuit Breaker technology has matured and circuit-breakers are available for every fat Capacity
level*, rated voltage** and switching duty in power system. i - - - Air-break- Air at 430-600V, 5-15-35 Incorporates : Used for medium low
1. circuit-beaker atmospheric MVA recently 3.6-12 Arc runners arc voltages A.C. D.C.
2.5. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON ARC QUENCHING MEDIUM pressure kV, 500 MVA splitters Industrial
magnetic coils circuit-breakers.
The a.c circuit-breakers can be classified on the basis ofrated voltages. Circuit-breakers bel Have current
voltagevoltage
rated of 1000 V are called low voltage circuit-breakers and above 1000 V are called h'
a.c. circuit-breakers.
The type of the circuit-breaker is usually identified according to the medium of arc extincti
- Miniature C.B. Air at
atmospheric
430-600 V Small size,
current limiting
limiting features.
Used for Low and
Medium Voltages.
The classification of the circuit breakers based on the medium of arc extinction is as follows:
(1) Air break circuit-breaker/Miniature circuit-breaker.
(2) Oil circuit-breaker (tank type of bulk oil)
-2. Bulk-Oil
circuit-breaker
pressure
Dielectric oil 12 kV, 3.6 kV
feature
One tank upto 36
kV, 3 tanks
above 36 kV,
Getting obsolete used
upto 12 kV, 500 MVA.
(3) Minimum oil circuit-breaker. fitted with arc
(4) Air blast circuit-breaker. control devices
.- Minimum oil Dielectric ~il Preferred for 3.6 kV The circuit Used for metal
3.
(5) Sulphur hexafluoride circuit-breaker. (Single pressure or Double Pressure). circuit-breaker to 145 kV breaking enclosed switchgear
(6) Vacuum circuit-breaker. chamber is upto 36 kV, Outdoors
separate from type between 36 and
Each circuit-breaker will be studied thoroughly in the subsequent chapters. These circ supporting 245 kV. Now
breakers employ various techniques to extinguish the arc resulting from separation of the curr chamber. Small superseded by SF6
carrying contacts. The mode of arc extinction is either 'high resistance interruption' or 'zero-poi
interruption'. size, Arc control CB.
device used.
High Resistance Interruption. In this process the resistance of the arc is increased 4. Air-blast Compressed air 245 kV, 35,000 MV A Unit type Suitable for all EHV
lengthening and cooling it to such and extent that the system voltage is no longer able to main ta circuit-breaker (20-30) kg/cm 2 upto 1100 kV, construction applications, fast
the arc and the arc gets extinguished. The technique is employed in airbreak circuit-breakers a 50,000 MVA several units per opening closing. Also
d.c. circuit-breakers. pole, auxiliary for Arc Furnace
compressed air Duty. Now
Low Resistance or Zero Point Interruption. In this process, the arc gets extinguished system required. Superseded by SF6
natural current zero of the alternating current wave and is prevented from restriking again · CB for 145 kV, and
rapid build up of dielectric strength of the contact space. This process is employed in almost all a. above
circuit-breakers. HVDC circuit-breakers employ 'artificial current zero method'.
5. SF6 circuit- SF6 gas 145 kV, 7500 :MVA One interrupter Suitable for SF6
Each leading manufacturer of circuit-breaker develops two or more types of circuit-breake breaker Single 245 kV, 10,000 MVA pole upto 245 kV switchgear and
for every voltage class. (Ref. Table 2.1). The construction of the circuit-breakers depends upon i (5 kg/cm 2 )
pressure 12 kV, 1000 MVA Medium voltage
type (arc-quenching medium), voltage rating and structural form. 36 kV, 2000 MVA
puffer type swgr. EHV circuit
Air-break Circuit-breakers, Utilize air at atmospheric pressure for arc-extinction (Ref. Ch. 5). SF6 GIS 420 kV, 40 kA breaker.
Air-blast Circuit-breakers. Maintenance free.
They need compressed air plant. Utilize high pressure compressed air for arc extinction (Ret~ Ch. 6. Vacuum Vacuum Variety of
Preferred for indoor Suitable for a variety
circuit-breaker switchgear rated designs, long life, of application from
Bulk-oil and Minimum-oil Circuit-breakers. Utilize Dielectric oil (Transformer oil) for a upto 36 kV, 750 modest 3.6 kV to 36 kV
extinction. In Bulk-oil circuit breakers, the contacts are separated inside a steel tank filled wit MVA maintenance.
dielectric oil. In minimum oil circuit-breakers the contacts are separated in an insulating housin 7. H.V.D.C. Oil or Air-Blast 33 kV, 2kA Artificial current Used for Metallic
(interrupter) filled with dielectric oil.
Circuit-breaker zero by switching Return Transfer
in capacitors. Breaker.
SF 6 Circuit-breakers, Sulphur-hexa-fluoride gas is used for arc extinction. There are two types
r ssure uffer type.
- Single Pressure puffer type SF'6 Circuit-breakers, in which the entire circuit-breake This type has been superseded by smgle pd e . p ita,.ts are housed ins1rle a permanently
k th fi d an movmg cm ~ • . h' h
In Vacuum circuit-brea
. t er·. The arc is quenc e as the contacts are separated m 1g vacuum.
ers, e ixe h d
is filled with SF6 gas at single pressure (4 to 6 kgf/cm 2). The pressure and gas flow require sealed Vacuum mterrup
for arc extinction is obtained by piston action. (Ref. Ch. 9)
Double pressure type SF6 Circuit-breaker, in which the gas from high-pressure system
2.6. TECHNICAL PAR'rICULARS OF A CIRCUI'l'-BREAKER
is released into low pressure system over the arc during the arc quenching process.
. . k er 1s
. 1'd en t'fied by the
. following particulars :
✓f ><10~ x
1 A c1rcmt--brea 1 .
* Fault MVA == , where Vis the service voltage in volts and I is the fault current in amperes.
(1) Type of medium f~r arc."e~tmc:01~~ highest power-frequency voltage between phase to
** Rated Voltages of circuit-breakers refer to higher system voltage e.g. 3.6 kV, 12 kV, 36 kV, 145 kV, (2) Rated voltage. This cor;s~~\t
phase, e.g. 3.6 kV, 7.2 , , 36
kV, 72.5 kV, 145 kV, 245 kV.
245 kV, 420 k i~ BOO kV, rms ph. to ph.
21
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
20 HIGH-VOLTAGE A.C. CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
(3) Rated breaking current . h' SF or VCB with RC Suppressors f Th
:Motor Sw1tc mg G , • • • • uit breaker assembled on a common rame. e
(4) Other rated characteristics, (Ref. Ch. 3) In Fig. 2.3 we see three identica~ poles of a circ e between their conducting parts. The current
(5) Type of construction : d'stance between the poles is deter_rruned_by thte v?liagThe current is interrupted in closed chamber
1 . t are supported by dielectnc ma ena s.
-- Indoor metal-clad type, draw-out type
carrying par s t' ction chamber (Fig. 2.3, item 3) or interrupter. .
- outdoor type known as arc ex m . . ontact and moving contact. The movmg con~act
- Metal-clad SF6 gas insulated type. The contacts (10) are generally m pairs off~xed fc 1 . d opening an Operating Mechanism
. 11 T h' e this operation o c os1ng an , h d . d
. moved mechamca y. o ac iev . . . . t en and close the contact w en esire .
(6) Type of operating mechanism. is h f t' f o eratmg mechamsm is o op
(7) Total break-time e.g. 2 cycle, 3 cycle, 5 cycle. is necessary. T e unc 1011 ~ p mon for the three poles or may be separate one for each
The operating mechamsm may be co1? . C t l Cabinet or what is known as Sw1.tch
(8) Structural form
ole. In addition to the operat_ing mec~ams~d' ~he:,e g1s co:~:~ions are through this control cabinet
(9) Additional feature for overvoltage limiting. P . l The various control mterlockmg, m ica m
Cu bice,
-- Surge suppressor - Switching resistor.
placed near the breaker. . . h . uit breaker consists of the following sub-as-
Thus a complete three-phase cucmt-p ase circ
2.7. ASSEMBLY OF OUTDOOR CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
semblies. - operating mechanism support structure
The design features of an individual circuit-breaker depends upon its voltage, other rating _ Three poles
and the type. The circuit-breakers manufactured by different companies may have quite differen - auxiliaries
_ control cabinet
design patterns. However, a general description of an EHV circuit breaker can be given to cove
the various types. The low voltage circuit-breakers, have different design features as the voltage 6
capacity and frequency of operation is different from that of the EHV circuit-breakers. The part o ·,·,,</
the circuit-breaker connected in one phase is called 'Pole of the circuit-breaker'. A circuit-breake ,,:·:-::-..o
for power systems is called 'Triple pole circuit breaker'. In single phase traction systems, singl ~§,_..,,~,_,.,._
pole circuit breakers are employed.
Fig. 2.2. Structural form.of a triple outdoor circuit-breaker with one iterrupter per pole.
7 /2
7
TABLE 2.2. Present Trends in Choice of Circuit-Breakers
9
Rated Voltage Preferred type Remarks
Below 1 kV -Air break Circuit-breaker - Metal-enclosed switchgear
(low voltage) - Metal-enclosed control gear
3.6 kV to - Vacuum Circuit-breakers - Metal-enclosed Switchgear, Indoor use with :
12 kV -SF6 C.B. - Vacuum Switchgear preferred
- Single Pressure SF6 preferred
36 kV - Minimum Oil Circuit-Breaker Outdoor Type or in Kiosk MOCB becoming
- Vacuum C.B. SF6 Circuit Breaker obsolete. End View
3. Interrupter
2. Operating mechanism
145 kV and - Minimum Oil Circuit-Breaker out door - SF6 Circuit Breaker Preferred 1. Circuit-breaker pole 6. Terminals
4. Support porcelain 5. Conductor 9. Frame
245 kV* - SF6 Outdoor Puffer type •- MOCB becoming obsolete. 8. Insulating operating rod .
7. Operating rod
420 kV* - SF6 Outdoor Puffer type - SF6 Circuit-Breaker Preferred. ll. Transfer contacts between movmg
10. Contacts
contacts and terminal.
12. Linkage
* Puffer type out-door SF6 C.B. installed in India 1980-1981. t Capacitor Switching VCB or SF6 Fig. 2.3. Diagram illustrating the assembly of an outdoor circuit-breaker.
** Vacuum Switchgear introduced in India 1980-81. Motor Switching SF6 or VCB with RC
* Vacuum contactors introduced in India 1980. Suppressors Arc Furnace Duty. VCB/SF j ABCB
Repeated operations VCB/SF 6
22
2.8. STRUCTURAL FORM OF CIRCUIT-BREAKERS SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION HIGH-VOLTAGE AC. CIRCUIT-BREAKERS 23
The ~tructural form of a circuit-breaker d . The operating should be fast, _in order to reduce circuit-breaker time. The operating time be-
of operatmg mechanism etc. epends on its type, rated voltage type of d . t tween instant of receiving trip signal and final contact separation is of the order of0.03 second, i.e.
. es1gn, YPe
. In mdoor, metal clad switchgear the . . l.5 cycles in modern EHV circuits-breakers. In slow circuit-breakers used in distribution system
~~f~drawable truck. Such configuratio~ is ,c;~r;::iol:s of the circuit-breaker are mounted on a time can be about 3 cycles.
y sed for rated voltages unto 24 kV (Ref. Ch While closing, the contact closure should be fast, sure without hesitation, with adequate contact
For 36 kV and b . · pressure at the end of contact travel. If these conditions are not satisfied, contact welding can result.
. b a ove, outdoor circuit-br 1 •
~1!hi:~l:~ C~;~~~~:r:~~:;;~f:~;:X8;o~~i~eyr~~~~::;~:! ~~~;;r~~f:r:~Jo;;:ro~u::::;t~t · The operating mechanisms should be capable of giving the specified duty of the breaker (se-
quence of opening and c~osing as s~ecified in st~~dard specificat~on). The br_eaker sh~uld also pass
~hot~d w:~:t~~- tt~)::wsuc~ a structural for: the in!;:r!;::;::~~r ?ave; single interrupte! the operational tests wh1ch ascertam the capab1hty of the operatmg mechamsm. The mterlocks are
Ch. 12). er- requency and impulse test volt . t am an support porcelain provided between breaker, isolator and earthing switch, so as to avoid wrong operation and to as-
ages m ernally and externally (Ref, sure operation in a correct sequence. The functions of the operating mechanisms can be summarised
as follows:
(1) To provide means whereby the circuit-breaker can be closed rapidly without hesitation at
all currents from zero to rated making current capacity.
(2) To hold the circuit-breaker in closed position by toggles or latches till tripping signal is
received.
(3) To allow the circuit-breaker to open without delay immediately on receiving tripping signal.
(4) To perform the auto reclosure cycle.
(5) To perform the related functions such as indication control.
2.9.1. Closing Operation (C)
Fig. 2.4. Structural from of 145 kV 245 kV Normally, closing the circuit-breaker contacts during normal load does not cause any difficulty.
245 kV circuit-breakers havR : ' . and 420 kV C.B. Pole. 1'he operating Mechanism has to overcome friction and accelerate the moving masses. However,
number of inter t ~ two or more identical inte t .
when the circuit-breaker has to close against a short circuit, additional thermal stresses and
circuit-breaker. ~~::~r~::tile tepends upon the rated volt:;:a:d~:~sd(~lem~?ts) per pole. The electromagnetic stresses are involved,
single support porcelain coiu:: _er ~ole comprises identical twintinter:upt rea n~g current of the
preferred in outdoo , . . m or Y formation (Ref F' er um s mounted on a In ERV circuit-breakers, the arc is established prior to final contact touch. This is known as
door ~F6 _circuit-br:a~~~ 1~ ~~~~! '::~l~s,
1
air blas~ ~ir:Jit!;~~i;c~n~ fi~:~!~~a~ form is
pre-arcing, Pre-arcing causes higher temperature stresses and pressure due to vaporisation of oil.
The contacts should close with sufficient speed to minimise the prearcing.
perpole
SF6 c1rcmt-breakers are with one or two.
for 420 kV. The SF b k
6 rea ers are therefore m
CDs reqmre two to six interrupters er ype_out-
mterrupters per pole for 245 kV and with tw ~ t pole, the
. o m errupters
As soon as the contacts close on an existing short-circuit, breaker is subjected to making cur-
rent. The electromagnetic forces set-up by the making current tend to repel the contacts. The circuit
In multi-break type constru t· l ore economical. breaker should have rated making capacity, i.e. the highest peak current against which the circuit
for 1· .
~ua I~m~ the voltage shared by the interrup:;:~:~:lt?rtis
c 1011 vo tage-grad.
. tre-c os1ng resistors are also conne t d .

.
conn_ected across each interrupter
gm errupt10n process (Ref. Ch. 6)
breaker can be closed at a given voltage. The making capacity of the circuit-breaker depends upon
the force and speed with which the closing operation is carried out. ·
res1s ors (Preclo · • c e m parallel wh · While closing the circuit-breaker, the operating mechanism should have enough power to over-
loaded transmiss~~:g1;:;~s(~:o/ ~~e 11 e)cessary to limit over-vo~~:;:; ::~ ~;~:rgy.dTh_e pre-i~sertion come the opposing forces and accelerate the moving contact assembly.rapidly within specified short
C' , , 1 8. , 1 urmg C1osmg Ul1- time.
1rcmt-breakers for rated volt
operating mechanism of ea h ~g~ above 245 kV generall ha . The opposing forces during closing operation
separate relay, Independeit p11e is md~pendent and each
system (Ref, Sec 44 8) po e operat10n is desirable for 1·
:ale ;:~;defe.ndent pole operation. The
. e ripped mdependently by a (a) Electromagnetic forces between contacts. When the contacts touch during the closing
· , mprovmg the st b'J't f operation, electromagnetic forces appear at the instant of contact touch, their magnitude being
. Structural form of EHV m . . a I I Y o . the power- proportional to square of the current and the direction being opposite to the direction closing. These
tiona1 · . etal-clad SF6 msulated ·t h , forces are large if the breaker is closing on existing short circuit. Breaker should be capable of clos-
equipment discussed above (Ref Ch 7) sw1 c gear IS quite different th
, . . an conven- ing on short circuit.
2.9. OPERATING MECHANISMS (b) Action of operating spring. The moving contacts of circuit-breakers are opened by spring
pressure. While closing these spring oppose the closure.
. Circuit-breakers have two work' .. (c) Inertia of movable subassembly. The movable parts are contacts their holders tension
circuit-breaker co t mg pos1t10ns-open and clos D .
tacts are separate~ acts c~ose again~t opposing forces. During the, un_ng the clo~ing operation, the rods, operating links of operating mechanisms, etc. The mass of these sub-assemblies is quite large
in _EHV circuit-breakers. And their inertia tries to oppose rapid acceleration. In modern EHV cir-
and closing operat' as e~ Y as ~ossible, Operating mechanism e openm~ operat10n, the closed con- cuit-breakers, these parts are made as light as possible,
operating mech _10ns, peratmg mechanisms are also ne s are pro~1ded to achieve the opening
reliability even ~n:~:~i~u~tt :ecal pable of dealing with Iar;:~~;:e~o::S~!a!or. The cir_cuit breaker
cm rea rnr has remained idle for 1 ig s?eeds with complete
(d) Opposing forces due to medium such as oil, SF 6 gas. The movable sub-assembly has
to move in dielectric medium which is, in some cases, compressed air/gas/oil at high pressure and
a pro onged duration. density.
24
- SWITCHGEAR AND PRO 25
. The total forces of the operating me h . . " TECTJ HIGH-VOLTAGE A.C. CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
boned opposing forces. . c amsm should be more than the sum of the above m The stored energy 'type operating mechanisms are called independent operating mechanisms as
(e)Friction. Static and dynamic. they are independent of continuity of power supply or the skill of the operator. In such mechanisms
2 ,9 ,2, Opening Operation (0) the energy required for closing in stored in a charged spring or in compressed gas-hydraulic oil.
The ?pening operation is significant in th . Stored energy type independent automatic operating mechanisms are used in all high voltage
the opening operation is initiated. The ener e faul.t-clearmg process. As the trip coil is energi circuit-breakers above 200 MVA. These can be classified as follows :
one of the following methods : gy reqmred for the opening operation is obtained fro _ Spring opened, spring closed Mechanism.
- Opening springs charged during the l . . _ Solenoid closed, spring opened Mechanism
H' h c osmg operat10n
- ig pressure hydraulic oil stored . - Hydraulic Mechanisms
H' h · m accumulators
- ig pressure compressed air stored . .. . _;.... Pneumatic Mechanisms etc.
The functional requirements of the o e _m aux1har~ air receivers. (a) Spring Opened Spring closed Mechanism. In such a mechanism the opening and closing
(1) To accelerate the moving _P ~m~ mechamsm are as follows: operations are achieved by means of separate springs.
. . masses mc!udmg co t t d 1·
opening characteristic (Fig. 2.6). n ac s an . mkages rapidly to achieve desi The closing spring is of higher energy level and is charged by motor driven gear. When closing
(2) To achieve desired speed of cont signals is given to the closing coil, the closing spring energy is utilized in closing the moving contacts
to 7 mis). act at contact separation and during the opening stroke and also for charging the opening springs. During the opening operation, the opening signal is given
to trip-coil. The movable system is unlatched and the energy of the opening spring is released to
(3) To damp the speed at the end of the travel b d
Th J;' • • Y ampers. obtain the opening. The closing spring is automatically charged after each closing operation. Hence
e 101 ces and energy should b d energy is always available for reclosing the breaker. The oil-dashpots are provided for damping the
e a equate to O h •
Opposing forces during . vercome t e following: forces at the beginning of opening and closing strokes. Springs have maximum force at the begin-
opemng operating
(a) Electromagnetic forces du t ning of travel and the force reduces at the end of the travel. This is disadvantageous in closing
operation. Both opening and closing operations are initiated by high speed, electromagnetic
ta~ts to movable contact is illustrate~ i: ~:~t:c:-i~pfiThe current transfer from fixed finger-co
~np oppose the movement of moving contact D ... e mger contacts are spring-loaded and th operated latches.
~orces tend to increase the grip of the fi . urmg the short-circuit condition the electrom (b) Pneumatically-closed spring-opened Mechanism. Pneumatically closed spring-tripped
m pr t' · nger-contact bl ' ague mechanism are used for extra-high voltage minimum oil circuit breakers and SF 6 circuit-breakers.
opor wn to square of current. Hence i't 1· . ,"fiassem y. The forces of contact grin increa
(b ) Friction. The various operat· s s1gm icant du · h · h • In such mechanisms, the circuit breakers is closed by means of pneumatic cylinder and piston. The
1· I rmg Ig er short-circuit currents
and fi d mg m {S bear· f: . ·
fj . t' ixe parts, etc. offer static friction The f: . t' m1 sur aces matmg surfaces between mova compressed air required for the closing operation is obtained from a local air-receiv(,')r mounted in-
t~; ::~- srooth;ess of~ating surfaces, .confi~~.::~o:\;omp?nent ~epends ~pon the coefficient
circuit ~a s:ee of movmg contact which may result . ~o.vmg paits etc. High friction can redu
side the mechanism cubicle. During the closing stroke, the tripping springs are charged. The trip-
ping spring is released by a latch operated by high speed electromagnetic energized by the trip coil.
- rea er to quench the arc. m ISastrous consequence of failure of t The closing operation is initiated by operation of a solenoid operated pneumatic value, which admits
the compressed air into pneumatic cylinder. Damping is provided in pneumatic cylinder.
(c) Inertia of movable parts E .
bl . nergy m the t' (c) Solenoid-closed Spring-opened Mec_hanism. In such mechanism the closing operation
mova e sub-assemblies to required speed. opera mg mechanism is utilised in accelerating th
is obtained by energising a solenoid by direct current. When direct current is passed through the
d. (d) .Oppo . smg · f,
orces due to quencMn . solenoid, the plunger is attracted. The plunger sets into motion the link mechanism resulting in
ielectnc oil SF6 gas) itself may offer substa:tii:t:mm_, The quenching medium (compressed aii ·closing of the breaker. The opening springs are charged during the closing operation. Solenoid has
:;~~::~
0
::s:;~
_The operating mechanisms should b
. e er o e at the end of this Chapter)

pposmg forces to the movement.
op~mt'ng characteristic 0 ; ~ : : : ; : ~~::fr~:~~ng these opposing forces and shoul
g norma 1 and short-circuit openin
maximum force of attraction when plunger is fully inserted and the air-gap is minimum. This is
advantageous in closing operation.
The solenoid requires d.c., supply which it takes from battery or rectifier. The solenoid is sup-
plied at 110 or 220 V d.c. The current taken by solenoid is relatively high. Solenoid mechanism can
2.9.3. Closing followed by Ope . 0 .
Th mng peratmg (CO) be suitable for auto-reclosing.
!: ~~~rat~n~ mecha?ism should have ::~~~~t;~:;:x::co:~r

e rated operating sequence of th . .
ra e operatmg sequence under short-circuit

·1
(Sec. 3 9 ,8) de~ands the operation 'CO',
an capability to perform CO opera,
Solenoid operating mechanism is a separate unit mounted on the front of the circuit-breaker.
When current is passed through the solenoid it attracts the plunger which in turn sets into motion
the link mechanisms resulting in closing of breaker.
2 · 9 ·4 · Types of Mechanisms IOn. When the breaker is closed, it is held in latched or toggled position, When the tripping signal
The operating mechanisms in circuit b is received, the latch is released and the breaker opens by spring action. Generally the links have
Dep_endent operating mechanisms de en - reaker~ ar~ either 'dependable' or 'stored ener ' three positions-tripped, reset, closed.
closmg. They are accordingly called a~ : d on contmmty of power supply or manual force~i?rf;~ Solenoid closing mechanisms are used with low voltage and medium voltage circuit-breakers.
- dependable manual operating mechanism On ERV circuit-breakers, the power requirement of solenoid mechanism tends to be too large (above
- dependable power mechanisms. s 50 kW in some cases). Hence they are not preferable.
(d) Pneumatic Operating Mechanism. Pneumatic operating mechanisms are preferred in
stations where compressed air supply is available i.e. where air blast circuit-breakers are installed.
26
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECT! IGH-VOLTAGE A.C. CIRCUIT-BREAKERS 27
Air bl~st circ1;1it-.breake1:s are in~,aria?ly provided with pneumatic operating mechanisms. Indicator or indicating device indicates whether the switching device is in 'open' or 'closed'
operatu~g rod 1s hnked with the piston m pneumatic cylinder in the control cubicle of the O er t' 'tion. Such indication is available on the glass-window on the control cabinet near the breaker,
mechamsms. P -a I
?ompressed air at thig~ pressu~e is used for closing. High pressure air is stored in the
receiver of the breaker. The air comes m the reservoir from the comp d · t Wh'l 1 •
rpos;orm of a flag marked open close. One breaker panel, the indication is obtained by means of
mps. Thus, from the control room, the operator can know the position of circuit-breakers and
·=olators. (Breaker Panel in installed in control room).
. . 2 resse air sys em. 1 e c osu 1
~he air at high pressure (18-30 kgf/cm ) is admitted in the pneumatic cylinder Th 1 · • Auxiliary switches have standard number of pairs of contacts (6, 8, 12). Auxiliary switch has
two positions 'op~n' ~nd 'close' corresponding to the position of the ~i.rcuit-?re~ker. In each position,
1s p1;1shed by_compressed.air. Thereby the levers move the closing operation is ~bta:~:~s~ep~s
ma tic operat10ns are achieved by means of solenoid op·era t ed pneuma t'1c va ves. , · · u· some auxiliary circmts are opened and some are closed. The auxiliary c1rcmts serve several pur-
1 poses such as:
.In SF6 circuit-breakers spring assisted pneumatic mechanisms are preferred for opening a (1) Indication. Breaker open or closed by lamps, near circuit-breaker and at a remote place.
closmg.
(2) Electrical Interlocks. The breaker is interlocked electrically with isolators. The connec-
In air blast circuit-breakers the high pressure air is adn11·tted 1·0 ar t· t· h b T tions to solenoids in operating mechanisms are made through the auxiliary switch.
· t t h • . c ex inc 10n c am ers
movmg con ac s are pus ed agamst spnng pressure (Details in Ch. 6). · (3) Connections for relaying, auxiliary circuits of operating mechanisms.
air. Pneumatic operating mechanisms require the auxiliary set up for the supply of high pressu The various terminals are connected in a terminal blocks in the operating cubical.
spri!;.s;~:uh{~:i~~:~:~ating mec~a~isms,..the ~neu.°:1atic pressu~e is utilized to charge the closi 2.11. CIRCUIT-BREAKER TIME (TOTAL BREAK TIME) (Ref. Sec. 3.19.23)
m h . 11 d energy o .t e spnng is utilized for closmg the breaker. Such operati Fault clearing time is the sum of relay time and circuit-breaker time. Circuit-breaker time is
ec amsms are ca e pneumo-sprmg mechanisms.
also called total break time.
pon~~s~Iydraulic mechanisms. The hydraulic system comprises the following essential co1 The rapid fault clearing of extra-high-voltages transmission lines improves the power system
stability. Hence faster relaying and fast circuit-breakers are preferred for extra-high-voltage trans-
- motor driven hydraulic pump, accumulators mission lines, the circuit-breaker time being of the order of 2.5 cycles, 2 cycles.
- Hydraulic valves and piping For distribution system such a fast clearing is not necessary. Discrimination is obtained by
- Oil tank graded time-lag. Hence Slower Circuit breakers, 3 to 5 cycles are used.
- Hydraulic cylinder, piston, etc. Remember the Time Events :
The doil ~s ma.intained high pressure in the accumulators (300 to 350 kgf/cm2) Th • t [Fault clearing Time] [Relay Time] + [Circuit-breaker Time]
be move with high pres b · fh . • e pis on c [Relay Time] [Instant to fault] to [Closure of Trip Circuit]
the accumulator into the :;~:d~/1;~:.,n!i~ve;~:~~!ic ;rlve; ; nd letting in ~he hydraulic oil fr
circuit-breaker contacts. u I ize O operate the lmks so as to closet [Circuit-Breaker Time] = [Closure of Trip Circuit] to [Final Arc Extinction]
= [Opening Time + Arcing Time]
tain~tring opening, the high pressure oil acts on upper area of piston and opening stroke is ob
Relay time is the time elapsed between the instant of occurrence of fault and instant of closure
of relay contacts i.e. closure of trip circuit.
2.10. INTERLOCKS, INDICATION AND AUXILIARY SWITCH. (Ref. Sec. _ ) Circuit-breaker time is the time elapsed between the instant of closure ot trip circuit and the
26 3 ·instant of final current zero. Circuit-breaker time is the sum of time required for operating
Interlocking devices are those which make to O e . t' · • •
the position or operation of other equipment I t )
erroneous operation of a switchin dev·
It
rnn of the .sw1tchmg device dependent upo
Th ~ er oc s are provided as a safety measure again
mechanism to open the contacts and the arcing time. Total break time is equal to the sum of opening
time and the arcing time.
terlock, Mechanical Interlock. g ICe. e mterlocks are of the following forms: Electrical I Thus the fault clearing time is elapsed time between the instant of occurrence of fault and the
instant of final arc interruption.
Electrical interlock can be used between remot ·
provided for the operating mechanisms of th t ~ eqmpme1;1t, mechanical interlock can The circuit-breaker time is of the order of a few cycles. One cycle equals 1/50 seconds in 50
comprises coil and bolt. When the coil is ene/ . w~ ~~abef t .eqmpments. The electrical interloc cycles per second system. Circuit-breaker time of ERV circuit-breaker of the order of 2.5 cycles.
th~ interlocking is achieved. Interlocks are pro~:~e db ; 0 t 1.~ dr~wn by ma~etic attraction an Circuit-breakers of time more than 5 cycles can be considered as slow.
switch to ensure the following seque'nce : e e ween circmt-breaker, ISolator and earthin
While opening : 2.12. AUTO RECLOSURE (Ref. Sec. 44.5 and 44.132)
- First to open: Circuit-breaker N tt I 1 Many faults oh overhead transmission lines are transient in nature. Statistical evidence shows
. . . - ex o open: so ator
- Tl_Jen the earthmg switch (1f any) to close that about 90% of faults are used by lightning, birds, vines, tree branches etc. These conditions
While closing : result in arcing faults and the arc in the fault can be extinguished by de-energizing the line by
- Open earthing switch _ Close isolator simultaneous opening of circuit-breakers on buth ends of the line or on one end of the line. Since
- Then close circuit-breaker. the cause of transient faults mentioned above disappears after a short time the circuit-breakers
This sequence must be followed beca I l t can be reclosed as soon as the arc in fault has been extinguished and the path has regained its
dielectric strength. Reclosing of lines restores the supply continuity of service is the major ad-
::~:~~:i!;e::;.g capacity, nor do they ha~:em:~d:;~a;:~i;. t:!c~iiiz:~:;~::r0~::c;~~ ~;::ii; vantage of Auto-enclosure. If the fault is transient one the normal condition is restored by auto
reclosure.
28
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECT HIGH.VOLTAGE AC. CIRCUIT-BREAKERS 29

[~ _ C.B.'s at both ends of the line should reclose simultaneously.
_ Deionization time for arc space in fault on overs-head line depends on several aspects such
CBre-;Jcer Trips as magnitude of fault current, service voltage, length ofHne wind condition, spacing of con-
r---=-r~
Breaker Recloses
ductors .etc. Generally the time allowed is based on rated voltage of line and is as follows:
_ The circuit-breakers should be capable of withstanding the electrodynamic stress in case
they are reclosing on an existing short circuit. The pressure in the reservoir generally
reduces after the first opening, thereby there is a reduction in breaking capacity for the
If fault persists -, subsequent opening. This aspect should be taken care of while designing the circuit-breakers
f.---OR-,
"~ f.--- If fault is cleared suitable for auto-reclosure.
[ TRIPS OPEN J r, - ~ Voltage of Transmission line (kV) Rated voltage of C.B. (kV) Minimum Deioni.zation time
' ----- L REMAINS CLOSED] necessary, Cycles
Fig. 2.5. Sequence of Auto reclosure for EHV b 11 ~-----~=::J
H' h , u { of power transmi . J' 66 72.5 5
th . 1g . speed tripping and high s e d . . ss1on mes. Single Shot Scheme.
. e circuit-breakers and rela i p e reclosmg improves the . .. 132 145 9
high v~ltage systems have sh ng on EHV lines are provided wi/tab1hty ofp?wer system*. He 220 245 14
dependmg upon the tim o.wn that a reclosure in 12 ·1 h( auto reclosmg feature Tests
Th A e necessary to dis . t h eye es O 24 sec) is . t' I . 400 420 18
e uto-reclosing of EHV 1· . ~1pa e t e ionised air of a~ th prac 1ca the peri
tempted. mes is h1gh speed a d . c pa .
· n smgle shot · l
' i.e,. 9n y one reclosing is 2.14, AUTO RECLOSURE FOR DISTRIBUTION LINES (upto 33kV)
2.13. AUTO RECLOSURE OF EHV In rural distribution overhead lines are used. The spacing between conductors is relatively
Th . CIRCUIT BREAKE
e ti_ming of EHV Auto-reclosure is ◄ RS FOR TRANSMISSION LINE close. The disturbance on such lines are generally trasient, as described earlier. Auto reclosure is
- It is a single-shot Reclosure. based on the following requirements (R f S therefore, suitable in improving the continuity of service. The usual procedure was to reclose cir-
- the arc in the fault should d . . ... .. .. .. e . ec. 44.1 cuit-breaker three times between 15 to 120 seconds.
the order of O 2
. Lookin F'
. e-1ornse before allowin . I
- the operating ·m:;~on~s Is provided between
arnsms of c.b. to open and t
openl;~e::~~:ei
H~nce certain 'Dead Time'
c osmg of C.B.
SHORT CIRCUIT
J,
g ig. 2.6 the following sequence can be b o close as per desired operating sequenc · INSTANTANEOUS
o served: e. I ./ TRIPS
TIME DELAY TIME DELAY
Table 2,2 CLOSED~
(Refers to Fig, 2 S) (R f S
· e • ec, 3,19,23)
Time in
Sequence 11100
Second Operation
1
Remarks
2
0
0-4
.Fault occurs --=------
Circuit-breake~~~-=-~-~------- OPEN
Relay time . ose . Protective gear starts operating 1 SEC 1 SEC 1 SEC LOCKED
3 F as t re Iaymg ·
4 OPEN
Trip circuit closed
0
4 4-9
Opening time of breaker pera t'mg mechanism starts to open.
5 Fig. 2.7. Auto reclosure cycle of a 12 kV c.b. for rural distribution.
9-12 Total break time
6 12-36 Breaker is of 4 cycles If the breaker trips after the third reclosure, it opens and remains open. The attendant thereby
Dead time knows that the fault is permanent and sends electricians to locate and correct the fault. The auto
7 27 12 cycles for deionization CB .
Contacts start closing • J remams open. reclosure cycle is illustrated in Fig. 2. 7, but the sequence may vary in other cases. This practice is
8 36 no more favoured in modern distribution systems.
Contact touch for reclose
9 40
Circuit-breaker reclosed w·u
1 b 2.15. WEIGHT OPERATED RECLOSING, POLE MOUNTED CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
10 Single shot is . e opened again if fault · .
again if fault complete, the ~ircuit-breaker will . . persists and w1ll lock-open; Such circuit-breakers were used in rural distribution. An endless chain passes over a pulley
persists and will remain locked-op1eemam closed, if fault has vanished CB ·11 ori the end of ah operating shaft. The operating shaft is brought out through the side of the breaker
n. wi open
top plane. A weight is attached to the chain. The energy required to reclose the breaker is derived
* Rapid Auto-reclosing· For . from the weight falling due to gravity. The timing mechanism controls the open-circuit time (about
interconnected system~ (R f SweakJy mterconnected t 30 sec.)
~ · e • ec. 44.12) sys ems, Delayed Auto-reclosing:
30
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIO iIIGH-VOL'l'AGE A C CIRCUIT-BREAKERS 31
2.16. TRIP-FREE FEATURE
Suppose the breaker has been instructed to close by manual instruction by pushing of pu
--5.
Material
Electrolytic Copper
Applications
Bus-bars Main contacts conducting Ref. Sec. 17.16
Remarks
button. The operating mechanism will start operating for closing operation. Meanwhile a fault h (99.9% purity) parts, terminals
taken place and a relay close the trip circuit of the breaker. The Trip-Free mechanisms, permi
the circuit-breaker to be tripped by the protective relay even if it is under the process of closin
This feature is called Trip Free feature. Another feature of operating mechanisms is to preve
pt"'
•"'>
Eletrical grade
aluminium
Busbar, conducting parts, casting, Ref. Sec. 17.16
terminals Enclosures of SF6 GIS,
Enclosures of busbars Eclosures of
'Pumping', i.e. alternate tripping and closing if the closing button is held closed during a fault. Ii.
busducts
In oil circuit-breakers and puffer type SF6 circuit-breakers, the contacts should be allowed t
7. Tungsten Copper Ai·cing contacts 80% Tungsten, 20% copper, sintered
touch during the end of the closing stroke before the start of the opening operation. material
2.17. MATERIALS 8. Stainless Steel Enclosures of SF's GIS parts enclosed
circuits
The materials are important in switchgear manufacturing. Normally all the incoming materia Copper-bismut~, Main Contacts of vacuum High conductivity, low
9.
are tested in the factory before acceptance. The manufacturer maintains with him all the necessa Copper-Chro~1um, interrupters, Contactors welding-tendency. Ref. Sec. 9.9.5
standards of material specifications. Copper-berryhµm
Currents Carrying Parts
t f p t types The strnctural config I uration (Sec. 2.8) is
.
These include contacts, contact stems, flanges bus-bars, bushing-conductors connectors etc. T (2) Design and developmen o ro_ o
decided first. Then the various sub-assemblies are es1gne a
d. d nd finally the complete breaker is
design of conducting parts is based on the following requirements:
F 11 1 prototypes are manufactured.
- temperature rise during normal continuous current. d~signed. u sea e . . d evel opmen t tests (Sec. 10.1) are carried-out on sub-as-
.. {3) Development Testmg. Var10us .
- temperature stresses during short-time current. (rated duration of short-circuits) . 1 echanism and complete breaker.
- mechanical stress during opening and closing operation. sembhes po es, m for. Certif1cat10ns
. . . . (S ec 10 •1). These are exhaustive test as per standards.
(4) Type Tests
- mechanical stresses due to electromagnetic forces under short-circuit conditions.
Insulating Parts (5) Actual Installation in system for observmg performance.
These include interrupter-enclosures, insulating supports for interrupters, supports to bus-bar Summary . . re uenching medium as: Air break; bulk-oil;
insulating pull-rods connecting the operating mechanism to the moving contacts, insulating tu Circuit breakers are classified on the b_as1s of_the at q . . ervice· the trends in new instal-
enclosing the arc-control devices etc. . um o1·1·, A1"r blast·, vacuum.' SF6. While various ypes are ms
M.1mn1 '
fation is ii:i favour of;
2.18. DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT L'ow voltage (upto 1000 V): Air-Break CB and Contractors
The development of a new circuit-breaker comprises the following major activities (Ref. Sec. Medium Voltage (upto 33 kV): VCB and SF6 CB
12.3).
High Voltage (33 kV and above): SF6 and SF6 insulated GIS.
(1) Research. The research on arc quenching techniques, various thermal, electrical, mechani•
cal stresses under various switching conditions, design principle for arc quenching etc. This is car- QUESTIONS ..
ried out in research laboratories.
. fi ration of an outdoor, triple pole CII"cmt beaker for
1. With the help of a neat sketch, describe the ~on ~gu , t· fthe circuit breaker during fault clear-
Table 2.3 Material Used in Circuit-Breakers and Metal Enclosed Switchgear, Controlgear 36 kV application. Name the parts and explain t e opera 1011 o
Material Applications
Remarks 2. ing. .
Explain the functions of operating mechamsm .
of a Cll"cm•t b r eaker and describe the motor Charged
1. Porcelain Spring Mechanism.
Enclosures for Interrupter support
Procelain, support for bus-bars Compression strength 6000 kg/cm •
2
2
Tensile Strength 3000 kg/cm . Ceramic 3. Describe a trip circuit and the faul~ clearing;;~e~:;cuit Breaker controlling an over head transmis-
insulating tubes solid rods etc.
material made by firing clay, glazing ahd 4. Explain the purpose of Auto Reclosmg_ of an_ eclosin , scheme.
t2.- - - ---
Epoxy - - - - - - - r - - - - - - - - - - - - - +firing
Resin - - -again.
--- Suitable
- for outdoor use. sion line. State the sequential events m a smgle shot ~uto_ r k g State the sequence during open-
Support Insulators for indoor 5 Explain the functions of isolator, earthing switch and c1rcu;t brea e~. accidents
applications, enclosures covers Used in solid form. Obtained by maxing . ing and closing of circuits. State the interlocks necessary o preven .
encapsulation etc. with suitable hardener and curing a
suitable temperature, suitable fillers
·------;----- used. Not suitable for outdoor use.
3. Glass fibre reinforced
synthetic resin Insulating drive rods, insulating High tensile strength, withstand
tubes for interrupted pressure, dielectric strength.
4. Polytetra
fluroethelene PTFE Nozzles for SF6 Breakers, bearings, Low friction; arc resistant; can be
Piston rings etc. moulded/machined. Pure PTFE
insulating used with various filters.
c1mNDAMENTALS OF FAULT CLEARING 33
Energy in inductance L henry at the instant when the current in it is i amp. is given by,
Wm= l/2Li 2 joules ... (3.3)
3 (1 joule = 1 watt second)

Jn an inductive circuit current cannot change instantaneously. Hence when the e.m.fis applied
at t = o. The current is zero at the instant of closing the switch. Also we know1 that the current lags
behind applied voltage by 90° in the inductance.
Fundamentals of Fault Clearing, Szvitching Considering sinusoidal voltage applied to an inductance, the current lags by 90°, therefore, the
voltage of the circuit has maximum instantaneous value at the current zero.
Phenomena and Circuit-Breaker Ratings While interrupting the current flowing through an inductive circuit such as a transformer on
Transient phenomena during fault clearing-Sh t · · , • no load, a transformer loaded by an inductor, etc. the circuit-breaker should interrupt the arc at
Steady-State-Current and voltage variation duii: c1rcmt c~rre?t-'lransient, Sub_-trasient and Ilatural current zero of the altenating current wave. If the arc extinction takes place at the natural
voltage-Switchingphenomen_a --Cirr.uit
, -bre a k.er ra t'mgs.
g arc extmction process-Transient Recovery current zero, the energy in the inductance (1/2Li 2) is zero. However, if the arc is suddenly inter-
rupted before the natural current zero, at the instantaneous value of current, say i amperes, the
3.1. INTRODUCTION energy l/2Li 2 is suddenly interrupted by the chopping of current to an artificial zero value. Due
The following phenomena can be observed during the fault c1earmg · process : to such a phenomenon. The interrupting oflow magnetising currents of transformers, reactors need
1. As the fault occurs, the current increases to l · h 1 · a particular attention. The circuit-breaker should be capable of interrupting such currents without
'getting damaged or without giving rise to over voltage above the permissible limits.
wave and thereafter the amplitude of the wave
the sub-transient, transient and steady state T~~::n
the normal zero axis. ·
t
a 11g /a.ue durmg the first half cycle of the
uc1~gthas the wa~eform passes through
ve orm ot e current IS asymmetrical about
(ii) Capacitance, The vrnll-known definition of the capacitor is: "Two or more conductors
separated by dielectric (insulating) medium." The capacitance C is given by
2. The voltages across the circuit-breaker pole after th fi I · ·
recovery voltage) has a relatively high amplitude and r t e ;~.a arc extmction (called_the transient C = :~ farads ... (3.4)
transient component superimposed on a pow f· a e o nse. The voltage has a lugh frequency
. . er 1 equency component. where C = capacitance farads ; q = charge, coulombs ; v = voltage, volts.
In this chapter the above mentioned phenomena h b · • From the above definition, it is understandable that transmission lines, bushing, circuit-
haviour of circuit-breaker. For the purpose of I . ~ve, een studied with reference to the be-
The generator has been represented by an a~a ys1s, s1mp1e RLC_networks have been considered. breakers etc. have inherent capacitance between phase and ground. In some cases the capacitance
been solved by simple rules of differential :~~~l~~~rce. The equat10ns of voltage and current have may be negligible. In h.v. circuit it becomes important and may not be negligible. In circuit-breaking
phenomenon, capacitance plays an important role. The voltage across capacitor is given by
The analysis of short-circuit current a d t ·
Breaker Ratings (Sec. 3.19) n ransient recovery voltage is followed by Circuit- du= dq volts
C
3. Overvoltages can be generated while closin · · . ~ .
transmission lines. These are minimised b 1 g_ circmt_-brnaker on capacitor banks or loaded v=~fdq=~fidt
Y pre-c osmg resistors and surge suppressors.
3.2. NETWORK PARAMETERS : R, L, C Energy in a capacitor is in the form of electric field and is given by
An electrical network comprises the following network parameters: WC = ½Cv 2

joules ... (3.5)
- Inductance - Capacitance where C is in farads
- Resistance.
The resistance can be neglected as a first approximation. v is in volts, q is the charge in coulombs.
(i) Inductance, Inductance is defined as There exists a distributed capacitance between conductors and between conductor and ground
dA in case of transmission lines. The flow of alternating current in the transmission line is associated
L = di henry with alternate charging and discharging of this capacitance. The currents taken by the capacitance
... (3.1)
where L = Inductance of circuit, henry. for charging are called charging currents. The charging current flow in transmission line, even if
the receiving end is open circuited. The voltage across a capacitor cannot c};iange instantaneously.
A = Flux linkage due to current i, weber turns
i = current in the circuit, amp. While closing a circuit-breaker on a predominantly capacitive circuit like a capacitor bank, the
current flowing in the capacitance is given by
The e.m.f. induced in an inductor is given by,
i =C du
dA d' dt
e = di =L d; volts ... (3.2) where i = Instantaneous value of current amperes
C = Capacitance farads
. du I dt = Rate of change of voltage, volts/sec.
34
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTI 35
FUNDAMENTALS OF FAULT CLEARING
The current inrush during the closing of capacitive circuit can occur during pre-arcing betwe
the circuit-breaker contacts. The following duties can produce severe stresses on the circuit-breake log i· +--
Rt = k
-- Paralleling of two capacitor banks Integrating,
L
- Closing and opening capacitor banks.
log i =-ft+ k
- Closing and opening unloaded transmission lines on no load
i.e,,
where k is . a constant of integrat10n . given
. by k -- Ioge A ' where A is some other constant. Further,
3.3. VOLTAGE EQUATION OF AN RLC SERIES CIRCUIT ··•. that loge ex = x Hence
The voltage equation of an RLC series circuit is given by we know <-RIL) t 1 A
loge i == loge e + og O>
= L dt
di + R'l + C J
1 l'dt vo l ts . A <-RIL)t ... (3.1 d,
~
e
where e = impressed voltage ... (3, Taking anti-log l = e . is an ex onentially decaying component c~l~e
This is complementary _solution of currte~t;· ;!nds on ir~tial conditions. A may be zero, positive
t The magmtude ofconstan e.
L :; = voltage across inductor D.C. Co~po~:;~nding upon magnitude of e at t = 0.
Ri = voltage across resistor or nega ive 1 t' of i (i ) Take a trial solution
Particular so u ion p ) ... (3.11)
i5 Jidt = voltage cross capacitor. ·-ccos(mt+0)+Dsin(mt+ 0 .
Such a trial solution is takenl -because the R.HB. of E q. (3 .8) is of the form Em sm (mt+ 8),
For an alternating e.m.f the induced voltage e is given by
d' di2 1)
Obtain_!_ and 2 of Eq. (3.1
e =Em sin (rot+ 0)
where, Em =-v2 Erms and m = 2nf. Angle 0 depends on magnitude of e at t =0. If e is Zero at i =O dt1 u te in
and subt·t dtEq. (3.8). Equate the coefficients
. mL of lI'ke terms from both
, the sides to get
then 0 = 0 if e =Em at t =0 then 0 == n/2.
C=-Em 2 2 L2 ... (3.12)
R +ro
3.4. SUDDEN SHORT CIRCUIT OF R.L. SERIES CIRCUIT R
..,(3.13)
Let us see, what happens, when switch S of circuit shown in Fig. 3.1 is suddenly closed. D = Em R2 + m2 L 2
L R Substituting these values of C and D in Eq. (3.8) we get
i == - R2 +roL R E sin (mt+ 0) ...(3.14)

m2 Lu2 Em cos (mt+ 0) + R2 + 0)2 L2 m
Let qi be the angle of impedance triangle
-1 m£
qi =tan R
sinqi= ✓R2:~2L2; cosqi= ✓R2+m2L2
R
Fig. 3.1. RL series circuit under study.
Writing as equation for current i on the basis described in section 3.3, Substituting sin qi and cos qi in Eq. (3,14), E
di R'
L dt E .
+ l == e = m sm (m t + 0)
...(3.8)
-E m
i -_ ✓R2+ro2L2 sin qi cos (rot+ 0) + ✓R2 + mm2 L2 cosqisin(mt+0).
We shall solve this equation to obtain an expression for current i.
The R.H.S. of the above Eq. is of ~he form A . B
Eq. (3.8) is a non-homogeneous differential equation of first order. The complete solution is the sin (A-B) == smA cos B - cos sm
sum of complementary solution, i.e. and particular solution ip i.e.
,_ Em sin (rot+ 0 - qi)
i == ic + ip ... (3.9) :. l - ✓R2 + (02 £2 ...(3.16)
side Complementary Solution, ic. The auxiliary equation is obtained by putting the right .hand
Eq. (3.8) equal to zero, Eq. (3.16) is particular solution of Eq. (3.8) · It 1·s sinusoid called AC. Component.
Complete solution
i.e. di + R'l == 0
L dt i == ip + ic
Rearranging the terms, From Eqs. (3.10) and (3.16), we get
~i + f dt == 0
. -A (-R/L)t + I . m
i - e ✓R2 + 002 L 2
sin (rot+ 0 -qi) ... (3.17)
L __--:;--;-:--~~-=--=~Q)~:;-;;-;;~t~ttih~e~initial
This is.a complete solutiun of Eq. (3.8). Let us pu condition to evaluate A.
36
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIO FUNDAMENTALS OF FAULT CLEARING 37
At t = ~; i = 0. Because the current in inductive circuit does not change instantaneously. :Example 3.1. A.C. transient R-L circuit. A 50 Hz sinusoidal voltage of implitude 400 volts
Assummg R to be too small as compared with mL-
. applied to a series circuit of resistance 10 ohm and inductance of 0.1 H. Find an expression for
✓R2 + m2L 2 = mL ' ~1e value of the current at any instant after the voltage is applied, assuming the voltage is zero at
the instant of application. Calculate the value of the transient current 0. 02 sec after switching on
and m =tan-1 mL = 909
, L (P. Sm.)
Case 1. Switch closed at e = 0 Solution. Refer to the derivation in section 3.2
Hence e = 0 at t = 0 Given : R = 10 ohm
0= 0, L = 0.1 henry
Also i = 0 at t =0. f= 50 Hz
E 27t/=314
From Eq:-(3.17) 0 =A+ ✓R2 m 2 2 sin(- 909) 2 -+-m~
✓~R~ 2 -L~
2 = ✓~1-02 2 = 33 ohm
~+-(3-1-.4-)~
+m L
Angle <j> = tan- 1mL/R = tan- 131.4/10
A=+~
mL From the mathematical table, we get
This is maximum value of A hence th d · · · 9
<j> = 73.35 = 1.26 radians
:e~~~:~tpi:ar~~~:~ ~~e~!tt~~ :~ close~ a
1kti;~/
0
voltage zero. This case is called 'Doubling e = Em sin(m t + 0)
first cu;ent loop. There is as slight drop in the instantaneous value of the '~urre~t fro;
th
o i :\ at t =0, e =0
e t = 2· Then~fore, the peak value can be considered to be approximately 1.8EmlmL instead since the switch is closed at voltage zero.
2EmlmL. Hence 0=0
Case II. Switch closed at. e = E max The equation for R-L circuit current is
e = Emax at t = 0. L~! +Ri =e =Em sin (mt+ 0).

0 = 1t12
i = 0 at t = 0 we get E
The solution (Eq. 3.17) is i =Ae-(RIL)t + ✓R 2 +mm2L 2 sin (mt+ 0 + <j>)
0 =A+ EmlmL sin(1t/2 - 1t/2).
A=0 . Putting the value of i at t = 0 and other given quantities
Hence A is zero, if switch is closed when e = E E
max·
Th b th d ·
ere Y e .c. component is also zero. 0 =A(e0 ) + ✓ 2 m 2 2 sin (0 + 0 - 72.35 9)
R +mL
From cases I and II we observe that th ·t d f · · ·
depends upon the moment of closure ofs ·t ~ ma~~ u e o mi~ial value of d.c. component Ae-(RIL Em . 400
Let us interpret result of the soluti:~.c ' or vo age at the mstant of occurrence of short circuit. i.e. A= ✓ 2 sm 72.35 = (0.953) = 12.1 (0.953)
R +m2L 2 34
When an R-L series circuit is closed with n It t'
consists of two components the d c co ~ ad erna mg voltage source, the resulting curren Hence i = 12.1(0.953e- lOOt + sin (314t - 1.26)].
imposed on the d c compon~nt Th . mp?nen an a.c. component. The a.c. component is super Angle in the bracket is given radians. This is the required expres&ion for current. Ans.
instant of closing.the switch Whenet~eagn~tui~ oftc,;omponent depends upon the voltage at th
imum (Fig. 3.2). If the swi.tch is
waveform is symmetrical about the nor 1
clos:;~;
v~~t: ose at yoltage zero, the d.c. co1:1ponent is max
~e maximuID;, d.~. component is zero and the
The magnitude of (d.c. component)
at t = 0.02 second is given by
ma zero axis as shown m Fig. 3.3.
idc =N-(RIL)t = 12.l X 0.953e- lOO x O.Z = 1.56A Ans.
t
i
tJ. C, COMPONENT
t
Example 3.2. A 50-cycle alternating voltage is applied to an R-L series circuit by closing a
switch. The resistance is 10 ohm. Inductance is 0.1 Henry. The r.m.s. value of applied voltage is 100
i volts.
(a) Find the value of d.c. component of current upon closing the switch if instantaneous value
of voltage is 50 at that time
(b) What value of instantaneous voltage will produce a maximum d.c. component of current upon
closing the switch ?
(c) What is the instantaneous value of voltage which will result in the absence of any d.c. com-
t~ ponent upon closing the switch ?
Fig. 3.2 Switch closed at voltage zero, (d) If the switch is closed when instantaneous voltage is zero, fine( the instantaneous current 0.5,
d.c. component maximum. Fig. 3.3 Switch closed at voltage maximum, 1.5, 5.5 cycles later.
no d.c. component.
38
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTEC'I'IOJli FUNDAMENTALS OF FAULT CLEARING 39
Solution. Let us calculate the quantities for Eq. (3 , 17) l.e.
·
i =Ae- (RIL)t Em .
+ ✓R?.+w2L2 sm(rot+0+<j>)
R = IO.a
L = 0.1 H
e- (RIL)t:::: f:-1001
✓R2 + w2L2 = ✓102 + (0.4)2 = 33 ohm
</>=tan- 1~:::: tan- 1 3io4 = 72.350

2n radians = 360°
72.35° = 1.26 radians
Erms == 100 V
Emax == -v2Erms == -v2 X 100 == 141.3
i -e-l00t 141.3 .
'- + 33Slll (314 t + 0- 1.26)
i -Ae- 100 t 4 3 ·
. . - + . sm (314 t + e _ 1 26)
This is the equation of current in the circuit . .. .(i)
(a) Switch closed at t = o when _ 0 d . · .
stantaneously. Therefore , ' e - an m an mductive circuit, current does not cha nge m-
.
i== 0 at t = o PHA.SEB
:. From Eq. (1), we get ,,
O =A+ 4.3 sin (- 1.26)
A== 4.3 sin 1.26 (Note 1.26 is angle in radians)
= 4.3 X 0.953 == 4.1
:. D.C. component at t = 0 is given by Fig. 3.4 Waveforms of currents in 3-phase short circuit of an alternator.
Ae- (RIL)t - 41 -100 t 0
(b - . e == 4. le == 4 1 amp is no definite number, it depends on the machine) cycles is least and the short circuit current is
) The maximum d.c. component will be rod . . . high. This reactance is called sub-transient reactance and is denoted by X ". 'I'he first few cycles
zero at the instant of closing the switch. p uced if mstantaneous value of applied voltage is come under sub-transient state.
(c) The d.c. component will vanish if e = E . After a first few cycles the decrement in the r.m.s. value of short circuit current is less rapid
stant of closing the switch. max, i.e. -v2 x 100 = 131.3 V (instantaneous) at the in- than the decrement during the first few cycles. This state is called the Transient State the reactance
(d) Like Problem 3.1, . in this state is called transient reactance X '. The circuit-breaker contacts separate in the transient
state.
o. 5 cycles = 0.5 x 0.02 second Finally the transient dies out and the current reaches a steady sinusoidal state called the
1. 5 cycles= 0.03 second Steady State. The reactance in this state is called steady state reactance Xd. The Xd is called direct
5.5 cycles== 0.11 second axis synchronous reactance.
Substitute in Eq. (1) taking A_ 4 1 f Since the short circuit current of the alternator lags behind the voltage by 90°, the reactances
- • rom part (a).
involved are direct axis reactance.
3.5. SUB-TRANSIENT, TRANSIENT AND STEADY STATE Consider Fig. 3.4; the d.c. components in the three phases are different; hence the wave-forms
of the three phases are not identical. If voltage of phase, say, Y, is maximum at the instant of short
The analysis of sudden short-circuit of a R . . . circuit, d.c. component of short circuit current is zero. Hence the waveform is symmetrical as shown
:hree-phase short-circuit of an alternator A~ aif serrs ~rcmt (section 3.4) will now be applied t in Fig. 3.5.
anc.e a~d reactance. Ifwe neglect the ar~ature r erna. or as stator windings having certain resiso
~~wtg_J.1?~1t
is or
Ill ~n altenator phase during the short-cir:;~thon and vriati~n ~n field current, the current
current wavaform given in Figs. 3.2 and 3 ~s ~ave orm.similar to that of an R-L circuit
Referring to Fig. 3.5 draw an envelope enclosing the waveform.
Extend the portions of the envelopes as shown in the figure. NM is extrended to meet the zero
time ordinate at point, A. ML is extended to meet the.ordinate at Band LC meets the ordinate of
~ I Ie y armature reaction. An oscillogram of th . ohever, m the 9:lternator, the waveform zero time at C. Measure OC, OB and OA.
h' h hen the alternator is short-circuited th , ree~p ase currents IS shown in Fig. 3.4. NM is a portion of envelope in steady state LM is a portion of envelope in trasient state LC is
~g v9:lue (10 to 25 times full load current) e ~~ments m all the three phases rise ra idl t
airgap Is large during a first couple of cycles'. ~~~~g t~e first q~arter cycle. The flux cr!siiig fh:
a portion of the envelope is sub-trasient state and LC is the portion of the envelope in sub-transient
state. ·
eac ance durmg these first two or three (there
40
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION J,?UNDAMENTALS OF FAULT CLEARING 41
The currents and reactance are given by th fiOII . .
e owmg express10ns :
subtransient, transiept and steady-state reactances can be determined experimentally by conduct-
I - OA Ea . g short circuit test.
---::f2=xd
lll."It is clear from Eqs. (3.20) to (3.22) that while cal~ulating subtransient, transie~t ar:id steady
I'= OB_ Ea state curr~nts; th~ respective reactances should be considered. The examples of short-c1rcmt current
--::/2-Xd' ... (3.21) a~e.given Ill Sect10n Il of the book.
I"= OC _ Ea
--::/2-xd" 1i;:imRRENT INTERRUPTION IN A.C. CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
... (3.22)
where I= Steady state current, r.m.s. value i;,,The waveform of the current and the voltage during the arc interruption process will be studied
I'= Transient current r.m.s. value , this section. This description applies to the circuit-breakers employing the principle of zero-point
~iterruption. Every ~.c. circuit-breaker generally adopts the zero-point interrupti.on technique.
I" = Sub-transient current, r.m.s. value
, ,Gonsider a circmt-breake_r .connected to a gen.erator ?n 1:0 load at r.ated terr~nna.l voltaise, The
Ea == Induced e.m.f. per phase cir'buit-breaker is in open pos1t10n and the other side of c1rcmt-breaker 1s short circmted (Fig. 3.6).
Xd = Direct axis synchronous reactance C.8.
Xd' == Direct axis transient reactance R
Xd" = Direct axis sub-transient reaetance
~
OA, OB and OC are intercepts shown in Fig. 3.5. 3PHASE
8 SHORT
~ SIIB-,+- TRANSIENT -
Is CIRCUIT
C TRANSIENf
I
· --,;,,;-- STEADY ---►~
.STATE r-ve 4
y
B
ff
-- --N Fig. 3.6 Sudden-3 phase-short circuit of an alternator.
Let the circuit-breaker be closed at the instant when voltage of terminal B w.r.t neutral is zero.
0 In such a case the short circuit current in phase B will have maximum d.c. component and the
waveform of current lb will be unsymmetrical about normal zero axis as shown in Fig. 3.7. The
figure shows the typical waveform of short circuit current in a phase having maximum d.c. com-
ponent. The generator is on no load before t == 0. Hence the current is zero before t = 0. At t = 0,
the short circuit is applied and the current increases to a high value during the first quarter cycle.
The peak of the first major current loop (shown hatched) is OM and this is the maximum instan-
taneous value of current during the short-circuit the instantaneous peak value of the first major
current loop is called the Making current.. In the figure the making current is OM. It is expressed
in kApeak.
Let us come to this making current after covering the remaining process (Sec. 3.19.6).
Fig, 3.5 Oscillogram of current is the h h , The circuit-breaker contacts separate after a few cycles since the relay and the operating
p ase avmg zero d.c. component
As the short circuit occurs, the short-circuit curre . . . mechanism takes atleast a couple of cycles. Let us assume that the circuit-breaker contacts separate
tacts start separating after the operation of the rot ~~ attams high value. The circuit-breaker con- at t:::: T1 The r.m.s. value of short circuit at the instant of contact separation is termed as Breaking
s~pa~ate durmg 'trasient state.' The r.m.s. valu;oft~: ive relay. The c.ontacts of the circuit-breaker current.
hon IS called the breaking current of the c1'rc 't b k curren~ at the mstant of the contact separa- After the separation of contacts of the circuit-breaker, an arc is drawn between the contacts.
UI rea er and 1s d·
If a circuit-breaker closes on existin fault t expresse m kA. The arc current varies sinusoidally for a few cycles. At t = T 2 a particular current zero, the dielectric
the .first, half cycle as shown is Figs. 3.2 gand 3.'3. ~h~u~~ent would increase to a high value during strength of arc space builds up sufficiently so as to prevent the continuation of arc. At the current
durmg the peak of the first current loop "Th. k gh~st peak value of the current is reached zero, this arc is extinguished and is interrupted.
breaker and is expressed in kA "The ter.ms 'bis pel ~ value Is called making current of the cirrcu1't Meanwhile what is happening to the voltage between contacts? This voltage is recorded in Fig.
cusse d m· d etmls
• m. section 3.19.
· rea nng curre n t' an d ,ma k mg
· current' have been dis--
3.7. Before t = 0, the contacts are closed and the voltage between them is zero. After the separation
Though the short-circuit current varies continu . of the contact (t == Ti), the voltage across contact increases. In fact this voltage in the voltage drop
states, the representative values can be calcul t d £ously durmg t?e sub-transient and trasient across the arc during the arcing period. The voltage across arc is in phase with current since the
. a e rom the equat10ns 3.20, 3.21, and 3.22. The arc is resistive. The peculiar waveform shape is a result of voltampere characteristic of arc-dis-
42 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION FUNDAMENTALS OF FAULT CLEARING 43
charge to be studied later. During subsequent half cycles, the voltages across contact increases due RESTRIK/NG VOLTAGE
After a current zero, the arc gets ex-
to increased arc resistance. Finally at t = T2 when arc gets extinguished a high frequency voltage tinguished if the rate of rise of transient
transient appears across the contacts which is superimposed on power frequency system voltage, covery voltage between the contacts
This high frequency transient voltage tries to res trike the arc. Hence it is called Restriking Valtages rl e s than the rate of gain of the dielectric
or Transient Recovery voltage (TRV). The restriking voltage is transient voltage appearing across es . b t
strength. The voltage appearmg e ween
breaker pole after final current zero. The power frequency system voltage appearing between the the breaker contacts at the moment of ,,-,\ VOLTAGE ACROSS
poles after arc extinction is called Recovery voltage. The· transient recovery voltage or restriking final current zero has a profound in- \ Ake
voltage has a profound effect on circuit-breaker behaviour. The current that would flow in the circuit riuence on the arc extinction process. The \
if the circuit-breakers were replaced by solid conductor is called prospective current.
The transient recovery voltage (TRV) appearing across the circuit-breaker pole immediately,
after the final arc interruption causes a high dielectric stress between the circuit-breaker contacts.
voltage appearing across contacts after
natural frequency (restriking voltage).

\
current zero is a trasient voltage of higher ---+-\--+--------1,~,
\ /
F}-\--+---·---+---- t-
If the dielectric strength of the medium between the contacts does not build up faster than the rate superimposed on the power frequency ', /'
of rise of the trasient recovery voltage, the breakdown takes place causing re-establishment of the system voltage (recov~ry voltage). The \, /~. .
arc. If the dielectric strength of the contact-space builds up very rapidly so that it is more than th trasient component vanishes after a short ,... t FINAL CIJRRENT ZERO
rate of rise of transient recovery voltage the circuit-breaker interrupts the current successfully, time of the order ofless than 0.1 mill-sec
The rate of rise of TRV, generally depends on the circuit parameters and the type of the switching and the normal frequency system v0ltage Fig. 3.8 (a) Voltages after final current zero
is established voltage. After current (TRV) (Simplified). (Ref. Fig. 3.Sb)
duty involved. The rate of building up of the dielectric strength depends upon the effective design
of the interrupter and the circuit-breaker. zero the voltage appearing across the
While switching capacitive currents, the high voltage appearing across the contact gap can contacts is composed of transient restriking voltage and power frequency recovery voltage.
cause reignition of the arc after initial arc extinction. If the contact space breaks down within a
POWER FREQUENCY RECOVERV
period of one-fourth of a cycle (0.02 x 0.25) second from initial arc extinction, the phenomenon is -1
called Reignition. If the breakdown occurs after one-fourth of a cycle, the phenomena is called
Restrike. (Ref. sec. 3.20) J
ARC VOLIA.GE
O I
j- 0•002
I •
S
I
VOL T~GE (50 Hll \
I I I
J; fk,,_ ,... -Transient

Fig. 3.8 (b) Shape ofTRV waveform as seen from Cathode-ray oscillographic record.
· "Recovery voltage is the voltage which appears across the terminals of a pole of a circuit-breaker
after the breaking of current. It refers to the breaker-pole first to clear."
The transient recovery (TRV) or Restriking Voltage is the recovery voltage during the time in
which it has a significant transient character. TRV lasts for a few tens or hundreds of microseconds.
I I t- (Ref. Fig. 3.8b)
~J!~1
tg 1Jj tj :: :l,: ! RECOVERY VOLTAGE
- It may be oscillatory or non-oscillatory or a combination, depending upon the characteristics
of the circuit and the circuit-breaker.
i'.':~i'.': I I I ' / ,-
- It is the voltage across the first pole to clear, the same is generally higher than across the
~ h: ~ I I I I ,~ ' ',
two poles which clear later.
:S ~e r '~ i
/ (\ (\ / \ / \
I
----,if-------+-+- -+-:- -t--\---1- - -+-,. - + - - -

) \ I I I I I l Power Frequency Recovery Voltage is the recovery voltage of power frequency (50 Hz.)
'.. t \. -J \,. . ,/,, \, I} :I appearing after the transient voltage has been subsided.
I --- '··' \
I .VOlTAGE
ACROSS
ARC
RESTRIK/Nf
VOlTAGE /
The transient Recovery Voltage refers to the voltage across the pole immediatley after arc ex-
tinction. Such voltage has a power-frequency component plus an oscillatory trasient component.
The oscillatory trasient component due to the inductance and capacitance in the circuit. The power
t=O
t
SHORT CURCU/T
t
CONTACTS
t
t. Ti
frequency component is due to the system voltage (Ref. Fig. 3.8). The transient oscillatory com-
pcment subsides after a few micro-seconds and the power frequency component continuous. The
SEPARATc CURRENT
OCCURS t = T1 ZERO
frequency of transient component is given by
VB,O ARC
INTERR/IPTED 1 .·
Fig. 3. 7. Oscillogram of current and voltage during fault-clearing.
fn -- 2n✓LCHz
where fn = frequency of transient recovery voltage, Hz
3.7. TRANSIENT RECOVERY VOLTAGE (TRV)
L = equivalent industance, hency.
In altenating current circuit-breaker, the current interruption takes place invariably at the C = equivalent capacitance, farad.
natural zero of the current wave.
44
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION 45
DAMENTALS OF FAULT CLEARING .
In actual systems the waveform of the transient recovery voltage has several component fre-
quencies ranging from a few hertz to several thousand hertz, depending upon the values of the J!'IJN er fre uency Recovery Voltage
circuit parameters. 3.7.3. Effect of Reactance-dro~ on pow .· i~-breaker berfore fault. During the fault the
Suppose Y1 is voltage at the locat10n of the circ~ . the reactance As a result the voltage
3. 7.1. Effect of natural frequency of TRV
Fig. 3.9 illustrates the slopes of tan-
. creased current cau~e an inhcr~asft iJ?, the
1n
~f~~f;:ft:;~;~lt
clearance sa~ V2 is slightly less than
value Y1, Hence the power
gents to three TRV waveforms of different app earing at the locat10n
• fi oft
th e aut m ' imme
voltage t o regam . the orirrinal
,,.
V1· It takes some time
y recovery voltageor is slightly
e _sys e less t h an th e norm al power frequency system voltage. :
frequencies (f,i, f2n, f 4,i>, With increase in ~} 7-A. NM NT5
I
the natural frequency, the rate of rise of 3 IN])ICATE.. frequenc RECOVERY VOLTAGE
.• SLOPE. OF TRV -ARC CURRENT
TRV at current zero increases. Vm
in A"Tf=O·
The rate of rise of trasient recovery
voltage across circuit-breaker pole causes
voltage stress on the contact-gap tending
to continue the arc. With higher frequency
(say ( 411 ), relatively less time is available
for the building of dielectric strength of
----------
wt--
the contact gap. Hence higher frequency (2'1Tft)
is associated with greater stresses.
The breaking capacity of a circuit-
breaker (r.m.s. value of current, which / - ARC VOLTAfi;E •
(b)
.
Zero power-factor: emax at to.
the circuit-breaker can interrupt) is re- Tli'V WAVES
Fig. 3.10 Effect of power factor on mstantaneous
. va1u e of voltage at current zero.
lated with the rate if rise TRV, and, Fig. 3.9 Effect of frequency ofTRV on the RRRV.
R t' n Recovery Voltage .
therefore, natural frequency of TRV. The breaking capacity reduces with increase in natural fre- 3.7.4. Effect of Armature eac ion.o £ t d therefore have a demagnetismg
quency (Ref. Sec. 3.10. Eq. 3.26). The short-circuit currents are a ag t 1 g1ng power
h . d ac
d m f of alternators reduces durmg s or t -
or an ' ' . h
-ARC CURRENT armature reaction in altenators . .(\s a resul~i~= ~~ r~~:i:·its· ~riginal value. Hence the power fre-
RECOVERY VOLTAGE circuit
quency currents.
component Theof e.m.f. reqmres
recovery voltageso_mer
is s ightl y less than the normal value of system voltage.
3.7.5. Effect of th.e First-Pole-to-Clear
Refer to Fig 3.11 illustrating a three y C.8.
phase fault not involving the earth.
The voltage across the circuit-breaker 3Ph.FAULT
pole, first to clear is 1.5 times t~e
phase voltage. In three-phase a.c. cir-
t- cuit-breakers, arc extinction in the A
three poles is not simultaneous as cur- R
rents in three phases are mutually I I
I
120° out-of-phase. Hence, the power-fr~- I I
R I I
ARC E~TINCTION
quency recovery voltage of the phase i_n ~V;iR~
I
which the arc gets extinguished first, is ~=VoR+VoA
Fig. 3.10. (a) Unity power factor: eo at io. about 1.5 times the phase voltage. In =1.5 VoR
3.7.2. Effect of Power-Factor on TRV practice the recovery voltage of the pole,
first-to-extinguish the arc is of the ord~r
The voltage appearing across the circuit-breaker pole at the instant of final current zero is in- of 1.2 to 1.5 times. If the neutral 1s 0
fluenced by the power-factor of the current. (Fig. 3.10). The arc gets extinguished at current zero. grounded through reactor and if the
The power-frequency voltage appears across the circuit-breaker pole. The instantaneous value of fault involves earth, _the recovery volt-
the voltage at the instant of current zero depends upon the phase angle between current and voltage at the location of the circuit-breaker
age. For unity power-factor loads, the voltage and current are in phase and both are zero at the is influenced by the equivalent system II ----- ---- a
same instant. For zero power-factor currents, the peak of the voltage (Emax) is impressed on the reactance and can be calculated by the A
circuit-breaker pole at the instant of current zero. Such sudden application of voltage give rise to Fig. 3.11. Voltage across the phase, first-to-open.
method of symmetrical components.
severe transient
is a difficult and hasduty.
switching a high rate ofrise ofTRV. Hence interrrupting currents oflow power-factor
3.7.6. The First-Pole-to-Clear Factor th r frequency component of the recovery
To consider, the effect of the first-pole-cle~r
voltage, the following factor has been defined m t e s
o:
t:~~:r~s on high voltage a.c. circuit breakers.
.
47
"'NTALS OF FAULT CLEARING

4.6 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECT! ,,}'§[)AM-"'
C.8.
f22:L-+~:~:-;-:
B line-to-line fault
L
I .c e
L _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -N
B
-~---------B
0 -----------Y
,.,...,.Mn<".,,..,...,..,,...,__~_ _ _.,.../ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ R ( b) Single frequency transient. . t f TRV
, . f quency transien o ·
I f Fig. 3.13. Explaimng smg1e re . 1 £ lt In such cases the reactance
I VRN . tis obtained while opening on a termina au .
L_ - - - - - - - _J - - - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - -•N 3.13 (a). Such a tl:ans~erhe circuit-breaker is negligible.
Fig. 3.12 Explaining the first-pole-to clear factor <VRYIVRN) .. between the fau an
The first pole to clear factor R.m,s. voltage between healthy phase & faulty phase NCY TRANSIENTS . f
. 3 9 DOUBLE FREQUE . ·t breaker as shown in Fig. 3.14. Be ore
Phase to netural voltage with fault removed •• . L and C on both sides of the cucm - t' l After arc extinction both
at the location of the circuit-breaker during a phase-to-phase fault. ~he ctihrc~~:iti!~v:he terminals, 1 and 2 are ~t th::~:!~ti;~t~adouble frequency transient
Ref. Fig, 3.12, first-pole-to-clear factor is the ratio of the clearing e . ' h ir own natural frequencies a
the circuits oscillate _at \\reaker pole [Fig. 3.14 (b)}. L
Voltage between healthy and faulty phase <VRY) appears across the c1rcm 2 2
Normal phase voltage <VRN) Lt I
at the location of the circuit-breaker for a phase-to-phase fault (Fig. 3.12).
3.8. SINGLE FREQUENCY TRANSIENT e c,

The single frequency restriking voltage transient is produced in the circuit illustrated in Fig.
3.13 (b). The frequency of oscillation is given by the natural frequency of the circuit. a
1
i.e. fn =: 21e✓Lc Hz
where L = Inductance, henry ; C = Capacitance, farads.
--P£AK RESTR/K/NG
VOlT.46£
RESTRIKING
VOLTAGE
i
(b)
. Double frequency transient ofTRV.
Fig. 3.14. f th TRV depends upon
(a) fi rate of rise and peak value o e
In general the frequencies and wave orm,
These frequencies are of the order of 10 to 10,000 Hz depending upon the value of L and C.
The actual power system is composed of distributed capacitance and inductance. The circuit con- several aspects such as lt _ type of neutral earthing.
t . _ type of fau
figuration is also complex. The TRV for such circuits can have several component frequencies rang- - net work configura ion
ing from a few Hertz to several kilohertz. A typical single frequency transient is illustrated in Fig.
49
< . ALSOFFAULTCLEARING
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECT! '
1
J.?~DAMENT d f ther
48 . ·" . . . time at zero currents when t = 0, an ur
The TRV wave can be defined by various methods such as Assuinmg zero e = E cos co t
_ specifying the peak and time to reach the peak.
- specifying the TRV wave by defining the segment oflines which enclose the TRV wavefor i= !~ sin cot before opening of c.b.
The latter method has been now universally adopted and is described in sec. 3.19.9. . E
d
_!'._ = ___!?!:. X CO COS cot
dt coL
3.10. RATE OF RISE OF TRV
di \ Em
The rate of rise of restriking voltage usually abbreviated by R.R.R.V. is a rate expressed ' t = O; dt = L
volts per micro-second, represents the rate of increase in restriking voltage. The rate of rise \
Trasient Recovery Voltage. (TRV) and the natural frequency of TRV are closely associated. T Substituting in Eq. (3.18), we get 2
rate of the rise of TRV depends on the system ____________ _ ... (3.19)
parameters. The circuit breaker should be capable ofin-
terrupting its rated short-circuit breaking current under t 1
I
~ em Em =!!._+c~2
L L dt
the specified conditions ofTRV. Hence the follwing char-
acteristics of TRV are significant:
- Peak of TRV, time to reach the peak. Hence the e
~~~~~
:
1
:
:
' The solution of this standard equation is t
. £
e = Em 1 - cos l
)
t ikmg voltage in which
~
\ ... (3.20)
- frequency of TRV I This is an express10n or res r ltage phase to neutral volts

Em =Peak value of recovery vo '
- Initial rate of rise :
The term rate of rise of restriking voltage is ex-
I t = Time in seconds
I
plained as follows : I L = Inductance in henrys
I
If e is restriking voltage volts I C = Capacitance, farads
e =Restriking voltage, volts.
·
R.R.R.V. = de
dt volts/µ sec. I
I
' Note. Rate of rise of restriking voltage
where tis inµ seconds, e is in volts. 'I de
The peak restriking voltage is defined as the maxi- - dt
mum instantaneous value attained by the restriking t~µsec. Em . t ... (3.21)- -
voltage (em). Fig. 3.15. Measurement of single frequency
=---rryJsm ,{LC
'\/Lv . theorem of differential calculus) .
Referring to Fig. 3.15, R.R.R.V is given by transient. RV is maximum when it derivative is zero (from m~ma
em
RR
· · .. de
R.R.R.V. = -t ... V/µ sec. de is maximum when -d 2 =0
m dt t
where em = peak restriking voltage, volts Em t
LC cos -{Le= 0
tm = time between voltages zero and peak restriking voltage in µ sec i.e.
Em= peak recovery voltage. t 1t
em
or when TLc =2
Amplitude factor = E
m i.e. t = '1LC %
3
10 .. RR RV is the value of deldt at
Natural frequency = U kilo cycles/second ... (3.18) The maximum . . . •
m
1
t = '1W %
Since f = for any sinusoidal waveform. ... (3.23)
2tm Em
Derivation of Restriking Voltage. Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 3.13 when current i.e. R.R.R.V,max =- {LC
reaches zero at final arc extinction, a voltage e is suddenly impressed across capacitor and therefore, . . lt rs when e is maximum
Further, peak restnkmg vo age occu ·
across the c.b. contacts. The current i which would flow to the fault is not injected in the capacitor
and inductor. Thus de =O
i.e. when dt
when t
~=1t, ·
i.e., t = n..Jic
i.e.
and peaking restriking voltage is equal to ... (3.24)
e = Em (1- cos 1t) = 2Em
50
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECT! '. <.bAMENTALS OF FAULT CLEARING 51
SUMMARY OF EXPRESSIONS FONMaximum
.
.~
ra te at rise of restriking voltage occurs when
2
t
e = Em 1 - cos ../IE"
~=0
Em . t dt 2
R.R. R. V. = ../IE" sm ../IE"
t -_ ✓LC . ~
2 = 2 .2 x ~
2 == 3.45 µ-sec.
t
emax = 2Em at -vLC = n
Em = 5340
Maximum R.R.R.V. is given by -_ ✓LC 2.2 = 2420 volts/µ-sec.
Em .~n
.
R.R.R.V.max = ✓LC at t = -vLC
2 [Ans. (a) 2420 V/µ-sec., (b) 3.45 µ-sec., (c)
_72,400 els.]
1
fn = 2n..frc
.
Example 3.4. A three phase altenator has the l~:e
lt
c~;c;,f
f 11 kV: The generator is connected
eb~eaker i~ 5 ohm per phase. The dis-
' t6 a circuit-breaker. The in~uct_iv~ rea;t~~c:::e: ;hase and neutral is 0.01 µF. Determine the fol-
It is observed from Eqs. 3.22 and 3.25 that tributed capacitance upto circuit- rea e1 e
R.R.R.V.max = 21tEmfn low.ing:
' ... Neglect First Pole to clear factor
The J,,,faximum Rate of Rise of Restriking voltage is proportional to the natural frequency oft
circuit. (a) Peak restriking voltage across the c.b:
) Frequency of restriking voltage transient. . .
This is an important conclusion. The circuit with high natural frequency give a high rate :) Average rate of restriking voltage upto peak restnking voltage.
TRV and produce severe dielectric stress on the contact space of the circuit-breaker.
(d) Maximum R.R.R. V.
Hence High fn ➔ High rate ofrise of TRV
Solution. 2nfL == 5Q
Examples on Restriking Voltage*
l ., == ~
314 = 0.0159 H
Example 3.3. A 50-cycles, 3-phase alternator with grounded neutral has inductance of 1.6 m
per phase and is connected to busbar through a circuit-breaker. The capacitance to earth betwe Vr == 11 kV
the alternator and the circuit-breaker is 0.003 µF per phase. The circuit breaker opens when r.m. 11
ualue of current is 7500 A. Determine q,nalytically the following : Vph == T3 == 6.35 kV r.m.s.
(a) Maximum rate of rise of restriking voltage.
E max = ~ x 6.35 = 9 kV.
(b) Time for maximum rate of sise of restriking voltage.
(c) Frequency of oscillations. Expression for striking voltage t
e=Em(l-cos ✓LC)
Neglect First-Pole-to-clear factor.
Solution. Frequency of oscillation is given by
1
f,l = 2n✓Lc els = 9( 1- COS ✓0.0159 X ~.01 X 10 6 )
where Lin henry, C is in farads, fn is in Hz.

== 9 ( 1 - cos t 10- 6 )
12.6 X
1 Peak restn.k.mg vo lt age -2xE
- max -2x9=18kV
-
fn=.r.: 3
2n \/1.6 X 10- X 0.003 X 10- 6
Time for peak restriking voltage:
1 1
= 21t ✓ 4.8 X 10- 12 = 2 7t X 2.2 X 10- 6 = 72,400 C/s. t
✓LC == rt
The recovery voltage can be calculated from the known values of current I and mL. t == ✓LC x 7t == 12.6 x rt== 39.5 µ-sec.
E =Ix mL =Ix 2nfxL
. . vo l tage
Average rate of restnkmg , tm == ~
-_ emax 39.5 == 0.456 kV/µ-sec.
= 7500 x 314 x 1.6 x 10- 3 = 3780 volts r.m.s.
Em = ~ X Erms = 3780 X ~ = 5340 volts 1
Expression for restriking voltage
Frequency oscillations f,, == 2n ✓LC
1 ==. 2n x 12.6 x 10- 6 =12,637c/s
where e is in volts, t is in sec.

0
e Em ( 1-cos h )" 53411- cos _ x

22
1
10
_
6
)
Max. R.R.R.V. - ✓LC
- Em = 9 x 103 = 714V/µ-sec.
126 ·
>
35 I . 191
t m the r m s vo l tage ts . kV' Lis 10 mH, C is 0.02 mF. Determine
* In this derivation and in Examples on Restriking Voltage, First Pole to Clear Factor is neglected.
Example
the average rate . of. rise
~· a of
sysrestriking
e . . .l. . e' when the circuit breaker opens.
vo tag .
52
. FUNDAMENTALS OF FAULT CLEARING
Solution.
e = E max ( 1 - cos \/JlY J Example 3.7. In a short-circuit test on a circuit-breaker, the following readings obtained on a
frequency transient: ··
Inserting the numerical values e = -12" x 19.1 ( 1 _ cos t ) (a) time to reach the peak restriking voltage 70 µ-sec.
✓".'."'10~x=lO=_=n3~x~0=.0=2=x=1=0=_=
7
6 (b) the peak restriking voltage 100 kV.
Calculate the average rate of rise of restrking voltage and the natural frequency of the circuit.
= 21( 1 - cos t x 105 Jkv Solution, Average rate of rise restriking voltage
T' 1.414
1me to reach maximum restriking voltage Peak restriking voltage (Em) 100 x 10 3
= Time to reach the peak (tm) = 70 = 1430 V /µ-sec.
t = nfLc = n x 1.414 x 10- 5 sec. = 44.4 µ-sec.
emax = 2Em = 2 X 27.0 = 54 kV Natural frequency fn is given by
103
Average rate of restriking voltage= emax = 54,000 - 12 fn=uc/s
tm 44 .4 - 20 V/µ-sec. m
Example 3.6. In a. short-circuit test on a 3 ole · · / 103
the recovery voltage was 0.95 times full li l p Th circuit-?reaker power factor of fault was 0.4 fn = = 7143 els.
1uency of oscillation of restriking voltage ;~:f/too 7
mg voltage. The neutral is grounded and fault ? l
C /';/~mg current was symmetr~cal. The fre~
. stimate .the average rate of rise of restrik-
2 X 70 X 10- 6
Solution. The maximum restriking voltag i~vo_ ves ~arth. Neglect First Pole to clear factor. 3.11. RESISTANCE SWITCHING, DAMPING OF TRV, OPENING RESISTORS
value of power frequency voltage at th t' ef1s given . y 2Emax, where Emax is the instantaneous
. . e ime o current zero A deliberate connection of a resistance in parallel with the contact space (arc) is called Resis-
Lme to hne voltage = 110 kV r.m.s. · tance switching. Resistance Switching is used in circuit-breakers having high post zero resistance
of contact space (Air blast C.B.) Let us see the effect of such a resistance on the frequency ofrestrik-
Line to phase voltage=~ kVr.m.s.
ing voltage transient (Ref. Fig. 3.19).
110 Considering the current loop, we get
PealEmax= ~ X2=90kV
e=i'R + Ldi
-+-
dt C C
1 i dt f. ... (3.26)
The power factor = 0.4
Hence p.f. angle e = 66.4° 1
C
f.icd t = i,.r
.
sine= 0.92
Recovery voltage is 0.95 times peak value i = i,. + ic, e = 0
From equation instantaneous value of rec~very voltage is E = kE d 2i di,. .
where k = k1 x kz x k3 (Ref. Sec. 3.7) max dt2 + B 1 dt + Bz i,. = 0 ... (3.27)
k1 = multiplying factor due to power factor angle R 1
where Bi= L + rC ... (3.28)
= sin 0 = 0.92
k2 = multiplying factor due to system voltage= 0.95 1 R ... (3.29)
Bz= LC+ rLC
k3 = Factor depends on circuit conditions
= 1 in this case since the fault involves earth
k = k1 kz k3 = 0.92 x 0.95 x 1 = 0.875 i C.B.
iir
E = o. 375 x 90 = 78. 75 kV (instantaneous)
The time to reach the first peak of restrik. I L R
103 mg vo tages can be estimated from Eq. (3.18).
~ tic
fn = ~ ' where f is in kc/sec.
m ... (3.19)
1 e C
f,1 =~'where f is in els.
m
1
tm = 2fn sec.
1 (1) r is resistance connected in parallel with the c.b. (resistance switching opening resistance-ohm
tm = 2 x 15,000 = o. 33 X 10- 4 sec. = 0.33 x 102 µ-sec. (2) R series resistance of circuit per phase-ohm
Average R.R.R.V. = 2Emax _:_ 2 x 78.75 (3) C capacitance between phase and earth per phase-farad
0.33 x 102 - 33 = 4.S kV/µ-sec. (4) L inductance per phase-henry; ir current in resistance switching; ic current in capacitor; i total current
Fig. 3.19. Resistance switching.
55
. . TALS OF FAULT CLEARING
54 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
~1¥~P~EN V =i ~
The roots are complex and the frequency of transient is given by
-----
-10 ✓ = 10 ✓6 X 10
6 8
✓ L~ - ¼(~ - r~ )
1
fn = 2 n - 0.01 X 10-G
v = 245,000 V,
and attenuation p=l (R+_!_) 't d of resistance r for resistance switching is given by
2 L rC
if R~L magni u e {f
L
r .
1
r=- C
fn = 2~ ✓ L~ -( 2;C 2 --=-
= 0.5✓ 6 X 108 = 0.5 X 2.45 X 10
4
From Eq. 3.30, it is clear that if parallel resistance 2 across contacts is less than = 1.225 X 104 Q = 12.25 kQ.
l
2
{f
C Hence th e C
ritical damping resistance = 12.25 kQ.
the frequency reduces to zero as shown below f... OF LOW MAGNETIZING CURRENT, CURRENT CHOPPING
312. INTERRUPTION . .. hile disconnecting transformers
fn = 2~ ✓.-L-~---4-~_2_x_i_C_ • .. . ·ty of interrupting small inductive current arises w
The necess1 £ · mag
N load currents of trans ormer, i.e. -
on no-load, o-t }most at zero power factor lag. L
. ing curren s are a t' f
=_!_ {O=Oifr<l{f ne t iz . ller than normal current ra mg o I
2n 2 C The curre;t is;:: breaking of such a low current I
I
The value of resistance rat which the frequency ofTRV becomes zero is called "Critical Damp- the brea er. d t on the circuit-breaker. (Sec. I
presents a sever u y c-1-
,- V L
ing Resistance'. The resistance connected in parallel with the circuit-breaker for opening operation
I
is called 'Opening Resistance'. 15.23) , t uch as I
{ i When interrupting low inductive curren s s th I
The frequency of transient restriking voltage vanishes and the rate of rise of restriking is kept T:>; etizin currents of transformer, shunt reactor, e I
within the capability of the breaker. In the resistance switching resistance is connected in shunt
with the arc (Fig. 3.19) so as to reduce the restrikingvoltage frequency. The resistance also diverts
m~g;
·.rap
deion1zation of contact space and blast effect ma~
h. nt to be interrupted before its natura F' 3 20 Circuit diagram illustrating interruption
part of the arc current. ..a
' c.·zero. t ~ cuhrre
. . use This p enomenon of the •;nterruption of current. As ig. . . t
oflow inductive curren •
In the plain break oil circuit-breakers (tank type) the post zero resistance of the contact space ·before its natural zero is called curren~ c~opping.
is low. Hence resistance switching is not necessary. However, the resistance switching assists the . ......... . le 3 6 the energy stores in in- CHOPPING
< s.huwn in examp . . . d. t d to
circuit-breaker in interrupting the magnetising currents and capacitive currents. auptcmce fur value of current it is wer e .
The post-zero resistance of air-blast circuit-breaker is high. This may result in severe voltage ilt~ capacitance at the moment of current m-
transients due to current chopping (interruption of current before natural zero). Hence the resis- t~rruptiun, i.e.
tance switching is adopted.
. l Li2 = l cv2 joules
The magnitude of opening resistance for resistance switching is given by 2 2
{f .. IL
r=l
2 C
v=i'\rc
E 1
Assuming Isc = roL fn = 2 7t {Le
.Such a transient voltage having high RRRV
L=_§_ appears across the contacts, unless the arc
Isc 0)
continues. If it restrikes a further, chop may,
r=l
2
- {E
IscroC
=K 1
-Ji;
• occur or several chops may occur before th e
current is finally interrupted, circuit-breaker
Hence magnitude of resistance .depends on the fault current. may fail to clear the fault. ~POWER-FREQUENCY
RECOVERY VOLTAGE
Example 3.8. In a system of 132 kV, the circuit phase to ground capacitance is 0.01 mF, the If the restrike does not occur, the severe
series inductance is 6H. Calculate the voltage appearing across the pole of a,c,b. if a magnetizing voltage appears across the c.b. contact and on TRANSIENT RECOVERY
current of 10 amp, is interrupted (instantaneous). Calculate the Value of resistance to be used across VOLTAGE,V
the system.
contact space to eliminate the restriking voltage transient.
Resistance switching is adopted to over-
Solution. L = 6H; C = 0.01 µF come the effect of over-voltages due to current
·
, 3 21 Interruption · currents
oflow magne t'izmg .
F 1g. ' .
. .!.Li2 =.!. Cv 2
2 2
57
NTALS OF FAULT CLEARING . . s enerally more severe due to

SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECT! . FIJNDAME . rs the problems or current choppmg _1 \urrent is low. The opening
56
chopping. The value of resistance used for resistance switching is of the order of 15,000 ohms In air-blast circu1t-?refrn me high pressure even if the brea~m~ the order of 30% of the rated
switching off a 132 kV 45 MVA transformer. the fact that the bla~t -:::.. ~w~:Ch are designed f~r valm:s of curre\: ~f the order of 3?0 to 500 ohms
r_esistors and thet r;s~:\ypical value of the openm_gl r~s1s~~r~::::ers the energy required for ar~ ~xh
The currents to be interrupted may be small, but interrupting such currents may result in ve
high voltages. For example consider disconnection of a 110 kV, 20 MVA tranformer.
Rated current ==
20 106
x = 105 A.
r, eaking curren . . . uit-breakers. In o1 -circu1 -
tinction is propo~ ;~:~ypical values being in the range o o

. resistors need not carry ig
case of 145 kV t1r-b{~~t t~:ccurrent in the arc. Hence t~: ~pe:~~og of the rated breaking current
3
! '-l3 X 110 X 10 value of cu~~e~\:or Closing Resistors).. . . stors as the arc interruption general-
The magnetising current was 2 A. (Ref., sec.' ·. it breakers generally do not need open~ngtres1gth of the medium between the con-
3
The SF6 c1rcu d the dielectnc s ren
110 X 10 3 at natural current zero an
Xo= T3x ==31.7x10 ohm l takes p1ace . dl
2 l b 'ld up very rapl y. 15 26)
tacts u1 s . . Ca acitor Banks (:ij,ef. Sec. .' . ' ur in an interrupter (Ref.
Xo 31.7 x 103 3.13,1, Sw1tchmg ~f p ks the reginition and 'restnkn~g can o~c e ower at leading power
L 0 == 2.nf = 314 = 101 henry.
While open~ng ~P~:t~~:::nnected in the netwo~k to provide \ea~;e !urrents supplied to the
Assuming current is interrupted at instantaneous value 12" x 2 == 2.82 A. Sec. 3.6) Capacitor an s a acitor cannot change mstantane~us y. t such currents invariably
i 2
== (2.82)2 == 8 factor. Th~ voltage acro;:i:.:11 ~rder and the drcui~-breaker can i:\~:r~pacross the Capacitor is at
capacitor is generally o D to the goo phase difference, th~ v h g d at this voltage (ec). After
The capacitance between phase and ground is found to be 5000 pF equating energies we get at the first current zero.. ~e t t (t ) and the capacitor remams c arge
. um value (ec) at this ms an 1
_!_ Li 2 = _!_ Cu 2 maxim \e,
2 2
~ )-1--, /'1'\
u == i ,{[C== 2.82 ✓ 5000lOl10-
X
12
== 400 kV Peak
SOURCE L r er -
~a-:7\""\..---.---BR-<iTEA~7
I LOAD
w
;
\
/
1 '
~l~~k--~'":---~--!1i---ftt=:'.:;:
', I
/
1 er '
t2 ',
Thus voltage of 400 kV appears across breaker pole. If the dielectric strength of the contact
poLt· · ~ __L \ o> , , 1
1
---
space is low or if resistance or capacitor is provided in shunt, the excessive voltage is discharged
and therefore, does not appear on the system. Thus a circuit-breaker in which the dielectric strength C ec ', Ll -~----
of contact space grows at a slower rate, the problem ofrestriking voltage disturbance is less severe
because the gap-breaks down and absorbs the magnetic energy in successive restrikes, circuit-
J_ ' ""- ec
breakers with internal extinguishing source such as oil circuit-breakers are, therefore suitable for
L----_L-----~ W eform of Clean interruption without res trike
• f tar connected (b) av· (at ti current i is interrupted)
such applications. On the contrary in air blast circuit-breakers, post arc dielectric strength is high, (a) Single phase Represen~at10n o s
severe voltage transients can be expected. Hence resistance switching is adopted. 3 ph. Capacitor Bank
Another difficult duty for which the circuit-breakers should be desinged is breaking of inductive
currents such as breaking of reactors or transformers loaded with reactors. Resistance switching
is resorted to. Resistance switching comprises non-linear resistors which are brought into the cir-
cuit, parallel to the arc between contacts, during arc interruption. The current flows in the shunt D r-------7E
VOLTAGE e U l/ I e = Source side sinusoidal voltage
resistor until it is interrupted by the resistor switch. In medium voltage systems upto 36 kV, RC
surge absorbers with R = 100 ohms and C =0.1 µFare connected phase to ground between the
AFTER FIRST
RESTRIKE AT t 2 I
A \
I
/=Voltage across capacitor C
breaker and the inductive load. The surges are absorbed by the RC combination. cl \ 1
,,-, /=Voltage across breaker pole
r
FIRST ,-T, I
CURRENT / 1 \ I /
3.13. USE OF OPENING RESISTORS I 1 \ I ,,--7-..._ t
ZERO ,,---,- 'it \ t31,,,, / , 4
'Opening resistors' also called 'switching resistors' are fitted parallel with main break in series t 1,, ,, I ',
I I t-
i I /
with a resistance switch. The opehing resistors come into the circuit prior to the opening of the I /
main break (1) by dosing of the resistors ·switch 1
I \
, 1 ,....__er
I \ I I
(II). The resistance switch (II) may be formed by MAIN BREAK (I) t 'T,,
the moving parts in the interrupter or striking of B I
I VOLTAGE
an arc depending upon the design of the circuit- CURRENT AFTER \ / AFTER FIRST
breaker. FIRST RESTRIKE \ RESTRIKE AT t 3
During the arc-interruption process in the Fl-------- G
main-break, the resistor switch (II) remains ~-RE,,s,,1s"T·"o·_R_:r
ec
closed. The resistance switch (II) opens with a cer- AUXILIARY
tain delay after the opening of the main break. RESISTOR (II) t
(c) Wavef?1:m for reS ~~:: opening operation.
The magnitude of opening resistances depend . 3 23 Switching of capacitive curren
upon the type of circuit-breaker and the switching Fig. 3.22. Use of opening Resistor in Circuit-Breaker. F 1g., .
duty involved.
59
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIO ENTALS OF FAULT CLEARING Vs (t)
58 B = Breaker
half cycle (tz) the recovery voltage of approximate magnitude of (ermax) appears across the circuit V,, = Voltage of source
breakers and the total voltage across the circuit-breaker is the sum of two voltages i.e. L = Inductance on source side
+ ec
ermax == e,.max F = Fault at terminal of B
F
where ermax = Maximum voltage across breaker V8 (t) = Voltage across breaker
e,.max ==Max.value of power frequency recovery voltage t = Time in microsec
C = Shunt capacitance on source side.
ec == Voltage across capacitor.
Thus the recovery voltage of the order of 2Emax, (where Emax == '12 Eph) appears across the cir,
cuit-breaker pole at the instant t 2 , after 1/2 cycle of current zero. Therefore, a restrike is possible:
If a restrike occurs, the LC circuit will oscillate at a frequency given by f,i = 1/2-Jfc. This curren
tries to maintain the arc. The voltage across the interrupter rises upto 4 p.u due to one restrik Simplified TRV form
and upto 6 p.u. with second restrike. The energy (1/2 Cv 2 ) to be dissipated during such arcs i
quite large and the interrupters may get damaged in the process after a restrike. Hence, the cir
cuit-breakers used for capacitors duty should be 'Restrike free'. It should have adequate rating fo
capacitive current switching.
While closing the circuit breaker of parallel capacitor banks, the pre-arcing between c6ntacts 2 4 t-
can have damaging. The pre-arcing taken place before the contact touch. The frequecny of arc cur~ Fig. 3.24 Conditions representing Terminal Fault (tin µs).
rent is given by fn = l/2✓LC. The energy in the arc is converted into heat. Every circuit-breake
TERRUPTING SHORT LINE FAULTS (Kilometric Fault)
has a limit of making capacity depending upon the frequency and magnitude of the inrush curren 3.15.. IN ·1 f th
While paralleling one capacitor bank with another, the frequency of inrush currents is very high. rrin between a distance of a few kilometers to a few tens k1 ometers rom e
Suitable reactor (L) should be provided in series. (Ref. Sec. 15.26) ·• ~he fault occu calied short line faults. Such faults are characterised. by high fre~uency of
<;ircu~t-.breaker arc f th d f 10 to 100 kHz depending upon length of lme and locat10n of the
3.13.2. Switching of Unloaded Transmission Lines and Unloaded Cables_ .restr1kmg voltage o e or er o . d . l'fi d TRV form
Unloaded transmission lines and unloaded under ground power-cables take capacitive current .fault. Fig. 3.25 represents a condition of a shorbme fault an s1mp 1 18 · . .
The magnitude of capacitive currents encountered in practice are: Referring to Fig. 3.25 supply voltage cause short circuit current I to flow through the circmt
Unloaded lines: Charging currents : Up to 10 A cotnprising the following impedances :
Underground cables : Charging currents: Up to 100 A roL == impedance of source = 2rtfL
Capacitor Banks: Current up to 1400 A
At = impedance of 1 km length of line
During the opening operation, the restrike phenomenon is possible in above cases (described
in Sec. 3.14.1) I= length of line between breaker and the fault, km
The circuit-breaker used for a particular application should be capable of performing openin A= impedance per km length ofline.
and closing operations without getting damaged and with overvoltages within specified limits. The
circuit-breaker should have adequate rating and should be type tested for the relevant duty (Ref.
Secs. V 3.19.20; 11.10)
Vacuum CB, SF6 CB and ABCBs are suitable for capacitors switching duty.
3.14. INTERRUPTING THE TERMINAL FAULTS

The Terminal Fault is defined as a fault occurring very near to terminal of circuit-breaker and
that the reactance between the fault point and breaker is negligible.
Fig. 3.24 shows a single phase repesentation of a terminal fault condition. Consider breaker B
closed and a short circuit F occurs very near the breaker terminal so that the impedance between
the breaker and the fault is negligible. Under this condition the fault current I is governed by volt-
age of the source Vn and impedance of source roL. The current I is interrupted by the breaker at a
current zero. After the arc interruption, the voltage Vs (t) appears across the breaker pole. The
circuit being predominantly inductive, the power factor of current is low (0.1). The simplified
waveform of transient recovery voltage is shown in Fig. 3.24. In practice quite complex waveforms
are possible. The frequencies of TRV vary from several hundred to several thousand cycles under
the condition of terminal short circuit.
As per IEC-56.2, the rated characteristics of a circuit-breaker include rated transient recovery Fig. 3.25. Condition representing short-line fault
voltage for terminal faults. The rated short-circuit breaking current is specified with references to (kilometric fault) (tin microsec).
the rated TRV for terminal faults.
61
60
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECT! Ji)tb~.·n
.. A.MENTALS OF FAULT CLEARING
1
>.•.···.."'.•.·.
- Analogue Computer
· ·· _ Transient Network Analyzer
The voltage appearing across breaker pole after final current interruption has two compone - Short-circuit testing
v1 and vz. (Fig. 3.25) _ Field testing
To test the performance of ~irc°:it-breaker for various switching conditions, the tests are now
- v 1 is the voltage at the terminal from supply side.
......·.· mended for high voltage circuit-breakers.
- v 2 is the voltage at the terminals from line side. recom
The voltage V1 has power frequency component and high frequency component and reache 8 s.i7. SPECIFYING THE TRV WAVE
peak value 12Vn as illustrated in the figure. Whereas v2 has saw-tooth waveform and drops to z 'l'he TRV waveform can be specified by various methods (Fig. 3.28) such as
after a few microsecorn;ls.
Specifying the peak value and time to reach the peak.
The. trasient recovery voltage v across the breaker pole is the sum of v 1 and v2 . The superi
p_osed hig~ frequenc! compon~nt d~e to line frequency FL has a value vp/41 where (up) is propa ,<This methods was used earlier
hon velocity on the lme and 'A is the impedance per unit length ofline. F 1 may reach a value betw _ Specifying the parameters which determine the line segments enveloping the TRV wave
10 to 100 kJ:Iz dbpendi1_1g upon the length ofline location of fault. The peak value of high frequen (Fig. 3.28) (two parameter method and four-parameter method).
component is reached m a few microseconds. Hence the rate of rise of TRV is very high.
The resulting transient recovery voltage for short line appearing across circuit-breaker pole
the vector sum of the voltage from the source and the line voltage Vs - VL,
TRV WAVE
3.16. PHASE OPPOSITION SWITCHING

When two systems are to be
sychronised, it may happen that the
breaker opens on non-synchronous
condition. In Fig. 3.26, if V1 and V 2 L
t3
are not in sychronism during opening of t-
breaker the likely waveform of tran- (a.) Two-parameter method, Ve, t3 , (b) Four-para~eter method, V1, Ve, t1, t
sient recovery voltage is as shown in Fig. 3.28 Possible methods defining TRV waveform (t m µs).
Fig. 3.27. Under certain conditions the
voltage across pole may reach three
times phase voltage or in extreme cases !l:18. RATED CHARACTERISTICS OF CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
it may reach twice to line voltage. Fig. 3.26 Out-of phase switching.
.The ratings of a circuit-breaker denote its capabilities under specified conditions of use and
behaviour. The following paragraphs are generally based on the recommendations of IEC, Publi-
The circuit-breakers used for . cation IEC-56: "High Voltage Alternating Current Circuit-Breakers" and IS-2516 : "Specifications
synchronising, should be capable of
opening satisfactory under non- _':._s~<;!~:.__'0_'2)/2. of Alternating Current Circuit-Breakers."
synchronous condition. In such case the The capabilities of a circuit-breaker of a part,cnlar type are proved by conducting type tests as
recovery voltage may be much higher Eer the recommendation of the standards.
than that for other short-circuit duties .. The following rated characteristic (1-9) are generally specified for all high voltage a.c. circuit-
The magnitude of recovery voltage breakers rated above 1000 V (For specifications of low voltage c.b.-Ref. Sec. 15.7).
depends upon the phase angle between
the voltages on two sides of the circuit- 3.18.1. Rated Voltage
breaker. The recovery voltage has a O t- The rated voltage of a circuit-breaker corresponds to the higher system voltage for which the
maximum value when the two voltages . · circuit-breaker is intended. The standards values ofrated voltages are given in Table 3.1. The rated
are 1800 out of phase, given b : Fig. 3.27 Waveform of voltage _acros~ the_breaker pole during
Y out-of-shape openmg (t m m1crosec.) v.oltage is expressed in kV and refer to phase to phase voltage for three-phase circuit. The ear-
. r.m.s.
Vs= 12V1 + -12V2 = "2 (V1 + V 2 ) lier practice of specifying the rated voltage of a circuit-breaker as nominal system voltage is no
where, Vs= Maximum value of power frequency recovery voltage more followed.
V1 = Component from source side. 3.18.2. Rated Insulation level
V2 = Component from line side. The rated insulation level of a circuit-breaker refers to the power frequency withstand voltage
and impulse voltage withstand values which chm;acterise the insulation of the circuit-breaker. (Ref.
Summarising. The circui~-~reake! should be capable of performing variety of switching duties.
Th~ chu!rent an? :voltage s~verities durmg these conditions are quite different. The studies on these Table 12.1)
switc mg condit10ns are simulated on
62 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION 63
FUNDAMENTALS OF FAULT CLEARING
TABLE 3,1.
_ The increase in frequency influences the TRV and rate-of-rise TRV. Hence a circuit-breaker
Rated Voltage of Circuit-Breaker desinged and rated for a certain frequency cannot be recommended for other frequencies
Nominal System Voltage kVr.m.s. unless its capabilities are proved for those frequencies.
Rated Voltage of Circuit-breaker k Vr.m.s.
_ The d.c. circuit-breakers generally adopt a different principle of arc-extinction and have dif-
0.240 0.264 ferent construction than a.c. circuit-breakers.
0.415 0.440 3.18.4. Rated Normal Current (Rated Current)
3.3 3.6 The rated normal current of a circuit-beaker is the r.m.s. value of the current which the cir-
6.6 cuit-breaker can carry continuously and with temperature rise of the various parts within specified
7.2
11
limits.
12 Preferred Values of Rated Currents Arms
22 24 400, 630, 800, 1250, 1600, 2000, 2500, 3150, 4000, Arms
33 36 The design of contacts and other current carrying parts in the interrupter of the circuit breaker
66 72.5 are generally based on the limits of temperature rise. For a given cross-section of the conductor
132 and a certain value of current, the temperature rise depends upon the conductivity of the material.
145
Hence, high conductivity material is preferred for current carrying parts. The cross-section of the
220 245 conductori:, should be increased for materials with lower conductivity.
400 420 Table 3,2, Permissible Temperature Rise*
500 525 Maximum value of Temperature rise at ambient
Item temperature °C temperature of 40°C
750 765
1. Copper contacts
The circuit-break_ers connecte? in a po~er-system are subjected to power-frequency over vol-
tages due to _regulati~n, Ferranti effect, higher tap-setting, etc. The circuit breaker should be (a) in air with silver plating 105 65
capab_l~ ?f withst~ndmg the power frequency over-voltages which are likely to occur. These (b) in air without silver plating 75 35
c~pabihties are vanfie? by_ conductin? pow~r frequency voltage withstand tests and impulse-vol tag (c) in oil with silver plating 90 50
withstand tes_ts. ~he circmt-breaker is subJected to impulse over-voltage due to causes like lighting
surge and switchmg surge. (d) without silver plating in oil 80 40
During single-line to ground faults, the voltage of healthy lines to earth increases to '13" time 2. Oil
to normal va!ue ~n systems with insulated neutral. Hence higher values of insulation are recom- in oil circuit-breakers 80 40
mended ~or ci~cmt-br_eak~r connected in non-effectively earthed systems. The following insulations
are provided m the circmt-breaker: 3. Terminals or the Circuit-breakers
(a) With Silver plating 105 65
- Insulation between live parts and earth for each pole external and internal
- Insulation between poles. · (b) Without silver plating 90 50
- Insulation between terminals of the same pole-external and internal. 4. Metal part in contact 100 60
T~e desi1?1 of these i11;sulation depends upon the structural form of the circuit-breaker and the With class E insulation in oil.
rated msulat10n level desired Ref. Ch. 12 for further details.
3.18.3. Rated frequency * Ref. Sec. 10.2.2 Temperature Tests.
The standard freq1;1e1:cy ~or a three pole circuit-breaker is the frequency of the power system The use of magnetic materials in close circuits should be avoided to prevent heating due to
(50 Hz). The charactenstics hke normal current breaking capacity etc. are based on the rated fre- • hysteresis loss and eddy currents. The rated current of a circuit-breaker is verified by conducting
quency. temperature rise tests.
The frequency of the current influences the circuit-breaker behaviour as follows : 3.18.5. Rated Short Circuit-Breaking Current
- The temperature rise ~f current-.carrying parts and neighbouring metallic parts is influenced The rated short-circuit breaking-current of a circuit-breaker is highest rms value of short-circuit
by eddy-~urrent ~eati1:g·. Tµe mcrease in frequency results in increased eddy currents. current which the circuit-breaker is capable of breaking under specified conditions o,f transient
Hence, with specified hmits of the temperature rise the rated current of a circuit-breaker recovery voltage and power frequency voltage. It is expressed in kA r.m.s. at contact separation.
needs de-rating for application on higher frequency. Referring to Sec. 3.6, Fig. 3.6 the short-r.ircuit current has a certain value at the instant of
- ~he frequen~y c~rresponds to the number of current-zeros per second. Since the breaking contact separation, (t = T 1). The breaking current refers to value current at the instant of the contact
tm_1e of the circmt-breaker is associated with the time for half cycles during the arc extin- separation.
g_msh_ed process, ~he breaking time is influenced by the frequency of current. The breaking The transient recovery voltage refers to the transient voltage appearing across the circuit-
time mcreases with reduction in frequency. breaker pole immediately after the arc interruption. The rated values of transient recovery voltage
are specified for various rated volt.ages of circuit-brekers. For specified conditions of rated TRV and
64
AMENTALS OF FAULT CLEARING 65
AA']
BB' Envelope of current wave
BX= Normal zero axis of wave C
AA']
BB' = Envelope of current wave
CX = Displaced zero axis of wave BX= Normal zero axis
-----A'
EE = Instant of contact separation CC = Displaced zero axis
I Ac= Peak value of AC, component at EE /pk = Peak making current.
----A' Inc= D.C. component of current at EE
Inc x 100
I = Percentage ofD.C. component
Ac at the instant EE
]AC
12 = r.m.s, value a.c, component.
Fig. 3,30, Determination of peak making current.
B' turrent test, The rated short-circuit making current of a circuit-breaker in the peak value of first
E' ottrrent loop of short-circuit current ([pk) which the circuit-breaker is capable of making at its rated
toltage (Ref. Fig. 3.7, Sec. 3.6).
Fig. 3.29, Determination of breaking current. 1
The rated short-circuit making current should be least 2.5 times the r.m.s. value of a,c, com-
rated power frequency recovery voltage a circuit b ·Mnent of rated breaking current.
This limit is determined by condu r' h - .rea~er has a certain limit of breaking current <> Rated making current = 1.8 x .../2 x Rated short-circuit breaking ... (3.32)
fi c mg s ort-circuit type tests th . . b , = 2.5 x Rated short-circuit breaking current.
wave orms of short-circuit current are ht , d d . on e circmt- reaker, The
breaking current is explained in Fig, 3.2o9. ame urmg the breaking test. The evaluation of the In Eq. 3.32 the factor .../2 converts the r.m.s. value to peak value. Factor 1.8 takes into account
The breaking current is expressed by two values . . the doubling effect of short-circuit-current (Ref. Sec. 3.6) with consideration to slight drop in current
i:}uring the first quarter cycle.
(1) the r.m.s. value of a.c. component at the insta~t of t t , .
IAc con ac separat10n EE, given by 3.18.7. Rated duration of short-circuit (Rated short time current)
'. t: . The short time current of a circuit-breaker is the r.m.s. value of current that the circuit-breaker
T2 ·Jan carry in a fully closed position during a specified time under prescribed conditions of use and
(2) the percentage d.c. component at the instant of contact separation given by ;rehaviour. It is normally expressed in terms of kA for a period of one second. Adjacent poles ex-
Inc x 100 'perience mechanical force during this test.
IAc •..· ... The rated duration of short circuit is generally 1 second and the circuit breaker should be able
to carry short-circuit current equal to its rated breaking-current for one second. During the short-
The r.m,s. values of a.c. components are ex d. )ime current test, the contacts should not get damaged or welded. The current carrying parts and
8 10 12 5 16 20 25 31 5 4-1\ presse m kA, the standard values being
' ' ,' ' ' ' ' · , ·v, 45, ()3, 80 and 100 kA. · 4.nsulation should not get deteriorated. Generally the cross-section of conductors based on normal
Th~ earlier practice was to express the rated hr k' , . . . current rating requirements is quite adequate for carrying the rated short-circuit current for the
MVA given as follows: ea mg capacity of a circuit breaker in terms of ··duration of 1 second,
3.18,8. Rated Operating Sequence (Duty Cycle)
MVA=-!3kVxkA
where MVA = Breaking capacity of a circuit-breaker •·•· · The operating sequence denotes the
kV= Rated voltage '\sequence of opening and closing opera-
Jions which the circuit-breaker can per-
kA = Rated breaking current. form under specified conditions. The
. This practice of specifying the breakin ca ac. . , , ' flperating mechanism experiences
mg the fault levels. However as per the rg . pd 1¥ m terms of MVA is convement while calculat- .severe mechanical stresses during the
kA for specified conditions or'TRV, and thi:v~:ths dandkard~ the breaking capacity_is expressed in
0
auto-reclosure duty. As per IEC, the cir- u
TRV, ta es mto account both breakmg current and ",cuit-breaker should be able to perform uc = Peak ofTRV wave
While selecting the circuit-breaker for a t' 1 . . the operating sequence as per one of the t 3 = time to reach uc in microseconds
at that location is determined. (Section II o~~~~cb ak~o;~10n m the pow.er system the fault level following two alternatives:
selected from the standard range, oo . e rated breakmg current can then be (i) 0-t-CO-T-CO
0 t-
3.18.6. Rated Short-circuit Making Current where, 0 = opening operation
, It may so happen that circuit-breaker ma close o . , . C = closing operation Fig. 3.31 (a) Representation ofTRV wave by two parameter method.
mcrease to the maximum value at the k { n an existmg fault. In such cases the current CO = closing followed by opening
t~ close without hesitation as contact/t:: ~ ¥~st c_urr~nt loop. The circuit-breaker should be able
high mechanical forces during such a closuie. Th e circmt-?~e.aker should be able to withstand the t = 3 minutes for circuit-breaker not to be used for rapid auto-reclosure
. · ese capab1hhes are proved by carrying out making t = 0.3 second for circuit-breaker to be used for rapid aut0-reclosure
T= 3 minutes
66
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION NTALS OF FAULT CLEARING k 67
(ii) CO-t'-CO
where t'-15 second for circuit-breaker not to be used for rapid auto-reclosure. where Ur = ra t e d voltage of circuit-breaker (highest system voltage), phase to phase r.m.s.
FONDAME V
3.18.9. Rated Tran1ient Recovery Voltage for Terminal Faults ui = first reference kV
The methods of specifying a TRV wave were briefly discussed in Sec. 3.18. As per new standards t = time to reach u1, µs
on circuit-breakers, the circuit-breakers should have rated TRV. The breaking current test is car- tz == time to reach llc, µs
ried out on circuit-breaker with specified TRV.
-·· u = peak value of TRV wave . ·t breakers
The standard parameters such as voltage co-ordinate time coordinates have been given in the c . fi
d in standards for various rated voltages of circm - .
standards. Based on these parameters the line segments can be drawn. The TRV wave can then
ti and t2t are 1speci ie . . b . lled First pole to ~lear factor (Ref. Sec. 3.10; Sec.
be drawn within the segments. Thus the circuit-breaker should be te~~r.d for. short-circuit-breaking Fae ors •3 or 1 ·5 in equat10n given a ove is ca
current test with TRV waveform above the standard waveform. IEO/qj6,2, J,,9,71 and IS 2516 Part 18.6)
I/sec. 3, 1972 recommended the following two alternative methods for speciil;f~ng standard TRV.
- Method of two parameters. l'tude factor= Uc (Ref. Sec. 3.10)
Am pi U1
- Method of four parameters.
3
3.18.10. Representation of a TRV waveform by four parameter method
[Ref. Fig. 3.31 (b)J -Natural frequency= 10
2t2 kHz (Ref. Sec. 3.10 )
In the systems rated above 100 kV or locations where the short-circuit currents are relatively • £ rm by two-parameter method
heavy compared to the maximum short circuit current in the system (Ref. Sec. 3.7.), the TRV wave 3 18 11. Representat10n of TRV wave o kV 1 t· ns where short-circuit current
• • V . t ted below 100 or oca 10 . 1
has initial period of high rate of rise followed by later period of low rate of rise. Such waveforms The wavaform of TR m sys ems ra . ·t t ·n the system can be approximate y rep-
can be represented by four parameter method. The four parameter are the following : is low compared with the maximum sh?rt-tci~mh c:r:e;,e}orm can be defined by method of two
u 1 = first reference voltage kV. resen t e d by a single frequency transien . uc .
t 1 = time to reach u 1 µ sec. parameters as follows: kV
Uc = peak of TRV wave,
uc = second reference voltage, Peak value ofTRV. kV
t 3 == time to reach peak, µs
t2 = time to reach uc, µ sec.
The standard values of Uc and t3 have
I
b given in IEC-56-2 and IS2615-I/3 for
u~(------ /
,,
een . ·t b
various rated voltage of circm - ~ea rnr.
l
From these values the segments of lme_ can
be plotted and the TRV waveform contam~d
U1 - - - - -=,+<;.c.___ _ _ _ _ _ _ -lC in these segments can be defined [Ref. Fig. TRVWAVE
3.31 (a)].
II
u
UC can be calculated as described in the
method of four parameters.
u
u 1 - first reference point of TRV wave The delay line. The initial rate of rise
t 1 - time to reach u 1 in microseconds of TRV wave contained within segments
Ile - peak of TRV drawn according to the method of two
0 t-
0 t2 - time to reach ue in microseconds Parameters and four parameters is defined
t_ The TRV wave should cross the dela~ line
the delay line. only once and should not recross 1t.
Fig. 3.31. (b) Representation ofTRV wave by four parameter method. (Ref. Fig. 3.8. (b). The portion of TRV Fig. 3.32 The Delay Line.
(Ref. Fig. 3.8 (b) A portion ofTRV shown therein is magnified here) therein is magnified here). . ted voltages From
. . 'fi d in the standards for vanous ra .
The values of four parameters µ1, t1, uc, tc have been specified in the standards for various The parameters u', t', an_d td are speci le The TRV waveform should cross the delay line only
values of rated voltages. Based on these values the segments can be plotted as shown in Fig. 3.31 these parameters, the delay ~me can ~e drawhnd the initial rate of rise of TRV wave is defined.
(b) and the student TRV wave can be drawn such that it is contained in the three segments. The once and should not recross it. By this met o t zero
parameters llc and 1t1 can be calculated from rated phase to phase r.m.s. voltage u as follows: Initial TRV. (ITRV) to TRV for one or t wo mic · roseconds after curren •
(a) For systems with non-effective earthing (Ref. Sec. 18.6) 1
Example of Rating of a 145 kV Circuit Breaker
1.5 X ✓2 Xu,.
Rated Voltage .................. 145 kV rms
Ul = ✓3
Rated Frequency ..................... 5 o Hz
(b) For systems with effective earthing (Ref. Sec. 18.6)
Rated Insulation Level
1.3 X ✓ 2 X Ur
Ul = ✓3 1 Min. Power Frequency W it . ht
s an d .......... .. 275 kVrms
- Impulse Withstand ........... 650 kVp
68
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION FUNDAMENTALS OF FAULT CLEARING 69
Rated Normal Current ............... 1600 Arms
3,18,13. Rated Quantities for Auxiliary Circuits and Operating Mechanisms for
Rated Short-Circuit Breaking Current ........ 25 kV opening and closing
Rated Operating Sequence ......... O-0.3 sec-CO-3 min-CO In addition to the specified ratings for the main circuit and poles, the performance of auxiliary
Rated Duration of Short Circuit ........ 1 sec supply circuits and operating mechanisms is also important. The auxiliary circuits which supply
Rated Short Circuit Making Current.. ........ 62.5 kA voltage to the trip-coil and closing coil should have certain minimum voltage. Below this limit the
p tripping mechanism and closing mechanism may not operate ~ven after getting a command. In c~se
Total Break Time (maximum) .......... 3 cycles. of AC auxiliary supply, the frequency should be between specified range to ensure correct operat10n
3.18.12. Rated Peak Withstand Current of.AC trip coils and AC electromagnetic operating mechanisms (if any).
The rated peak withstand current is the inst t 1 The following ratings are mentioned in IEC 56 (1987).
rent which the circuit-breaker in closed positio:~tneou~{a ~e (p~ak val.ue) of short-circuit cur-
breaker may be subJ. ected peak short . ·t capa e o wit standmg. The closed circuit- _ Rated supply voltage of closing and opening devices and auxiliary circuits.
. . -circm current during h t · ·t b
circmt-breaker. (Fig. 3.30 Ipk). The ad·acent h . every ~ or -circm eyond a _ Rated supply frequency of closing and opening devices and auxiliary circuits.
at the instant ofad'acent h J . p ases ~re subJected to maximum mechanical force
peak (Sec 17 18) fhes l
ases ar~ subJeclted to maximum mechanical force at the instant of this No load operation tests are carried out on a circuit-breaker (s) before carrying out main short-
In LV and RV
ci~cuit-b:e~Iccee:s :;t~n;:f:J ~Jtportional to the distance between adjacent poles. circuit duty tests and main short circuit duty tests.
relatively small and the forces durin e k age ot: 72.? kV, the phase _to phase clearances are These comprise 0, C, CO operations on no-load with
1
should be capable of withstanding the;e ~t;es:e~o~tit~:~~ ~:~i;;;t are high. The circuit-breaker - Closing of auxiliary energized at 105%, 100%, 85% of rated supply voltage of auxiliary clos-
As per IEC-56 the assigned value f t d I ·h ing devices.
circuit making current. It is expressea°i::e;m~eoaf cl- ~i~ sttandt current is equal to the rated short- - Shunt opening release (trip coil) energized at 110%, 100%, 85%, rated auxiliary supply volt-
u-1, ins an aneous.
For making current test the breaker is closed O • t' h · · age in the case of AC and 110%, 100% and 70%, in the case of DC supply voltage.
rent test the short-circui·t wi·th · n ex~s mg s ort-circmt. For peak withstand cur- 3.18.14. Rated Pressure of supply for pneumatic and hydraulic operating devices
maximum asymmetry m one h · 1· d
Peak withstand current test is combined with th h. t t· p ase is app ie to a closed breaker. Air-blast circuit-breaker and some single pressure SF6 circuit breakers use pneumatic operat-
e s or - ime current test (Sec. 11.6).
TABLE 3.3 ing mechanisms. Some SF6 circuit-breakers use hydraulic operating mechanisms. The minimum
Preferred Ratings of High Voltage circuit-breakers Selection Chart rated maximum pressures of air pressure and hydraulic pressure are specified.
Rated Voltage kV, (L. V.) (H.V.)
The no-load tests short circuit test duties with rated operating sequency (0-0.3S-CO-3m-CO)
rms 0.460 3.6 7.2 12 36 72.5 are performed with certain conditions of these pressures.
145 245 420
1 Minute p.f. The pressure switches are fitted in the auxiliary-systems of the operating mechanism.
21 27 32 75
withstand kV rms 140 230/275 395/460 680 3.18.15. Rated Pressure of Interrupting Medium and Insulating medium (If applicable)
Impulse Fir Air-blast circuit-breakers and SF6 circuit-breakers these quantities are specified along with
45 60 75 170
withstand kV peak 325 550 900 1425 lowest, normal and highest permissible value. The type tests are performed as per rules. The set-
650 1050 tings oflimit switches are also decided accordingly.
Rated normal 400-4(' 0
current A rms Satisfactory performance of circuit-breakers during various type tests and during switching
operation in service is with reference to minimum and maximum pressure of insulating medium
Rated S.C. 8-60 8-40 8-40 in the breaker pole unit.
breaking current 8-40 20-31.5 20-31.5 25-40 25-50 25-60
kArms The dielectric type tests and short-circuit type tests are performed on new circuit-breaker filled
with specified normal pressure of interrupting medium and insulating medium. Breaker should be
Rated S.C.
making current
* * * * * * * * .,.
leakage free.
kA, peak During service, the pressure switchfls sound an alarm for lower pressure or upper pressure. In
case pressure drops below safe limits, pressure which sends tripping command or locking command.
Rated duration of 3 sec 1/3 1/3
S.C. sec 1 1 1 1 3.18.16. Summary of Rated Characteristics of HV (a.c.) Circuit-breakers
1 1
(A) Rated Characteristics to be specified for every circuit breaker.
Rated operating (0 3m co 3m CO)
sequence (CO-15 Sec-CO)
(0-0.3 Sec-CO-Sm-CO) Every high voltage a.c. circuit-breaker should have the following rated characteristics : (Ref. :
Table 3.3). These are assigned for every circuit breaker supplied by manufacturer. The type test
Reference standards . certificates are furnished for confirming these rated characteristics.
(1) IS 2516, IEC-56 for Ratings and Testing of High V It (1) Rated Voltage
( " . o age a.c. current breakers.
2) IEC 60, IEC 71 for High Voltage Testing and Insulation Co-ordination. (2) Rated Insulation Level
(3) ICE 157 for Low Voltage Switchgear and Controlgear. (3) Rated Normal Current
(4) Total breaking time varies between 80-120 ms for circuit b (4) Rated Frequency
breake:lrs above 36 kV. It is less than 60 ms for 1451 V I reakhers up to 12 kV and 40-80 ms for circuit
c , ess t an 50 for 420 kV circuit breakers. (5) Rated duration of short-circuit or Rated short-time current
70
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIQ ]l\J;!NDAMENTALS OF FAULT CLEARING 71
(6) Rated short-circuit breaking current
:J<,,The power frequency recovery voltage is 20 times rated voltage for earth neutral systems. The
(7) Rated short-circuit making current
1R~is specified in the s~an~ards.The rated out-of breaking curr~nt is 0.25 ti~es ra~ed short-circuit
(8) Rated peak withstand current
breaking current. Th~ circu~t breaker should be capable of openmg and closmg._ It 1_s assumed that
(9) Rated TRV for terminal fault there is no fault on either sides of the breaker. Ref. Sec. 11.11 out-of-phase sw1tchmg test.
(10) Rated Operating Sequence
· 3.18.18. Rated Cable-charging breaking current
(11) Rated supply voltage for closin and o . . .. . ,~\,,.Ref. Sec. 3.14.2 switching of unloaded cables. The circuit breakers to be used for high voltage
( 12) R a t e d pressure of compress d g (Ai penmg devices and auxiliary circuits. :iible switching should be capable of breaking cable charging current. Such circuit breakers are
(13) R d e gas r or SF6) for interruption (if applicable) Js.signed the rated cable-charging breaking current. The rated cable-charging breaking current is
ate pressure of compressed g .1fi .
(if applicable) as or o1 or pneumatic or hydraulic operating mechanis ~he maximum cable-charging current that the circuit breaker shall be capable of breaking at its
}Jt~d voltage. It is expressed in Amperes. Table 3.4 gives the standard values of rated cable-charg-
(B) Additional Rated Characteristics to be s .f. d . .
. . peci 1e 1n certain cases. Jng breaking current.
In add1t10n to (A) above follo · t d . . TABLE 3.4
(14) Rated characteri:tic fo:~~::l;necharactenstics are assi~ned in following specific case~
and above. faults for CBs controllmg overhead lines rated 52 k Rated Voltage of CB (kV) 3.6 7.2 12 36 72.5 145 245 420
r.m.s., ph. to ph.
(15) Rated line charging current for CB . · 1
(C) Rated characterictics to b . s controlling overhead lines rated 72.5 kV and abov ·. · 'Rated Cable Charging 10 10 25 50 125 160 250 400
. . e given on request by user or consultant ' 'breaking current (A r.m.s.)
For special switching duties like ca acit . . . .
current switching etc. The circuit-break . or s;.1tch1~g, reactor sw1tchmg, DC switches, inductiv Ref. Sec. 11-13 cable-charging current test.
CB behaves differently e.g. MOCB . er Is su ~e~te to _unusual and severe stress. Each type 3.18.19. Rated Single Capacitor bank breaking current
. is prone to restrict durmg ca ·t ·t h'
for mterruption oflow inductive curr t VCB . pac1 or sw1 c mg. SF6 is very go Ref. Sec. 3.14.1. Switching of capacitor banks is a severe duty on circuit breaker. The circuit-
severity of each special duty is diffi en:- d is excellent for capacitor current switching etc. Th 1:Jreaker to be used for opening capacitor banks should have adequate rating for breaking capacitor
of circuit-breakers for following spe:[~nd ~~ e~ch type of CB behaves differently. The suitabilit current without giving restrikes. Single capacitor banks does not have a parallel capacitor bank.
before ordering. . a u ies s ould be varified by the user and the manufacture IIence there is no question of high frequency inrush current. The rated single capacitor bank break-
The following rated characteristics are to b . ing current is the maximum capacitor current that the circuit breaker is capable of breaking at its
ticular intended application. e furmshed on special request from user for par rated voltage.
This breaking current refer to the switching of a single shunt capacitor bank and with no other
(16) Rated out-of-phase breaking current
shunt capacitors, connected on source side of the circuit-breaker. Ref. Sec. 11.12 for single capacitor
(17) Rated cable-charging breaking current current breaking tests. The assigned current is given on the basis of type tests. Single capacitor
(18) Rated single capacitor bank b k' bank tests may be made in the laboratory or on actual side. The breaker should be restrike-free.
. . rea mg current
(19) Permissible switching overvoltages 3.18.20. Permissible Maximum Switching Over-Voltages When Interrupting Line-
(20) Rated capacitor bank inrush overvoltages Charging, Cable-Charging and Single Capacitor bank Breaking Current.
(21) Rated small inductive breaking current As per IEC 56, the maximum switching over voltages occurring during interrupting capacitive
(22) Rated time quantities currents have been specified as given in Table 3.5.
(23) Repeated operating duty Switching overvoltage is defined in terms of instantaneous peak value of the transient recovery
-Voltage. It is also defined in terms of power unit value with rated phase to ground voltage as the
The user requests the manufacturer for th . . base.
mutually selected for particular application Nece spec1fi~ as~1gned (16 to 23) and the ratings are
stresses in actual installation with1' . .d ~ssary circuit arrangements are made to limit the 3.18.21. Rated Capacitor Bank Inrush Making Current
n ass1gne ratmg Th' 1· t h . . .
an d a 1so all the associated CTs VTs S Ar . is app Ies o t e circuit-breaker in question, When capacitor bank is to be connected in parallel with another capacitor bank, inrush high
occur in the weakest spot inter~al or e~~ge 1r~sters, busbars etc. failure in an installation can frequency inrush current flow through the breaker contact at the time of contact touch. These in-
ticular investigations are ~ssential fior her.na . lln c.ase of special switching duties ( 16 to 23) par- rush currents produce severe stresses on ci,rcuit-breakers. Various breakers behave differently with
't b k eac msta at10n b fi · · such stresses. The breakers to be used for paralleling capacitor bank should have adequate rated
cu1 rea ers and associated equipments in th . t 11 : ore arnvmg a required rating of the cir- capacitor bank inrush making current. The rated capacitor bank inrush making current is the peak
e ms a ahon
3.18.17. Rated out-of-phase breaki· g . value of the current that the circuit-breaker is capable of making at its rated voltage and with
n current given frequency of inrush current.
Refer Sec. 3.17. Phase opposition switchin th . .
be capable of opening under nonsynch g e. circuit breaker used for synchronising should - In service the frequency of the inrush current is normally in the range 2 to 5 kHz.
b. k . . ronous condition Th - The circuit-breaker is considered to be suitable for any frequency of the inrush current lower
_1 ea . er pole is higher than normal short circuit d t' . e recovery vo 1tage across the circuit-
circuit breaker to be used for synchronisin Th ~ jes. The out-of-phase current is assigned to a than that for which it has been tested.
shall be capable of breaking under th g. 'be ra e o1;1~-of-phase current that the circuit-breaker 3.18.22. Rated Small Inductive breaking current
•
an d t ransient recovery voltage.
e prescn ed cond1t10n Of
s
f
power requency recovery voltage Ref. Sec. 3.12. The requirements of switching low inductive currents. The testing requirements
are covered in Sec. 11.13. The rated low inductive breaking current has not been covered in IEC
F'PNDAMENTALS OF FAULT CLEARING
d in under consideration. However for particular application such as motor switching no load Table 3.5
~:nsformer switching the manufacturer gives result of low inductive current tests. The switching ded values o f M ax1mum
· Permissible Swithching Overvoltage for Interruption of
over voltages due to current chopping if any should be lesser than the permissible values (Ref. Table c. Recommen Capacitive Currents by CB
3.5)
A present permissible switching over voltage specified for switching capacitive currents. The Rated Lightning Maximum permissible switching For cable charging capacitor bank
same over voltages limits may be consider for switching low inductive currents. The standards give Impulse overvoltage, phase to earth For and back to back capacitor bank
withstand line charging breaking current breaking current
the specifications. Apart from the inductive load, the supply cable; surge capacitive, surge arresters, voltage
surge absorbers connected to breaker terminals limit the over voltages and the tests on particle
installations are carried out with such devices, in the circuit, Switching Switching
Let Un = Rated voltage of CB, phase-to-phase kV, r.m.s., r.m.s. value of phase to phase rated Peak value overvoltage Peak value overvoltage
voltage of the CB factor factor
kV(peak) kV(peak) K (p.u.) (p.u.)
U' = r.m.s. value of phase to earth rated voltage = ✓um kV(rms)
U' m
3
= Peak value of rated phase to earth voltage ='12 U'
3.6 20
40
8.8
13.2
3
4.5
7.3
7.3
2.5
2.5
3.6
Any voltage above U'm is called switching over voltage U. 7.2 40 17.6 3 14.7 2.5
Switching overvoltage factor K = U/U'm· 7.2 60 26.4 4.5 14.7 2.5
where U = Instantaneous value of overvoltage 12 60 29.5 3 24.5 2.5
12 75 39.5 4 24.5 2.5
U'm = Peak value of rated phase to ground Voltage= {2 U'
36 145 88 3 73 2.5
IEC 56-1987 gives the table which gives permissible values of switching overvoltage factor for 170 112 3.8 73 2.5
capacitive current breaking. While testing the circuit-breaker for line charging, cable charging,
single capacitor bank breaking current tests, the switching over voltage should be within specified 72.5 325 207 3.5 148 2.5
limits. 145 550 356 3 297 2.5
11
145 650 415 3.5 297 2.5

3.19. REIGNITION AND RESTRIKE 245 850 540 2.7 400 2
Recall the definition described in the last part of Sec. 3.6; Reignition is the reappearing of arc 245 950 600 3 400 2
after arc extinction within one-fourth of a cycle from final current zero. Reignition may occur by 245 1050 600 3 400 2
chance if the moving-contact travel was too small after arc extinction current zero. The contact gap 420 1300 790 2.3 688 2
breaks down and arc reignites without overvoltage. The arc gets quenched at the very next current 420 1425 895 2.6 688 2
zero by which time moving-contact should have moved sufficiently away from the fixed-contact to
765 1800 1125 1.8 1125 1.8
withstand the TRV. The reignition itself is not harmful as it does not give any overvoltage beyond
permissible limit. 765 2100 1250 2 1250 2
Restrike is defined as the reappearance of arc after one-fourth cycle from the arc extinction · · 1u d e.· the rated
· b reak er me normal breaking
current, rated voltage,
current zero. The phenomenon is explained in sec. 3.14.1. In Capacitor current Breaking, a single The rated characteristics of c~rcmt- hart-circuit current, rated
restrike gives an overvoltage of about 4 p.u. and a second restrike gives an overvoltage of about 6 rated insulation level, rated transie~t recovery voltai~ rs:t;~t~ngs are assigned to a circuit-breaker
circuit making current, rated operatmg sequence e le. e lt . .t breaker)
p.u. resulting in internal and external flashovers, phase to phase as well as phase to ground. after conducting the type tests. (Ref. Sec. 15.7 for ow vo age circm - ·
Restrikes were possible with MOCBs and OCBs used for Capacitor Switching. For Capacitor switch-
ing, cable switching, switching of unloaded transmission lines, the res trike-free SF and Vacuum Cir- QUESTIONS
cuit Breakers are not preferred.
I. Define and discuss the following ratings of a.c. circm
· ·t-brealrnrs ·•- rated short-circuit breaker current,
Summary rated short circuit making current.
The sudden short-circuit in an a.c. system causes a rise in current in the short-circuited phases. 2. Discuss the following : - two parameter method of defining TRV waveform
The current increases to several times the normal current, during the first quarter cycle. Thereafter _ four parameter method of defining TRV waveform .
the amplitude of the waveform reduces successively, while passing through the sub-transient, 3. Explain the fault clearing process by 11lustratmg
· · t h e osc1·11ograph of short-circuit current and transient
trasient, and steady state. The waveform is asymmetrical about the normal zero axis. The value recovery voltage. • d t d t t
of current at the peak of the first major or current loop is called making current. The r.m.s. value 4. Explain the variation of short-circuit current through sub-transient, transient an s e_a Y s fa ~: ·t
at the intant of contact separation is called breaking current. 5. Explain the phenomena of transient recovery voIt age an d 1·ts influence on the behav10ur o cncm -
The voltage appearing across the circuit-breaker pole after final current zero is called recovery breaker performance. • · b k Th
voltage. The recovery voltage containing the high frequency component is called Trasient Recovery I' t O I' It of 13 5 kV is connected to a Cll'CUlt- rea er. uptoe
6. A three phase alternator ofrat~d I~e me v_o age · h The distributed capacitance
Voltage (TRV). TRV tries to restrike the arc. The ability of the circuit-breaker to clear the short- 1 4
inductive reactance ur to the cucmt-breakelr . s °hµFmri:::m::the following neglecting First Pole
circuit depends upon the rate of rise of dielectric strength of the gap, which should be more than the circuit-breaker between phase to neutra 1s 0.2 • e .
the rate of rise of TRV. to clear factor.
75
ARC-EXTINCTION .
THE. 1 The conductivity of plasma depends upon number of ions per unit volume. Plasma is con-
arbc es. .
.p. . d' m for electric current. . d' 1 t ·
ducting me m . d d' 1 tric medium. Even dissociated gas is a ie ec r1c.
The non-ionized gas is generally~ goo dl~ ec I . ·t-breakers the contact space is ionized
e ionized gas is a conductmg me mm. n circm
f{owever th
l> the following causes:
y . . t'
'; (l) Thermal 10mza 10n o gas.
f .
(Z) Ionization by collision of particles.
(3) Thermal emission from surface of contacts.
(4) Secondary emission from surface of contacts.
The Arc-Extinction (5) Field emission from the surface of contacts.
Introduction-Matter and Plasma-Ionization-Deionization-Elect.ric Arc-Arc Formation in
Circuit-Breaker-Modes of Arc Extinction-Zero Point Extinction-Electronegative Gases-Vacuum
Arc-Arc Interruption Theories-Slepian's Theory-Cassie's Energy Balance Theory-Summary. 4,3. IONIZATION OF GASES th molecules of gas are in a state of constant
(a) Thermal Ionization. A~ normal t~IT,lpe~~t~:~:ou: directions. A molecule at velocity V and
agitation and they ~ov~ at vanous velocities; m y2 At temperature about 3000oC the mole?ules
4.1. INTRODUCTION ,
The electric arc is a type of a electric discharge between electrodes. In circuit-breakers, the ar
mass m possesses kmetic energy equal to !/
Th' process is known as dissociation. At h1g_her
break up in simpler forms and furth~r t? a ofti;_ese 1:toms is vehement and their impact agamst
persists during the brief period after separation of current carrying contacts. The circuit-breake temperatures (about 6~00~C) ~hebag1tatt10nl o 11' . n This type of ionization brought about by heat
should be capable of extinguishing the arc without getting damaged. The arc plays an importan <each other can pr~du?e i~mzahon y mu ua co 1s10 .
role in the behaviour of the circuit breaker. The interruption of d.c. arcs is relatively more difficul is called thermal rnmzahon. . . r molecule) at a higher velocity (produced
than a.c. arcs. In a.c. arcs, as the current becomes zero duril}.g the regular wave, the arc vanishe (b) Ionization by Collision. A parh~le (elrtro~, i;
1 0
rgy of the moving particle is imparted
and it is prevented from restriking. In this chapter we shall ~tudy technical aspects regarding the ,by electric field) ma~ strike another particl\ ~ e;.e 1ydge\~:\1ectrons from atoms. Such ionization
arc and the techniques employed for arc extinction. to the other one. This ene~~ may be enoug o is o
The arc extinction duty, though not frequent, produces highest stresses on the circuit-breaker. called ionization by colhs10n.
The techniques adopted for the arc extinction can be classified into the following three categories:
- High resistance interruption. The resistance of the current path is increased rapidly
resulting in the increased voltage drop. The arc gets extinguished when the system voltage
can no longer maintain the arc, due to high value of the voltage drop. This principle is used
in d.c. circuit-breakers and air-break type a.c. circuit breakers of relatively low capacities (b)
0:
.
•
POTS OF
CONTACT
(a)
DD
of the order of a few hundred MVA. The energy stored is system inductance is gradually
dissipated in the arc.
Current zero interruption. The arc is interrupted at natural current zero of the alter-
nating current wave and the dielectric strength of the contact-gap is increased to such an I I
ARC CORI: I I
extent that it can withstand the voltage stress across it. I I
I I
- Artificial current zero interruption. This is used for breaking DC currents in HVDC
systems. I
V I
4.2. THE MATTERAND·PLASMA
In the physical world, the matter manifests itself in various states known as solid, liquid and
J_\
gaseous states. Each substance consists of molecules formed of atoms with their nucleus and or-
IONIZED 6.4S -jM 1--
biting electrons. Normally the molecules and atoms are electrically neutral, i.e., the positive and (d)
(c)
negative charges are equal. However, the matter can be ionized. The ionized matter consists of
charged particles such as ions and electrons. Consider the gas in a container, the temperature being (a) Contacts pressed at high pressure in closed position t t d a "ew spots of high current
d Current concen ra e on 1 '
gradually increased. Initially the molecules experience a motion in all sorts of directions. At higher (b) Pressure reduced. Hence contact area re duce •
temperatures the velocity of the particles increases and they collide against particles coming in density. . . . d as and hot column of gas. (See Front
their way. At temperatures of the order of 3000° K the molecules break up into simpler forms such (c) Contacts separated, arc down, arc 1s surrounded by iomze g
as simpler molecules and atoms. This process is called dissociation. If the temperature is further Cover - The Arc).
increased (to about 6000° K) the internal forces which hold the electrons to the atoms are affected (d) The voltage gradient= VI t:J
and the electrons manage to escape. The atom becomes truly charged and the electrons may attach If V = 1 kV, t:J, = 1. mm, Gradient= 1000 V/mm . .
a neutral atom or may remain free. The matter is thus ionized. Further increase in temperature Fig. 4.1 Electron em1ss10n.
enhances the process of ionization and Plasma state is reached. The plasma consists of charged
77
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTEC'l'ION . 1!HEARC-EXTINCTION
76
(c) Thermal Emission from Surface of Contacts. In closed position, the contacts are pressed
against each other at a high pressure causing plastic and elastic deformation. As the contacts start
separating, the pressure between contacts reduces first. Thereby the true area of contact is reduced
,
creases
ter and thereby the current density in-
dil:ll11e resulting in higher temperature. The
. h
. .· t density of arc core IS several t · ousan
d 1 9000°c ---
1
I
,curren 2 • d d I
to area of a few spots on the surface. The current crosses the contact surface at the spots producing ··.••iml eres per cm . The central core IS surroun e I
I
f}'p column of hot gases at a temperature of
high current densities. Therefore, spots of high local temperature are produced on the surface of
contacts. Next the arc has high temperature as the energy is dissipated in the form of heat. BY VJ 0
~t 1000° K down to a low temperature.
I
I
I
I
virtue of these causes thermal emission takes place at contact surface. (Fig 4.1) "'(c. The volt-ampere characteristics of a I
~teady are is given by an equation, ---1----
(d) Secondary Emission at Contact Surface. The electrons move rapidly under the influence
of strong electric field between the c:ontacts and strike the surface of the other contact. Thereby
they produce emission from contact surface by collision.
(e) Field Emission at Contact Surface. If the voltage gradient at the surface of the contact
is high (even more than 1000 V/cm) the electrons can be dislodged from the surface of the electrode.
where
Yarc =A+ Ed+
C+Dd
d = length of arc
.
iarc
Varc = voltage across arc

... (4.1)
1
I
-
DISTANCE
FROM CENTRE LINE
OF CORE
As the contacts separate, the distance between them being too small, initially, high potential ;•arc = current in arc
gradient (kV/cm) appears near the contact surfaces. The gradient can be more than 106 V/cm. and :A·. B C B = constants.
is enough to breakdown the gas. The ionization produced by electric field is called field emission f ; '
[Fig. 4.1 (d)J. A+~

iarc
(f) Photoemission. The electron emission from contact surface caused by incidence of light
energy is called photoemission. in arc cathode pt: :n.~ejv;ltages
~ iarc
4.4. DEIONIZATION
}is the component of voltage across the length
Deionization can take place by the processes of recombination or attachment as well as by tofthe arc. For lengthy arcs this component
process of diffusion and drift. These have been discussed here very briefly. *Should be considered and for small length arc
(a) Recombination. If a gas containing positive ions and electrons there is a tendency for these this component should be neglected. Hence Fig. 4.2. Temperature zones in the arc.
to come together and combine to form a neutral atom. This phenomenon is termed as recombination. >~q. (4.1) reduces to
Recombination takes place directly in gas, and is important in the process of arc extinction. As the C
Yarc=A+-.- ... (4.2)
ions penetrate from the heavily ionized space near the arc to the walls of the container, electrons iarc
reach the walls first as they are light. As the walls are of insulating materials electrons cannot
escape and the inner side of container, is negatively charged. Thereafter the wall inner surface small legnth arc.
The voltage across arc reduces as the current in-
t
repels electrons and attracts positive ions. Thereby the combination takes place between positive
ions and negative charges. :creases as shown in Fig. 4.3. ~
(b) Diffusion. The electrons from highly ionized space diffuse to the surrounding weakly The energy dissipated in the steady arc is the form
ionized space. This is an important process in building up of dielectric strength. is given by
N.• u • v ~ v
E arc= V arc I arc t f1,3)

(c) Conduction of Heat. Conduction of heat brings down the temperature and assists recom-
bination. The particles of higher temperature travel to the space at lower temperature. In this way where Earc = Energy in joules
-tore
kinetic energy is removed from the ionized space between the contacts. Yarc = Voltages in volts
Fig. 4.3 Static characteristic of arc.
In circuit-breakers the deionization is an important process because it assists arc extinction. iarc = arc current in Amps.
t == Duration of arc in sec.
4.5. ELECTRIC ARC
The time t is of the order of 0.02 sec. in a.c. circuit-breakers.
The electric arc is a self-sustained discharge of electricity between electrodes in gas or vapour,
The energy in the system is given by
which has a voltage drop at cathode of the order of minimum or minimum exciting potential of gas
or vapour. E8 = l/2Lf .....joules .... (4.4)
When D.C. voltage applied to electrodes places at a small clearance, say a few centimeters, is ·•· .· . In AC system instantaneous ~urr~nt i is zero during the en.cl of every half cycle. At this instants
gradually increased a flow of current takes place through gas. This phenomenon is called discharge . the energy in the system is also zero. Arc can be interrupted at such natural current zeros. The
in gas. The volt-ampere characteristic has several distinct zones classified as glow discharge, towns- arc quenching is related with system energ.t arc energy.
end discharge and arc discharge. During arc discharge the voltage across the electrode is low and
current is high. The current is limited by external impedance. The voltage across arc decrease as
4.6. ARC FORMATION IN A.C. CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
the current increases. The arc is self-sustained discharge.
The arc has a brightly burning core of high temperature ranging from 6000° to 25,000°K. If As discussed earlier, the separation of contacts leads to high local temperatures on the cont~ct
the arc is cooled the temperature increases. This is rather perplexing. The cooling reduces its surface. The electrons are emitted from contact surface by thermal secondary field and photoem1s-
78 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION THE ARC-EXTINCTION 79
sion. The gases between contact space are (b) Splitting of Arc (Refer Fig. 4.7)
ionized by thermal ionization by collision. The The arc is elongated and split by arc splitters. These are specially made plates of resin bonded
space between the contact is in the state of plas- fibre glass. These are placed in the path perpendicular to the arc and the arc in pulled into them
ma and therefore, is conducting. Thereby, arc
discharge takes place between the contacts as 1
b electromagnetic force experienced by the arc b;Y means ?fmagnetic field applied in proper direc-
tion so as to pull the arc upwards. When the arc 1s pulled m space between the plates, it gets elon-
the current carrying contacts separate. !{~ted constrained split and cooled. B~ virtue of th~se eff~cts _the arc_ gets e:-tinguished. Fig. 4.7
Fig. 4.4 illustrates the characteristics of a.c. illustrates the arrangement of magnetic blow out cmls extmgmshed Fig. 4.7 illustrates the arran-
arc current and voltage with respect to time. f¢ment of magnetic-blow out coils employed in air magnetic circuit-breakers.
The voltage across the arc is in phase with the
arc current as arc current is predominantly
resistive. The voltage across the arc reverse
with the current. At current zero, the voltage
across the contact reverses. 1. Arc runners (metallic)
2. Arc splitters
3, Elongated arc
4.7. MODES AT ARC EXTINCTION 4. Arc in process of travelling
Two mcdes of arc interruption can be iden- 5. Blow-out coils (metallic)
Fig. 4.4 Waveform of a.c. arc: Current 6, Origin of Arc
tified: and voltage Vs time.
(1) High resistance interruption.
(2) Low resistance or zero point-interruption.
(3) Artificial current zero principle (Ch. 16) Fig. 4.6. Details of blow-out coil (See Fig. 4.7)
4.7.1. High Resistance Interruption, Blow-Out coils ,, .. (c) Cooling of Arc. Cooling of the arc
The high resistance interruption is obtained by increasing the resistance of the arc. hRings about recombination of ionized par-
ticles. Cooling removes the head from the
Yarc
rarc=-.- ~re. Cooling is brought by bringing the arc
iarc JS contact with cooler air.
Assuming iarc to be constant the resistance of the arc can be increased by increasing volta 4.7.2. Low Resistance of Zero
of the Varc· From Eq. (4.1), i.e. Point Extinction
C+Dd This method is employed in a.c. arc in-
Varc =A+ Ed+-:--.- -
iarc terrnption. Actually the alternating current
where d is the length of the arc, we understand that the arc voltage hence the arc resistance ca passes through zero 100 times per seconds
be increased by increasing length of the arc. i~ 50 cycles current wave. At every current
.ie.ro the arc vanishes for a brief moment.
In high resistance interruption method the length of the arc is increased so as to increase the, · Ho\vever, the arc appears again with the
voltage across the arc.
rising current wave. In a.c. circuit-breakers
The voltage of the arc is increased till it more than the system voltage across the contacts. A
this point the arc gets extinguished. the arc is interrupted at a current zero. At
The method is used in low and medium voltage a.c. and d.c. circuit breakers (Refer Sec. 5.2). s:urrent zero, the space between contacts is
The arc resistance is increased by the following methods : d.eionized quickly by introducing fresh
1,1pionized medium such as oil or fresh air, or
(a) Lengthening the arc by
means of arc runners (Refer Fig. t Sf0 gas, between the contacts. The dielectric
strength of the contact space increases to
4.5 and also Ref. Sec. 5.2)
...,--- __
2 .__ ....
S\lch an extent that the arc does not continue
Arc runners are horn-like blades
of conducting material, which are
.,. --- 1. Initial position of arc
2. Final position of arc. after current zero. A high voltage may ap-
3. Arc runners );lear across the contacts. The voltage may re-
connected to arcing contacts with FORCE (in vertical plane) e$Jablished the arc if the die.lectric strength
their tips radiating upwards in 'V 4. Field (in horizontal plane)
shape. The arc originates at the bot-
F!EL of gap is less than the res triking voltage. In
5. Force due to electrodynamic
th.l'lt case the arc continues for another half
tom and blows upwards by forces (in vertical plane)
FIELD cycle and may get extinguished at next cur-
electromagnetic force. The tips of the rent zero.
arc more upwards along arc runners - 1
or arc horns rapidly. The length of y .In various types of circuit-breaker Fig. 4.7 The configuration of magnetic blow-out coils.
the arc increases and the arc is extin- Fig. 4.5 Function of the arc runners. designs, the provision is made to remove
guished. the hot gases from the contact space immediately after the arc s0 as to fill the contact space by
fresh dielectric medium of high dielectric strength.
TI-IE ARC-EXTINCTION 81
(b) Energy Balance Theory. Cassie made the following assumptions in his Energy Balance
The arc extinction process can, therefore be considered to have three phases Theory:
- Arcing phase, - current zero, -. post arc phase. (1) Arc consists of a cylindrical column at a substantially uniform temperature over its cross-
The arcing phase is governed by temperature stresses due to the arc. Every attempt is made section with well defined boundary. There is a uniform distribution of energy in this column i.e.,
volume energy density is constant for the complete column of the arc.
in the interrupter design to remove the heat of arc quickly by radial and axial flow of gases. The
experimentation has shown that the power arc cannot be broken abruptly. However, the arc (2) The temperature remains constant.
diameter can be reduced to a low value by the flow of a gases over the arc. The arc diameter reduces (3) The cross-section of arc adjusts itself to accommodate the arc current.
during a portion of the a.c. wave approaching current zero. At current zero, the arc diameter reduces (4) Power dissipation is proportional to arc cross-sectional area of arc column. Cassie expressed
to a very low value and arc gets extinguished. But the contact space contains hot gases. These are the energy equation as
removed by fresh dielectric medium having high dielectric strength. Hence the interrupter design dQ =El-N ... (4.3)
attempts a removing the heat from the arc during the arcing period and flushing the contact space dt
with fresh dielectric medium during the post-arc period. where Q = energy content/cm of arc length
The abilities of various media used for arc-interruption are generally different. As the variou E = volts/cm
media used for arc extinction have different densities, thermal conductivities, dielectric strength I = total current
arc-time constants, etc. the designs of interrupters using different media have distinct differences N = total power loss/cm.
Breakdown occurs if power feed in the arc is more than power loss. The theory is approximately
4.8. ARC INTERRUPTION TlIEORIES true for high currents. Mayer's theory is similar to Classie's theory but with different assumptions.
This theory does not cover post-arc phase, hence it is incomplete.
Several theories have been postulated to explain the arc interruption but they are not perfe Summarising the arc extinction can be obtained at current zero by building up dielectric
However some theories have helped in the development of circuit-breaker. The first theory w strength of arc rapidly and by dissipating the energy fed into the arc.
that ofSlepian of U.S.A., postulated in 1928-30. Later in 1931, Prince (also from U.S.A.) postula Both the theories mentioned above give certain understanding of the arc extinction phenomenon.
displacement theory. Cassies of U.K. put forward another theory in 1938. Mayer of Germany p The arc extinction process in circuit-breaker is influenced by several aspects such as
forward another theory similar to Classie's theory. Some of these theories have been brie - Speed of contact.
reviewed. - Material of contact
(a) Slepian's Theory. Splepian described the arc extinction process as the race betwee - The pattern of flow of quenching medium.
dielectric strength and restriking voltage. After current zero, there exists a residual column - Magnitude of arc current and variation of arc diameter.
ionized gas. If the dielectric strength builds up rapidly so that it is always greater than the restri - Energy liberated during arcing, energy in system inductance.
ing voltage, the arc does not restrike. If dielectric strength is less, the arc restrikes. Referring - Rate of rise of transient recovery voltage.
Fig. 4.8 the three curves are the following:
- Rate of gain of dielectric strength.
- dielectric strength against time curves (a) and (c)
- Instant of contact separation with respect to voltage, current.
- restriking voltage against time, curve (b) (TRV)
As the governing parameters arc very much diverse in character, the arc extinction process
According to the theory, if becomes too complex for analysis. The arc-extinction process can be considered in three different
the dielectric strength of con- zones:
tact gap is more than the - arcing zone. - curre.nt zero zone. - post arc zone.
restriking voltage as shown by ~ (OJ DIELECTRIC STRENGTH
During the arcing zone, the thermal stresses produced by the arc are predominant. In every
curve (a) above (b) the arc gets circuit-breaker, an attempt is made to reduce the arc diameter by using various techniques.
extinguished. But if the dielectric
strength builds as in curve c, the ,, I
The current zero zone provides transition.
During post arc zone, the voltage stresses become predominant. In every circuit-breaker, and
arc restrikes. /' (bJ R'ESTRIKING 1/0LTAGE
kV a.ttempt is made to introduce fresh dielectric medium between contact space after final current zero,
The theory assumes that ,,,,'- is that the dielectric strength is rapidly regained.
the res triking voltage and build I
I
up of dielectric strength are 1 /'""\ ______ (C) DIELECTRIC STRENGTH 4.9. ARC EXTINCTION IN OIL
/ ; ··--
comparable quantities. The as-
,' ' ,,,,/ The arc decomposes the dielectric oil. The gases formed due to the decomposition of the oil cause
sumption is not quite correct. I .,, increase in pressure within the chamber fitted in the interrupter. The flow of gases is channelised
I ,,,:,,,.
These two entities are not iden- ........... through the vents in the chamber. The arc gets extended into the vents and is cooled by the flowing
tical. Secondly this theory does gases. The gases contain about 70% of hydrogen which has good dielectric strength. After the arc
not consider the energy rela- TIME- extinction the contact space is filled with fresh dielectric oil. In some circuit-breakers a piston at-
tions in the arc extinction. This Fig. 4.8 Growth of dielectric strength and transient recovery voltage. tached to the moving contact causes the oil flow in the contact space assuring a rapid gain of
theory does not cover the arcing dielectric strength. In some other designs, the interrupter is pressurised by nitrogen gas. The pres-
phase, hence it is incomplete. Slepian was the first to point out that the restriking voltage pla sure on the oil ensures the flushing of contact space with fresh dielectric_ oil after final arc inter-
an important role in arc extinction. ruption. The amount of gas formed during the arcing is proportional to the arc current. Such
circuit-breakers are called 'Internal energy type circuit-breakers' (Refer Ch. 8 for detail analysis).
4.10. ARC EXTINCTION {N VACUUM
When the contact of vacuum interrupter are separated the arc is drawn between them. Th
current leaves the electrodes from .small, intensely hot spot (or spots). The metal vaporizes fro~
t~e spots. The vapour stre1:m .constit?te~ the plas.I?a in vacuum arc. The vapour formed is propor-
t10nal to rate of vapour e!mss10n, which is proportional to the current in arc. Therefore, at current
z~ro th~ plasma may vamsh. Therefore the arc ~s interrupted at current zero. The vacuum has high
dielectnc strength, hence the arc may not restnke. The contact material shape are very important
Arc time constant of vacuum is lowest. 1 •
4.11. ARC EXTINCTION IN AIR-BLAST

Circuit..Breaker
In air-bl~st circuit, bre~lrn1'.s the air flows from high pressure reserv~·r to the low atmospheric
pressure durmg the ar.c extmct10n process. The flow rate is governed by he throat diameter of the Introduction-Design features-Heavy duty air-break circuit-breaker-Low voltage air breaker
nozzle, the pressure di~ference and t~e nozzle pr.ofile. ~he desig~ is sue that almost supersonic circuit-breaker-Arc extinction by means of magnetic field-D.C. air breaker circuit-breaker
s~eeds of flows are achieved. The axial flow of air at high velocity causes rapid reduction in the -Summary
diameter of the arc and the arc does not reappear after the final current zero. · ,
4.12. ARC EXTINCTION IN SF6 GAS*

The air at atmosphere pressure is used as an arc extinguishing medium in Air-Break Circuit-
In plasma, most of the current is carried by electrons. In certain gases like SF the atoms and These circuit-breakers employ the high resistance interruption principle_:_'!'b-E:J~rc is rapid-
molecules have the property of attracting electrons to form negative ions.Negative ons are he~vier f lengthened by means of the arc runners and arc chutes and the resistance of the arc is increased
thl an electro.us and ~ove sl~wly, thereby the resistance of plasma increases rapidly. Therefore cooling lengthening and spliting the arc. The arc resistance increases to such an extent that the
e ectronegative gas hke SF6 is excellent arc extinction medium. 1
. v,11v,1«c; drop across the arc becomes more than the supply voltage and the arc extinguished.
. The arc extinction process in SF6 gas is based on axial heat dissipation. The gas flows from Air-breaker circuit-breakers are used in d.c. circuits and a.c. circuits upto 12 kV.
, high pressure to the low pressure t~rough a well designed nozzle over the arc. The flowing gases The air-break circuit-breakers are generally indoor type and installed on vertical panels or in-
take. away t~e h.eat ?f the. arc causmg r duction in the diameter of arc. After current zero, the
draw-out type switchgear.
medrnm ~egams its dielectric stren~t~ ver rapidly. This property of rapid recovery of the dielectric
strength is due to the electronegativity o the gas. / A.C. air-break circuit-breakers are widely used in indoor medium voltage and low voltage
i Typical reference values of ratings of air-break circuit-breakers are:
4.13. ARC TIME CONSTANT 460 V, 400-3500 A, 40-75 kA.
The time required by the quenching m dium to gain original dielectric strength after final cur- 3.3 kV, 400-3500A, 13.1-31.5 kA.
rent zero. It is expressed in microseconds. 6.6 kV, 400-2400 A, 13.1-20 kA.
Magnetic field is utilised for lengthening the arc in high voltage air-break circuit-breakers.
Q ESTIONS
1. Explain the arc extinction process is alternating current circuit breaker. CONSTRUCTION OF AIR-BREAK CIRCUIT-BREAKER
2. State the theories postulated to explain the arc extinctions phenonmenon What · th · 'fi f
res t n'k'mg vo l tage m
· the arc extinction process? , • 1s e s1gm 1cance o In the air-break circuit-breaker the contact separation and arc extinction takes place in air at
3 pressure. Fig. 5.1 (a) shows the closed current carrying contacts. As the contacts are
· An electric arc of 5 cm has a cun~nt of 1000 amperes and voltage across the arc is 25 volts. Calculate
the energy consumed by the arc m one second. ''""""'~ ... ,.r1 arc is drawn between them. The arc core is a conducting path of plasma. The surrounding
cu11,u11.uu contains ionized air. By cooling the arc, the diameter of arc core is reduced. The arc is
.. ,,,,.,,Av1ui,:u1c,11t;!:u by lengthening the arc, cooling the arc and splitting the arc. The arc resistance is
"r""'"''rl to such an extent that the system voltage cannot maintain the arc and the arc gets ex-
* Puffer type SF6/ircuit-breakers are becoming popular for HV & EHV systems Whole Breaker is filled wit/1
gas at 5 kgf/cm . at current zero of AC wave.
P'.if(er t~?e single pressure SF6 ~ircuit-breaker uses Puffer principle for arc exil(ction. A cylinder called Puffer Fig. 5.1 (c) illustrates the normal arrangement of an air-break circuit-breaker. This type of
C) lllld~,is ~tt~ched t~ the movm~ co.1lfact.. Puffer cylinder moves dgainst fixed Pf ston during opening stroke. is used for medium and low voltages.
The SF6 g.as flapped 111 the P1iffe1 .cylmder 1s compressed due to relative movemenl,between the puffer cylinder There are two sets of contacts: Main contacts and Arcing contacts. Main contacts conduct the
and th~ piston. The ga~ pressure III puffer cylinder depends upon the speed of Puffei' r:ylinder. Higher opening in closed position of the breaker. They have low contact resistance and are silver plated.
/ speeds. (6 t~ ~ met/es/sec) are used. The .compressed gas in Puffer cylinder is released through arcing contacts (2) are hard, heat resistant and are usually of copper alloy. While opening the
f conve, gent-dive, gent nozzles. The gas flows with almost supersonic velocit)' over the arc. Arc diameter is cqntact, the main contacts dislodge first. The current is shifted to the arcing contacts. The arcing
reduced to zero. Arc is quenche3 at firsi" or second current zero. Dielect;'ic strength is regained due to contacts dislodge later and arc is drawn between them (3). This arc is forced upwards by the
e/ectronegativity of SF6 gas. electromagnetic forces and thermal action. The arc ends travel along the Arc Runner (Arcing horns.)
Self-Extinguishing Principle : The heat of arc generates pressure which forces the arc in hollow moving · The arc moves upwards and is split by arc splitter plates (5) as shown by the arrow (4). The arc is
contact. The arc gets lengthened and cooled. The arc is exinguished dt current zero. For sma1/er current the extinguished by lengthening, cooling splitting etc. In some breakers the arc is drawn in the direction
\ ptiffer principle is used. of the splitter by rr,agnetic field.
AIR-BREAK CIRCUIT-BREAKER 85
CONTACT
CONTACT · ARC CORE 5.4, LENGTHENING OF ARC BY MEANS OF MAGNETIC FIELDS
CUR_!!!!!! ~,-,Jt'---~--~ CUR,ENT cu~~~ENT
1 The arc is directed into arc splitters by application of magnetic field provided ~y curre_nt i~
CONTACTS IN CLOSED
IONISED GAS
l t coils. These blow out coils are usually not connected permanently but come m the circuit
POSITION CONTACT.S .SEPARATED IN AIR bow OU ed by the arc The blow out coil is energized durmg
1 t
·
the b rea k'mg process au t oma t'1ca11y as
AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESS.URE comp e . . . h ·1 t t
(a) Contacts in closed position the roots of the arc move over to the arc runners. It 1s important to connect t e c01 s a correc
(b) Contacts Separated in air at atmospheric pressure
5
olarity so that the arc is directed upwards.
p The magnetic field itself does not extinguish the arc. It moves t~e arc rapid!y into the a~c split-
ters. As the arc moves in the cooler still air, it deionizes partly. It 1s brought m contact with cool
1. Main contacts arc splitters, the partitions remove heat from the arc and affect d e10mzat10n.
· · · Th e pl a t es are of a
2. Arcing contacts material which can with stand high temperatures.
3. Arc rising in the direction of the arrow
4. Arc getting split 10
5. Arc splitter plates
6. Current carrying terminals
7. Arc runners
(I) Co~ta~ts Clos~d (II) Contacts Open

Prmc1ple of air-break circuit-breaker 1. Isolating contacts
2. Insulating bushing
Fig. 5.1. Arc extinction is air-break circuit-breaker. 3. Carriage
4. Arc runner
Furthermore, air-break circuit-breakers have been developed with current limiting feature, 5. Arc splitters
magneting blow-up of arc, etc. Air break a.c. circuit breakers are widely used for industrial 6. Contacts
switchgear auxiliary switchgear in generating stations. 7. Operating solenoid
Air-break principle of lengthening of arc, arc runners, magnetic blow-up is used for d.c. circuit, 8. Operating mechanism
breakers upto 15 kV. 9. Operating Lever
10. Cover with vents ............ ..
current path.
5.3. ARC EXTINCTION IN A.C. AIR-BREAK C.B. (Ref. Sec. 4.7.1) 8 11. Link
In a.c. air-break circuit-breakers the arc is lengthened cooled and splitted so as to increase the
resistance of the arc. The rapid increase in the arc-resistance causes the reduction in the fault cur-
rent and the fault current does not re,ach the prospective high value. The arc extinction process is
assisted by the current zeros in the a.c. wave. The voltage drop across the arc goes on increasing
with the increase in the arc resistance and at a current zero, when the recovery voltage across the
contacts is less than the arc-voltage, the arc gets extinguished. The energy in the system inductance
at current zero is zero. Hence the arc interruption is easier (Refer. Sec 4.7).
Arc Runners (Arcing Horns). As soon as the arc leaves the vicinity to the contacts it com-
mutes to a pair of run out horns. In doing so the outer blow out system is switched on. These blow
out coils provide a magnetic field such that the arc footing is subjected to a strong magnetic field. Fig. 5.2 Truck-mounted air-break circuit-breaker shown in closed position.
We know from the electromagnetic theory that force is experienced by current carrying element of
5,5, DESCRIPTION OF A LOW VOLTAGE AIR-BREAKER CIRCUIT-BREAKER
length dl metres, carrying current I amperes and placed in magnetic field B webers/m 2 is given
by the cross product: The air-break circuit-breakers have current limiting feature. Because of current limiting
0
property, there is considerable saving in other equipment such as bus bars, cables, insulating sup-
dF = I (dl x B) Newtons
ports, etc. by reducing the heating effect as well as the electrodynamic forces. This novel property
By the virtue of this force the arctr_avels upward and its length increases. The tips of the arc is illustrated in Figs. 5.4 and 5.5. In Fig. 5.4 we observe that the prospective short circuit current,
run along the arc runners and come to extremity. As the length of arc increases. At a particular (i.e. the current that would flow in the circuit if the circuit-breaker is replaced by conductor), would
length the system voltage is unable to maintain the arc arid the arc is extinguished. For systems · be as indicated by thin line. But the circuit-breaker modifies the current waveform and has a limit~
having low i~ductance the eMrgy ½LI 2
joules is small and arc gets extinguished before reaching
ing effect so as to obtain the waveform shown by thick line of let through current. The contacts
> open rapidly and the increased arc length gives the current limiting property.
the extremity ofrunners. For high inductance circuits special techniques such as magnetic blow-out, The peak values of current attained corresponding to prospective value of current are given in
additional larger arcing horns etc. are used. Fig. 5.5.
86 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIO ~ . /
, rR-BREAK crncuq>BREAKER
/
5.6. OPERA3'JNG MECHANISMS _FOR AIR-BREA.acY{ CIRCUI;7BREAKERS
87
1. Arc chutes having deionization plates coated with plastic paint on

the top half. .
The operating mechanisms of Air-Break Circuit-Breakers are/generally with operating spring.
2. Arc runner for extending the arc for effective and quick extinction.
3. Magneto thermal release with inverse time current characteristic The closjrig: force is obtained from ohe of the following mean~;/
~- .
on overload and instantaneous tripping on heavy fault currents. -'. solenoid
4. Moving contact carrier.
_ spring charged manually or by motor
5. Main trip rocker arm on which the super rapid tripping device acts.
6. Mai_n operating shaft. 7. Arcing horn. / - pneum~tic
8. Arcmg contacts. 9. Main contacts. The sol~noid mechanisms drive power from battery supply or rectifiers. The solenoid energised
10. Current transformer for feeding releases. 'by the diJect current gives the necessary force for closing the circuit-breaker.
11. Line terminal. 12. Load terminal.
13. Su~er rapid tripping device a built-in protection device which
T.tilsprings used for closing operation can be charged manually 6r by motor driven gears. At
tnps the breaker from the function point. the.time of closing operation the energy stored in the spring is released by unlatching of the spring
and is. utilised in closing of the circuit-breaker.
[Courtesy : Larsen and Toubro Ltd. India] /
Fig. 5.3 Sectional view of a low voltage circuit-breaker.

5.7. SERIES CONNECTED OVER LOAD TRIP COIL ARRANGEMENT
Direct acting overload trip coils can be incorporated with the circuit-breaker. In some medium
160
,,./ voltage and low voltage circuit-breakers, the coils are connected in series and are rated for the cir-
' cths!Nb AsJM11iTR1JLLYI /_
cuit current. The tripping is based on electromagnetic attraction by the field of solenoid. The
-- -
IIT 460 V rms. RECOVERY VOLTAGE
ANO M5 P.F.
~T//Rff-'PHAS£ SYSTEM
., plunger, when lifted,initiates the trip-mechanism of the switching device. Upto a certain current
1,·
,,, rating (e.g. 800. amperes in one design), such coils have been developed. However the direct acting
designs for .5 amps. or 1 amp. are develcped to be used in conjunction with CTs. Oil dashpots, are
/
~ ,....,_
"< , used along with the plunger which facilitates time-lag. Certain time lag adjustment is possible with
100 - ~~ I
1-,. 1 the adjustment of the initial position of the plunger. Design is developed to give accurate time cur-
:.:: 1 ASYMi4ETRICAL
- f--~ • MAKING CURRENr_ rent characteristic for wide range of ambient temperature.
-
9:
f--tj
,,
-;;'i
:,: ,. 5.8, AIR-BREAK D.C. CIRCUIT-BREAKERS FOR MEDIUM VOLTAGES
-
~
c,: 1,/ The d.c. circuit-breakers should limit and interrupt any short circuit currents in the circuit
, _,,,,,- ,.,_-)I.ET THROUGH
~
dependably and rapidly. Accordingly, as soon as the fault occurs, the contacts separate, the arc is
50 ,/ ,CURRENT
/
., / transferred from contacts to the arc runners where it rises upwards and extinguishes of its own.
·•· During this process the arc resistance is increased and the voltage across the arc exceeds the supply
;"
i"" voltage. Every length of the free arc corresponds to a definite arc characteristic. Assuming that the
- ,I
,-
conditions of the free burning arc can be applied to the arc under consideration, the characteristics
PEAK LET I
THROUGH / PR~SPE~TIV~ CU~RENi (K~ rms) .are plotted for three different lengths of the arc as in Fig. 5.6. In the region of length , the resis-
CURRcNT
0 1/ tance characteristics shown by straight line intersects arc characteristic at point A. The arc voltage
is less than supply voltage and therefore, arc continues to burn till the contacts are destroyed. The
25 50
Fig. 5.4. Characteristic of voltage and current. phenomenon is known as Standing Arc.
Fig. 5.5. Current limiting feature.
However, the arc is extended by means of magnetic
These circuit-breakers can be supplied with the following type of protective releases.
blow out system thereby increasing the arc voltage above
. (l) T~ermal TrippingRe~e~ses. It consists ofan adjustable bimetallic thermal release having the supply voltage, to cause arc extinction. There is no in-
mverse time current charactenstic for protection against overloads. tersection with the characteristic of supply system. The
(2) Supe~ ~api~ T~ip. A non~adjustable super rapid magnetic release. is provided in each energy stores in the system inductance is dissipated and
phase. The tnppmg ~Im~ is of the order of 13-15 milliseconds. This has been achieved by collapsin the arc is extinguished. During the time of burning of the
from the fulcrum pomt mstead of actuating the trip bar. arc the supply source continues to give up the energy, the
longer the arc burns, the greater the energy, in other
(3) Under voltage release suitable for d.c. or a.c. supply.
words larger the system of inductance and lower arc vol-
(4) Shunt Trip. Suitable for a.c. or d.c. supply with remote control. tages. Hence the entire interrupting operationis a ques-
Typical Ratings of low voltage air-break a.c. circuit-breakers tion of energy. The arc moves from the contact zone at a
speed of sound. Its uniform extension poses special
Nominal current rating 640 A r.m.s.
problems influenced by thermal electro-dynamic stress.
Rated voltage 460V r.m.s. V0LTA6E__.
Typical rating of d.c. circuit breaker
Breaking current at 50 Hz, 75 k.A r.m.s. Fig.,q_.6. D.C. arc characteristics for
1500 V., 10 kA continuous, 80 kA breaking
p.f. = 0.15 (Refer Sec. 15.9) different arc lengths.
~
88 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION \
5.9. MINIATURE CIRCUIT-BREAKER, MOULDED CASE CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
These are used extensively in low voltage domestic, commercial and industrial applications.
They replace conventional fuses and combine the features of a good HRC fuse and a good switch.
For normal operation it is used as switch. During overloads or faults, it automatically trips off. The
tripping mechanism is actuated by magnetic and thermal sensing devices provided within the MCB.
Tripping mechanism and the terminal contacts are assembled in a moulded case, moulded out
of thermosetting powders. They ensures high mechanical strength, high dielectric strength and vir-
6
tually no ageing. The current carrying parts are made out of electrolytic copper or silver alloy
depending upon the rating of the breaker. All other metal parts are of non-ferrous non-rusting type.
Sufficient cross-section for the current carrying parts is provided to ensure low temperature rise Air Blast Circuit-Breaker
even under high ambient temperature environment. The arc chute has a special construction which
Introduction-Principle of ABCB-Circuit-Breaker with External ~xti1;1gui~hing Ener~-Des~gn
increases the length of the arc by the magnetic field created by the arc itself and the arc chute is Features-Multi-Unit Design-Resistance Switching-Voltage D1stnbution-Cross-Jet Design
so placed in the breaker that the hot gases may not come in contact with any of the important parts Technical Data-Merits-Maintenance-Compressed Air System-Generator C.B.-Summary.
of the breaker.
The breaker has unit construction whereby multiple pole breakers can be made by assembly 6.1. INTRODUCTION
of single pole breakers.
Air blast circuit-breakers were used before 1980s for 11 to 1100 kV. A compressor plant is neces-
Typical Ratings of MCB
sary to maintain high air pressure in the air receiver.
Current Rating: 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, Amp. also 0.5 1 2 2.5 3 3.5 6 7.5 8 10 12 During the period 1950-1970, Air-blast circuit-breakers were preferred for 220 kV and above.
35, 45, 55 Amp. ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
However today, SF6 circuit-breakers are preferred for this range. For 11 kV and 33 kV applications.
Voltage Rating: 240 V/415 V AC; 50 V/110 VDC VCBs are preferred Air-blast Circuit Breakers have become obsolete. (1995)
Rupting Capacity: AC : 3 kA at 50 V (non-inductive)
1 kA at 110 V (non-inductive). 6.2. CONSTRUCTION OF AN AIR BLAST CIRCUIT-BREAKER
In air blast circuit-breaker (also called compressed air circuit-breaker) high pressure air is
QUESTIONS
forced on the arc through a nozzle at the instant of contact separation. The ionized medium between
1. Describe with neat sketches the principle of medium voltage-air-break circuit-breakers. the contacts is blown away by the blast of the air. After the arc extinction the chamber is filled
2. Explain the arc interruption process in air-break circuit-breakers incorporating arcing horns arc split- with high pressure air, which prevents restrike. In some low capacity circuit-breakers the isolator
ters, magnetic blow-out coils. '
is an integral part of the circuit-breaker. The circuit-breaker opens and immediately after that the
3. Describe current limiting feature of Air-break circuit-breakers. isolator opens, to provide additional gap.
In EHV switch-yards of today, isolators are generally independently mounted.
Fig. 6.1 shows one pole of the EHV air blast circuit-breaker. In the complete assembly there
are three identical poles.
ELEVATION END· VIEW

Fig. 6.1. (a) One pole ofan extra-high voltage air blast circuitabreaker.
90 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION .. AIR BLAS\l' CIRCUIT-BREAKER 91
Description. High pressure air, at a pressure between 20 to 30 atm is stored in the Air reser- While closing the valve (6) is turned so as to close connection between the hollow of the insulator
voir (Item 1 in Fig. 6.1). Air is taken from compressed air system. d the reservoir. The valve lets the air from the hollow insulator to the atmosphere. t:,--s a result
Three hollow insulator columns (Item 2) are mounted on the reservoir with valves (6) at thei :: ressure of air in the arc extinction chamber (3) is dropped down to the atmosphenc pressure
base. The double arc extinguishing chambers (3) are mounted on the top of the hollow insulat aned~he moving contacts (8) close over the fixed contacts
. (7) by virtue of the spring pressure.
chambers. The current carrying parts (9) connect the three arc extinction chambers to each in seri Air blast circuit-breakers were preferred for Arc Furnace Duty and traction system, beca~se
and the pole to the neighbouring equipment. Since three existR a very high voltage between the they were suitable for repeated duty. Now vacuum circuit-breakers are preferred for these duties
conductors and the air reservoir, the entire arc extinction chamLe,· 0.SR"cscbly is mounted on in- upto rated voltage of 33 kV. . . .
sulators.
In multi-unit breaker grading capacitors are connected across the mterrupter umt f~r the equal
. tribution of voltage between the units. Closing resistors are connected across the mterrupter
dIS .
·ts for limiting the over voltages during closing operat10n. 0 . resis
penmg ' t ors are connec td
e across
um
the interrupter units to make the circuit-breakers restrike · free. Now, smg · 1e pressure pu f~'t
ier ype
SF6 CB is preferred for 132 kV, 220 kV, 400 kV, 765 kV applications.
6.3. PRINCIPLE OF ARC QUENCHING IN ABCBs
II
The air blast circuit-breaker needs an
auxiliary compressed air system which supplies
air to the air receiver of the breaker. For open-
ing operation, the air is admH!ed in the arc ex-
tinction chamber. It pushes away the moving FIXED
Fig. 6.1. (b) Details of(3) Double arc extinction chamber. contacts. In doing so the contacts are separated CONTACT
S.No. Item Nos. Material and the air blast takes away the ionized gases
15. Port along with it and assists arc extinction. Within
HIGH
14. Enclosure one or two cycles the arc is extinguished by the PRESSURE--+L-.,.4~~
6 Porcelain AIR
air blast and the arc extinction chamber is filled
13. Resistance switchingc{init 3 Assembly with high pressure air has higher dielectric
12. Arcing horns Option 1 4 Steel strength than that of atmospheric pressure.
11. Openings for air ouy et 6 · Hence a small contact gap of few centimeters is
10. Compression sprin~s 6 Alloy steel enough.
9. Connection for cur,tent
8. Moving contact (in f) 2
Copper or its alloy
Copper, silver or its alloy
The flow of air around contacts is guided by
the nozzle shaped contacts. It may be axial cross
7. Fixed contact (in 3); 3 Copper, or its alloy or a suitable combination [Fig. 6.2. (a), (b),
6. Pneumatic valve / Sec.7.5)) Fig. 6.2 Flow of air in Air-blast C.B.
5. Operating rod 1 Steel In the axial blast type air flow Fig. 6.2 (a)
4. Pneumatic operating mechanism 1 the flow air is longitudinal PORCELAIN
HOUSING
3. Double arc extinction chamber 3 (Assembly) along the arc. (Refer Sec. 4.11
2. Hollow insulator assembly 3 Steatite and 7.5).
1. Tank air reservoir (receiver) 1 Boiler plate steel In axial blast type air flow,
The details oft1?,e d?uhle arc_extic~ion chambers (3) arc shown in Fig. 6.1 (b). Since there ar the air flows from high pressure
three 1ouble arc extm~hon poles m ~eries, there are six breaks per pole. Each arc extinction cha reservoir to the atmosphere '=~';;;'::~e--"-.-.
MOVING
her [Fig. 6._1. (b)) cons~sts of one twm fixe~ contact (7). There are two moving contacts (8) whi through a convergent divergent ATMOSPHERIC~ CONTACT
are _s~own m the openmg process, 1:he movmg contacts can move axially so as to open or close. I nozzle. The difference in pressure PRESSURE
posit10n open or close depends on air pressure and spring (10) pressure. and the design of nozzle is such P2
The operating mechanism (3) operates the rod (5) when it gets a pneumatic or electrical signal that as the air expands into the
The valves_ (6) open SO).lS to send the high p~essure air in the hollow of the insulator. The hig low-pressure zone, it attains al-
pressu~e air rapidly t~ter~ the double arc extmction chamber [Air inlet in Fig. 6.l(b)]. As the ai _most supersonic velocity. The
enters mto the arc zxtmcbon chamber the pressure on the moving contacts (8) becomes more tha
spring pressure m;ia. contacts open. · ", mass flow of air through the noz-
zle is governed by the parameters
The contact~;travel through a short distance against the spring pressure. A.t the end of contact
t_ravel th~ po{,t ;?r ?utgo_ing_ air (15) is _closed by t~e. moving contact and the erttjre arc extinction like pressure ratio, area of throat,
ch~mber i~ fiu~d w_ith high pressure air, as the air is not allowed to go out However, during the exit area of nozzle, and is in-
arcmg per10d the air goes out through the openings (11) and take away the 1qnized air of arc. fluenced by the diameter of the -Fig. 6.2 (a) Axial Flow.
' arc itself.
92 AIR BLAST CIRCUIT-BREAKER 93
The air flowing at a high speed axially along the arc causes removal of heat from the periphery (saY 10 A). For the current
.
the air pres-
t· . t
of the arc and the diameter of the arc reduces to a low value at current zero. At this instant the sure used for the arc mterrup wn is oo
arc is interrupted and the contact-space is flushed with fresh air flowing through the nozzle. h 'gh the current gets chopped out
The flow of fresh air through the contact space ensures removal of hot gases and rapid building
i
before '
reaching_ natu~al zer~. Th'1s c1:1r-
up of the dielectric strength. t chopping gives nse to high restnk-
ren . f t t
ing voltage. The resistance o con ac 0•05
. After the brief duration of air flow, the interrupter is filled with high pressure air. The dielectric pace being high, the contact space
~t~ngth of air increases with pressure. Hence the fresh high pressure ai, in the contact space is sb · g high the contact space is not likely
capable of with standing the transient recovery voltage. em . t
to break down. However res1s ance
For closing operation, the air from this chamber is let out to the atmosphere. Thereby the pres- switching should _be employed.
sure on the moving contacts from one side is reduced and the moving contacts close rapidly by the · The arcing time of ABCB is al-
spring pressure (Fig. 6.3).
most independent of arc-current [Fig.
6_4], Whereas in oil current breakers
CHAMBER FIL LED SPRING the arcing time is more for lowe~ c:1r-
WITH H, P. AIR COMPRESSED
rents [Fig. 6.3 (a)] and the restnkmg BREAl<!N6 CURRENT
voltages are damped out by contact Fig. 6.4. Comparison between circuit-breakers with A internal
space of law dielectric strength. source of extinguishing energy and B external source of
· extinguishing energy.
In the circuit-breakers with exter-
FIXED CONTACT ;!q~, t='IXED CONTACT

MOVING
:;i~::;ft :i~:~:;:~!:~ti~t:;::i:~re of extinguishing ~edium. In circuit-breakers with internal
energy source the capacity limit is determined by the design features.
MOVIM PORT CONTACT
CONTACT OPEN
Opening by air pressure against spring pressure. Contacts open, port closed, the Chamber
6.5. RESISTANCE SWITCHING IN ABCB . . . . . .
Air is going out from the port. filled with high pressure air. We have noted earlier that the post zero resistance of contact space is high m air ?las~ Cll'~mti
Fig. 6.3. (a) Sequence of operation in ABCB. · Th' is because the contact clearance space is filled with high pressure air a er ma
~:::::;:·ero ::d high pressure air has high dielectric strength. The high restriking voltage appear-
ing across the contacts does not damp
tiiit through the contact gap because of
.the high post zero resistance.
· Further, voltages of the order of
several times the normal voltage ap-
. pear across the contacts because of cur-
rent chopping. If these voltages are not
REDUCED PRESSURE allowed to discharge, they may cause
Fig. 6.3. (b) Contact close by spring pressure against reduced air pressure. break down of insulation of the circuit-
breaker or the neighbouring equip-
The air blast circuit-breakers come under the class external extinguishing energy type. The ment. To overcome this difficulty.
energy supplied for arc extinction is obtained from high pressure air and is independent of current . Resistance Switching is adopted. The
to be interrupted.
usual procedure is to connect a resis-
F.D AIRFR0/11
tance is shunt with the·arc. AIR RECEIVER
6.4. CIRCUIT-BREAKERS WITH EXTERNAL EXTINGUISHING ENERGY
Fig. 6.5 shows another popular ar- Fig. 6.5. Configuration of switching resistors.
If the pressure generated in the arc extinction chamber is derived from arc current e.g., by
decomposition of oil in oil circuit breaker, the circuit-breaker is said to be of internal energy source. rangement used for a double arc extin- . t' · · d ·tt d ·n the arc
· · chamber explamed
gmshmg · · sec t·10 n 2 ·6 · D un·ng the opemng opera 10n
m .. ' air 1s a m1 Th
e 1 uxiliar
If the pressure is independent of arc current the circuit-breaker is said to be of external energy
extinguishing chamber. It separates main contacts and pushes the auxiliary cont~cts. e~ Th~
source. The behaviour of these two types are inherently different.
In the air blast circuit~breakers that air pressure used for the arc interruption is constant and
contacts close thereby the resistors are connected across the arc fo: a short ~ime of ar cmgt. d .
'
auxiliary contacts · the me
are located m · 1·me d V-s h ape d ms · ulators while the 'th resistors
'd are 1ocapi'ston
f t·h·e e m
does not depend on the arc current, The air pressure is of such magnitude that it can break rated the vertical insulators. Immediate· 1Y a ft er arc ex t'me t'wn, the pressure on e1 .er s1 e. o ·t . . t _
breaking current (say 40 kA) satisfactory at natural zero. High pressure (60kg/cm2) are used for o. f auxiliary contacts gets so adjusted that the auxiliary contacts open and resd1~torthcirl~uh1 t1~ m er.
breakers above 400 kV. ·
rupted. Ceramic resistances ofnon-lmear ch arac t ens
· t'ics, simi
· 'lar to those use m e 1g nmg ar-1'- _~:
The arcing time does not change appreciably for lower magnitudes of currents as the air pres- resters were used for resistance switching. 1
- sure is independent of arc current. Now consider that the breaker has to interrupted small currents
AIR BLAST CIRCUIT-BREAKER
These consist of 'Silicone-carbide, bound by inorganic binders subjected to head treatment. To/equalize these voltages capacitances are connected across
~uring high current, .non-lin~ar resistor offers low resistance. Thus the main arc currents is partly ace as shown in Fig. 6.6 (a) by C, C, C, C. The shunt
diverted through resistor umt. As current reduces the resistance offered by non-linear resistors cont act Sp 1 . . d
< •. ·t r C is much larger than the natura capacitance m or er
increases ca1;1~ing a greate: drop across the resistor units. Thereby thE:l_Yoltage available for arc capac1 o .
between aux1hary contacts 1s no more sufficient and arc between auxiliary contacts is automatically •tJ,n1.111ify the effect of ~h_e unequal capacitance of contact spaces.
extinguished. · /These capacitors are ng1dly connected across the breaker arc ~x-
. t' n chamber as shown in Fig. 6.6 (d). The value of gradmg
ttnc 10 . d
6.6. VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION IN MULTI-BREAK CIRCUIT-BREAKERS ·tors varies between 1200 pico-farads and 1650 pf depen -
c1,wac1 . . b 1
(ABCB-MOCB, SF 6 ) . ' up on· number of breaks per pole and capacitance
1ng · per rea c
/
The voltage.distribution sh?uld be even, between the gaps in series)fnot, the breaking capacity
shared ~y the d1ffe!ent gaps wrll be unequal. The unequality of voltages and breaking capacity oc-
fm. REDUCING SWITCHING OVER-VOLTAGES BY
PRE-CLOSING RESISTOR (Ref. Sec. 18.8)
curs mamly at the mstant ofrecovery voltage when the potential across the contact spaces is deter-
mined by capacitance between contact members and between contact and earth. The design oflines rated 420 kV and above is influenc€)d ~y
These potentials may vary according to the kind of short-circuit but will be least even when the fault itching overvoltages. The switching overvoltages can be mm-
involves -earth (e.g., L-G fault). In Fig 6.6 (a), 4 contact pairs 1 to 4 have been shown. Fault occurs near ~:ised by improving the design of circuit breakers. The feat;1res
to the contact 1. The capacitances betvveen the contacts are K 1 K 2 K 3 K 4 respectively and capacitances. desirable for ERV and UHV circuit breakers are the followmg:
between contacts and earth are C1, C2, C3, C4 respectively. Bedaus~ of the unsymmetry, the capacitances
do not get equally charged and the recovery voltage is least over C and !.Pre-insertion of closing resistors in parallel with main con-
1 tacts. This is either single stage or multi-stage.
2. Simultaneous closing three poles. Fig. 6.7. One pole ofan EHV Air Blast
Circuit Breaker with four interrupters
3. Simultaneous closing lines at both ends. The closing ofline per pole. Courtesy: Brown Boveri.
jg.first initiated through pre-closing resistors. Shortly after this, . . .
(a) Four contact pairs of c.b. pole. t)ie pre-closing r1esistors are shunted out. The optimum val_ue of pre-closmg r_es1stors for airbl~st
1
circuit breakerfis about 0.5 to 2 times thfj voltage of surge impedance of the hne. Better dampmg
effect is ~chieved by multi-stage pre-closi:µg. As per recent ICC specifications, overvoltage factors
Jess than 1.7lhave been recommended for 1system above 550 kV. Such condition can be achieved by
'.employing;two-stage closing. In first stag,f a high resistance comes into circuit, in the second stage
low resist~nce comes into circuit. )
,, !
GENERATOR CIRCUIT BREAKhRs
,,
•••••.· Development of Generator BreakefS has brought ab~ut a significant change ii:i, the lay~ut ~f
(b) Distribution of capacitance. generator connections. Generator circuit breakers are mdoor, metal-enclosed au-blast c1rcmt
breakers suitable for connection betwe,en generator and its main transformer. (The typical 22 kV,
'MOO MVA). Ref. Sec. 17.61. After 19 5, SF 6 c.n.s have been developed and used for Generator
Circuit-breal~ers.
6
X
1. High capacity generator

12. Generator circuit breali!er
· 3. Main Transformer
4, Unit-Auxiliary Transformer
4. 5. Auxiliary-bus
6. EHV bus
TERMINAL
TERMINAL
(d) External appearance

Fig. 6.6 Capacitors for voltage grading in multi-break breaker.
! Fig. 6.8 Use of Generator Circuit Breaker.
ii

6.9. COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM FOR ABCB
The EHV-ABCB's are outdoor equipment. The air pressure in the receivers of the circuit breaker
is of the order of20-30 kgf/cm 2 • The local receivers are of such a size that the air pressure is maintained
for some 4 to 12 repeated operations. When the pressure in the receiver of the breaker reduces belo
a certain value [say 20 kg/ cm2] the pneumatic valves automatically open and air is let into the receivers
from compressed air system of a higher pressure [30 kgf/cm2 to 40 kgf/cm 2] and the pressure in the
7
air receiver is maintained a desired value. '
3ph 40011.
--SUPPLY
-$ulphur Hexafiuoride (SF6) Circuit-Breaker
AIR RECEIVER
CONTROL
PANEL Und SF6 Insulated Metalclad Switchgear (GIS)
STARTER
---0 I
I
I
I
PRESSURE
6AUGE Part I-Properties of SF6 Gas-Physical properties-Chemical properties-Dielectric properties
-Arc extinguishing properties of SF6 gas. ·
Part II-Outdoor High Voltage SF 6 Circuit-Breakers-Type of designs-Single pressure puffer type
I
I
LOCAL SH/l,T DOWN VALVE SF 6 Circuit-breakers-Double pressure dead tank type SF 6 Circuit-breaker-Merits of SF6 Circuit-breakers
I
I -Some demerits-SF 6 filled load-break switches-Auxiliaries and accessories.
I
I
I
Part III-SF6 Insulated Metalclad Switchgear-Introduction-Advantage-Demerits-design
I aspects-Busbars-Isolators-Earthing switch-Circuit-breakers Components-Gas systems
-Typical Ratings-Summary .
.7.1, INTRODUCTION
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) is an inert, heavy gas having good dielectric and arc extinguishing
-}roperties. The dielectric strength of the gas increases with pressure and is more than that of
STOP
7VAIR
RECEIVER
VAtvES tdielectric of oil a pressure of 3 kgf/cm2 . SF6 is now being very widely used in electrical equipment
0
OF ABCB ' \1lk.e high voltage metal enclosed cables; high voltage metalclad switchgear, bushings, circuit-
STOP REOUCING
VALVE VALVE c·;.bjeakers, current transformers, etc. This gas liquefies at certain low temperatures, the liquefaction
··. <fijinperature increases with pressure. This gas is commercially manufactured in many countries
(~pd is now being extensively used by electrical industry in Europe, U.S.A. and Japan.
Fig. 6.9 Schematic diagram of compressed air system. . .. . . Several types of SF6 circuit-breakers have been developed by various manufactures in the world
• dl,i).'ing last fifteen years, for rated voltages from 3.6 to 760 kV.
SF6 gas insulated-metalclad switchgear comprises factory assembled metal clad, sub-station
.:.equipment like circuit-breaker, isolators earthing switches bus-bars etc. These are filled with
SF6 gas. Such sub-stations are compact and are being favoured in densely populated urban areas.
<y< Sulphur hexafluoride gas is prepared by burning coarsely crushed roll sulphur in fluorine gas,
_ in a steel box, provided with staggered horizontal shelves, each bearing about 4 kg of sulphur. The
.. -~teel box is made gas-tight. The gas thus obtained contains other fluorides such as S2 F 10 , SF4 and
- ~ust be purified further SF6 gas is generally supplied by chemical firms. The cost of gas is low if
·manufactured on a large scale.
The gas is transported in liquid form in cylinders. Before filling the gas, the circuit-breaker is
• evacmated to the pressure of about 4 mm of mercury so as to remove the moisture and air. The gas
is then filled in the circuit-breaker. The gas can be reclaimed by the gas-handling unit.
Part I-Properties of SF6 gas
7.2. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SF6 GAS

- Colourless.
- Odourless.
- Nontoxic, Pure SF6 gas is not·harmful to health.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION SULPHUR-HEXAFLUORIDE (SFG) CIRCUIT BREAKER
99
98
Non-inflammable. However impure SF6 gas contains toxic impurities. (iii) Electronegative-gas.
State-Gas at normal temperature Pressure. (iv) Does not react with structural material-upto 500°C.
- Density-Heavy gas density 5 time th&t of air at 20°C and Atmospheric pressure. (v) Products of Decomposition. During arc extinction process SF6 is broken down to some ex-
tent into SF 4 , SF2. The products of decomposition recombine upon cooling to form the original gas.
Liquefaction of SF6 Gas
The remainder is removed by filters containing activated alumina (AI2OI3). Loss factor is small.
The gas starts liquefying at certain
The products of decomposition arc toxic attack certain structural materials.
low temperatures. The temperature of li-
quefaction depends on pressure. At (iv) The metallic fluorides are good dielectric materials hence are safe for electrical equipment.
15 kg/c rti the gas starts liquefying at 20 However, they must be removed during periodic m3intenance, as they absorb moisture and loose
l0°C Hence this gas is not suitable for their dielectric property. This happens if the breaker is dismantled during rainy-season.
pressures above 15 kgf/c rti. Ref. the
notes at end of ch. 7 for units of pressure. 1.4. DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF SF6 GAS
The temperature at which the SF6 gas LIQUID
(I) Dielectric Propaties. Dielectric strength of SF6 at atmospheric pressur~ is 2.35 times that of
changes to liquid state depends on pres-
sure. With higher pressure, this tempera- air, it is 30% less than that of dielectric oil used in oil circuit breakers.
ol
ture increases. To avoid the liquefaction of (ii) At higher prussure the dielectric strength of the gas increases. At pressure about
SF6 gas the temperature of SF6 should be
maintained above certain value. For 15 UJ
l 3 kgf/cm 2 the dielectric strength of SF 6 gas
is more than that of dielectric oil. This
atm. pressure, SF6 gas starts liquefying at 0:
::,
a temperature of about l0°C. Hence

thermostatically controlled heaters are Q.
; property permits smaller clearances and
small size of equipments for the same kV.
200
provided, which maintain the gas tempera- (iii) Effect of Pressure on Breakdown 15 0 ----.---- -----·i. ------ ---··----·
ture above about l6°C in case of high pres- Voltage. The breakdown voltage in SF 6 gas °"DIELECTRIC OIL
sure system. Fig. 7.1 illustrates the depends on several aspects such as electrode
characteristics of SF6 medium. The curve
shows transition condition, the left side configuration, roughness of electrodes dis- kV / 00
represents liquid state and right side rep- tribution of electric field, vicinity of insulat- Electrodes: 1cm apart D.C. Voltage
resents gaseous state. The inclined lines ing supports, moisture, waveshapes etc.
50
(Ukg) represent constant specific volume. other parameters remaining constant the
(litres per kg). breakdown voltage in SF6 gas increases with
Heat transferability. The heat pressure. The gas follows Paschen's law /0 20 30 40
transferability ofSF6 gas is 2 to 2.5 times which states that "In uniformly distributed Gas Pressure (lbs/m2 Gauge)
that of air at same pressure. Hence for electric field. The breakdown voltage (Vb) in Fig. '7.2: D.C. break-down voltage of 1 cm gap in SF6 gas.
the equal conductor size, the current car- a gas is directly proportional to the product
rying capacity is relatively more. 50 0 50 of gas pressure (p) and electrode-gap (d)"-Vba.pd.
Enthalpy. Heat content property at TEMPERATURE ( 'C)
temperatures below 6000°K is much (ii) Critical Pressure Zone. With the non-uniform field, the breakdown voltage versus pressure,
higher than nitrogen. This assists cooling Fig. 7.1. Temperature-Pressure variation characteristics of SFG curve does not follow the Paschen's law strictly.
of arc space after current zero, due to con-
tir.uous removal of heat from the contact
gas at constant specific volumes (litre/kg).
The probable curve is indicated in Fig. 7.3. The
breakdown voltages increases with pressure.
~·t
I
140
I err>
space by the surrounding gas.
However after about 2.5 kgf/cm 2 it starts reduc- "'' 120
Low arc-time constant. The time constant of the medium is defined as "the time between IO
ing and then rises again. The pressure at which ~
current zero and the instant the conductance of contact space reaches zero value." ~ 100
Due to the electronegativity of SF6 gas the arc time constant of SF6 gas is very low and the the breakdown voltage starts reducing is called
1
critical Pressure'. The dielectric strength at
rate of rise of dielectric strength is high. Hence SF 6 circuit-breakers are suitable for switching con-
dition involving high rate of rise of TRV. pressure between 2-3 kgf/c rtr is high. Hence
this pressure range is preferred in SF6 insulated
7.3. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SF6 GAS metal enclosed switchgear. However in circuit-
breaker compaTtment, the pressure of the order
(i) Stable upto 500°C. QL--.......J..---'--......C...L---'---..1-----'-
of5 kgf/cm 2 is preferred for arc quenchi~g pur- 2 3 4 5 6
(ii) Inert. 1:he chemi_cal inertness of this gas is advantageous in switchgear. The life of metallic
poses. P GAS PRESSURE kg/Cm 2 GAUGE-
part, contacts 1s longer m SF6 gas. The components do not get oxidised or deteriorated. Hence the
maintenance requirements are reduced. Moisture is very harmful to the properties of the gas. In (v) Effect of Electrode Surface. Rough Fig. 7.3. Variation in Breakdown voltage in SF6 gas with
non-uniform fields.
the presence of moisture, hydrogen fluoride is formed during arcing which can attack the metallic, electrode surface reduces the breakdown volt-
and insulating parts in the circuit-breaker.
100 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION SULPHUR-HEXAFLUORIDE (SFa) CIRCUIT BREAKER 101
age with rough surface the ionisation starts earlier near the sharp points on conductors. Hence, The basic requirements in arc extinction is not primarily the dielectric_ strength, but high rate
conductor surfaces should be smooth.
of recovery of dielectric strength. In SF6 gas, the electrons get attached with ~olecules to beco~e
(vi) Effect of Insulating Support on Breakdown Voltage. The conductors in SF6 insulating equip- . Thereby the. dielectric strength is quickly regained. Problems connected with current choppmg
ment are supported on epoxy or porcelain insulators. The flashover invariably takes place along ions. .
. re therefore mmimum.
the surface of the support insulators.
a 'In SF6 circuit-breakers, the gas is made to flow from a high pressure zone to a low pressure
The breakdown can occur at extremely low values if the insulator supports are covered by mois-
th rough a convergent-divergent nozzle. The mass flow is a function of nozzle-throat diameter
ture and conducting dust. Hence the insulators should be extremely clean and should have anti- zone
th • of blow. The nozzle is
essure ratio and the time · located sueh t h at t h e gas fl ows axia· 11y over
tracking properties.
.h e pr -length. The gas flow attains almost supersonic speed in the divergent portion of the nozzle,
(vii) Sha,p Contours. The breakdown is initiated at sharp edges of conducting parts and parts t··h·e arc · d uct10n
· m · th e d'iame t er
t ereby· the gas takes away the heat from the periphery of the arc, causmg re d th
having maximum stress concentration. The limiting value of breakdown stress is of the order of fthe arc. Finally the arc diameter becomes almost zero at current zero an e arc is ext·i~gms.
. . h ed .
24 x P kV/cm for pure SF6 gas, Pis pressure of gas in kgf/cm 2 . Good dielectric stress distribution The arc space is filled with fresh SF6 gas and the dielectric strengths of the contact space is rapidly
is very important is SF6 insulated equipment. :recovered due to the electronegativity of the gas and turbulent flow of fresh gas in the contact space.
(viii) Effect of Wave-shape and Polarity. The breakdown value depends on the wave-shape char- (SF gas flows from P 1 to P 2 through the Convergent Divergent Insulating Nozzle over the arc
acterised by peak value, wave front, wave-tail, polarity in case of impulse wave. Voltage withstand lengthe!ed during opening stroke.) P 1/P 2 is achieved by relative movement of Puffer Cylinder 4
value reduces with increase in steepness and increase in duration of the wave. Negative polarity against Fixed Piston. ·
is generally more severe than positive.
7.5.1. Single Pressure Puffer Type Circuit-breaker with Single flow of Quenching
Effect of Dilution of SF6 Gas by Air on Dielectric Strength Medium
SF6 gas maintains high dielectric strength even when diluted by air (Nitrogen). 30% SF + 70% This flow pattern illustrated in Fig. 7.4 was first conceived during 1950s. Earlier puffer type
6 circuit breakers were with single flow pattern.
Air by volume has a dielectric strength twice that of air at same pressure). Below. 30% by volume, the
dielectric strength reduces quickly. 1. Enclosure
(ix) The gas is Electronegative. 'fhe ability of an atom to attract and hold electrons has been 2. Fixed contact stem
2'. Arcing contact tip
designed as its 'Electronegativity'. Such gases have high dielectric strengths.
3. Hollow contact tube (M)
The molecules of electronegative gases have an ability to attract, hold free electrons and form 3'. Arcing contact tip
negative ions. The negative ions being heavy and practically immobile they do not flow easily. Hence 4. Puffer cylinder
F 5. Insulating Nozzle (PTFE) convergent divergent
the dielectric strength of electronegative gases is more than that of air.
6. The Arc
Electronegativity of the gas gives lower arc-time constant. The time required for the medium 6'. SF6 Gas
to regain its dielectric strength after final current zero is called arc-time constant. The arc-time 7. Fixed Piston
constant of SF6 gas is of the order of a few Microseconds.
8. Fixed Piston
4 M = MOVING, F =FIXED
7.5. ARC EXTINCTION IN SFG CIRCUIT-BREAKERS (Ref. Sec.11.20)
Fig. 7.4. (a) Arc Extinction in Single Pressure type puffer C.B.
The arc extinction process in SF6 circuit breakers is different from that in Air Blast Circuit with insulating Nozzle. (Further details in Fig. 7.5 a-d)
Breakers.
1xxxx/4~ xxx xx zixx&
' .... _ ... _ --,,.:- - ..- --_-.::.:.;
During the arcing period, SF6 gas is blown axially along the arc. The gas removes the heat 1. Enclosure (F)
from the arc by axial convection and radial dissipation. As a result, the arc diameter reduces during 2. Fixed contact tubes (F)
the decreasing node of the current wave. The diameter becomes small during current zero. Tur- 2'. Graphic Nozzles (F)
bulent flow is introduced around current zero to extinguish the arc. 3. Hollow conductor tube (M)
4. Puffer Cylinder (M)
Due to its electronegativity and low arc-time constant, the SF6 gas regains its dielectric strength 5. SF 6 Gas
rapidly after the final current zero, the rate of rise of dielectric strength is very high and the time constant 6. The Arc
is veiy small. 6'. Arc-Roots (M)
The arc extinguishing properties of SF6 gas was pointed out in 1953*. 7. Fixed Piston
8. Fixed Piston
The paper points out that SF6 is a remarkable medium for arc extinction. The arc extinguishing M • -- - •- - -•. .', ·-. : •• _. ·.-:: :::
H = MOVING, F = FIXED
properties are improved by moderate rates of forced gas flow through the arc space. ex X xxx XX XX X xx xxSX?S)
Plain break contacts drawn apart, (AC Arcs), in SF6 can interrupt about 100 times more current Fig. 7.4. (b) Arc Extinction in Single Pressure Puffer type SFG C.B.
with Conducting Nozzles. (Further details in Fig. 7.12)
than in air at given voltage.
Fig. 7.5 (a) "Four stages of Puffer Action-Single Flow" explains the arc quenching process.
* An Investigation of the Arc Quenching Behaviour of SF6 by H.J. Lingal, A.R. Strom T.E. Browne, When breaker is fully closed, the pressure in the puffer cylinder P1 is equal to that outside the
Westinghous~ Electric Corpn.-AIEE PAS April 1953, p. 242. cylinder.
102 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION SULPHUR-HEXAFLUORIDE (SFBl CIRCUIT BREAKER 103
During opening stroke puffer-cylinder and moving contact tube start moving. Gas gets com-
• ressed within puffer cylinder (P 1 > P 2 ). After a certain travel, contact separates arc is drawn. How-
:ver compressed gas flows from higher pressure P 1 to lower pressure P2 through the nozzle. Fig.
7,5 (d) gives pressure characteristics.
CLOSE__ _
RCIN6 CONDITION
i
TRAVEL S = Arcing starts
0 = Open
Contact closed Contacts separate Nozzel open

i 3
Q = Arc Quenched
C = Closed
Arc quenches breaker Z = Arcing zone.
P1 =P1 nozzle about to open flow starts fully open
Fig. 7.5. (a) Four stages of Puffer Action-Single flow.
--.
-0
TIME----
Fig. 7.5. (d) Explaining Puffer Principle.
Single flow pattern has limited quenching ability and is used for lower breaking currents. Fig.
715 (b) gives a cross-sectional view of an interrupter developed during early sixties.
7.5.2. Double Flow of Quenching Medium
1 Top cap
2 Springs
In the second generation of puffer type circuit-breakers, the flow pattern was improved. The
3 Activated Alumina 'flow of quenching gas from puffer cylinder was made to flow in forward direction (like in single
4 SF6 Gas · flow) through nozzle and also through hollow contact tube in inverse direction. Double flow gives
6 Fixed contact ..,~.Jengthening of arc through hollow contact tubes and removes heat of arc more efficiently. Double
6 Protective tube :.lQ.ow pattern gives almost one-and-halftimes the breaking capacity compared with the single flow.
7 PTEE nozzle · Fig 7.5 (c) explains the flow pattern in double flow technique. All puffer type circuit-breakers of
8 Arcing contact tip today employ double flow pattern.
9 Finger contacts
10 Puffer cylinder Part-II Outdoor SF 6 Circuit-Breakers
11 Fixed piston
12 Pull conductor
13 Sliding contacts TYPES DESIGN
14 Lower support chamber. The SF6 circuit-breaker have been developed by several manufacturers and several designs
emerged. The types of circuit-breakers can be broadly identified as:
Double Pressure type, In which, the gas from high pressure system is released into the low
·
0
system through a nozzle, during the arc extinction processes. This design has become ob-
"'""""'""
Fig. 7.5, (b) Cross-section of Puffer type SF6 Interrupter. (Courtesy: Magrini)
1. Enclosure (Insulating tube) Single Pressure Puffer type. In which the gas is compressed by the moving cylinder system
2. Fixed contact holder 3. Puffer Cylinder is released through a nozzle while extinguishing the arc. This design is most popular over wide
4. Insulating Nozzle (PTFE) 5. Insulating Cap of voltages from 3.6 kV to '760 kV. [Sec. 7.51].
6. Parallel path for normal current flow
7. Normal path for current flow Furthermore, in both the double pressure and single pressure designs the circuit-breakers have
8. Gas trapped between 3 and 11 developed in following two types of indoor and outdoor designs.
8'. Compressed Gas Live Tank design. In which the interrupters are supported on porcelain insulators (Fig. 7.7).
9. Valve for gas inlet during closing
10. Moving contact tube Dead Tank design. In which the interrupters installed within SF6 gas-filled tank at earth
11. Fixed Piston 12. Arc potential (Fig. 7.8). This configuration is used in GIS, (Sec. T.13)
11
Single pressure puffer type live tank breakers are being preferred for conventional outdoor
Fig. 7.5. (cl Three stages of puffer action-Double Flow switchyards.
A Breaker fully close B Contact Separate, Arcing present C Arc Quenched
104 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION SULPHUR-HEXAFLUORIDE (SFa) CIRCUIT BREAKER 105
Puffer Principle, Refer Fig. 7.5 a to d. As the puffer cylinder moves downrwards for the open- , t t' n is illustrated in Fig 7.6. The operating mechanism (1) installed at the base of
ing stroke, the pressure ratio P1IP2 rises as shown in Fig. 7.5 (d). The pressure rise depends upon of
thea:c
msuml aetrrup
or is 11?m ked with. the movable contact in the interrupter by means of insulating operating
the throat-diameter of nozzle and speed of puffer cylinder. The pressure ratio P 1/P2 increases to rod (4) and a link-mechamsm (5).
about five during opening condition. The compressed gas is released through the convergent-diver- 2 12 2 8 11 Item No.
gent nozzle (7). The arc is quenched at a current· zero. For higher interrupting ability, the flow 1. Operating mechanism (pneumatic or hydraulic)
pattern is optimised. 7 2. Interrupter. ] Filled with SF6 gas
Single pressure puffer type SF6 circuit-breakers are sealed units filled with SF6 gas at a pres- 3. Hollow support insulators (porcelain) at 5 kgf/cm2
2 4. Insulating operating rod (glass fibre).
sure 5 kgf/cm • Both dead-tank and live tank designs have been developed for voltages from 3.3 5. Linkage between (4) and (12).
to 760 kV and breaking currents from 20 to 80 kA. The designs are being continuously optimized 6. Terminals.
for higher capacity per interrupter. There are two types of designs in single pressure puffer type 7. Filters. (Activated alumina)
SFe circuit-breakers. 8. Movable (puffer) cylinder.
9. Nozzle (insulating material).
- Puffer type SF6 breaker with insulating nozzle (Figs. 7.5-7.6). 10. Fixed piston.
- Puffer type SF6 circuit breaker with conducting nozzle (Ref. Fig. 7.12) 11. Fixed contact.
12. Moving contact (move with 8)
13. Gas inlet and monitoring system.
7.7. SINGLE PRESSURE PUFFER TYPE SF6 CIRCUIT-BREAKER
These circuit-breaker employ a novel principle of puffer action illustrated in Fig. (7.5 b, c, d).
Fig 7.6 (a) illustrates the fully closed position of the interrupter. The moving cylinder (1) is
coupled with the movable conductor (2) against the fixed piston (5) and there is a relative movement
between (1) and (5) and the gas is compressed in the cavity (6). Tliis trapped gas is released through Fig. 7.7. (a) One pole ofa 245 kV puffer type SF6 C.B.
the nozzle (4), during arc extinction process. During the travel of the moving contact (2) and movable
cylinder (1) the gas puffs over the arc and reduces the arc diameter by axial convection and radial ... The circuit-breaker is filled with SF6 gas at a pressure of about 5 kgf/ cm2 . During the opening
dissipation. At current zero, the arc diameter becomes too small and the arc gets extinguished. The :· · t'on
1 the operating rod (4) is pulled down-wards by the operating mechanism. The link-
.• opera
inechanism • (5) converts the vertical motion into horizontal
· motion.· Th e contac t an d th e movabl e
puffing action continues for some time even after the arc extinction and the contact space is filled .. ,I
with cool, fresh gas. {cylinder in interrupter are moved against the fixed piston (10). . . .
),.. Break-time upto 3 cycles can be achieved by puffer principle _described ~hove. F~or ~chievm~ 2 I
tJycle break time, differential piston is used in which the puffer-cylmder and piston move m opposite
· 'direction thus reducing total stroke and time of travel.
. 7.7.1. Configuration of a single Pressure Puffer Type EHV Circuit-Breaker
;,\ Fig 7.7 (b) illustrates the typical configuration of 145 SF6 circuit-breaker having one interrup-
}tion per pole Fig 7. 7 (a) illustrates configuration of one pole ::if a 245 kV SF6 circuit-breaker.
(1) Movable cylinder (puffer cylinder) J• Referring to Fig. 7.7 (b), there are three identical poles mounted on_a c?mmo1: base tube_(3).
(2) Moving contact (las is filled permanently in all the three poles and the base tube. The sealmg 1s provided by O-rmgs
(3) Fixed contact ': aqlleezed between porcelain and flanges.
(4) Insulating nozzle
8
(5) Fixed piston 5
~
1. Interrupter Filled wi~h SF 6 gas
(6) Gas trapped in before compression
2. Support Hollow Porcelain ]
,-Jt·
(7) Compressed gas between 1 and 5 5 kgf/cm
3. Base Tube
(8) The arc-being extinguished by puffer action.
4. Mechanism Housing ] Hydraulic/Spring/Pneumatic
and Control Cabinet, Mechanism
i --=ii,,ri u
.•
Gas Inlet System :
5. Terminals
.7 6. Support Structure
7. Linkages
6
(a) Breaker fully closed (b) Contacts separated, puffing action in progress.
Fig. 7.6. Puffer action principle. FROHT VIEW SIDE VIEW
Fig 7. 7 (a) illustrates the configuration of a 245 kV/420 kV single pressure puffer SF6 circuit- Fig. 7.7. (b)Configuration ofan outdoor Puffer Type 145 kV SFa Circuit-Breaker.
breaker. Th~ two interrupters (2) are mounted on the hollow support insulators (3). The principle
106 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION SULPHUR-HEXAFLUORIDE (SF6) CIRCUIT BREAKER 107
The operating mechanism (4) is linked with moving contacts in the interrupters via insulating '7,9, MERITS OF SF6 CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
glass fibre rods. In this configuration, during closing operation it is pushed upwards.
(1) Outdoor ERV SF6 has less number of interrupters per pole than ABCB and MOCB. Outdoor
A 245 kV circuit-breaker has generally one or two interrupters per pole [Refer Fig. 7.7 (a)].
S"Fs CB is simple less costly, maintenance fre: and compact. . .
Configuration of 420 kV SF6 circuit-breakers follows same philosophy but it has either two or
(Z) The gas is non-inflammable and chern1call:y stable. The decornpos1t10n products are not ex-
four interrupter per pole depending upon the design, rated breaking current. losive. Hence there is _no dange~ of fire _or e_xplos10n. . . *
p (3) Sarne gas is recirculated m the circmt. Hence reqmrernent of SF6 gas 1s srnal~. ..
7.8. DOUBLE PRESSURE DEAD TANK SF6 C.B. (NOW OBSOLETE) ;," (4) Ample overload margin. F?r the same s!ze of co~duc_tors, the current carrymg a~Jihty of
~F's circuit-breakers is about 1.5 times that of air blast circmt-breakers because of superior heat
Double-pressure type of SF6 circuit-breakers were developed by Westing-house USA during
l950's. The double pressure SF6 circuit-breakers had a disadvantages that at higher pressure (1 transferability of SF6 gas. . . . . .
2 .{ .(5) The breaker is silent and does not make sound hke air-blast-circmt breaker durmg opera-
kg/crn : heaters were necessary during lower ambient temperatures (below 15°C). Secondly, th
design was complicated and costly. tion. · · by rn01s · t ure, dus t , sand et c. N o cos tl y
•.••. · (6) The sealed construction avoids the contarnmat10n
The gas follows a closed circuit. An auxiliary tank or gas reservoir contains SF6 gas at a pres- compressed air system like ABCB. . .
2 ; ; (7) The maintenance required is minimum. The breaker may need rnamtenance once m four
sure of about 14 kg/crn . During the arc extinction the gas from high pressure ch11rnber is adrnitte
to the low pressure chamber by opening of a valve. The arc is extinguished and the gas prevent .toJen years. . . . .
restriking of arc. The compressor pumps back the excess SF6 gas from the low pressure chamber ·.· , (8) Ability to interrupt low and high fault c_urr~nts, rnagnetismg currents, cap:ic1tive c_urre_nt,
·.· ithout excessive over-voltages. The SF6 gas circmt-breaker can perform the various duties hke
back to the high pressure chamber.
fi~aring short-line faults, opening unloaded transmission lines capacitor switching transformer,
The operating mechanisms are pneurnatfo or electro-hydraulic. reactor switching etc. much smoothly. . . . .
The breaker has three identical poles. . . (9) Excellent insulating arc extinguishing physical and chemical properties of SF6 gas 1s the
Referring to Fig. 7.8 the SF6 gas system is as follows. The gas from compressor (not shown i g1:eater advantage of SF6 breakers.
the figure) is let into the auxiliary high pressure reservoir 11 through inlet 3. From this reservoir (10) No frequent contact replacement. .
it is admitted in main SF6 reserv~ir 8 at pressure of about 14 kg/crn 2 • The gas is admitted int Contact corrosion is very small due to inertness of SF6 gas. Hence contacts do not suffer ox1da-
arc extinction chamber 5, just before contact separation. The gas comes in the L.P. cylinder 10.
(11) No over-voltage problems.
1. Connection terminals:
2. Bushing Due to particular properties of SF6 gas the arc is extinguished at natural current zero without
3. SF6 inlet 14kgf/cm2 Smrrent chopping and associated over-voltage originating in circuit-breakers.
4. SF6 outlet 2 kgf/cm2.
......... iv, SOME DEMERITS OF SF 6 CIRCUIT-BREAKER
5. Arc extinction chamber.
6. Operating links. - Sealing problems arise. Imperfect joints load to leakage of gas.
7. Lower insulator Arced SF6 gas is poisonous and should not be in inhaled or let-out.
.S-F1, 8. Main SF6 reservoirs 14 kgf/cm 2 •
- Influx of moisture in the breaker is very harmful to SF6 gas circuit-breakers. Several failures
9. Activated alumina
are reported due to this cause.
,..__J~~~:i~~S;:=;~°;{~ 9
-.... 11. Auxiliary H.P. reservoir
2
10. Low pressure chamber 2 kgf/cm , at earth potential.
- Mechanism of higher energy level is necessary for puffer type SF6 breakers. Lower speeds
due to friction, misalignment can cause failure of breaker.
,, - The internal parts should be cleaned thoroughly during periodic maintenance under clean,
dry environment. Dust of Teflon and sulfides should be removed.
Fig. 7 .8. One pole of a double pressure, dead tank type SF6 C.B. ~ Special facilities are needed for transporting the gas, transferring the gas and maintaining
the quality of gas. The deterioration of quality of the gas affects the reliability of the SF6
The current enters from 1, and leaves from terminal. The contacts (not shown) are separate circuit breaker.
in chamber 5. SF6. gas from the low pressure chamber is pumped back by compressor (not shown
to auxiliary chamber.
The current carrying parts are the following : SF s FILLED LOAD BREAK SWITCHES
The terminals 1, 1 are connected to the neighbouring equipment. From 1, the conductors are remarkable arc extinguishing properties of SF 6 can be exploited for various switching
taken through bushings 2, 2. The arc extinction chamber (5) is multi break type and is located fN!UiJ~menlcs such as load break switches, starters, controllers etc. The first SF6 interrupter contain-
centrally in the tank. The chamber housing is made of dielectric material and the chamber i~
mounted on insulator supports. SF6 gas at 3 atrn. was built in 1953 which had a sealed chamber. The arc was drawn by moving
The moving contacts are pulled apart from the fixed contacts by means of insulating links. At.
the same time valves on the high pressure· cylinders are opened and the gas from high pressure * One triple, pole 145 kV SF6 C.B. requires only about 30 kg of SF6 gas for first filling. No replacement is
tank flows towards the low pressure reservoir through nozzles. The arc is extinguished by has flow. required for five years.
108 SULPHUR-HEXAFLUORIDE (SFG) CIRCUIT BREAKER 109
the contact and at the same time SF6 gas flowed closed to the arc by virtue of a piston and cylinder 1,14, ADVANTAGES
arrangement. These load break switches rated from 15 to 161 kV and the break current of 600 A (a) Compactness. The space occupied by SF 6 installation is only ahout 10% of tha~ of~ conven-
at 0.5 to 1 power factors. Transformer magnetising current can be easily interrupted by SF switches,
6 tional outdoor sub-station (Refer Fig. 7.6). High cost is partly compensated by savmg m cost of
The capacitor banks can be switched off easily with SF6 switches.
space. , .
(b) Protection from pollution .. The moisture, pollution, dust e~c., have httle mfluence_ on SFa
7.12. GAS MONITORING'AND GAS HANDLING SYSTEMS
d b stations However to facilitate installation and mamtenance, such substat10ns are
SFa circuit breakers are provided with gas monitoring system. The gas monitoring system com. insu1a t e hsuused
- inside · a small building.
' The construction of the bm'Id'mg nee d no t b e very st rong
genera11Y 0
prises temperature compensated pressure switches. like conventional power houses.
Provision for filling and removing gas, provision for
(c) Reduced Switching overvoltages, The overvoltages while closing and opening line, cables
heating the gas etc. The pressure switches are arranged
fuotors capacitors etc. are low.
such that for a certain reduction in pressure an alarm
is sounded and for further reduction in pressure the cir- (d) Reduced Installation Time. The principle of buildin~-block constr:1ction (~odular construc-
cuit-breaker gets locked. {ion) reduces the installation time to a few weeks. Conventional sub-stations reqmre a few months
The gas handling unit is used for filling the SF6 gas for installation.
in the breaker and for reclaiming the SF6 gas from the S· (e) Superior Arc Interruption. SF 6 gas is used in the circuit-breaker unit for arc quenching. This
breaker. The gas handling unit comprises a vacuum t. e of breaker can interrupt current without overvoltages and with minimum acing time. Contacts
pump, a compressor, an auxiliary receiver, gas-filtering h~e long life and the breaker is maintenance free.
units, valves and piping, Before filling the gas the circuit
breaker is evacuated by means of the vacuum pump. (f) The gas pressure (4 kgf/cm2 ) is relatively low and does not pose serious leakage problems.
After achieving a certain degree of evacuation, the gas , (g) Increased Safety. As the enclosures are at earth potential, there is no possibility of accidental
from gas cylinders is filled into the circuit breaker. !}Ontact by service personnel to live parts.
Fig. 7.9. Comparison of space requirement
While reclaiming the gas from the circuit breaker, of245 kV substation.
the compressor is used for transferring the gas from the (A) Conventional (B) SF6 Metalclad. 7.15. DEMERITS OF SF 6 INSULATED SWITCHGEAR
circuit-breaker to the auxiliary receiver. (a) High cost compared to conventional outdoor sub-station.
(b) Excessive damage in case of internal fault. Long outage periods as repair of damaged part
Part III-SF6 GIS
at site may be difficult.
7.13. INTRODUCTION TO SF6 SWITCHGEAR (GIS) (c) Requirements of cleanliness are very stringent. Dust or moisture can cause internal
flashovers.
SFa gas insulated metalclad switchgear is also called Gas Insulated Substation (GIS) and is (d) Such sub-stations generally indoor. They need a separate building. This is generally not
preferred for 12kV, 36kV, 72.5kV, 145 kV, 245 kV, 420 kV and above. In such a substation the required for conventional outdoor sub-stations.
various equipment like circuit-breakers. Bus bars, Isolators, Load break switches. Current-t;ans-
formers, Voltage transformers, Earthing switches etc. are housed in separate metal enclosed (e) Procurement of gas and supply of gas to site is problematic. Adequate stock of gas must be
modules filled with SFs gas. The SF6 gas provides the phase to ground insulation. As the dielectric
strength of SF6 gas is higher than air, the clearances required are smaller. Hence the overall size
of each equipment and the complete sub-station is reduced. GENERAL CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF SF5-GAS INSULATED
SWITCHGEAR (GIS) (Fig 7.10)
The various modules are factory assembled and .are filled with SF6 gas. Thereafter, they are
taken to site for final assembly. Such sub-stations are compact and can be installed conveniently In this type of switchgear, SF6 gas at a pressure above atmo~phe_ric pre~sur~ (5 or 6 kg/cm 2 )
on any floor of a multi-streyed building or in an underground sub-station. used as a dielectric insulating medium as well as for arc quenchmg m the circmt breaker cham-
As the units are factory assembled, the installation time is substantially reduced. Such instal•
The pressure in the C.B. chamber is generally higher. Its range of application extends from
lations are preferred in composition cities, industrial townships, hydro-stations-where land is very ratings of 7.2 kV upto 800 kV.
costlz and higher cost of SFa insulated switchgear is justified by saving to reduction in floor-area The main components of GIS (Fig 7 .10 a-e) are bus-bars, circuit breakers, disconnect01:s
requirement. Usolators), earthing switch, instrument transformers (Current Transfo~m~rs, Ele~tro-mag~etic
SF6 insulated switchgear is also preferred in heavily polluted areas where dust, chemical fumes Voltage Transformer) surge arrestors, Insulators, Interfaces & other momtormg devices con~amed
and salt layers can cause frequent flashovers in conventional outdoor sub-stations.
<fo an enclosure fill~d with SF 6 gas. GIS is generally subdivided into separately momtored-
zones/modules like circuit breaker, main bus, termination, voltage transformers, etc.
* Normal Pressure: 5 to 6 kgf/cm 2 gauge •.. The conductors of busbars are fabricated from aluminium tubular sections which are joined
Alarm at : 4.5 kg/cm2 between different sections by usintplug-in-tulip contacts which fit automaticall~ d~ring fie~d .con-
Automatic Trip of Lockout : 4 kgf/cm2 nections. Enclosures are made of non-magnetic material, commonly used material is Alummmm,
\
110 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIOt-1 ,SULPHUR-HEXAFLUORIDE (SF6) CIRCUIT BREAKER 111
stainless steel enclosures are also being manufactured. As the resistance of stainless steel is highe
that of aluminium the losses in stainless enclosures in therefore higher.
The Circuit Breakers have Pneumatic of Hydraulic operating mechanism with one to fo
breakers per pole depending on the voltage & current rating or rupturing capacity. The operatin conductor
Fixed Contact
mechanism of the circuit breaker is designed for adequate capacity which should be enough for tw
close/open operations.
Disconnector-switches/Isolators, as in the case of conventional Air Insulated Switchgear, ar Moving Contact
provided for Isolating the ~ystem/section for Inspection/maintenance of the equipment. These arJ
either pneumatically or D.C. motor operated suitable for three-phase gang operation. They a ·
designed to meet the requirement of breaking capacitive charging, Transformer & React
(wherever provided) magnetization current and the loop current. Insulating Spacer
Earthing or grounding switches are provided for grounding of the switchgear to ensure tha
the accumulated static charges are discharged to earth before start of any inspection or main
tenance work. Two types of earthing switches are commonly provided ; (i) Slow moving & (ii) Hig
speed ; slow moving switches are used where the operator can visually verify that the section
the switchgear or bus to be grounded has been isolated by opening the above mentioned disconne
tors. At such locations such as at bus connections, transformer bushing connections where it is no Operating Rod
usually possible to usually verify that the section has been isolated or can not be isolated, hig
speed earthing switches are used. Provision for automatic opening of these High speed Earthi
Enclosure
Switches exists after complete discharge (1 second to 10 seconds). For locations where groun
switches of either type can not be installed like at the entrance of bushing terminal, the groundin
can be accomplished by using a hot stick. Absorbent
Fig. 7.10 (a) Circuit Breaker

Gos/Air
Bushing
VT E
E
LA
HSGS
LES
OS
ES
Gos/ Air
CT Bushing Interrupting Tonk
Air Receiver
CB
Charging Valve
CT
ES Trip Coil
OS Insulated Operating
Rod
ES
LA
Gos/Oil Auxiliary 0
..
8ushing
Switch ·\ Oil Doshpot
TR ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ 40 m - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ Operating
Operating Rod Closing Spring
SECTION VIEW Piston
Operating Cylinder
- Closing Coil
Fig. 7.10. (Main Components ofGIS)
Fig. 7.10 (b)
112 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIO (SFs) CIRCUIT BREAKER 113
1 . . - - - - - - Mechanism Box
Enclosure
Conductor
Moving
Contact ---tt----->,:-;:_~..__,..,.\...../ Insulating
Spacer
Insulation Spacer Fixed Contact
Moving
Contact
SF6 Gas ----ff--,... Enclosure
r-----tt---Switching Resistor
Fig. 7.10 (e) High speed ground switch
A mechanical indicator fixed to the operating shaft inside the operating mechanism provides
visual means of checking isolator position.
Fig. 7.10 (c) Disconnecting switch Instrument Transformers are metal enclosed cast resin type. They are used to meet the re-
irement of metering. Protection, synchronization etc. These are usually mounted externally to.
inimize the effect of electro-magnetic transient or enclosure current. Externally mounted con-
i'uction also offers ease of installation or dismantling and maintenance.
Digital instrument transformers have now been developed in which electrically measured value
oltage or current) is converted to digital or optical signal while still at high voltage.
Insulators are the key components of the type of switchgear. It is said that the health of the
Enclosure
lS depends on its insulators and purity of SF6 gas. These insulators are made of epoxy resin.
ormally, two types of insulators are used, Tripost or Conical. Tripost or conical insulators are
d to support the conductor to the enclosure. In addition, one or more movable tripost insulators
e ·rigidly attached to the conductor for thermal expansion. Conical Insulators are used as gas
Mechanism Box arriers to divide the system into separate gas zones I modules.
for ES
Surge arrestors are provided to protect the switchgear from high transient voltage and also to
Insulation Moving Contact for OS egulate the duration and amplitude of follow current. The location and number of Surge Arrestors
Spacer based on Insulation Co-ordination studies/ surge analysis. Generally, station type, heavy duty,
F6 gas insulated, gapless, metal oxide (Zno) surge arresters are used.
Fixed Contact for DS terfaces (Fig. 7.11, a, b, c).
Switching GIS has to be connected to Transformer (oil filled bushing), XLPE cable or outdoor transmission
Register - - - - 4 1 - - - - l
nes. GIS connected directly to a transformer requires oil-SF6 transformer bushing to keep the
F6 gas separate from the transformer insulating oil.
Bellows are provide near the transformer bushing to compensate for alignment errors and to
bsorb vibration. For connecting to over-head transmission lines, porcelain gas-to-air bushings are
sed. The cable sealing end is provided to connect the cable, wherever provided. The cabling sealing '
d can accommodate any kind of cable with conductor X-section upto 2000 mm2 . Isolating contacts
Fig. 7.10 (d) Disconnecting and Earthing switch d connection facilities are provided for testing the cables.
114
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECT! pI{UR-HEXAFLUORIDE (SFs) CIRCUIT BREAKER 115
r Transformer lecular) filters. Moisture content, upto 300 ppm can be allowed under exceptional conditions,
SF6 Gas I Bushing Tran'sformer Oil ond the value, the gas needs to be subjected to drying process.
Each bay/module is provided with a Local or Bay Control Cubicle containing all the equipment
ded for control, interlocking, signaling, supervision and auxiliary power supply. The Local Con-
Cubicles (LCC) can be connected to Control Room for remote control and signaling.
,.; . Grounding : IEE - 80 -"Guide for safety in Alternating Current Sub-station Grounding" is
::;ltenerally followed for grounding of the GIS.
\ ,,; / The grounding system to be provided has to limit the potential gradient to acceptable values
>tofassure safe voltage for step & touch, under both normal and abnormal operating conditions ex-
' ternal to the GIS assembly. The design of the grounding shall be such as to secure the requirements
{;6fprotective relaying and also satisfy the provisions necessary for telephone and communication
', :i(acilities. Particular attention is to be given to the bonding and the grounding of metallic high mag-
(a)
i ;Ci riitude enclosures as these enclosures carry high magnitude Induced Currents and these currents
· J}tave to be confined to specific paths so as to avoid circulating currents. Precautions have to be
,:; .taken to prevent excessive currents being induced into adjacent frames, structures or reinforcing
steel and to avoi.d current loops via other station equipment, such as transformers etc.
Partial Discharge Monitoring
Terminal
Partial Discharge (P.D.) monitoring system is provided for high sensitivity monitoring of Partial
Upper Shield
Discharge Phenomenon in GIS to assure high reliability and efficient preventive maintenance ac-
. · tivities.
There are two types of Partial Discharge Monitoring System - On-line and stand alone; Stand
· alone system is preferred. The P.D. monitoring system initiates alarm when the partial discharge
. . level exceeds the pre-set level which varies from 2.0 pc to 5.0 pc. However, this is subject to ex-
penuine regarding interpretation of the measured values.
The system as shown in Fig. 7 .12 consists of external sensors, Measuring unit and Man-
Machine Interface; Connection between the external sensor and the PDM is by screened co-axial
cable. The PDM kit kept as close as possible to the GIS (within 20 m length) and on the mobile
trolley to move easily. The sensor unit is UHF type antenna with a frequency range of 9 KHz to
:1.5 GHz. Measurement unit consists of spectrum analyzer, amplifier unit & switching module. Man-
machine interface consists of a computer and other normal accessories/ devices for data monitoring,
recording and print outs. Other types of mobile partial discharge monitoring systems are also being
manufactured.
(b) Measuring Unil
External Senser ,
(Senstivity: 2pC) i ,_____
Coaxial Cable :
Pre,Arnp.
'
'''
f
GIS
:
I ,....._.._ __
I
I
Enclosure
i Spectrum p C
: Analyzer :\
Fig. 7.11. (c) : ,__

I
__ _, :' ~--~
GIS Spacer L________________ _./ GPIB Connection
7.17. GAS MONITORING
Fig. 7 .12. Overall System Configuration of Stand alone Partial Discharge Monitoring System of GIS
. The operation of GIS depends u o
is, therefore, provided with a P _n the pressure and the purit of th Factory Acceptance Testing
of the gas depends on its denslas ~hns1ty monitoring system. Since rhe r 1e las. ~ach ~IS section GIS equipment should be tested in accordance with ANSI C37.122 and ANSI 037.09 or IEC
set temperature com en Yra er than pressure and densit d e a ive dielectric strength
Leakage of gas does t~ke spalted gl~ density switches ~re p;ovided \vitehpendst on temperature, factory 517. The various tests include:
l t h ace, ,o per-annum 1 k . con acts for alarm a d t . - Rated continuous current thermal test - Short circuit current interrupting test
ow Arra ~, t e gas is automatically admitted th ,ea ~ge is ge?-erally guaranteed. For leakagt f np. - Dielectric withstand tests - Switching impulse tests
cmg causes the decom 't• zoug solenoid valves o very - Lightning impulse tests - Insulator tests
completely into SF6. The d posi 10~1 .0 f th e small amounts of the SF6 . • .. - Mechanical life tests
gas, particularly in the circ:i~~~os~1on groducts react with watel" sf~~:~c~ ;ecom01nes almost - Mechanical bushing test including cantilever loading capability
ea er c amber has to be controll~d Th. . od1s ure con~ent of ~he
• 1s 1s one by usmg drymg
- Pressure tests - Partial discharge tests
- Circuit breaker sound level limits
116
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTI 117
, .\ . UOR!DE (SF,) CIRCUIT BREAKER <es·
Current andchecks
- Nameplate voltage transformer ratio, phase angle and polarity tests 'ii"J1,PHUR-HEXAFL . d at rated current, rated SF6 gas p
;§/ '. . f conductor and enclosure is measure
- Gas leakage tests Temperature rise o b . g thermo couples.
- Resistors, heaters and coil check test of control mechanisms ''" te and at ambient temperature usmgenera11y fi.ollowed in Gas Insulated Switchgear are given
- Control and secondary wiring check and continuity tests ,,'.,$1.l, i ·1 of routine and field ytests
he detai s • 1
- Clearance and mechanical adjustment test .. . A & section B respective y.
- Mechanical tests on operational assemblies ct1on Ratings of GIS Switchgear
- Timing tests on operational assemblies
- Timing tests on operational assemblies
Rated Rated Rated Normal Current A
- Rated low-frequency withstand voltage tests on control and secondary wiring BII, KV INT, KA
- Gas monitoring system alarm contact test
- Finish requirements 550 12.5 800 1250
- Stored energy system tests
- Interlocking operation tests 20 1250 1600 2000
Field Acceptance 1'esting 25 1250 1600 2000
Field acceptance testing is performed in accordance with ANSI C37.122 or IEC 517 asap, 40 1600 2000
plicable on the completely assembled GIS assembly. The following tests are included : 145 650 12.5 800 1250
- Gas leak or tightness check - Operational tests
-- Continuity
Gas moisture tests - Grounding tests 20 1250 1600 2000
tests
- Current transformer ratio and polarity tests 25 1250 1600 2000
- Voltage transformer ratio and polarity tests 31.5 1250 1600 2000 3150
- Voltage tests on control and auxiliary circuits
40 1600 2000 3150
LOSS MEASUREMENT & TEMPERATURE RISE TESTS OF CONDUCTOR AND
ENCLOSURE 50 2000 3150
Loss Measurement Test 170 750 12.5 800 1250
When current flows through the conductors, it induces emf in the enclosure resulLng in the 20 1250 1600 2000
circulation of current in the enclosure. This loss in the energy is converted into heat. The magnitude 31.5 1250 1600 2000 3150
of this heat loss depends on current flowing through the conductor, the clearance between conductor.
40 1600 2000 3150
and enclosure, the material & thickness (Resistance) of the enclosure. The loss, both in conductor
& enclosure, have to be kept within such limits so as not to cause temperature rise more than al- 50 1600 2000 3150
lowed by the relevant applicable standards. The value oflosses and temperature rise are generally
to be guaranteed by the manufacturer and hence are verified by the Purchaser. 245 1050 20 1250 1600 2000
The(i)following two methods 31.5 1250 1600 2000
Watt-meter method are employed for measurement of conductor and enclosure losses.
40 1600 2000 3150
(ii) Resistance measurement using DC source Nol =t
No2 --r-r--r-i-- 300 1050
50
16 1250 1600
2000 3150
l 2
20 1250 1600 2000
31.5 1600 2000 3150
50 1600 2000 3150
362 1175 20 2000
5
31.5 2000
40 1600 2000 3150
,r~.
420 1425 20 1600 2000
6
31.5 1600 2000
40 1600 2000 3150
Double-bus type 420 kV GIS (Layout-Plan)
1. Busbar disconnector, 2. Busbar disconnector, 3. Maintenance earthing device 50 2000 3150 4000
9 '
4. Current transformer, 5. Circuit breaker, 6. Voltage transformer, 7. Line 525 1550 40 2000 3150
disconnector, 8. Line earthing switch, 9. Cable sealing end. Single linP diagram
765 2100 40 2000 3150
Fig. 7.13.
118 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION SULPHUR-HEXAFLUORIDE (SFs) CIRCUIT BREAKER 119
".18. GAS FILLING AND MONITORING SYSTEM FOR SF6 SWITCHGEAR Functions of SF6 Handling Unit
1. On initial start up, the unit evacuates itself.
. 'dGas
d · tightness is basic requirement of SF6 insulated sub-stati'ons . Th e en t·11.e su b-s t a t·10n 18
·
d1v1
. . compartments · The gas• pressure 1·n each co mpar t men t 1s
e mto separate · mom't ore d separate- z. The unit is connected, by means of a flexible hose, to the equipment to be serviced. After
~y. The gas momtormg ~ystem comprises temperature compensated pressure switches. The setting equalisation of pressure between the transfer unit and equipment, the SF6 is pumped to the storage
m suth th ~t when density of gas (relat~d w~th temperature and pressure) reduces below safe level, tank of transfer unit. The refrigeration system is energized to obtain liquefaction of the SF6 gas.
an a arm is sounded. Further reduction m pressure gives a tripping command Normally the 3. The vacuum pump is energized ensuring complete transfer of SF6 gas to storage tanks.
leak~ge r~te should be less than 1% per year. For leakage of very low rate, the setting of density 4. After maintenance the transfer-unit evacuated the service equipment prior to charging with
momtors is such that the gas from SF6 gas cylinders is automatically admitted in the modules to SF6 gas.
rak:-up th e loss. The gas filling system consists of high pressure tank (6 to 10 kgf/cm 2 for circuit 5. The tank heater is energized to boil off the SF6 gas and recharge the equipment. This is for
rea er modules and low pressure tank for other modules. When gas pressure in the modules dro ; low ambient temperature.
down the ga~ from tank is automatically admitted by solenoid valves. The SF gas from cylinde~s 6. If the transfer unit is equipped with an SF6 purifier and gas dryer the gas is processed prior
6
can automatically go to tanks on opening the valves and regulators. to recharging the serviced equipment by internal circulation through filters.
Typical Rating's of SF 6 Insulated Switchgear (GIS) .Features
Rated Voltage kV - Transfer, stores, reclaims, and purifies 99.5% of the SF6 gas.
36 72 145 245 400 500 - No lubricating oil contamination. All transfer units contain exclusive 4-step oil separation
Rated currents Amp. 1200 to 1200 to 2000 to 2000 to 2000 to 2Q00 to process.
2000 2000 3000 4000 4000 4000 - Automatically controlled refrigeration system.
Rated Breaking CUITent kA 32 32 32 50 50 50 - Convenient central control panel. All switches, gauges and instruments located for case of
Breaking capacity MVA 1800 3500 operation.
7500 10,000 35,000 50,000
Operating Time Cycles 3 3 - Hand valves conveniently grouped on either side of control panel.
3 2.3 2 2
Power frequency Voltage 75 - Trailer mounted for portability. Can be towed.
160 275 460 680 840
withstand kVrms The gas handling unit is used for filling the SF 6 gas in the breaker and for reclaiming the SF6 gas
Impulse Voltage withstand from the breaker. The gas handling unit comprises a vacuum pump., compressor, an auxiliary receiver,
170 400 550 1050 gas-filtering units, valves and piping. Before filling the gas, the circuit-breaker is evacuated by means
kVµ, peak 1425 1800
of the vacuum pump. After achieving a certain degree of evacuation, the gas from cylinders is filled into
the circuit-breaker.
7.19. TRANSPORTATION AND HANDLING OF SF GAS Gas transfer units for SF6 gas are available is various forms for various applications.
6
1. Simple gas transfer unit comprises only a vacuum pump with valves. It is useful in evacuat-
The SE6 gas is transported liquid form in cylinders of various sizes (15 kg, 40 kg and 100 kg). the circuit-breaker to remove moisture and air. Such a unit is sufficient in most of the cases
Thhe gthas cyhl'nd~r has a valve on the top. When this valve is manually opened the SF6 is released only a few circuit-breakers are installed.
th roug e va ve m gaseous fi · Tl ' 2. Medium gas transfer unit. This comprises a vacuum pump compressor and valves with
from atmosphere, In cold coun~:.:~ it 1e necessary heat for conversion from l_iquid _to gas is taken piping. It can perform the following functions:
convert liquid into gas Buts h h t·bec?mes necessary to keep the gas cylmder m hot water to (a) Evacuating the breaker.
. . · uc ea mg is not necessary in India during summer.
The c1rcmt-breaker is provided w'th 1 (b) Transferring the gas from the cylinder to the breaker.
hose is connected between th 1·1 a gas va ve and gas monitoring system. A braided teflo11 (c) Reclaiming the gas from the breaker into another tank.
filling the gas th . . ·t b e gkas c! mder, gas handling unit and the circuit breaker valve. Before 3. Large Gas Transfer Unit. It has the following components :
, e cucm - rea er 1s evacuat d d th · d ·
inside the breaker. After evacuat d t e an e all' an m01sture must be removed from (a) SF6 gas compressor
!
into the breaker. The pressure o; o ~b~~t m~ of1:1e.rcu~·y, the gas from the cylinder is admitted
desired pressure is reached th gas ml e reha rnr is md~cated on the pressure gauge. When the
(b) Vacuum pump
, e gas va ve on t e breaker 1s closed. (c) Gas storage tank
During periodic maintenance the
. ,
I f s · ·
gas samp e rom F6 cll'cmt breaker is collected and tested
(d) Filter units containing activated alumina.
fior moisture and other impurities (IEC 376) Th · ·
tivated alumina Th t' t d . · e gas is Cll'culated through filters containing ac- 7.21. SF6 INSULATED EHV TRANSMISSION CABLES (GIC)
. ~ ac iva e a 1umma absorbs the impurities like S 2 F 2 SF4 , moisture etc. The
gas can be used agam after regeneration. ' The conventional transmission lines from generating station to receiving-station are outdoor
overhead lines. The connection between the underground power-station and remote outdoor
7.20. GAS TRANSFER UNITS switchyard is generally made by high voltage oil filed cable usually 145 kV or above.
,/
In recent years such connections are made by means of SF6 gas Insulated metal enclosed cables
These are employed primaril t • t· d · (GIC). GIC is preferred for connection between step-up transformer and the outdoor switchgear.
't b k d G. . y o ernc 1011 an mamtenance large SF6 equipment such as cir-
cm - rea ers an IS Durmg th · t · · ·
SF6 gas from thee ui .m e mam ~nance it. is necessary m most instances, to ,remove the The three phases are enclosed in separate enclosures filled with SF6 at 4.5 kg/cm 2 • Conductors are
d . . d q P ~nt. Because SF6 is a relatively expensive gas, it is desirable to collect the supported on epoxy insulators, Fxpansion joints are provided by plug-in contacts. [Fig. 7 .14].
gas urmg perw s of mamtenances and to recharge the equipment after the mai;tenance.
121
SULPHUR-HEXAFLUORIDE (SFs) CIRCUIT BREAKER
120 4. In outdoor ERV range SF CB is the most popular, cheaper and satisfactory type of breaker.
6
It has made MOCBs and ABCBs obsolete.
The puffer cylinder (2) moves towards right (A ➔ B ➔ C ➔) along with the moving contact tube
(3). The gas compressed in (2) is released through conducting tubes (6 - 6) as the art (9) is drawn.
The arc (9) is driven in two directions axially in the tubes (6 - 6). The conducting nozzles at the
tips of conducting tubes (7) made of graphite accelerate the arc roots into the tubes. The arc is
quenched by cooling and lengthening in the tubes. Fresh SF gas between the two fixed nozzles
gives t.he dielectric recovery, the hot gas is driven away.
QUESTIONS
1. Explain briefly the arc extinction process in SF 6 circuit-breakers.
2. Explain the following terms regarding SF6 gas
1. Oil/SF 6 Bushing - Electronegativity
2. GIC - Arc time constant.
3. 90° bend, ball joint Discuss the merits and limitation of SF 6 gas as insulating and arc quenching medium.
4. Expansion joint 3. Explain the principle of puffer type SF6 circuit-breaker.
5. SF6 1 Air Bushing
With the help of sketches explain the configuration of a puffer type SF 6 circuit-breaker.
6, Transformer
6 7. Support insulators 4. Explain the procedure to filling SF6 gas in a circuit-breaker.
5. What are the applications of SF 6 gas?
6, Describe arc quenching process in puffer type SF6 circuit-breaker.
Fig. 7.14. A 420 kV, SF6 Gas Insulated Cable (GIC) SF6 Gas pressure; kg/cmll Absolute [Courtesy Brown Boveri.] 7. Explain precautions to be taken to avoid dust, moisture, leakage in case of SF 6 circuit-breakers.
Summary 8. Explain the difference between a conventional outdoor substation and an GIS.
SF6 circuit-breakers are preferred for rated voltages of3.3 kV, to 760 kV, SF 6 filled switchgear (GIS) Units of Gas Pressure :
~nd cables ( ~IC! are prefer:ed fo~ sub-sta~ions. Puffer type single pressure SF 6 circuit-breakers employ- SI Unit of pressure : 1 Newton per meter-squared
mg puffer prmc1ple ~av~ higher mterruptmg capacity per interrupter (60 kA at 245 kV). 1 Nm- 2
NloVte: l. SF6 circmt-breakers are now preferred for indoor metalclad switchgear rated 3 3·kV .
t o 36 c . (Refer Ch. 15). · Conversion factors :
2
2· SF6 outdoor circuit-breakers are now preferred for rated voltages from 36 kV to 760 kV. 1 atmosphere= 1 atm = 101325 Nm-
3. SF5 GIS has been developed for wide range from 3.3 kV to 760 kV.
1 bar= 105 Nm- 2
2 1 kilogram force = 1 kgf = 9.806 N
1 atm = 101.325 kNm- 2 = 1.01325 bar
1 atm at standard temp and pressure = 760 mm of mercury.
1. A. Fully closed 2
B. Contact separated 1 torr= 1/760 mm of mercury= 133.32 Nm- .
C. Full open
2. Puffer cylinder
3. Moving contact tube
4. Fixed piston
5. Support for 4
I 1 6. Fixed Nozzle
7. Conducing nozzles
r' ·-s P2 l 8. Finger contacts on 3

9. Arc drawn into 6
10. Gas flow
'6
• •
.
..· • - ~ - -
'.' .
- 5 I
Fig. 7.15. Three stages of Puffer Act~on in Interrupter with fixed conducting nozzles.
(Courtesy: Siemens, West Germany.)
SULPHUR-HEXAFLUORIDE (SFs) CIRCUIT BREAKER 123
Surge ,Arrestor Component testing during their manufacture comprise:
_ Pressure test and gas tightness test on enclosures. Each enclosure is subjected to two times
design pressure for 1 minute.
- Dielectric test on barrier insulators e.g. for 420 kV switchgear, ac voltage of680 kV, 50 Hz
7- is applied for 60 seconds.
- Dielectric test on foil insulated grading tubes where ever applicable.
- Each individual Metal oxide disc is subjected to the following routine tests:
Routine, Site/Field Testing of GIS - Loading with high energy (3 x 3 rectangular waves)
- Measurement of residual voltage and rated discharge current
7.22. ROUTINE TESTING OF GIS - Measurement of Watt-loss at 50 Hz Service voltage
P~rpose : The routine tests serve the u . _ Current sharing check on Metal oxide columns in case of multi-column arresters
material, during assembly of component/d .P rpose of know~ng any defects and deviations in (b) Routine Tests on Voltage Transformer
the product is in accordance with thee ui e:ce or m~nufa~turmg faults. These tests ensure that - Induced over-voltage withstand test
the sp~cific environmental & operating~o!di~:!:pec1ficat10_ns/relevant standards and shall meet - Lightning Impulse Voltage Test
or device or on each transport unit or on a c . I . The routme tests are made on each apparatus - Switching Impulse Voltage Test
These Routine T t fi . omp ete bay at the manufacturers works. - Power frequency test on secondary windings
. . es s are per ormed m accordance .th th . .
gmdehnes. Wherever deviations exist b t w1 e prov1s10n of various standards and - Partial discharge measurement test
the results are then mutually agreed b ~ ween hsuch standards, the method and input va:Iues and - Voltage error and phase displacement tests, verification of terminal markings
e ween t e purchaser and the s 1·
The various applicable standards e upp ier. - Pressure test and gas lightness (leakage) test on enclosure
Item/Equipment g nerally followed for main components of GIS is given below:
(c) Routine Tests on each Disconnecting Switch & Earthing Switch
Gas Insulated Switchgear assembl Applicable Standards - Visual inspect.ion, Wiring check
y IEC 60517
- Mechanical operation tests.
IEC 60694 - Measurement of insulation resistance of auxiliary and control circuit
Circuit Breaker IEEE C:37 .122 - Power frequency voltage withstand test on auxiliary, control circuit and main circuit
Disconnecting Switch and Earthing Switch IEC 60056 - Measurement of the resistance of the main circuit
Current Transformer IEC 60129 - Measurement of motor current
IEC 60044-1 - Interlock Test
Voltage Transformer IEC 60185
- Gas leakage test
IEC 60044-2 (d) Routine Test on Current Transformer
Lightning Arrestor IEC 60186 - Visual, Dimensional check including verification of terminal markings
SF6-Air Bushing IEC 60099-4 & IEC 60517 - Polarity check
The main tests generally specified fo v . IEC 60137 - Power frequency withstand test on secondary windings
(a) Routine Test S r anous components are as follows: - Inter-turn over-voltage test
'd IV I son urge Arrester (Metal Oxide Type)
- R es1 ua o tage Test - Determination of errors
- Visual & Dimensional Check - Measurement of excitation characteristics
- Gas leakage test on housing - Secondary winding resistance test
- Insulation Resistance Test - Turns Ratio Test
- Measurement of the operating current at m . . - Composite Error Test
- Leakage Current Test ax. Contmuous Operatmg Voltage High voltage dielectric tests are performed subsequently on these current transformers on their
- Mea~ure1:11ent of Reference Voltage mounting/ integration with GIS module/ Transport Unit.
- Partial discharge measurement test at 1 05 . (e) Tests on SFG•air bushings
Partial discharge levels are d . x max. contmuous operating voltage
(for 420 kV) for 10 seconds. measure at phase voltage x 1.05 after prestressing at 390 kV The following tests in accordance to IEC 137 are performed by the manufacturer.
- SF6 gas leakage tests. - Measurement of the dielectric dissipation factor and the capacitance at ambient tempera-
ture.
(By accumulation method, using gas leak detector) - Power frequency voltage withstand test (dry) for one minute at rated SF6 gas pressureht
20°c ).
124
- Measurement of the partial d' h . SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION SULPHUR-HEXAFLUORIDE (SFs) CIRCUIT BREAKER 125
1sc arge quantity t 1 5 u ,rn
pressure (at 200c ) (value to be 1 th a . x m/v3 and at minimum rated gas sured that the place of testing is dry, clean with adequate ventilation. The test voltages are supplied
G l' ess an 5 pc)
as ightness of cast enclosure by fillin it with. . normally by metal clad test transformers directly flanged to the tested apparatus. During the test,
by vacuum/pressure rise test and sniff~1 t t Hehum gas ~n_d detect any leakage followed the SF6 gas pressure is maintained at its minimum value, test voltages are generally as per the
- Pressure test on enclosure· e h l g ~s son welds & Jomts. following table.
minute. ' ac enc osure is subjected to 2 times design pressure for one
Max. Voltage, (kV) 145 245 420 800
- Pressure test on complete bushing with 1 5 . Applied Voltage at 50 Hz, (kV) 325 440 680 960
- Gas tightness test on complete b h' . x rated operatmg pressure during 15 minute
. us mg s. The test values do vary, e.g. for 420 kV, 520 kV test voltage is also used. The test voltage is
- Res1stance measurement t t . applied for 60 to 72 seconds depending on nominal voltage frequency 50 Hz or 60 Hz.
(f) Routine Tests on Circu'tesB as pker the procedure in IEC 694.
1 rea er Unit The measurement of partial discharge as per IEC requirement is 1.1 x Max. voltage/3. However,
- Check of correct wiring & vi's 1 . . some manufacturers perform with descending voltage at 1.05 x Uml'-IB. The acceptable value of
M ua mspection
- easurement of coil resistance partial discharge is less than 10 pc; The actual values are even less than 3 pc. When testing with
- Mechanical operation & timing test a coupling capacitor, a minimum capacitance of 1000 Fis provided.
- Measurement of minimum operat· Di-electric Tests on auxiliary and Control Circuits
- Measurement of motor current mg voltage and pressure
- Stored energy test The test, as per IEC-694, involves application of 2.0 kV, 50Hz voltage for one-minute between
the auxiliary and control circuits connected together as a whole and the base of the switching device.
- Oil leakage test
Measurement of the resistance of the main circuits
- Safety valve operation test
The test involves measurement of resistance on bus-joints, circuit breaker, disconnectors, ear-
- Measurement of oil pressure switch .
- Measurement of gas density switch oopera~mg pressure thing switch contacts so as to verify proper contact alignment.
- Measurement of insulation r . t peratmg pressure This test is made in accordance with IEC:694; A d.c. current is passed across the said contacts
es1s ance ofma· • •t .. .& voltage drop measured to calculate the contact resistance.
- Voltage test of auxiliary and control circuit m Cll'cu1 ' aux1hary circuit and control circuit
- Power frequency voltage withstand t Resistance value of close and trip solenoid coils and their series resistors are measured by digi-
(g) Routine tests on assembl d/fr est on the main circuit .tal multi meters and value obtained compared with the specified limits.
- Visual Inspection e ansport Section · Gas density Test
- Gas leakage test This is an important test to determine the dielectric integrity of the switchgear, gas density is
- Operating Mechanism fluid leakage test measured at rated pressure and ambient temperature.
- Measurement of the resistance of the . . . Pressure Tests
- P mam c1rcu1t .
ower frequency voltage withst These tests are undertaken on GIS enclosures and barrier insulators.
- Partial discharge test and test on the mam circuit . Enclosures: The tests are done as per IEC 517. However, the general practice is to subject the
-Po~er frequency voltage withstand test o .. 'enclosure to 2 times design pressure for 1 minute. ·
cubicle n auxihary and control circuit of Ba (L l) Barrier Insulators : These insulators are routine tested with water pressure at 1200 kpa for 1
c . . Y oca control
- orrect w1rmg & interlock test ... minute.
- Measurement of gas density switch o . ··(las leakage tests
- Mechanical operation test peratmg pressure
This test is performed as per IEC-517 and is intended to verify that the leakage of the gas is
- Corrosion protection test ,·W.ithin the permissible limits i.e. less 1-percent per annum.
Whe~ tes_ting according to IEEC 37 122 In the above test, vessels are checked on porosity by filling with Helium gas and detecting the
tests on c1rcu1t breakers (ANSI/IEEE C3.7 09 for pressure tests on enclosures and for t t' .. Jeakage of the gas by appropriate detectors; Subsequently, the vessel or transport unit is evacuated
count. Also, following additional test w1'll · 1 -lh979) some deviations may have 'to be takepr~ etc rnn
a so ave to b •d n m o ac- \t~ less than 100 Pa pressure, then the vacuum pump is disconnected and pressure rise observed;
- Current transformer and 1· e carne out. 'ihe equipment is then filled with SF6 gas at rated pressure and sniffing tests are made on each
mear coupler t fi
. f:. description of the procedure bein follo . ra~s armer tests as per ANSI C 57. joint, flanges, screw joints, gas fittings, welded seam etc. to verify/smell any leakages. Other
is bnefl~ described hereunder: g wmg with regard to important tests as indicated above method, called the accumulation method involves wrapping of plastic sheets around the mutually
agreed locations of flanges, screw joints, gas fittings and notice any accumulation of gas in the plas-
1. Visual Inspection. The complete ha s . . .
c~ecks are made as per the layout draw. y ;hh1ppmg sect10ns are visually inspected Di . I Jic wraps which are left wrapped for 12 to 15 hours. The gas contents, if any, are measured by gas
with the drawings. mgs. e name plate markings are check d . dmens1ona · leakage detector.
e an compared
2. Power frequency voltage tests on th . . Mechanical Operation Test
measureme~t. They are made on com lete e ma~n c1r~uit, including partial dischar e The intent of the above tests is to ensure that the switching devices comply with the stipulated
transport units or complete bays in ac~orda:~::~~tu;~~c~udmg at least one insulator of each ty!e operating conditions and that the mechanical interlocks and switching devices operate, open/close
. 94, IEC 517 & IEC 60. It has to be en- Properly within the specified limits of auxiliary voltage, pressure etc..
126 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION SULPHUR-HEXAFLUORIDE (SF6) CIRCUIT BREAKER
/Each switching device is subjected to a minimum of 50 operating cycles with the interlocks _ Correctness of all apparatus and of their installation
pliced as per the requirement; for each switching devices details are as under: - Wiring check
Circuit-breaker _ Dielectric Tests on aux. & control circuits
The tests are performed as per IEC 60056. A minimum of 50 close/open operations are made _ Check of main circuits
1
at ambient room temperature and at different operating mechanism pressures. _ Completeness check
Switching times are measured and the time travel diagr~m is recor~ed, ~moothness of the cir- - Safety check while handling/transport
cuit open/close operation at different pressures of the operatmg mechamsm 1s also checked.
6hecks/Tests on CTs
Timing Test of Circuit Breaker
Closing time, opening time, asynchronisation time of the three poles and operating system pres- ;,, Polarity of the CTs is checked by inductive method; For power frequency withstand test on
sure drop after each operation at different pressures & control vo~tages are !11easured. Also, recharg- ,Jsecondary windings, a voltage of 3000 volts, 50 Hz is applied for 60 seconds between secondary
ing time of the hydraulic mechanism after one closing and opemng operat10n at rated pressure ar ·windings and earth as per IEC-60044-1, 60185; To verify the inter-turn voltage requirements, rms
measured and compared with the permissible limits .. .Value equal to rated primary current at rated frequency is applied for one minute to the primary
"winding of the CT, with secondary open circuited so as to produce stipulated value (4.5 kV peak)
Also, minimum DC control voltage at which the gas circuit breaker can be elec_trically operat ,;6fvoltage at secondary terminal.
is measured to see that the CB operates at minimum DC auxilia~ voltage. 1:h1s operation. t
shall preferably be carried at minimum pressure of the operatmg mechamsm (Hydrauhc With primary winding open circuited, a voltage equal to ten times the r.m.s. value of the
'.;specified e.m.f. is applied for one minute to the secondary terminal provided that the r.m.s. value
Pneumatic).
.. 0fthe secondary current does not exceed the rated current and CT is checked for withstanding the
The CB shall also be tested for stored energy under the specified operating seque~ce _witho ••. 5>£applied test voltage (Applicable to PS-class CTs).
oil pump operation. The operating system has also to be tested for leakage test by settmg it at t · · ".iIJetermination of errors
rated pressure and other pumps switched off. The drop in pressure shall be measured after o
hour. Then the pump shall be run continuously and operating pressure of the safety valves check Rated Current is passed through the CT to be tested and a standard (authenticated & calibrated
Disconnector and earthing switch the secondary winding current is then compared with the Standard CT & current error and
phase displacement measured and compared with the limits given in IEC 60044-1 & 60185.
The intention is to verify that the disconnectors and earthing switches open and close correctl
Switches and their respective drive mechanisms are normally tested sepa-:a~ely and subseq1:en ,.l\lleasurement of excitation characteristics
together after complete assembly. Ten number operations each. at mm1mum and. maxim, Excitation current is injected to the secondary circuit, With primary winding open circuited;
auxiliary voltage and 50 Nos. at rated voltage are performed for closmg as well as openmg; clos1 ~ :~•E?tcitation current and voltage are measured at typical three points upto excitation current of 1
time of disconnector is also measured. ···£•i1\mp/5
~,,
Amp, as the case may be.
Tests on main circuit components i'.\si?Secondary Winding Resistance Measurement
Normally 70 close/open operations are made. The torque of the motor as well as main circu Resistance values of the secondary winding are measured by digital multi-meters and compared
resistance are measured after completion of 70 operations. ith the design/specified values.
Motor currents drawn at rated voltage, maximum and minimum voltage are also measured.
Tests on drives : The drives are tested under specified torque on simulators :
In this test, 50 close/open cycles each at rated supply voltage and rated pressure of compress
gas; 10 close/open cycles at specified minimum aux. supply voltage, 10-close/open cycles at ma
supply voltage are employed.
After, completion of above close/open cycles, travel times and resistance of electrical parts a
measured.
Tests on Switches
These tests are made either in the factory in case of complete bays as well as site to check th
correct operations.
Tests of Auxiliary Electrical and Hydraulic Devices
The purpose is to verify that the electrical, hydraulic and other interlocks together with c~~t
devices operate satisfactorily and in the pre-determined sequence of operation under all cond1tio
of use/operation and under the limits as specified for auxiliary supply.
The test is made in accordance with IEC-517.
Corrosion Protection Test
The dry film thickness (microns) of the paint (wherever applicable) is measured and compar
with the stipulated values.
Verification of the correct wiring
The purpose is to verify that the wiring conforms with the diagram and prescribed requir
ments.
Wiring of complete bays and integrated control panels is checked which include:
Fig. 7A.1. Site Test (Oscillating Impulse 'l'est).
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION $JJLPHUR-HEXAFLUORIDE (SFs) CIRCUIT BREAKER 129
128
· l\fbisture content testing/dew point measurement of SF 6 gas
Turn Ratio and Composite Error Test
Difference between the rated and actual turns ratio expressed as percentage is checked and r~I 7<SFs gas used.in GIS shall meet the requirement ofIEC 376 (1974) - "Specification and accep-
turns ratio errors obtained as such are compared with the specified limits. '.fal:fce of new sulphur hexaflouride".
The composite error at rated accuracy limit in terms of the percentage of primary currents for j,£ The GIS sealed assembly is evacuated and the gas is filled up to the rated pressure. The as-
different accuracy class of CTs is checked and compared with the specified limits. sembly has to be then tested for moisture content as specified by the manufacturer, in line with
Lightning Impulse, Switching Impulse and Accuracy Tests for Voltage Transformers (VTs) IEC-376.
Three positive and three negative pulses of specified lightning impulse test voltage (1425 kV
for 400 kV) are injected maintaining the SF6 gas pressure at its minimum value. ·
>?~, The tests for detection of moisture content are generally confined to ten percent of the gas com-
p~ttments of different modules ~elected at random. The tests are. done generally after 3-4 weeks
For switching impulse test, fifteen positive and fifteen negative pulses of the specified switchin ajj;e:r filling the compartments with the gas to allow for stabilization of the moisture.
impulse test voltage (1050 kV for 400 kVf are injected keeping the SF6 gas pressure at its minimu
'"' In case moisture content in any of the compartments is found to be more than the admissible
value. •lJiilitS, it is advisable to go for testing of all other compartments.
Voltage error and phase displacement values are measured by comparing the same with
standard VT. \bhecks and verifications
( .•. Other checks and verifications are made to examine the proper functioning of the measuring,
7.23. SITE/FIELD TESTING OF GIS (Refer Fig. 7A.1) ~rotective, regulating equipment, heating & lighting, interlocks and grounding .
Purpose: Immediately after erection and physical check up of various assemblies, GIS is su . '.tf First the individual bays are checked/tested vis-a-vis the above mentioned aspects. 1'his is fol-
jected to various tests to check the di-electric strength of the complete switchgear and also to dete \ fowed by checking of interconnection of the bays. It is important to check that the switching and
any damage during transportation, storage or handling, presence of foreign particles, moisture c w.otor operating devices operate satisfactorily under the maximum and minimum specified limits
tent etc. to avoid the possibility of difficulty in charging the system to its rated max. voltage or ~{;auxiliary and control voltage and operating system works satisfactory under minimum operating
detect the possibility of likely reason of internal fault on commissioning. The site tests are su .·.1>tessure.
plementary to the routine tests. ,.· The interlocks are placed in position as per the approved relevant drawings to examine the
The various main site tests include: . 9peration of the switching devices which is repeated 5 times.
- Mechanical operation on circuit breakers, disconnectors and earthing switches.
Current transformers are checked by current impulses to check the correctness of the polarity
- Measurement of the resistance of the main circuits.
~y buzzer for correct and intact wiring. This check has to be made immediately before mounting
- SF6 gas leakage tests curren_t transformers.
- Moisture content tests Some purchasers, also check and measure the CT ratio and its magnetization characteristic.
- Checks for correct wiring, proper functioning of the interlocks, control, measuring protecti ~his a special testing facility is required and, therefore, purchaser has to consult the supplier
and regulating equipment including heating and lighting. ance. This test is done with CT in mounted position and the current is injected through ear-
- High voltage tests on the main circuit. switches.
Earthing Test ontinuity of grounding connections is very important for GIS. The grounding connections
The aforesaid tests and checks are pursued in line with IEC-517/DIN-VDE0670/IEEEC37, 12 fore, have to be scrupulously checked for electrical continuity. '
Mechanical operation tests on circuit breakers, disconnectors and earthing switche voltage tests on the main circuits
For circuit breakers his t~st is normally made after the switchgear has been fully erected and gas filled at the
- Checking and testing of (i) Pump control, (ii) Locking mechanism, (iii) Switching times dens~ty and moisture content found within the specified limits and successful completion of
main circuit, (iv) Position indicator ther site tests. The test method and the tested voltage need to be agreed upon between the
baser and the supplier. · ·
For disconnectors and earthing switches
- Correct adjustment and indicator position check .The purpose of A.C. HV test is to detect the presence of conducting particles within the
chgear and to detect, to some large extent, abnormal dielectric strength. A successful test in
- 5 number close/open operation of drive motors, measurement of motor current and running tim a~surance about the absence of potentially damaging conducting particles contamination or
Measurement of the resistance of the main circuits •mg components that may cause failure of the switchgear during service. '
Resistance values obtained during routine tests shall be verified during site testing to the exte pe of test voltages : ·
practicable in view of the inaccessibility of live parts after complete erection of the switchgear. Types of test voltages are :-
SF 6 gas leakage test - AC voltage - Oscillating Switching Impulse
These tests shall be carried out on each module separately. - Oscillating lightning impulse - DC voltage
In this test, the gas is evacuated and the rise of pressure noted for about one hour after t }tching Impulse Voltage
shutting off of the vacuum pump; Very fast pressure rise gives an indication ofleak or higher m ·
ture content; If the vacuum test is satisfactory, SF6 is filled in to about 50% of the rated filli Test with switching impulse voltages are useful to detect the presence of contaminations as
as abnormal field configurations. This involves simple test equipment but oscillating switching
pressure, the joints made at site are then checked for any leakage with SF6 gas detector or sniffi ulse voltage is not as sensitive as AC voltage test. Some manufacturers based on their ex-
The pressure is also monitored. If the test is found in order, the equipment is filled with SF6 g . ence employ switching impulses with oscillating wave forms with a time ~rest in the range of
to achieve the rated pressure. All joints, inlets, vents, gas coupling piping etc. are then again check 0 µs to 10 ms.
ed by using gas sniffers.
130 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIO
Osclllating Lightning Impulse
Tests with lightning impulse voltages are especially effective for detection of sharp protrusions;
However, due to risk of flashover, the amplitude of the wave form must be choosen in consultatio
with the manufacturer. Based on the recommendations of the manufacturers, oscillating impuls
voltages with front time upto about 10 µs are suitable.
DC voltages
DC voltages affect the insulator dielectric strength; However, manufacturer have recommended
DC voltage tests only in case where cone insulators also come under the testing zone during the
testing of adjacent cables. Not more than one core insulator is included.
Based on the recommendation& made by experts, following observations are to be noted. Minimum Oil Circuit-Breaker and Bulk Oil
- For lower voltages upto 400 kV, AC voltage may be preferred for field testing; In addition
in case complete bays have been transported and assembled on site, a partial dischar Circuit-Breaker
measurement may also be pursued. The second choice may be to use oscillating switchin
impulse voltage. For this, no partial discharge measurement has been suggested. Bulk Oil or Tank type OCB-MOCB-Arc quenching in oil-Interna_l Source of Extinguishing Energy
Pre-arcing-Description of a 145 kV, MOCB-Modular Construction-Summary
- For extra high voltage (EHV), an additional impulse testing may be considered as back u
to a.c. testing. For EHV, Oscillating lightning impulse testing (10 µs) is generally preferab
to PD measurement as it provides clear evidence of whether any minor defect is potential 8.1. INTRODUCTION
dangerous or not. In ·minimum oil circuit-breakers, dielectric oil is used as an arc quenching m.edium and
- For voltages upto 420 kV, AC voltage test (80% of rated voltage peak for one minute) fo dielectric medium. .
lowed by PD-measurement has been largely recommended. Another method is to use 80 For voltages upto 12 kV, minimum oil circuit-breakers are generally enclosed m draw-out type
percent of rated switching impulse level with a peak of 150 µs. metal-clad switchgear (Refer Ch. 15-Fig. 15.1 b). . .
No partial discharge measurement is required in such case. For 36 kV, 72 kV and 145 kV ratings MOCB's are outdoor type, with one mterrupter per pole
For voltage of 800 kV, the preferable procedure is to use AC voltage testing and oscillating and single opening mechanism for three poles (Refer Sec. 2. 7). . . .
lightning impulse voltage. For 245 kV and above, modular construction is necessary. In such a construct10n, the twin m-
terrupter units are connected in series in Tor Y formation.
Bulk oil circuit-breakers (tank type circuit-breakers) have become obsolete and have been
here in brief.
>nHs1:n11P.11 •
Minimum oil circuit-breakers have the following demerits:
(1) Short Contact Life, (2) Frequent Maintenance (3) Possibility of Explosion. (4) Larger arcing
time for small currents (5) Prone to restrikes.
They are being superseded by SF6 circuit-breakers in all ranges.
TANK TYPE BULK OIL CIRCUIT-BREAKER (NOW OBSOLETE)

Oil circuit-breakers were widely used for rated upto 72.5 kV before 1960.
However the popularity of this breaker is decreasing and it is no more favoured in modern
installation. The tank type circuit-breakers have 3 separate tanks for 72.5 _kV and above .. For 36
kV and below single tank construction is popular. In single tank construct10n phase barriers are
provided between phases. This type of circuit-breaker is used for indoor metal-~lad dr_aw _01;1t type
switchgear upto 12 kV (Fig. 15. la). Above 12 kV, it is us~ally of ?utdoor _type. ~ielectnc 011 1s used
in circuit-breakers as an arc extinction medium as well as msulatmg medmm. It 1s also called trans-
former oil.
4
Fig. 7A.2. Factory testing process.
3
QUESTIONS 1. Tank
2. Operating mechanism 2
1. The function of SF 6 in GIS is
3. Bushing
(a) to act as dielectric medium (b) to act as arc quenching medium (c) to act as cooling medium 4. Terminal
(d) to act as Dielectric medium as well as arc quenching medium. (Ans. d)
2. What are the main difference between High speed and slow moving earthing switches in GIS ?
3. Name common type ofinterfuse required in GIS.
(a) Appearance of a single tank three-phase (b) Appearance of a three phase bulk oil
4. What is the function of partial Discharge monitoring (PDM) system in GIS ? bulk oil circuit breaker circuit breaker with three tanks.
5. Name five field Acceptance Tests ofGIS. Fig. 8.1. Bulk oil circuit-breaker.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION MINIMUM OF CIRCUIT-BREAKER 133
132
The contact separation takes place in steel tanks filled with These causes led to the development of
oil. The gases formed due to the heat of the arc expand and set Minimum oil circuit-breaker. As the name it-
the turbulent flow in the oil. self signifies the minimum oil circuit-
To assist of arc extinction process, arc control devices are breaker requires less oil. The arc extinction
fitted to the contact assembly. These are semi-enclosed cham- >rttedium is dielectric oil, the same as that
ber of dielectric materials. The performance of oil circuit- . u$ed in tank type circuit-breaker. There is no
breaker depends on the effectiveness of arc control devices. steel tank but the arc extinction takes place 1. Fixed Contact
Fig. 8.2 illustrates the tank type will circuit-breaker, in
1
iq porcelain containers. 2. Moving Contact
open positions with the arc not yet extinguished. 3. Current Interruption
The tension rod (7) is raised by operating mechanism (not s:a. MINIMUM OIL CIRCUIT-BREAKER Chamber
shown in the figure) while closing the circuit-breaker. The 4. Supporting Chamber
opening and closing is obtained by lowering and raising the . , This type is also known as poor oil or small 5. Top Chamber
tension rod. As the contacts separate, and arc is drawn. This 111 circuit-breaker. In minimum oil circuit- I 6. Arc Extinction Device
arc is extinguished by the oil and by the gases formed by the . breakers the current interruption takes place 7. Lower Fixed Contact
decomposition of oil. 8. Glass-Fibre Enclosure
iiiside 'interrupter'. The enclosure of the inter- 9. Operating Rod
The arc control devices (5) are normally connected to the rupter is made of insulating material like
fixed contact assembly, such that contact separation takes 10. Drain valve
procelain. Hence the clearance between the live 11. Terminals
place inside this semi-enclosed devices. The gas produced in the
device (4) produces high pressures in it. Thereby the arc ex-
-----------
-- - -- - ---
---------- :Ri;3:Tts and the enclosure can be reduced and 12. Relief valve
tinction is quick. As the moving contacts leave the arc control (a) Plain break bulk oil circuit-breaker,
tJsser quantity of oil require for internal insula- 13. Gas vent
tion. One pole of a 3 pole outdoor minimum oil 14. Operating mechanism
circuit-breaker is illustrated in Fig. 8.3. (not shown)
10. CONIJI/CTOR (COPPEii, Sil VER PLATED)
.,,;. There are two chambers (3) and (4)
.· t'separated from each other, but both filled with
~ BUSHING (POllC€lAIN/STEAT/TE) Oil FILLED / oil. The upper chamber (3) is arc extinction
OR CAPACITOR TYPE ' \,~hamber. The oil from this chamber does not
8. CONDUCTOR COPPER mix with that in the lower chamber. Lower Fig. 8.3. Simplified diagram of an outdoor minimum oil
chamber acts like a dielectric support. circuit-breaker pole with one interrupter pole.
7. TENSION ROO (Fl8RE·6LASSHESIN BONfJfO) 1---- 2165mm ----i
f-- 914mm -J
,...;...,.+-----.
- II .:..: I 6.FIXEO CONTACTS (COPPER)
- - :, 11 ::-:..: ~ S. ARCCONTRfJl OEVICE(RESIN CAST ORFIBREGLASS RESIN HONDEi)) 0 0 0
~J 1
I --.::_ 4. 6AS FORMED BY OECOMPOSITION OF 2. (NYOR06EN 10 Y. a a a
3. MOVIN6 CONTACTS (COPPER)
2. DIELECTRIC Oil. (MINERAi. Oil)
1. T1NK (BOILER Pl.ATES}
.---------- - - --- 4820mm
_.--
____------- ' ----=-·--
- - --
---------
-------- ·--- OUTDOOR
MOUNTING
T. Terminals
M. Mechanism housing
(b) Bulk oil circuit-breaker with arc control device. I. Interrupter (one per phase)
Fig. 8.2. Explaining BOCB. C. Central cabinet
devices, the trapped gas gets released from the arc control device, while doing so, the arc is ex.ti S. Support Insulator
guished by blast effect. Arc control devices are fitted to all modern circuit-breakers rated 3.6 k St. Structure.
and above.
The construction and venting or arc-control devices is such that the gases flow axially or radial·
ly with respect to arc. The major disadvantages of tank type-circuit-breaker are :
1. Large quantity of oil is necessary in oil circuit-breakers through only a small quantity is
2546mm
necessary for arc extinction·. The large quantity is necessary to provide insulation between the live
parts and earthed steel tank. If the container is made of ceramic material, the size of container,
could be made small.
2. The entire oil i9 the tank is likely to get deteriorated duo to sludge formation in the proximity
of arc. Then the entire oil needs replacement. -
3. The tanks are too big, at 36 kV and above the tank type oil circuit-breaker loses its simplicity.· END VIEW
Fig. 8.4. A typical 145 kV out-door minimum oil circuit-breaker.
MINIMUM OF CIRCUIT-BREAKER 135
134 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION p p
Arc extinction device (6) is fitted to the upper fixed contact. The lower fixed contact (7) is ring
shaped. The moving contact (2) makes a sliding contact with the lower fixed contacts. A resin
bounded glass-fibre cylinder (8) encloses the contact assembly. This cylinder (8) is also filled with
oil. Porcelain cylinder (3) encloses the fibre-glass cylinder (8). Other provisions are similar to the
bulk oil circuit-breaker. 1. Fixed constactor assembly.
2. Arc
The operating rod is operated by operating mechanism. The three poles operate simultaneously. 3. Moving contact with
Tungsten-Copper 'l'ip
8.4. PRINCIPLE OF ARC-EXTINCTION ON OIL BREAKERS 4. Fibre Reinforced Tube
5. Gases envolved by decomposition
As the current carrying contacts are separated under oil, the heat of the arc causes decomposi- of oil
tion of the oil. The gases formed due to the decomposition expand, causing increase in pressure. 6. Dielectric oil
The pressure built-up and the flow of gases is influenced by the design of arc-control device speed 7. Outer Enclosure (Porecelain or
of contact travel, the energy liberated by the arc, etc. The gas flowing near the contact zone causing Fibre reinforced Epoxy)
cooling and splitting of the arc. The contact space is filled with fresh dielectric oil after the final P-Piston
arc interruption at a current zero. P-Pressure
Arc control devices are fitted to the fixed contact of minimum oil circuit-breaker.
Arc control devices modify the behaviour of circuit-breakers. These are enclosures of dielectric
material fitted to contacts of the circuit-breaker such that the actual contacts are separated inside
the cavity of the device. At current zero of the wave, the arc diameter is very small and the gas
5 Fig. 8.5. (b).
5
These techniques are used in i;:ninimum oil circuit-breakers to avoid restrikes during switching
(Sec. 3.14.1).
8,5. PRE-ARCING PHENOMENON

The pre-arcing phenomenon is of significance in high voltage circuit-breakers used for closing
,, ,unloaded transmission lines and capacitors. While closing a circuit-breaker, the arc is established
• ,;a~ the contacts come near each other, before the final contact touch. The duration of pre-arcing
·· t· clepends upon the voltage across the interrupter, speed of travel while closing and the dielectric
> strength of the medium. The pre-arcing causes generation of heat and gases. The circuit-breakers
, should be capable of withstanding the temperature stresses and the internal pressures arising
• }:quring the pre-arcing. While closing on the capacitor banks, the prearcing current is characterised
'c>"zPY high frequency and the energy converted into heat during the pre-arcing is significant.
' ; J;>eion Grid
The further development adopted for bulk oil circuit-breakers was that of deion grid. The deion
;· grid consists of insu1ated iron discs of various shapes placed one above the other in the arc control
; :device.
, . The shapes are such that narrow space is available for tear and there are side.vents too. During
· .the contact separation the magnetic material of discs gets magnetized and pulls the arc into the
Fig. 8.5. (a) Techniques of arc Quenching in minimum oil circuit-breakers.
tvents. Additional magnetic field is also provided separately. The arc is thus lengthened, constrained
flow is able to interrupt the arc. The interruption of the arc stops the generation of gas and flow · ·.and cooled. Magnetic type Deion grids interrupter fault currents rapidly and efficiently.
o~ oil. The coi:itact space contains hot ga~es during the brief period after the interruption of arc and
high rate ofnse ofTRV can cause a restnke. To avoid this the contact travel is extended well beyond '\8.s. SENSITIVITY TO TRV
the arc control devices so the fresh dielectric oil filled the contact space after the arc extinction.
The techniques adopted to increase the rate of gain of dielectric strength after final current zero In plain break circuit-breaker the posts zero resistance is generally fairly low (of the order of
are: • .'.J few hundreds of ohm) so that the rate of rise of res triking voltage is damped down to a fairly low
1
- Flushing the contact space by fresh dielectric oil forced into the contact space by means of c"lllalue. The inherent rate of rise of restriking voltage has little effect on behaviour of oil circuit-
piston-action. A piston attached to the moving contact compresses the dielectric oil in a ;;'·;.'breakers. In oil circuit-breakers with arc control devices the post zero resistance of contact space
cylinder. The oil at a high pressure in the cylinder flows into the contact space. ~•r.is relatively high so that there is less damping effect. At low currents, the performance may be
>5':Considerably improved by adopting Resistance Switching. The value of resistance is approximately
- Maintaining the pressure on the oil in the interrupter. If the oil in the interrupter is main·
tained at higher pressure by means of an inert gas, the oil flow into the contact space and equal to 0.5 ..fEc ohms which is of the order of few hundred ohms.
the hot gases travel upwards. Pressure reduces the size of gas bubbles.
136 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION MINIMUM OF CIRCUIT-BREAKER 137
8.7. CIRCUIT-BREAKERS WITH INTERNAL SOURCES OF EXTINGUISHING ENERGY- 5. Springs used for contacts should have gradually rising characteristic i.e. they should be soft.
CRITICAL CURRENT (Refer Sec. 6.4) 6. The contact tips should be replaceable without the need to replace the entire contact.
In oil current-breaker the energy for arc extinction is provided by the short circuit itself, which 7. The contact should not provide what is called "Contact-Grip". In some contacts the electro-
decomposes oil and thereby pressure inside the tank is increased. The characteristic feature of such magnetic forces grip the contacts and oppose the opening process. Hence the opening speed is
breakers is that the amount of extinguishing reduced.
energy depend on the magnitude of current 5 f 8. It is desirable to have separate main contacts and arcing contacts. The resistance of main
to be interrupted. For larger currents (upto ~ contacts is low because of silver plating, the arcing contacts have longer life.
a certain limit) the breaking time is less. For tt 4 The moving contact is invariably a copper rod of cylindrical shape with specially tipped contact
too small currents, the arc extinction is rapid G pieces. The fixed contacts fitted with arc control device, are normally in four or six pieces with spring
because the arc simply breaks on its own; in ~ behind them. These pieces are arranged symmetrically to form a central cavity. The moving contact
oil. Between these limits, there is a range of j:::. 9 is inserted in this cavity (Refer Fig. 8.7).
small currents called "Critical Range" in ~
which the breaking of currents is difficult ~ 2 Summary
and arc duration time is high. In this critical I.J Oil circuit breakers were used for voltage upto 145 kV. This type of breaker has been replaced
range of current the current is not in a posi- (li:
"' by SF6 breakers.
tion to build up enough pressure so as to Oil circuit-breakers use Dielectric oil (Transformer oil) for the purpose of arc extinction. In bulk-
cause rapid arc extinction. The characteristic oil circuit breakers the arc-extinction takes place in a tank; whereas in minimum oil circuit-breakers
of breaking current vs. arc duration in Fig. the arc-extinction takes place in insulating housing enclosed in ceramic enclosures.
/DO- 200 300 400 500 600 700
8.6 explains the phenomenon. The range of For MOCB, rated upto 145 kV single break designs prevail, for higher voltages multibreak
critical current varies with the design of oil BREAKING CURRENT Amp -
designs were common.
circuit-breaker (Refer Sec. 6.4) Fig. 8.6. Arc duration characteristic,
an example (Refer Fig. 6.4). · Modular construction was adopted for minimum oil circuit-breakers of245 kV and above. How-
The typical ranges of critical current are ever SF6 Circuit Breakers are now preferred for entire range of breakers.
between 10 to 20% of rated short circuit-breaker current. Higher arcing time for .smaller breaking
current is a particular disadvantage of oil circuit-breaker.
8.8. CONTACT ASSEMBLY (Refer Sec. 2.18)

As this stage, we will discuss some aspects of contact design. 'J'.he contact, design is influenced
by the type of arc control device.
1. The main contacts should have low contact resistance.
2. Resistance being inversely proportional to the pressure. The contact pressure should be a
propriate. •.
! 3. The contacts should be self-cleaning type, i.e. the layer of copper oxide should be cleaned by
rubbing of contacts.
4. Contact area (true) should be well defined.
1. Contact support
2. Main contacts (Electrolytic-copper with tungsten copper tips)
3. Coiled spring (Phosphor-bronze) ·
4. Moving contact
5. Arcing tip of (4) brazed to (6) (Tungsten-copper)
6. Moving contact stem (Electrolytic copper)
Arrow indicates current path.
Fig. 8.7. Typical finger contact assembly in oil circuit-breakers.

VACUUM INTERRUPTER AND VACUUM CIRCUIT-BREAKER 139
on rated normal current. However for outdoor i.nstallations ihe external insulation requirements
must be fulfilled and the advantages of high dielectric strength of vacuum cannot be fully utilised.
Some recently developed 36 kV-GIS utilize SF6 gas as an insulation and vacuum-interrupters for
arc-interruption. Such GIS are commercially manufactured in India (1995). Vacuum Switchgear
has been described in Sec. 15.5.
9,2. ELECTRICAL BREAKDOWN IN HIGH VACUUM
V?cuu_m Interrupter and Vaccum The pressures below about 10- 5 mm of mercury are considered to be high vaccum. The charged
particles from one electrode moving towards the other electrode at such a pressure are unlikely to
Circuit-Breaker cause collision with residual gas molecules. Hence ionization by collosion of particles with atoms
and molecules is less in vacuum relative to that in gas.
Introduction. Historical review Electrical Bre . .
Vaccum-Construction of Vacuum Interrupter S akdown m High Vacuum-Arc Extinction in Keeping a small gap (0.5 mm) between electrodes in vacuum if the voltage is gradually, in-
ummary. creased at a certain voltages the gap breaks down and current increases suddenly, this phenomenon
9,1. INTRODUCTION is called Vacuum Breakdown or Vacuum Spark.
Pressure remaining constant, the nature of the characteristic depends on the surface condition,
When_ two current carrying contacts are sparated in a . material of electrodes.
them. An mtensely hot spot is created at th . t t vacuum module, an arc is drawn between Secondary emission takes place by bombardment of high energy on the surface of electrodes.
f
shoot off, constituting plasma. The amou i~s an of~ontact separation from which metal vapour Next, the electron emission takes place from the surface of the electrodes by virtue of intense heat.
vapour emission from the electrodes henn ~ ~~our m the plasma is proportional to the rate of The current leaves the electrodes from a few spots. The current densities are high at these spots.
current decreases during a portion of wav:.eanod te:;rc current. With alternating current arc, the The arc consists of a thin column of plasma. The core of the arc has high temperatures of the order
tends to zero and the amount of plasma tend t s to zero. Thereby the rate of vapour emission of 6000°K to 15,000°K. At such temperatures the emission takes place from the surface of the
metal vapour condenses and the dielectri s ~zero.Soon_ after natural current zero, the remaining electrodes, called Thermal Emission Summarising electron emission from the contact is the cause
prevented. c s rength bmlds up rapidly, and restriking of arc is for arc formation in a vacuum switching device. The electron emission takes place in various ways
such as Field Emission. Thermal Emission, Secondary Emission etc.
This principle is used in vacuum circuit-breakers. Table 9.1. Voltage Withstand values of 24 kV Vacuum Interrupters
The :7acuum circuit-breaker comprises one or mor .
Contact Gap mm 2 5 10
The m_ovmg contact in the interrupter is connected e s_ealed ~acuum-mterrupter units per pole.
operatmg-mechanism. The contact travel is of th dto msulatmg .o~erating rod linked with the Power frequency withstand kV rms 40 80 100
of the contacts within the sealed interrupte ·te· or er o_f a few millimetres only. The movement Impulse withstand kV*
Th r um is permitted by metal b 11 80 150 200
e range of vacuum switching devices includes . - e ows.
- Vacuum interrupters rated 3 6/7 2/12/36 kV fi . . *Limit of impulse withstand by external flashover.
- Vacuum interrupters rated 1 ' 213 ' kV£, ~r mdoor metalclad switchgear (Ch. 15). (a) Conditioning of Electrodes
617 ·2
acuum interrupters rated 3 6/7 2/36 kV£,or mdoor metal encl osed control gear (Ch. 15).
· · 1
- V If vacuum gap is continuously sparking over, the breakdown voltage increases and then reaches
I . . b . .
P er po e, c1rcu1t- reaker (Fig. 9.8). ior outdoor procel . h d . . a value when the gap is conditional. Thereafter the spark-over voltage remains consistent.
am ouse ' smgle mterrupter
- Multi-interrupter outdoor porcelain-ho d . . (b) Material of Contact and Surface Finish
obsolete). For 72.5 kV and above vacuu:ec· c1r?~~-breakers for 72.5 kV and above, (Now The creep of material, occluded gases in the material and the chamber create special problems
36 kV. 1rcu1 reakers are not used for Voltages above in vacuum circuit breakers.
The structural configuration of the sw·t h . (c) Dielectric Recovery after Sparking
basic interrupter unit is based on same p1~:c•gfar fment10~ed above is quite different, through the The vacuum gap regains its dielectric strength at a rate of about 20 kVlµs after a spark over.
F It ip e o operat10n
or vo ages upto 36 kV, vacuum circuit breakers .. . The rate of recovery depends upon design features of the interrupter.
be?ome extremely popular for metal-encl d 't employmg ts single interrupter unit have (d) Effect of Contact Material
sw1tc~gear in generating stations and othero::du::.~a~~e~~ ar_c-furnace installations, auxiliary The breakdown alternating voltages for the eame vacuum pressure and the same contact gap
Smgle Phase 25 kV 25 kA V . . PP .1cations. vary with the contact materials.
fi ·1 ' acuum C1rcu1t-breaker hav· t .
or ra1 way track-side 25 kV Single Phase b t t· mg wo mterrupters per pole are used (f) Insulation strength
merits sueh as h'• igh speed of dielectric recove
su s aftwns . Vacuum
. s. w1·tch'mg d ev1ces
· have several
repeated operations, simple operating mechan·ry a £er ~ap1d and silent operations, suitability for The insulation strength of vacuum can be determined by applying the d.c. voltage till break-
of life etc. Isms, ree om from explosion, flexibility design, long down occurs. The insulation strength is given by the average of the highest voltage at which no
spark occurs and the first value of voltage at which spark does occur. The insulation strength
The unique merits of vacuum interrupters are s depends on the material of contact surface.
parts. The vacuum interrupters have aver I l 'fimall contact travel and less weight of moving The dielectric strength of vacuum is relatively high and therefore, a small contact travel is
y ong l e of the order of several thousand operations usually enough to withstand the recovery voltage.
141
VACUUM INTERRUPTER AND VACUUM CIRCUIT-BREAKER
9.3. ARC EXTINCTION IN VACUUM INTERRUPTERS

The arc interruption process in vacuum interrupters is quite diferent from that in other types
of circuit-breakers. The vacuum as such is a dielectric medium and arc cannot persist in ideal
vacuum. However, the separation of current carrying contacts causes the vapour to be released
from the contacts giving rise to plasma. Thus, as the contacts separate, the contact space is filled
with vapour of positive ions liberated from the contact material. The vapour density depends on 1. Enclosure Glass.
the current in the arc. During the decreasing mode of the current wave the rate of release of the 2. Eng Flanges. Non-magnetic metal.
vapour reduces and after the current zero, the medium regains the dielectric strength provided 3. Contacts.
vapour density around contacts has substantially reduced. 3 4. Vapour condensing shield.
5. Metallic Bellows.
While interrupting a current of the order of a few hundred amperes by separating flat contacts 6 6. Seals.
under high vacuum. The arc generally has several parallel paths, each arc-path originating and 7. Fixed contact stem.
sinking in a hot spot of current. Thus the total current is divided in several parallel arcs. The paral- 8. Moving contact stem
lel arcs repel each other so that the arc tends to spread over the contact surface. Such an arc is
called diffused arc. The diffused arc can get interrupted easily.
At higher values of currents of the order of a few thousand amperes, the arc gets.concentrated
on a small region and becomes self-substained arc. The concentrated arc around a small area causes
rapid vaporisation of the contact surface. 2
The transition from diffused arc to be concentrated arc depends upon the material and shape Fig. 9.1. Cross-section of a typical 15 kV vacuum interrupter.
of contact the magnitude of current and the condition of electrodes. The interruption of arc is pos~
sible when the vapour density varies in phase with the current and the arc remains in the diffused magnetic field set-up by the components of currents with such a geometry .causes the plasma
state. The arc does not strike again if the metal vapour is quickly removed from the contact zone, arc to move rapidly over the contacts instead ofremaining stable at oneyomt. The co~centra-
of the arc is thus prevented and the arc remain in diffused state. The smtered material used
Thus the arc-extinction process in vacuum circuit-breaker is related to a great extent to the
'" "1fn,.rnr,r.l-lr.r. tip is generally copper-chromium or bismuth alloy.
material and shape of the contacts and the technique adopted in condensing the metal vapour. The
contact geometry is so designed that the root of the arc keeps on moving so that the temperatur 4. Vapour Condensing Shields
at one point on the contact does not reach a very high value. These metallic shields are supported on insulating housing such that they cover the contact
The rapid building up of dielectric strength after final arc extinction is a unique advantage of egion. The metal vapour released from the contact surface during arcing is condensed on these
vacuum circuit-breaker. They are ideally suitable for capacitor switching as they can give restrike ields and is preveted from condensing on the insulating enclosure.
free performance.
5. Metallic Bellows
The vacuum circuit-breakers interrupt the small currents before natural current zero causing One end of the bellows is welded to the metal-flange. The other end is welded to the moving
current chopping. However the chopping level depends on material of contact. ntact. The bellows permit the sealed construction of the interrupter and yet permit movement of
contact. Stainless steel bellows are generally used in vacuum interrupters.
9.4. CONSTRUCTION OF A VACUUM INTERRUPTER
The bellows are covered by a protective
- 'Interrupter' is the sub-assembly a complete pole in which the arc interruption takes place,
There are two basic forms of vacuum interrupters. MOVING·C0NTACT
CLA55·CERAMIC
- Interrupter suitable for a single unit per pole. SPUTTER·5Hl£LD BODY
The sealing techniques are similar to FOR BELLOWS \
- Interrupter suitable for multi-unit per pole.
ose used by electronic valve and power-
The interrupter is general consists of the following parts : be manufacturers. These are like metal-
1. Enclosure (Ref. Fig. 9.3) .C:glass, or metal ceramic seals.
The enclosure is made of impermeable insulating material like glass. The enclosure must not In the swithgetirr installation, the interrup-
be porous and should retain high vacuum of the order of 10- lO torr. ter is housed inside a sheet metal enclosure and
2. End Flanges e metal flanges are supported on porcelain or
~poxy insulators. The moving contact is con-
The two end-flanges are made of non-magnetic metal.
ll,ected to the operating mechanism by means
The end-flanges support the enclosure fixed contact, vapour condensing shields, bellows, and of a glass-fibre rod.
the protective-cover for the bellows : 6RAOIN<i
Vacuum interrupters are being increas- SHIELD
3, Contacts iqgly used in metal-clad swithgear of voltage Fig. 9.2. Section of a vacuum interrupter.
The contacts are made of large stem with large disc-shaped faces. The disc is provided with range 3.6 to 15 kV. The typical ratings of [Courtesy: G.E.C. Switchgear Ltd. England]
symmetrical groovers in such a way that the segments of the two contacts are not in the same line. such vacuum interrupters are as follows :
142 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION VACUUM INTERRUPTER AND VACUUM CIRCUIT-BREAKER 143
Table 9.2 Typical Ratings of Vacuum Interrupters the internal insulation. The
metal bellow enables the
Rated breaking current (kA), rms , moving contact stem to carry
Rated current (Amp)
at 7.5 kV 12 kV 36 kV ; out its stroke. The stroke varies
according to the rated voltage
800-1600 of the vacuum interrupter and
-2500 25 25 25 is only 16 mm for 24 kV. A One vacuum interrupter used
x'netal bellow must be able to for on pole. Refer Fig. 9.8 for
-3150 50 40 31.5 :withstand the movement cor- end delevation of a vacuum
Circuit-breaker indicating
responding to 30,000 3 location of the Vacuum
Vacuum switchgear includes vacuum iterrupters, operating mechanism, operating links m:ake/break operations without Interrupter
enclosure etc. (Ref. Sec. 15.5). faJling. This is confirmed a long ~=~~~'::f"--'-+I--.'
1. Terminal Plate
term no load tests. Fractures 2. Insulator (Ceramic)
9.5. ARC INTERRUPTION IN HIGH VACUUM should not occur until after 3. Arc Chamber (Metallic)
more than 200,000 such opera- (Condensing shield)
In vacuum interrupters, the arc extinction process is related with the following : tions. 4. Fixed contact piece
5. Moving contact piece
- Degree of Vacuum - Im of Arc current The insulators (2, 6) are 6. Insulator (Ceramic)
- di/dt of Arc current - Energy dissipated from the arc made of metallized aluminium 7. Metal bellow
- dv/dt or TRV - Peak of TRV oxide ceramics, which permits 8. Moving contact Guide
- Plasma of the arc (liberated from contact surface) them to be brazed to metal. 9. Moving contact stem
There are no replaceable seals
9.6. DEGREE OF VACUUM IN INTERRUPTERS and the interrupter has a per-
manently sealed construction.
The vacuum level is expressed in Torr. (1 Torr is equivalent to a pressure represented by a barometri~ Vacuum tightness. All parts
'head' of 1 mm mercury). The breakdown voltage are either brazed or welded.
of certain contact gap varies with the absolute
9
CL
<( Joints made in his way are not
pressure in the vacuum interrupters as shown <.'J 100 subject to ageing and the inter-
in Fig. 9.3. As the absolute pressure is reduced z::;; :s: ~ rupter therefore remains
from 10- 1 Torr, to 10- 3 the dielectric strength oo o~ vacuum tight throughout its Fig. 9.4. Cross-Sectional View of Vacuum Interrupter
(kV/mm) goes on increasing. Above 10° Torr, :,,:<( > -""
10 ...__ VACCUM
HIGH working life.
Courtesy: Siemens, West Germany .
WW
the characteristic in almost flat. And the cc (.') ~INTURRUPTER
dielectric strength in this region is above 12 kV
CD <(
':::; 1
0
I VACCUM .
peak/mm. In vacuum interrupters vacuum level > I
9.7. INTERRUPTION OF SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS IN VACUUM INTERRUPTERS
of the order of 10- 6 to 10- 10 Torr is used. This
is called high vacuum range. During the passage ,6, of
There are two different interrupting ability limits each vacuum interrupters.
of time and after arc interruptions, the vacuum 1. Ability to Interrupt of power frequency current (50 Hz). This ability of vacuum inter-
level goes on reducing. However it remains in the ABSOLUTE PRESSURE, TORR rupters is related with the contact shape, contact materials, vacuum level. Plain butt contacts are
5 8 capable of interrupting power frequency currents up to about 6 kA rms. Above this value, constricted
range ofl0- Torr and 10- Torr. Vacuum in the Fig. 9.3. Breakdown characteristic of a vacuum gap. (10
arc is formed and the arc is not quenched by plain butt contacts. 'l'o overcome this limitation, contact
3 4 mm) for different vacuum levels.
range of 10- to 10- is sufficient for interrup- geometry is modified by providing curved grooves in the contact surface disc. Such contacts are
tion and for withstanding impulse test voltage. called spiral petal contacts, contrate (segmented) contacts.
2. Ultimate Interrupting ability (Commutating ability)
9.6.1. Construction of a vacuum interrupter (Fig. 9.4) This is related with ability to extinguish the last cathode spot in the arc root. Till the last arc
(Courtesy: Siemens, West Germany) r.oot cathode spot is not extinguished, interruption cannot takes place in vacuum and the arc may
continue to burn, cycle after cycle. The ultimate interrupting ability (commutating ability) is ex-
The basic design of vacuum interrupters for contactors and circuit-breakers is similar. The ar- pressed in terms of
cing chamber with the two stem-connected contact pieces is located between two ceramic insulators.
UIA = -di x dt
The fixed contact piece is connected to the housing and the other (moving contact piece) is connected dt dt
to the housing via vacuum tight metal bellow (7).
The arcing chamber (3) acts as a vapour shield. On opening a metal vapour arc is drawn be-
where ~~ = rate of reduction of current in arc (- ve)
tween the contact pieces (4, 5) and is extinguished at current zero. The small amount of metal
vapour that is not redistributed over the contact pieces condenses on the arcing chamber well. The !~ = rate of rise of TRV
protects the inside of the ceramic insulators against condensed metal vapour, which would reduce
UIA depends on contact material, contact shape, contact speed, degree of vacuum etc. Contact size for normal Rated Current
UIA also depend on di!dt, du!dt, Im, Contact shape is selected for required and rated current. For rated current, the temperature
rise should be within permissible limits. For this purpose contact stems should have sufficiently
In various switching duties, severity of dildt is different than severity of du/dt. Hence each large diameter to dissipate the heat by conduction to the external heat sinks.
switching duty is evaluated separately. The limit of vacuum interrupters is not due to du I dt but
is due to di I dt for given du I dt. · Because of the good thermal insulation of the vacuum medium between the contacts and the
enclosure, all the heat at the contacts and in the contact stems must be removed by conduction
Vacuum interrupters can withstand highest du/ dt of the order of 10 kV /µs. along the stem. About 50% of the contact heat dissipation must-be from each terminal of the in-
:terrupter, while maintaining the terminal below the specified temperature limits. Hence the heat
9,8. DESIGN ASPECTS OF VACUUM INTERRUPTERS sinks are provided at each terminal of the interrupter (Fig. 9.5).
The complete vacuum switchtgear for voltages between 3.6 kV and 36 kV is in the form of the I
Metal Enclosed Switchgear (Ref. 15.4, 15.5, 15.19). Vacuum Interrupters are the 'hearts' of a vacuum
switchgear. As a rule vacuum interrupters are single phase units. One vacuum interrupter is 2
provided in each pole and the three poles with a common mechanism, linkages, frame etc. form one 1. Upper support and heat sink (copper)
complete circuit-breaker unit. 3 2. Terminal of pole (Copper)
9,8.1. Length of Interrupter I,, 3. Insulator support rod
4. Fixed contact piece
Ref. Fig. 9.7 cross section of a vacuum interrupter, The contact gap between fixed and moving 5 5. Moving contact piece
contact (4, 5) is small (8 to 20 mm). Because of high dielectric strength of vacuum small contact 6. Insulator
travel is sufficient. The minimum length of contact gap is decided by required impulse voltage 6 7. Metallic bellow
withstand level of the interrupter. 7 8. Lower terminal (copper)
9. Lower heat sink
The length of the vacuum interrupter includes the length of the chamber and length of insul- 10. Mechanism linkage
8
tation. The total external creepage distance and clearance requirements in air (or in SF6 gas) (Ref. 11. Glass fibre rod for the breaker pole
Fig. 12.1 for an outdoor circuit-breaker). The definitions of creepage distance and clearances given 12. Opening spring
in Sec. 12. 7 apply equally to vacuum switchgear and vacuum interrupter.
12 11 10 9
The length of vacuum interrupter depends on minimum requirement of external clearance and
creepage. Fig. 9.5. Cross sectional view of a typical Vacuum Circuit-breaker (Side View)
Courtesy: Siemens (West Germany)
9.8.2. Contact Travel (Contact (Gap)) The temperature of contacts will be a few degree above that of the terminals, depending on the
Because of high dielectrical strength of the medium, smaller contact gap is enough for ,.u,.,u1llc11 resistivity of the contact stems, however the contacts a:i;e completely protected from oxida-
withstanding TRV and impulse withstand test voltage. Typical value are : due to surrounding high vacuum.
Minimum In Practice 9.8.4. Contact size and shape for required short-circuit breaking current
12 kV Interrupter 6-lOmm 8-20mm The arc quenching in the vacuum interrupters depends on the contact shape and contact
3.6 kV Contractor 2-3mm 3-5mm ·• .,. material. For higher rated currents the arc should be diffused. Arc should not be allowed to turn
The impulse withstand voltage requirements are considered while deciding the required contact ;into a constricted arc. A diffused arc has several arc roots on contact surface. A constricted arc has
gap. . a single arc root of a higher diameter and temperature (Ref. Sec. 9.3).
The diffused vacuum arc can be interrupted easily, due to the extremely short thermal lag (less
9.8.3. Contact Shape
µ.s) in metal vapour emission from cathode spots. If magnetic constriction of the diffuse arc
The dimensions and shape of the contacts are related both to the breaking current and to the a constricted discharge occurs, large heated regions with very long thermal and vapour emis-
normal full load current. The contact area depends on an acceptable power dissipation on full load time constants {greater than 100 µ.s.) may be formed. Such large heated areas will cause emis-
current. of vapour persist beyond the current zero. This causes the arc to continue after current zero
The limit of impulse voltage withstand level of vacuum interrupters is given by external .and thereby causing failure of the interrupter.
flashover. i.e., during the impulse test on a vacuum interrupter with open contacts flashover should The formation of constricted arc is prevented special design of contact discs.
occur externally. Plain butt contacts give diffused arc above the breaking currents of the order of5 kA rms. Hence
On opening of the contact the current to be interrupted produces a metal vapour arc discharge ; ...the use of plain butt contacts is limited to rated short-circuit breaking currents of 4 kA.
and continues flowing through the plasma until the next current zero. The arc is extinguished and ..... ·... For short-circuit breaking currents above 4 kA, the butt contacts are in the form of either spiral
the conductive metal vapour condenses on the contact piece surfaces within a few microseconds. · >contacts or contrate contacts (Fig. 9.6). Both the design of depend for their operation on the interac-
The dielectric strength of the break is thus reestablished very rapidly. The steady-state pressure '}.tion of the arc and a magnetic field to keep the arc in rapid motion, and maintain diffused arc.
. Small chopping current. Below a certain minimum current, the metal vapour arc is inter-
in a vacuum interrupter is less than 10- 9 bar. Contacts gap clearance of between 8 and 20 mm is >, •rupted. Before a certain zero. In inductive circuits, this chopping current must therefore be as small
adequate to give a high dielectric strength. \}\"<UJ possible to prevent the build-up unduly high voltage surges. It depends essentially on the material
. , used contact. With optimized chromium copper contact material it is below 5 A.
146 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION' VACUUM INTERRUPTER AND VACUUM CIRCUI'I'-BREAKER 147
High breaking currents. At breaking currents of between 10 and 50 kA, its self-magnetic These requirements have all been met to optimum effect, both technically and economically by
field causes the diffused arc root covering the entire contact piece surface. In order to avoid local b sic research carried out in laboratories and development of suitable materials contact shapes and
overheating of the contact pieces the arc must not remain stationary. A radial (additional) magnetic i:terrupter geometry, in conjunction with the most modern production methods.
field caused by slotting of the contact pieces produces a force which drives the arc round the arcing
This helps in diffusing the arc. Because of the cup shape of contact tip, the arc forms a ring
rings. This is the purpose of using 'petal contacts' or 'contrate contacts'•,
instead of a cylinder. The contact tip material is especially selected such that the contact has low
Minimum contacts piece erosion. The metal vapour plasma of an arc drawn in vacuum is current chopping properties and non welding properties.
highly conductive. As the arc voltage is only between 20 and 200 V, energy conversion in the break
is also minimal. 'l'he high conductivity in conjunction with the small energy conversion and short 9.8.5. Contact Material
arcing times (below 15 ms for the last-poles-to-clear) are the reasons for the insignificant contact The contacts material for vacuum interrupters should have the following properties.
piece erosion and long electrical life of the vacuum interrupters. (1) High electrical conductivity. (2) Low contact resistance
Small contact resistance. In vaccum, the contact surfaces are free of impurities and pollution (3) High thermal conductivity (4) Low current chopping level
layers. Materials of high conductivity are used. Consequently the contact resistance between the (5) High arc withstand ability (6) High melting point
two outer terminations of an interrupter is about 10 micro-ohms and the heat loss is corresponding} (7) Low tendency to weld (8) Easy to manufacture and .economical
small.
Some of these properties are of opposite nature. For example, low contact resistance and high
The spiral contacts, petal contacts, contrate contacts etc. are patented names of the conta arc withstand ability are rarely found in the same material. In other type of breakers, the main
shapes developed by GE (USA) and AEI (UK) and other organisation during 1960-1980. contacts and arcing contacts are of different materials. But in vacuum interrupters, the. same con-
Spiral Petal Contacts (Fig. 9.6) tact face is used for main contact and arcing contact.
These type of contacts have been developed by GE (USA). The contact tips are of flat disc sha Several materials have been tried by different manufacturers. The following three materials
with spiral grooves, as shown in the figure. · are commonly used for vacuum interrupters :
For smaller arc currents the arc is diffused. Due to peculiar petals in the contact, the arc roo (1) Copper-Bismuth Alloy . (2) Copper-Chromium Alloy
move towards the edges. The cathode spots tend to spread towards the edge of the contact di (3) Copper-Berrylium Alloy
instead of farming single constricted arc. START OF TRIP COMMAND
For higher arc currents, the arc roots tend to move from central zone to the edges due to blo,
out effect of petals. Because of spiral shape of grooves, the movement of arc roots has radial a w
(/)
ST ART OF MOVEMENT
circumferential components. Thereby the arc roots are blown out of the disc. This helps in diffusin g
()
the arc. TIME TRAVEL
Segmented Contact (Contrate Contact)
FIR~~COND } POSSIBLE ARC INTERRUPTION
This contact shape is shown in Fig. 9.6. The contact tips are of cupshape with inclined segment
Because of several segments the arc roots are formed and the arc is split up in several parall
paths. These arc paths repel each other and the arc roots are pushed away from the contact face TIME.ms-
Arc quenching makes heavy demands on the interrupter contact pieces since they must · TRIP SIGNAL
designed for ' ¥-------"--
1;:d~ARCINGTIME
- high short-circuit breaking capacity - high dielectric strength ~ !/"\1 !/"\_ /°\.
- small chopping current - minimal contact piece erosion ~v
- small contact resistance AVAILABLE CURRENT ZEROS
FROM 50 Hz CURRENT WAVE
Fig. 9.7. Time-travel characteristic of moving contact ofVCB. for Opening Stroke.
Number of current zeros available.
9.9. Time/Travel Characteristics

The vacuum interrupters are designed for giving several thousand laod operations.
Typical values of contact travel characteristics for vacuum interrupters are given in Table 9.2.
Table 9.2. Reference Values of Contact Travel Characteristics
of 12 kV Vacuum Inten'llpter
Contact Gap 8 to 12 mm
Contact Speed :
-Opening 0.5 to 0.8 mm/ms
Fig. 9,6 (a) Contrate Fig. 9.6 (b) Contrate Fig. 9.6 (c) Spining of arc Fig. 9.6 (d) Petal contacts -Closing 0.5 to mm/ms
(segniented) contacts (segmented) contact due to electromagnetic
forces in contrate contacts
The time/travel characteristic during opening stroke is selected for a particular interrupter by current some hundreds of times, and can give many thousands of operations on normal full load
~onsidering :I current.
- Total nm~ber of current zeros of 50 cycles wave form, required during the active opening Material is lost from the contacts in three ways: (1) melting globules (2) metal vapour
stroke (Ref. Fig. 9.11). Jvaporated from the cathode spots (3) liquid droplets thrown out of a molten metal film on the
The slope~the contact travel characteristic gives the contact speed. For higher contact speed surface of the electrodes at high currents-these droplets are usually ejected by the electromagnetic
the slope is higher. The contact reaches final open position earlier. ' forces caused by the interaction of the arc current and its own magnetic field.
Opening Speed · Bellows
Assuming total travel 10 mm, assuming 50% contact travel for half cycle period (10 ms), the Bellows used in Vacuum Interrupters are of stainless steel. The stainless steel plate of desired
average opening speed will be 5/10 = 0.5 mm/ms. composition is either rolled or hydraulically formed to get the convolutes of the bellow. Alternatively
Assuming 70% contact travel for half cycle period (10 ms), and half cycle period, average open- rings cut from stainless steel plates are arranged in V formation and the edges are welded-Bellow
ing speed will be 7/10 = 0.7 mm/ms. · permits movement of moving contact without loss of Vacuum.
The choice of opening speed is based on the following conditions :
9.13. VACUUM LEVEL AND SHELF LIFE OF INTERRUPTERS
(1) The arcing time should be reasonably short. 'rhe maximum arcing time should not be greater
than about half cycle of 50 Hz wave. Vacuum pressure in interrupters is in the range 10- 5 - 10- 9 torr, variation occurs during the
(2) Vacuum interrupter should be restrike free for capacitance switching. If current zero occurs life of an interrupter. Vacuum of the order of 10- 3 torr is sufficient for interruption.
nea_r _the_ instan~ of contact separation the electric strength of the interrupter in the open The shelf life of vacuum interrupters is minimum 20 years and possibly much longer. When
pos1t10n 1s sufficiently great after half a cycle of the power frequency wave i.e. contact should interrupters are operated the metal vapour film is deposited on the shield and contacts.
travel fully in 10 ms to its open position. ·
Vacuum testing may be done on sub-assemblies during manufacture by normal mass
Generally some 50-70% of full travel normally be attained in 10 ms. spectrometer methods or the complete interrupter may be vacuum checked during or after evacuat-
Closing speed ing.
Contact speeds in closing must fulfill two opposite conditions. Low speeds reduce mechanical A standard procedure used by manufacture is to measure the pressure after the interrupter is
stresses and shocks. A low speed of closing also reduces the mechanical stresses of the bellows and sealed at intervals of about one month. The pressure can be measured using the axial magnetic
increases bellows life. A low impact velocity reduces the problems of contact bounce during closing. field and radial electric field. The current that flow between contact and main shields gives a
On the other hand a higher speed of closing reduces the duration of prearcing and thus the measure of pressure within the interrupter.
amount of contact wear, the tendency to weld, and possible generation of voltage escallation due
to sparking during the prearcing period. Typical speed at contact touch are 0.5 mm/ms. · 9.14. CHECKING OF VACUUM
Simple method for checking vacuum in the interrupter at site is to check the force required for
9.10. CONTACT PRESSURE pulling the moving contact. If vacuum is higher, higher force is required to pull the contact. Simple
. Duet~ butt contacts hig? electromagnetic repulsive forces are established at the instant ofpre- · spring balance may be used to measure the pulling force. Another method is to supply power fre-
arcmg period and contact will have to close against such repulsive forces. These forces are propor- quency test voltage to terminals of open vacuum interrupter.
tional to I~ where Im is peak making current. Following test voltages are recommended :
- 12 kV interrupter : 15 kV to 50 kV rms.
The contact press~re in a vacuum interrupter must be sufficient (1) to give low contact resis-
tance (2) to _close effectrv:ely on to fault current and (3) to remain closed during the passage of fault - 36 kV interrupter 45 kV to 90 kV rms.
current (4) 1t should satisfactory normal current carrying capacity. If vacuum is lost, the open interrupter will flashover internally on application of the test volt-
age.
9.11. CONTACT ACCELERATION DURING OPENING
9,15. RANGE OF VACUUM SWITCHGEAR, VACUUM CONTROLGEAR AND VACUUM
_The vacuum !nterrupter co_ntacts weld to a very slight degree, and the suitable contact material
CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
havmg low weldmg tendency 1s selected for contact tips. The moving contact is accelerated with
impact force to break the small welds. In the introduction (Sec. 9.1), the range of vacuum switching devices was mentioned. Vacuum
A t~pical arrangement for openi_ng the contacts of vacuum interrupters is to arrange the switching device may be one of the following six types :
me~hamsm to acceler~te as m~ss (wh1~h should be larger than moving contact mass) to a velocity 1, Vacuum Contactor : This is capable of several million operations on load and overload.
mm e t~an of the openmg velocity _reqmred. The mass then pulls off the contact, the severity of the The short-circuit interruption capability is limited. Back-up HRC fuse gives the short-circuit protec-
pull ~emg co1;1trolled by the couplmg between 'hammer' and contact. This coupling sometimes has tion. Vacuum contactors are used in Vacuum Controlgear in the voltage range of 1.2 kV/3.6 kV/7.2
elastic matenal. ·
kV. It is not economical for LV controlgear in which simple air-break contactors are preferred.
Vacuum controlgear uses vacuum contactors as the main switching device for normal load switching
. 9.12. CONTACT EROSION and ov;erload switching. It may have a limited short-circ'llit breaking and full short-circuit making
Contact er~sion is cau~ed ?Y
arciJ.?-g, Erosion rate is expressed in terms of grams/coulomb is not capability (Ref. Sec. 15.47 for further: details).
a c?nstant but mcreases with mcreasmg current. The interrupters interrupt their full short-circuit
2. Vacuum Circuit-breakers for medium voltage metal clad switchgear or metal enclosed 9 ,16, MERITS OF VCBs
switchgear. This type of switchgear is used mainly in industrial applications and distribution ap- 1. VCB is self contained does not need filling of gas or oil. They do not need auxiliary air system,
plications in the range 3.6 kV/7.2 kV/12 kV/36 kV. The vacuum circuit-breaker is the main switching oil handling system etc. No need of periodic refilling.
device in the indoor metal-enclosed switchgear. The complete VCB has a three phase subassembly
having one common mechanism housing, linkages, and three vacuum interrupters mounted on the 2. No emission of gases, Pollution free.
frame by means of epoxy-resin support insulators. 3. Modest maintenance of the breaker, no maintenance of interrupters. Hence economical over
3. Outdoor Vacuum, Circuit-breakers in the Kiosks. The complete vacuum circuit-breaker long period.
unit may be installed in a outdoor Kiosk. The kiosk (outdoor sheet-metal room with inclined roof) 4. Breaker forms a unit which can be installed at any required orientation. Breaker unit is
1. Enclosure-Porcelain 2. Support procelain compact and self contained.
3. Vacuum interrupter 4. Insulating rod 5. Non explosive.
5. Linkages 6. Mechanism housing 6. Silent operation
7. Interrupter Support
7. Large number of operations on load: or short circuit. Suitable for repeated operating duty.
7 Long life.
8. Suitable for capacitor switching, cable switching, industrial load switching.
3
9. Constant dielectric. There are no gas decomposition products in vacuum and the hermeti-
cally sealed vacuum interrupter keeps out all environmental effects.
10. Constant contact resistance. In vacuum the contacts cannot oxidize, a ract which ensures
1. Enclosure that their very small resistance is maintained throughout their life.
2
2. Support procelain 11. High total current switched. Since contact piece erosion is small, rated normal current
3. Interrupters can be interrupted up to 30,000 times and rated short-circuit breaking current on average a
4. Insulating rod
5. linkages
hundred times.
7. Support These reasons together with the economic advantages offered-have boosted acceptance of the
vacuum circuit-breakers.
s
,t9.17. DEMERITS
1. The vacuum interrupter is more expensive than the interrupting devices in other types of
'..~ircuit-breakers and its cost is affected by production volume. It is uneconomical to manufacture
} .~acuum interrupters in small quantities.
Fig. 9.8. Front View of a 36 kV Porcelain-Enclosed 3 Ph. Vacuum Circuit-breaker.
2. Rated voltage of single interrupter is limited to about 36/../3 = 20 kV. Above 36 kV, two in-
Complete kiosk incorporates the vacuum circuit-breaker, kiosk, bushings, busbars, CTs, VTs, '.jerrupters are required to be connected in series. This makes the breaker uneconomical for rated
some measuring instruments. The Kiosk may be installed outdoor. Vacuum Kiosks are generally ',yoltage about 36 kV.
preferred for outdoor switchyard rated 12 kV and 36 kV.
>: •if: 3. Vacuum interrupters require high technology for production.
They are also preferred for 25 kV track-side substations for 1-phase traction system.
4. In the event of loss of vacuum due to transit damage or failure, the entire interrupter is
4. Outdoor Procelain-housed Vacuum circuit-breakers. < rendered useless. It cannot be repaired at site.
Here the circuit-breaker is a three phase self-contained device having a support-structure . ... 5. For interruption oflow magnetising currents in certain range, additional surge suppressors
mechanism, three poles linkages. The vacuum interrupter is housed in the upper procelain housing . ar~ required in parallel with each phase of a VCB.
(Ref. Fig. 9.8). Such a circuit-breaker is preferred for 12 kV, 36 kV outdoor switchyards. \>,·,'
5. Single phase Roof-top Railway Circuit-breaker. ·;·9',18. SWITCHING PHENOMENA WITH VCB
Earlier, air-blast circuit-breakers were used for such an application. Now vacuum circuit-
breakers are preferred. The CB is single phase unit of low weight. It is installed on the roof of } ; . The application details about Electrical switching phenomena asso.ciated with medium voltage
railway carriage, J:~cuum circuit breakers is given in Sec. 15.22 to 15.26.
6. EHV Vacuum Circuit-breakers with multiple-interrupters per pole. 9.18.1. Reignition in Vacuum Circuit-breakers
Such circuit-breakers have been successfully developed and installed. r;/ As the contacts open, a small contact travel may interrupt the arc if the wave is passing through
<early period after current zero (Fig. 9.9). In such event, full TRV appears across small contact gap.
Vaccum circuit-breaker needs several interrupters connected per pole. Whereas SF6 circuit-breakers
l}he small gap (fraction of mm) cannot withstand high TRV and the arc reignites. The reignition
requires only one or two interrupters per pole SF6 circuit-breakers are less costly and have superior \f~uses high frequency oscillation in LC circuit. Such oscillations have several current zeroes with
performance. Hence for EHV range VCB has not succeeded commercially. · a period of few microseconds. But the cannot gap is increasing in the meanwhile. After a few mm
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION VACUUM INTERRUPTER AND VACUUM CIRCUIT-BREAKER 153
152
w
(/) Surge suppressors comprising non-linear resistors or resistance capacitor combination are con-
9
0 REIGNITION POSS113ILITY nected on load side of vacuum circuit-breakers for limiting switching over-voltage. These are neces-
sary for low-power factor load switching. ·
TIME/TRAVEL
...J
w QUESTIONS
ii 1.
2.
Describe the behaviour of electric arc in high vacuum.
Describe the construction of a vacuum interrupter and vacuum circuit-breaker.
3. State the merits of vacuum interrupter and discuss the problems involved.
TIME -,,..
4. What are the possible applications of vacuum interrupters ?
~ ~ITION
5. Explain the process of arc extinction in high vacuum.
6. With the help of neat sketches, explain the construction of a vacuum interrupter.
50 Hz CURRENT WAVE FINAL CURRENT ZERO 7. Explain current chopping in VCB. Explain the function of RC surge suppressors used with vacuum
Fig. 9.9. Time-travel characteristic of Vacuum circuit-breaker contact during opening stroke, switchgear for motor switching.
indicating reignition possibility in current wave.
gap, the reignition of high frequency wave stops and arc is quenched. Multiple reignition lasts for
a period offew microseconds. Such multiple reignition may give undesirable transient overvoltages
of high frequency. This problem is overcome in vacuum interrupters by selecting suitable contact
material. Instead of using tungsten-copper, other materials like copper bismuth alloy, coppe
chromium alloy are used.
9.18.2. Capabilities of Modern Circuit breakers for Medium Voltages
- Short circuit current interruption. Upto 50 kA at 12 kV with 15 ms arcing time
- Operating duty 0-0.3 Sec-CO-1.5 Sec-CO
- Capacitive current breaking: 1000 A at 36 kV
- Parallel bank switching Inrush currents 40 kA peak, 1250 A/µs
- Repeated load switching 30,000 Switching operations on full load.
9.18.3. Switching Over-voltage Problem with VCB for Motor Switching Duty, RC
Surge suppressors
While using vacuum Circuit-breakers for motor switching, over-voltages can be generated du
to (a) Current Chopping (b) Multiple Reignition. Suitable RC Surge suppressors should be incor
porated with vacuum switchgear to limit switching over voltages.
Current Chopping occurs at low value of current (0.1 to 20 ampere) as the vacuum gap chops'
the current (Ref. Sec. 3.12). Each vacuum interrupter has certain chopping level (say, 5 A).
Multiple Reignition occurs when the contact gap is too small while opening a low power factor
load such as magnetising currents of transformers and also while switching off locked- rotor motors
connected through long cables. The gap quenches the arc but is too small to withstand the TRW
hence breaks down again. The gap again recovers and re-ignites again. Such repeated multiple
reignition gives rise to over-voltages which are harmful to the insulation of motors and trans;,.
formers.
RC Surge Suppressors comprising resistance of 100 ohms and series capacitance of 0.1
are connected across phase and earth for each phase on load side ofvacuuni interrupter. The com
bination is called RC Surge Suppressor. This is provided with vacuum switchgear to limit switchin
over-voltages during low inductive current switching (Ref. Sec. 18.12). R.C. Surge Suppresso
reduce the rate of rise and peak of Switching overvoltage.
Summary
Vacuum interrupters are sealed units comprising a pair of fixed and moving contact, metalli
bellows, vapour condensing shield, insulating enclosure etc. Vacuum interrupters are compact an
give very long operational life without any maintenance. They are popular for ratings upto 36 k
.. "25 kA and are being widely used for indoor metal-clad switchgear, trackside sub-station etc.
155
Test Remarks Ref. Sec
Temperature rise test. Steady temperature of conducting parts 10.2.2
and insulating parts measured for rated
continuous alternating current.
Dielectric test-1.2/50 µ.s lightning Five consecutive shots of positive and 12.6
impulse withstand-! mm power then negative polarity. One minute p.f.
frequency voltage withstand Dry and withstand
Wet.
Short-time current test. Rated short-circuit current passed 11.6
Testing of High Voltage A . C. Circuit-Breaker through closed breaker for 1 sec or 3 sec.
At 10% 30% 60% and 100% rated short 11.7
Short-circuit breaking and making,
Classification-Type tests/Routine test/Development test/Reliability test-Mechanical Basic. Short circuit test duties. circuit breaking current with specified
Tests-Temperature rise Tests-Dielectric Tests-Short time Current Tests-Basic Short-Circuit. operating sequence, and specified TRV.
Test Duties-Routine Tests-Special Tests-on ERV Circuit-breakers-Commissioning Line charging current breaking tests. Applicable for circuit breakers rated 72.5 11.10
Tests-Summary · kV. and above to be used for over head
lines.
10.l. CLASSIFICATION OF THE TEST Cable charging current breaking tests. Applicable to circuit-breaker intended for 11.13
long cable network.
The tests on high-voltage a.c. circuit-breakers can be classified as follows :
Development Tests Single capacitor-Bank Breaking Tests. Applicable or circuit-breaker to be used 11.12
for capacitor switching.
These are carried out on components, sub-assemblies and complete circuit-breaker during and Small inductive current breaking Applicable for circuit-breaker with shunt 13.111.14
after the development of the circuit-breaker. The designers and research scientist verify the effect tests. reactors, transformers, reactors, motors.
of various parameters on the behaviour of circuit-breakers, by conducting development tests. Reactor Switching.
Development tests are not specified in the standards.
Type Tests (Ref. Sec. 3.19) Out-of-phase switching. Applicable to circuit breakers which may 11.11
connect two parts made out-of-phase
These are conducted on first few prototype circuit-breakers of each type to prove the capabilities conditions.
and to confirm the rated characteristics of the circuit-breaker of that design. Type tests are not Applicable to circuit-breakers rated above 11.9
conducted on every circuit-breaker. The tests are conducted in specially built testing laboratories. 52 kV and for overhead lines. These are
Type tests are performed as per recommendations of standards (IEC) or (IS). in addition to basic short-circuit test
Routine Tests duties.
Routine tests are also performed as per the recommendations of the standards (IEC/IS).
Routine tests are conducted on each circuit-breaker. These are performed in the manufacturer's .2. TYPE TESTS
premises. Routine tests confirm the proper functioning of the circuit-breaker.
Reliability Tests Type tests are the tests of one circuit-breaker o~ a first tew circuit-breakers of e_ach t!pe made
same specifications and having same essential details and would_ p~ss the _1de1;1tical tests.
Type tests and Routine tests are conducted on new-circuits breakers under larboratory conditions. tests are conducted for the purpose of proving the rated charactenstics of c1rcmt-breakers.
The performance of circuit breakers installed at site is affected by additional stresses such as variation Sec. 3.19)
in .ambient temperature variations dust, humidity repeated operations, maintenance schedules etc.
Reliability tests are conducted to verify the reliability of the circuit-breakers under various Type test can be broadly classified in the following groups :
stresses occurring in actual applications. Reliability tests can be conducted in specially built (a) Mechanical tests*
laboratories and also at site.
Commissioning Tests (b) Tests of temperature rise, millivolt drop test.*
(c) High voltage test (Dielectric tests).*
These are conducted on the circuit-breaker after installation at site to verify the operational
readiness and proper functioning. (d) Basic short circuit test duties.*
The tests on low-voltage a.c. circuit-breakers are in Sec. 15.7. - Making test.
Table 10.1
- Breaking tests. . .
Summary of Type Tests on High Voltage A.C. Circuit-Breakers
Operating sequence tests at 10%, 30%, 60%, 100% of rated breaking current with specified
Test Remarks TRV conditions.
Ref Sec
1. No load mechanical operation test (e) Critical current tests. (/) Single phase short-circuit test.*
No load operations to verify speed of travel, 10.2.5
opening time, closing time. Carried out at 85% (g) Short time current test.
and 110% rated voltage of shunt trip release.
2. Mechanical performance tests 1000 close-open operations.
(Endurance tests) 10.2.1
* These are essential for certification of a.c. circuit breakers rated 145 kV and ibove in all cases.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION TESTING OF HIGH VOLTAGE A.C. CIRCUIT-BREAKER 157
156
CB
In addition to these the following tests are recommended on circuit-breakers to be used in
specific applications.
(h) Short line fault tests* (i) Out-of-phase switching tests. \/'\
(j) Line-charging current-switching test.* (k) Cable-charging current switching tests. 440V'
(l) Capacitive current switching tests. (m) Small inductive curr~nt breaking tests.
(n) Reactor current switching tests.
Type tests are conducted on new circuit-breaker. Before conducting tho type tests, imfficient
information should be furnished to the testing authorities for identifying the circuit-breaker.
This information includes : assigned ratings, design principle drawings, reference standards, Fig. 10.1. (a) Test circuit-Temperature Rise Test (Single Phase)
rated operating pressure/voltage of auxiliaries, support-structure etc. These details are included in
the type tests report. After certifying the circuit-breaker by conducing type-tests, there should be
no change in the design.
10.2.1. Mechanical Test (Endurance Tests) HOT
JUNCTION
,,------ - -. TO POTENTIOMETER
The breaker should be in a position to open and close. satisfactorily. In mechanical tests, the MIXED ON OR
CONDUCTOR .....,__ _ _ _ _ _ _ -. MICROVOLTMETER
circuit-breaker is opened and closed several times (1000). Some operations (50) are by energizing
the relay, remaining are by closing the trip circuit by other means. Mechanical tests on high voltage
a.c. circuit breakers are conducted without current and voltage in the main circuit. Out of the 1000
operations, about 100 operations are mady by connecting the main circuit (contacts) in series with
trip circuit. Fig. 10.1. (b) Measurement of Temperature.
No adjustment or replacement of parts is permitted during the mechanical tests. However, The temperature is measured by means of Thermocouples. Thermocouple comprises a junctions
lubrication is permitted as per manufacturers instructions. of two dissimilar materials. The e.m.f. induced depends upon temperature difference between the
After the tests, the contacts, linkages and all the other parts should be in good condition and ·· ;h,ot junction and cold end. The hot junctions are fixed on the parts of circuit-breakers (.Contacts,
should not show any permanent deformation or distortion. The dimensions should be within original ,:Conductors, terminals, insulators etc.). The output of the thermocouples is measured by poten-
limits. During repeated operations of the circuit- breaker, the weaker parts in the assembly may tiometer or digital voltmeter. The temperature is calculated for the calibrated value (°C per mil-
fail. The circuit-breaker is then considered to have failed in the mechanical test. The tests are then livolt). ·
to be repeated after improvement in the design and manufacture. Successful performance in '. Alternatively, temperature can be measured by self-resistance method or thermometers.
Mechanical Endurance tests prove the adequacy of design and also good quality of materials and
10.2.3. Measurement of D.C. Resistance
manufacture. ·
The D.C. resistance of main circuit of each pole of a circuit-breaker is of the order of a few tens
Though 1000 close-open cycles are specified in the standards, the manufacturer may conduct 9f micro-ohms. The resistance of the pole teste¢1 for temperature rise provides the basis of com-
10,000 or more operations to ascertain the reliability and for getting design data. {jiJrison for all other poles of the same type. The resistance is measured by measuring d.c. voltage
10.2.2. Temperature-Rise Tests drop or by measuring resistance across terminals of each pole by means of a micro-ohm-meter.
These are type tests to assign the normal current rating to the circuit-breaker (Ref. Sec. 31.9.4), 10.2.4. Millivolt Drop Tests
Similar tests are conducted on other switchgear equipment such as isolators, bus-bars. ;}, .The voltage drop across the breaker pole is measured for different values of d.c. currents. The
Alternating current of rated value and rated frequency is passed through a closed circuit- zypltage drop gives a measure of resistance of current carrying part and contacts.
breaker, continuously till a steady temperature is attained. Readings of temperature of various con- . .. . The d.c. current should be more than 100 A and less than rated current of circuit-breaker. The
ducting, insulating and structural parts are taken at an interval of one or half-an hour. When the tesistance of breaker pole should be measured at ambient air temperature. The resistance is of the
steady temperature is reached, the maximum temperature rise of each part should be less than order of a few tens of micro-ohms.
the permissible limit (Ref. Table 3.4). When a circuit-breaker in closed condition carries normal 10.2.5. No-load Operation Tests and Oscillographic and other records
current the heat is generated in current-carrying parts due to [2 Rt loss. This heat is dissipated by The no-load operation tests include the following operations :
conduction, convection and radiation. To maintain the temperature rise within specified limits, the
- Closing (C)
I2 Rt losses should be reduced by increasing conductor cross-section using suitable low resistivity - Opening (0)
material, improving convection, conduction and radiation of heat.
- Operating sequence (Ref. Sec. 3.19.8)
The test set-up is illustrated in Fig 10.1. The current is obtained from special transformer which
0-0.3 sec.-CO-3 min-CO (For rapid .\uto-reclosur~ and
gives required continuous current at a low voltage (5 to 15 V a.c.) current is adjusted by regulation
on primary voltage (240 or 440 V). The tests are either single phase or three phase. Single phase 0-3 min-CO-3 min-CO or
tests are permissible for outdoor circuit-breakers. CO-15 sec,--,-CO. (For non-rapid autoreclosure).
No load tests are conducted prior to short-circuit tests-:-The following quantities are recorded
* These are essential for certification of a.c. circuit breakers rated 145 kV and above in all cases. on Oscillographs taken during the no-load test :
158 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIO TESTING OF HIGH VOLTAGE A.C. CIRCUIT-BREAKER 159
CHANNEL 20ms
NO.
-j 1- 10,3, ROUTINE TESTS (Ref. Sec. 10.9)
TIMING-I 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Routine tests are conducted on each circuit-breakers before dispatch. A routine test is defined
MARKS
SEPARATION
as a test of every circuit-breaker made to the same specifications. The routine tests include the
2 CONTACT
following tests :
CLOSING (a) Mechanical operation tests
FULL OPE - (b) Millivolt drop test, measurement of resistance
3 CONTACTTR (c) Power frequency voltage tests at manufacturers premises
(d) Voltage tests on auxiliary circuits, control circuits.
CLOSE
4 TRIPCOIL ~ - - - FULLY CLOSE Routine tests reveal the defects in the materials and construction of circuit-breaker. The result
--------- ofroutine tests confirm the quality of the circuit-breaker.
5
-------~
CLOSING COIL-
Mechanical Opei•ation Tests
During routine testings five opening and five closing operations should be carried out at (a)
Fig 10.2 Typical oscillogram of no-load O.C. test taken on ultra-violet recorder. minimum supply voltage and pressure (b) maximum supply voltage and pressure.
- Travel of moving contact. - Timing Scale.
- Pressure of Quenching medium (e.g. SF6 Gas) - Current in trip coil. 10.4. DEVELOPMENT TESTS
- Instant of contact separation .............. Ch. 2., Fig. 10.2 The circuit-breaker development and manufacture involves a very large number and variety
- Closing coil current.. ........... Ch. 5. of tests on individual items, materials sub-assemblies, units, poles and complete assemblies. Ex-
- Contact touch ............. Ch. 2. tensive testing is employed to ensure reliable equipment.
The no-load tests are carried out with following conditions : Development tests (Design tests) are necessary to verify the effect of various parameters on
With solenoid operated mechanisms tests are made with closing solenoid energized at ho the performance. For example, to ascertain the effect of contact speed on breaking capacity, the
105% and. 85% of rated supply voltage. of closing coil. circuit-breaker is tested repeatedly with change in contact speed. Before, the development of a cir-
cuit-breaker the arc-quenching principle is identified. The various parameters and their influence
. Wi~h spring mechanism, pneumatic mechanism and hydraulic mechanism, the shunt relea
(tnp ?011) shoul? operat~ at.~5% and 110% of rated supply voltage. The no-load tests indicate t is theoretically predicated. Some special tests rigs are made for testing and measurement. Full scale
fu1;1ctwnal readn~es~ of c1rcmt-breakers. The no-load characteristics should be indentical to the prototypes are then manufactured. In this process, the designers use useful data available with the
qmred charactenstic. company. For example for design of the procelain, the necessary data are. available from the
The oscillographic re?ords a;e generally obtained on multi-channel ultra-violet recorders (U. catalogues of the manufactures of porcelain. For design of contacts the configuration can be derived
rec 0!1ers). One c~annel is reqmred for each quantity. The contact-travel is recorded by means 0 from available designs of contact assemblies.
rectilinear potent10meter (travel recorder) connected suitably to the moving contact system. Each sub-assembly has certain functional requirement. For example, the contacts should give
10.2.6. Dielectric Tests low resistance in closed condition, should not get deforming during mechanical operations, should
These are conducted to con~rm the rated level of the circuit-breaker. The dielectric tests ins not get welded during short-time current tests etc. Hence, to verify the capability of contact con-
?lude power frequency voltage withstand tests and impulse voltage withstand tests (Further details figurations, necessary development tests are conducted depending upon these functional require-
m Ch. 12). ments. Necessary modifications are made on the basis of test results. Pressure tests are conducted
on porcelains, glassfibre tubes, etc. to test the leakage and the withstand pressure (Ref. Table 10.2).
10.2.7. Basic Short-Circuit test Duties
These .are perfo~med in specially b1;1ilt short-circuit testing stations. These tests confirm the 10.5. RELIABILITY TESTS*
rated ~aking capacity and ~ated bre~km? capacity of the circuit-breaker with reference to rated
operatmg sequence. The basic short-circmt tests consists of the following five test duties : Type tests and routine test specified in the standards are conducted on new circuit breakers
in clean and healthy condition. However the circuit-breaker installed at site is subjected to various
Te st duty 1 at 10% rated breaking current with d.c. component less than 20% with stresses such as
rated operating sequence for opening operation only. - alternate variation of ambient temperatures
Test duty 2 -,- extremely low temperatures
at 30% rated breaking current, with d.c. component less than 20% with
rated operating sequence for opening operation only. - extremely high temperatures
Test duty 3 at 60% rated breaking current with d.c. component less than 20% with - rain moisture
rated operating sequence for opening operation only. - vibrations due to earthquakes
Test duty 4 - dust, chemical fumes etc.
at 10% rated breaking current with rated operating sequence.
- frequent, switching in some cases
Test duty 5
~hat .is applicable for fast circuit breakers whose contact separation - overloads, over voltages etc.
time is less than about 70 ms. This duty consists of rated operating Moreover, the circuit-breaker may not be maintained by skiUed personnel at times. The
sequence at 10% rated breaking current with specified d.c. component. reliability of circuit breakers is verified by conducting special reliability tests.* For example the
Details about Basic Short Circuit-Test duties are given in Ch. 11, Sec. 11.7.
* New standards are under publication.
160 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION TESTING OF HIGH VOLTAGE A.C. CIRCUIT-BREAKER 161
circuit-breaker is subjected to extremely low temperatures created in climatic test chambers. After Table 10.4, Test on Components of SF 6 Circuit Breaker
the tests the sealing rings and other parts are critically examined.
Gas Arc Breaker
Based on large number of mechanical operation tests, short-circuit tests etc., the manufacturer Insulators Sub- Extinction Complete
system Assemblies pole Breaker Cubicle
recommends the maintenance practice to the followed for the circuit-breaker, Tables 10.2, 10.3 and chamber
10.4 give a list about the variety of tests performed on the items, sub-assemblies and full assemblies Switching times * * * :~
of SF6 circuit-breaker during and after the development.
Travel measurement * * *
10.6. COMMISSIONING TESTS Min. Control voltage * * ;~
...
After the installation the circuit-breakers and protective gear are subjected to commissioning Pressure test * * * * * *
tests, are conducted on site to ensure proper assembly and operational readiness of the equipment, *
High accuracy is generally not expected in such tests. The tests facility available on site is also a
Leakage * * * *
Life expectancy * * * *
deciding factor.
Durability * * * * * ~.;
The commissioning tests include.

Climate tests .,.
- mechanical operation tests. * * * * *
- measurement of travel, simultaneous touching of contacts. Icing tests * * * *
- measurement of insulation resistance, measurement of DC resistance of poles.
Current path resistance * *
- pre-commissioning checks, SF6 gas pressure, Vacuum Integrity.
Noise measurement * *
- operation open the close
- checking of operation by energising the manual operating signal Earthquake effects * *
checking the operation by energising of relays etc. Tensile strength *
Table 10.2 Unit Test on Single Sub-assemblies of SF6 Circuit-breakers Bending strength *
Pole Insulators Castings Gaskets Spring Capacitance Control rods Sharp temperature drop *
Pressure test * * * Impulse voltage * * *
Dimensional control * * * * * * Power frequency voltage * * *
Visual check * * * * * * * Switching over voltage
Hardness * * * * * *
Bias test * *
Dielectric strength * * *
Tensile strength * Corona inception *
Special tests * * * * * * Radio interface voltage *
Test certifications * * * * * * * Terminal short circuit * *
Table 10.3. Units Test on Sub-assemblies Short-time current * *
Control Arc. Ext. Switch SF6 Gas Small inductive current * *
Unit Pole Accessories \\
chamber cubicle system Unloaded lines * *
Mech. operations * * "' * Phase opposition
Excess pressure
* *
* * * *
Switching time * * * * 10.7. INSULATION RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT AT SITE
Gas pressure * * * *
Minimum operating pressure
Insulation resistance is measured by means of Megohm-meter (Megger). The megger comprises
* *
a megohm-meter, and built-in d.c. generator. The minimum reading is zero and maximum is in-
Voltage drop * * finity. The scale is in megohms. The two terminals of megger arc connected across the insulation
Gas leakage * * * i.e. on the conductor and other to earthed body. The handle is rotated by hand or motor. The in-
Insulation test * sulation resistance indicated by the pointer in megohms.
Operational control * * * * * For h.v. switchgear, 1000 V or 5000 V (d.c.) megger is preferred. The insulation resistance of
* h.v. circuit-breaker is very high (above 1000 megohms). Refer Appendix E4)
Completeness * * * * *
Leakage test * * * Insulation resistance of control circuit trip circuit, relay circuit secondary circuit, etc., 1s a
measured by means of 500 V megger. Value obtained should not be less than 1 megohm.
TESTING OF HIGH VOLTAGE A.C. CIRCUIT-BREAKER 163
2. moreover for circuit-breakers intended for rapid autoreclosing, five open-close sequences
10.8. HIGH VOLTAGE POWER FREQUENCY WITHSTAND TEST (ROUTINE TEST) 0-i-C where -i shall be not more than the interval specified for the rated operating
Power frequency voltage withstand tests are routine tests. High voltage tests (as per the recom- sequence.
mendation of standards) are conducted on each circuit-breaker. By such tests, the defective insula- :Measurements during mechanical Operation Tests,
tion or small creapage if any are brought to notice. Test Voltages are applied as follows : Aa, Bb, For each required operating sequences the following measurements are :
Cc, are terminals of poles and F is the Frame.
- measurement of operating times :
Test Condition No. Circuit-breaker Condition Voltage applied to Earthed connection to - measurement of fluid consumption (if applicable)
1. Close Aa Cc BbF If possible the time-travel diagram should be recorded.
Aa CcF Mechanically stressed auxiliary equipment should function correctly during and after the tests.
2. Close Bb
3. Open ABC abcf
4. Open abc ABCF QUESTIONS
1. Distinguish between type tests, routine tests, development tests.
10.9. ROUTINE TESTS OR CIRCUIT-BREAKERS 2. State the various type tests necessary or high voltage a.c. circuit breaker.
3. Fill in the gaps.
Routine Tests include the following :
(a) The contact resistance of circuit-breakers is of the order of........... ..
1. Mechanical operation tests. (b) High voltages test include :
2. Measurement of resistance of main circuit of each pole. (1) .......... ..
3. Power frequency voltage withstand test on main circuit of each pole and the combination (2) .......... ..
of poles and breaker-frame. (3) .......... ..
4. Voltage withstand test on auxiliary circuits. (c) Insulation resistance of H.V. circuit-breakers is more than .........
(d) Routine tests are conducted on ......... circuit-breaker.
5. Measurement of Insulation resistance of main circuits.
(e) Short circuit tests of current carrying parts for normal current should be less than ..........
6. Measurement of Insulation resistance of auxiliary circuits.
4. Describe the following (any two) :
7. Tests and checks after mechanical operation tests. (a) Temperature rise test. (b) Millivolt resistance measurement.
Routine tests are conducted on each circuit-breakers before dispatch. A routine test is defined (c) Insulation endurance tests. (d) Mechanical endurance tests.
as a test of every circuit-breaker made to the same specifications. · (e) No load Mechanical tests. (f) Routine tests.
(g) Type tests.
Routine tests reveal the defects in the materials and construction of circuit-breaker. The results. 5. What is the difference between power frequency test and impulse voltage test ?
of routine tests confirm the quality of the circuit-breaker. 6. Explain the term Insulation Resistance and the procedure of measurement of the same.
On complete Circuit-breaker or Part of it. 7. Describe the procedure of conducting temperature rise test on a high voltage ac. circuit breaker. Draw
Circuit breaker upto 132 kV may be tested with all the 3 poles assembled on frame and wit( a neat sketch of the test circuit. Explain the procedure of measurement of temperature rise.
mechanism assembled for the complete 3 phase circuit-breaker. ·· 8. State the various routine tests on High Voltage AC Circuit-breakers.
Mechanical operating tests should preferably be made on the complete circuit-breaker. However 9. Describe the mechanical Operation tests on high voltage AC circuit-breakers for routine testing.
when circuit-breakers are assembled and shipped as separate units routine tests may be performed 10. State the application of voltage under various breaker position during the routine power frequency
on components. Operating mechanisms and control cubicles shall be tested together with the cir- voltage withstand tests on High Voltage AC Circuit breakers.
cuit-breaker or with an appropriate dummy load.
10.9.1. Mechanical operating tests (Routine Test)
Mechanical operating tests are performed on 3 phase breaker on a part of it.
(a) at specified maximum supply voltages and pressure (if applicable)
1. five closing operations
2. five opening operations
(b) At specified minimum supply voltages and pressure (if applicable)
1. five closing operations
2. five opening operations
(c) At rated supply voltages and pressure (if applicable)
1. five close-open operating cycles with the tripping mechanisms energized by the closing·
of the main contacts.
SHORT CIRCUIT TESTING OF CIRCUIT-BREAKERS 165
of the first current loop. The electrodynamic forces between contacts and between poles reach a
high value. The circuit-breaker should be capable of closing effectively contact welding and contact
bouncing.
11 The breaking capacity tests verify ability the of the circuit-breaker to clear short-circuits. The
operating mechanism and the interrupter should be able to perform their functions effectively.
uuring the breaking operation, the operating mechanism is subjected to mechanical stresses. The
contacts and current carrying parts are subjected to thermal stresses. 'I'he insulating and metallic
Short Circuit Testing of Circuit-Breakers rnaterials in the neighbourhood of the arc are subjected to high thermal stresses. The part of the
interrupter may be subjected to high pressure due to increase in pressure in the interrupter.
Introduction-Short Circuit Test Plants-Field Testing-Laboratory Testing-Layout-Short Circuit These stresses depend on the magnitude of fault current and the design of the circuit-breaker
Generators-Transformer-Reactors-Master Circuit Breaker-Making Device-Capacitors itself. In the post current zero period the contact gap is subject to transient recovery voltage. The
-Sequence Switch-Direct Testing-Short Time Current Test-Indirect Testing-Unit Testing severity of the voltage stresses depends upon the system configuration and the type of switching
-Synthetic Testing-Substitution Test-Compensation Test-Capacitance Test-The Switching duty. Short circuit testing is an experimental method for proving the ratings ofthe circuit-breaker
Phenomena for Tests-Tests on EHV Breaker-Summary--Questions.
and investigating the behaviour of circuit-breaker for research and development.
11.1. INTRODUCTION The chapter is divided into three sections as follows :
Part A-Short Current Testing Plants.
In Chapter 9, we studied the difference between type tests and routine tests. The various tests
performed on circuit-breakers according to Standard Specifications were briefly reviewed. The Part B-Basic short-circuit Test Duties and Special 'l'ests.
short-circuit tests come under Type Tests. The short-circuit tests and switching duty tests on cir- Part C-Indirect Tests.
cuit-breaker include : The short-circuit testing plants are built specially and they provide the facility of short circuit
(a) Breaking current tests. testing. In Direct texts the breaker is subjected to direct short-circuit and results are analysed. In
(b) Making current tests. Indirect Testing, the capacity of complete breaker is ascertained by indirect test procedures.
(c) Short time current tests. Tests are conducted as per relevant standards.
(d) Operating duty tests, Basic short-circuit Test Duties. PARTA
(e) Tests for small inductive currents.
(f) Test for short line faults (SLF). 11,3, SHORT-CIRCUIT TESTING PLANTS
(g) Tests for breaking capacitive currents. There are three types of testing station :
(h) Capacitor switching. 1. Field type testing station.
(i) Out-of phase switching. 2. Laboratory type testing station.
(j) Line charging current breaking tests. 3. Composite testing station.
(k) Cable charging current breaking test. In field type testing power required for testing is directly taken from a large power system, the
(l) Critical current tests (m) Inductive current tests. breaker under tests is connected in the system.
Short-circuit test mentioned above are conducted to prove the ratings of the circuit-breaker. In In laboratory type of testing the short-circuit generators provides the power for testing. In
addition, short circuit tests are performed for research and development. The modern EHV circuit- laboratory testing the breaker is tested directly or indirectly. When the capacity of the test plant
breakers are developed through experimental investigation of the problems of circuit-breaking e.g. is inadequate to test the breaker, indirect tests are performed to assess the behaviour of the cir-
arc extinction, current chopping, breaking of inductive current etc. cuit-breaker. There are several indirect methods of testing such a subsitution method, unit testing
synthetic testing etc. A composite testing station is a combination of field type testing station and
11.2. STRESSES ON CIRCUIT-BREAKER DURING SHORT-CIRCUIT TESTS laboratory type. testing station.
Layout of a Simple Short-circuit Testing Station*
The short-circuits produce a severe stress on circuit-breakers. The circuit-breaker f'hould be
capable of withstanding the stresses. Short-time cun-ent test verify the capacity of the circuit- The layout of a test plant for testing 11 kV/33 breakers up to 750 MVA is simpler and different
breaker to carry the specified short-circuit current for a duration of 1 sec or 3 sec. When short-circuit from that of a large test plant for testing breakers up to, say 220 kV, 7500 MVA.
current is passed through the circuit-breakers, the contacts and current carrying parts are subjected (a) Description of a simple Test Plant (Fig. 11.1)
to thermal stresses. The insulation in the vicinity of conductors is severly stressed. The poles and The short-circuit power is supplied by speciality built Short-cicuit Generators. There are nor-
t~rm~nals experienc~ electro-dynamic forces. The short time current tests verify the ability of the mally two or more generators though only one is shown in the figure. The short circuit generators
Cll'cmt-breaker to withstand temperature stresses and electrodynamic forces.
The making capacity test verify the ability of the circuit-breaker to clo~e on short-circuit. As * Switchgear, testing and development station (STDS). Bhopal belonging to CPRI has a capacity of 1250 MVA
the circuit breaker closes on existing short-circuit, the current reaches a high value during the peak can test circuit-breakers upto 12 kV. A very high capacity composite short-circuit testing station has been built
a CRRI, Bangalore 1989. Breakers up to 420 kV, 62.5 kA can be tested.
166 duration. Therefore, their design is different from that of the conventional alternators for power·
are driven by three phase induction motor and the special type of excitation called impulse excita- generation.
tion is provided. The generator is driv~m by a three phase induction motor connected through a resilient shaft.
Series resistor and reactors are provided for adjusting the magnitude of short-circuit current Shortly before the short-circuit, the· motor is disconnect from the supply and idles with the generator
and power factor. rotor. .
The I\1aster Circuit-Breaker has higher capacity than circuit breaker under test. In the event A separate d.c. converter set with a high speak output provides the "Impulse Excitation". The
of failure of the circuit-breaker under test, the Master Circuit-Breaker opens and protects the cir- short circuit current which are at lagging power factor have a demagnetising effect. This results
cuit. in reduction in total field hence in reduced e.m.f. As a results the recovery voltage is less than the
Making switch is a specially designed circuit closing device which can close at the desired mo- voltage before short circuit. The effect is reduced by boosting the generator field current by means
ment and can withstand the making currents. of Impulse Excitation. The converter set used for excitation is fitted with a large flywheel. The motor
Transformers are used to get test voltages other than the generator voltage. The transformers is disconnected from supply before the application of excitation. The field current is increased short-
are single phase units which can be connected in different ways to get several test voltages. ly to about 10 times its normal value at the time of short circuit. This takes care of the demag-
In addition to the above equipment there is equipment for netising effect of short-circuit and gives desired recovery voltage.
1. Measurement, record, control;
2. Sequence switch to obtain sequential operation;
/J(IS
3. Auxiliaries etc. T S R
(b) Short-circuit Generator and Drive Motor
Short-circuit generators provide power to the circuit-breakers under test. The short-circuit gen-
erators must be capable of withstanding extremely high reactive power surges lasting for a short
,.
-=- ~ NEUTRAL GROUNDING 2
SHORT CIRCUIT
GENERATOR
DRIVE
MOTOR
IB# ~IMPULSE
~EXCITER
Part 1 of generator winding 1-Making circuit breaker

-MASTER C/RCIJIT BREAKER
Part 2 of generator winding 2-Making switch.
Fig. 11.2. Arrangement of circuit it a short-circuit plant.
. Short-circuit generator is a 3-phase alternator. Each winding is made in two or more parts
\'l;l;1ch can be connected in series, parallel combinations of star or delta to get voltages.
(c) Short-circuit Transfo.rmers
;. For tests at voltages other than the generator voltage, transformers are used. To· step down
J- MAKE SWITCH
, the voltage to lower values a three-phase transformer is normally used. For voltage higher than
generator voltage, usually banks of single phase transformers are employee. These transformers
designed to withstand repeated short-circuit and their windings have several parts which can
r r___ l/NKS connected to series parallel combinations to get several voltages.
r r T r SHORT ,f .· The leakage reactance of the short-circuit transformer is kept low. Transformer winding is
wlw ..,J,,., .,,_,.I.,,., ..,J,,.,---- CIRCUIT ',mechanically strong and provided with extra-turn insulation. Three phase units are not used b~-
---+-N-f--·•r ---t-••---f--
•r-- -- ..ff -- ---,,I.. ---- - -·i---
if
II II If
:,
JI
--, TRANSFORMER
I
1
cause a single 3-phase unit becomes too big. There is no special problem about cooling these trans-
.. formers because they are in the circuit for a short time. The tank is normally smooth without any
:: I :: 2 :: 3 :: 4 : TESTCELLS
·• ;J?bes for circulating oil. For 3-phase tests, the transformer~ are connected in delta on alternator
,,
fl
:,
I
r:
I
::
11
:
I J\de. ?,'he four windings of each phase on secondary side ca,;i be connected in series/parallel com-
1I ,I 11 If I ;'~mat10ns and the three phases can be connected in star or delta.
,1 ii 11 !1 I
Fig. 11.1. Schematic diagram of short-circuit test plant.
168 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTEC'l'ION SHORT CIRCUI'r TESTING OF CIRCUIT-BREAKERS 169
Another three-phase transformer is used for testing low voltage breaker, H.R.C. fuses and for several control circuits according to a certain sequence. For example, the sequences for Breaking
conducting short-time current tests on circuit-breakers. Capacity Test in one test were as follows :
(d) Reactors 1. Drive motor of short-circuit generator made off.
2. Impulse excitation switched on.
For controlling the short-circuit current reactors are employed. These are normally air cored
3. Master circuit-breaker closed.
and air-cooled. Iron parts are avoided in their construction. These are single phase units or three
phase banks. Each reactor is designed to withstand electrodynamic stresses. The coils are securedly 4. Oscillograph circuit connected.
placed to avoid distortion. 5. Make-switch closed.
6. Circuit-breaker under test opened.
(e) Master Circuit-breaker
7. Master circuit-breaker opened.
These are air blast circuit-breakers of capacity more than the breakers under test. In case of 8. Exciter switched off and its field suppressed.
failure of the test circuit-breakers, the master circuit breaker opens. In addition after every test,
0
The above operations take a very short time of the order' of 0.2 second.
it isolates the specimen under test from the supply source and must be able to handle the full short- (k) Measurements
circuit power of the test circuit.
'!'he test events mentioned above cover a very short time of the order of a few hundredth of a
({) Making Device second. All the measurements must, therefore, be recorded by means of oscillographs.
The making switch or making device, as the name implies, is used to ensure that the short- Light beam oscillograph which are simple to operate are used for relatively slow varying quan-
circuit current are applied correctly at the desired moment. This equipment is characterized by tities like current, voltage and also for mechanical quantities such as contact travel, trip signal etc.
close making time, high making capacity. However, the breaking capacity is negligible and the High frequency transient phenomenon of TRV covers a very s~ort time interval of the order o~ 1
making device is not used for circuit interruption. msec. For recording such fast varying quantities cathode ray oscilloscope are used. Processes which
The basic construction of making device is as follows. It is usually air blast making switch with an last a few half waves are recorded on barrel type camera. If time is too short,. around current zero,
air pressure of 14-16 kgf/cm 2 • Contact clearance of only a few mm is sufficient because the contact Polaroid Oscilloscope camera is convenient. Normally one light beam oscillograph and several
device is fast, s~re and without chapter. In recent stations SF6 make switches are used. cathode ray oscillographs are simultaneously used. High speed photography techniques are being
employed for investigating arc extinction phenomenon, movement of part etc. Films are taken at
(g) Capacitor 400 to 800 frames per second.
Capacitor banks are useful for two purposes : The following quantities ca11 be recorded during the tests :
(1) Provide leading current for testing the performance of circuit-breaker in interruption of (a) Short-Circuit current in each phase.
charging currents.
(b) Voltage across each pole before, during and after the short-circuit.
(2) Regulating the frequency of transient recovery voltage given by (c) Fluid (Air, SF6 or oil) pressure.
t'n = 2n ✓LC
1 (d) Contact travel-speed.
(e) Generator voltage.
In synthetic testing and other indirect tests, capacitors are important items in the test circuit. ({) Transient Recovery voltage.
The capacitor banks provide charging currents, regulate natural frequency of transient recovery (g) Current in trip circuit etc.
voltage and are used for synthetic testing. These are single phase banks. These banks can be con-
nected in series or parallel, as desired, both individually and in any combination of the three. PART B. DIRECT TESTING
(h) Resistors
The variation of short-circuit power factor is obtained by using resistors in series with the reac- H.4. DIRECT TESTING
tors. The p.f. can be increased from 0.1 to 0.3. Direct testing involves subjecting a complete breaker or breaker pole to full power or stress
(i) Test Cubicles. during the test.
The test cubicles are constructions of reinforced cement concrete or strong brick work. In these The circuit for direct test is shown in Fig. 11.3.
cubicles the breakers are tested. There is provision for observation. Supply of compressed air and The preliminary preparation of circuit-breaker testing include connecting the equipment ad-
oil purification system is given to the·test cells to facilitate testing of air blast circuit-breaker and justing the magnitude ofreactors, connecting transformers to get desired test voltages etc. The con-
oil circuit-breakers respectively. Separate cubicles are provided for testing L.V., H.V., E.H.V. equip- tacts on sequence switch are adjusted to get desired timings. The oscillographs are adjusted and
ment, fuses. . calibrated. The operations of test follow automatically by means of sequence switch, as mentioned
(j) Sequence Switch earlier.
During the short-circuit testing several operations are performed in a sequence and the total · While testing breaking capacity; Master circuit-breaker and circuit-breaker under test are
time is too short to perform manual operation. The sequential switching of equipment measure- closed firts. Short circuit is applied by closing the making switch. The breaker under test is opened
ments and control circuits is accomplished by sequence switch. This is a drum switch with several · at moment. The breaking current determined from the oscillograph asexplained in Chapter 3, Sec.
pairs of contacts. The drum is rotated by a motor. Once the drum is rotated, it closes and opens 3.19.5.
170 ~I ,
. . . SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIO i
Makmg capacity test 1s necessary type test All . . N g}IORT CIRCUIT TES'"!.'ING OF CIRCUIT-BREAKERS 171 !
make on to a short-circuit. The master ci 't b

circmt-breakers are tested for their ability t
breaker under test is closed on a thr {cm -hreak~r and the make switch are closed first Tho Short-time current tests are necessary type tests for circuit-breakers, bus bars, metal-clad
explained in chapter 3. Operating dut;et~stse s o7i-c1rcuit. The making current is determin~d a e switchgear, current transformers, bushings, isolators etc. The procedure described here is ap-
or client's instructions are per armed according to the Standard S 'fi t' s plicable in all cases.
· pec1 1ca 10ns
(b) Test voltage. Short-time current tests may be carried out at any suitable test voltage. The
voltage is selected by testing station authorities depending upon the reactance of the equipment
and required value of short-time current.
(c) Single-phase Tests or Three-Phase Tests. Both single phase tests and three phase tests
are permitted by the standard. However a complete triple pole breaker is installed in the test bay
for the purpose of tests. The single phase tests are carried out by connecting two adjacent poles in
series.
In case only single pole is to be tested, a rigid return conductor is installed at the centre-line
of adjacent pole to simulate the electrodynamic forces between adjacent poles. For circuit-breakers
above 72.5 kV the return conductor is not necessary because of the large clearance and reduced
electrodynamic forces.
(d) Test Circuit (Ref. Fig. 11.4 a, b). The circuit-breaker is connected on the low-voltage side
G of short-circuit transformer for testing station. The short-circuit is applied beyond the circuit-
breaker via a shunt of measurement.
In single-phase test, the two adjacent poles are connected in series. The short-cfrcuit current
is passed through the closed series circuit and the shunt.
Va= Generator voltage
Gs= Voltage across test breaker In three-phase test, the three terminals of the circuit breaker on one side are connected to low-
i = Short circuit current
x. = Generator reactance voltage side to short-circuit transformer of testing station. The other three terminals of poles are
X = Current control reactance connected in star via shunt in each phase for measurement of current.
S2 = Making Switch 81 = Back-up (Master) circuit-breaker
CR
S = Breaker under te 8 t
- · . •
, 1, Rz - Capacitance, resistance for ad'ust'
G = Short circuit generator.
T = Transformer
.
J mg the transient recovery voltage
__ 2
_,,,,__ -1!
t""lsec t=O
.. Fig. 11.3. Short-circuit test arran . . SI S2
(u) Breaking Capacity Th b 1 ' gement (smgle !me representation).
of test circuit. · e rea cmg capacity test should be performed w'th .
... i speci 6ied TRV
(ui) Peak Making Current. The eak .
1es~ sho3uld be expressed by maximumpcurr:~l:ng c~rrelnt m~de by the circuit-breaker during the S, S = Adjacent poles of circuit-breakers under test (kept closed)
, ec. .19.6. any po e. It is measured as descri'b d · h S 1 = master circuit-breaker opened at t = 1 sec
. .. e m c apter
(w) Conditions of severity for M k' C . S 2 = Make switch, open before t =0, closed at t = 0
under the following clauses . a mg apac1ty and Breaking capacity tests a 'fi d I= Rated short-time current
· re speci 1e as T = Low secondary voltage transformer
1. Conditions of breaker before t t
3. Condi ~ions of breaker after teset .
5. Transient recovery voltage.
!·
Con~itions during the test.
. Apphe~ voltage before test.
Sh= Shunt for measurement of current I
Fig. 11.4. (a) Explaining single-phase short time current test on a circuit-breaker or isolator.
7. Test frequency, 6 · Short-circuit power factor.

9. 'I'est duties. 8 · Earthing of test circuit.
11.6. SHORT-TIME CURRENT TEST

BUSBARS, CTs ETC, S ON CIRCUIT-BREAKERS, ISOLATORS,
(a) _Re~uirement. Short time current test

Short-circmt current (1 sec or 3 sec) assigned bs ~~e Type Tests for confirming Rated Duration of
Rated short time current is defined as th y e manufacturer (Ref. Sec. 3.19.7). Fig. 11.4. (b) Three phase Test circuit.
can carry fo~ a specified short duration (1 e r,m;, value _of a.c, current which the circuit-breaker (e) Procedure. The magnitud~ of short-circuit current is achieved by selecting appropriate volt-
contact weldmg. sec or sec) without mechanical damage and without age and reactance by the testing authorities depending upon the reactance of the circuit-breaker
under test and the required value of current. Trial shots are taken at reduced voltage and current
to check the calibration.
172 gf{ORT CIRCUIT TEST.ING OF CIRCUIT-BREAKERS 173
. . . . SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION·
Fm this test, the circmt-breaker under test (S) . k . . . Temperature rise limits are not specified for short-time current tests. It is very difficult to
.
Shor t circm't . . . . is ept m closed condit10n throughout the test
current is initiated by closin the s . . , . record the transient temperature during 1 sec. duration.
is interrupted opening master circuit break g (S ) ta:10~ make switch (82) at t = 0 sec and current (h) Stresses during Short-time Current Test. The electrodynamic forces between adjacent
current loop should be 2 5 times rat d h t et~ 1 a t - l sec or 3 sec. The peak of first major poles and adjacent phase conductors are proportional to square of current and inversely propor-
. . . e s or ime current (Ref. Sec. 3.19.6). . tional to phase spacing. During short-time current, the insulator supports experience impact can-
The record is obtained on the oscillo a h
({) Observations. Visual in t· gr ~ on the sheet~ of ultraviolet recorder automatically tilever force due to electrodynamic forces.
after the short-time curreht testi::
~~~air n~ri1o~d :PThat10n of the circuit-breaker immediate};
get damaged during the test. The circuit-br!a1u ic~en Id e par.ts of the circuit-breaker should not
The contacts experience temperature stresses proportional to I2 Rt. The resistance depends on
contact pressure and surface condition.
s~10uld not get welded. The circuit-breaker shornl~sb ou nbolt emit an:y flame or s1;1oke. The contacts
time current test. u e capa e of openmg and closing after the short-
. (g) Short-Time Current Test, Evaluation f .
11,7. BASIC SHORT-CIRCUIT TEST DUTIES (Ref. Sec. 10.27.3.15)
o_scillogram taken during the short-time curre o Test R~sult~. Fig. 11.5 shows an example of (a) Requirements. The circuit-breaker should be capable of performing the opening and closing
time (1 sec) and the oscillogram is taken. nt test. The cm rent is passed the breaker for a short- operations as per rated operating sequence for all values of short-circuit currents upto its rated short-
circuit breaking current at specified test voltage and relevant conidtions of TRV for terminal short-
A_ t
I ---
r 1 1 r
I
,i
'
,
I ' I
, ! circuits.
The requirements are verified by conducting Basic short circuit. Test Duties. These require-
ments are discussed below :
t (i) Breaking Capacity (Ref. Sec. 3.19.5. (Ref. Fig. 11.12)
I The Circuit-breaker should have rated short-circuit current breaking capacity. It should be
capable of breaking all currents upto its rated short-circuit breaking currents. Since it is difficult
to carry out tests at every value, the basic short-circuit tests are made at 10%, 30%, 60% and 100%
of rated short-circuit breaking current (a.c. component) and specified d.c. component.
(ii) TRV Conditions
The circuit-breaker should have rated TRV for terminal faults (Ref. Sec. 3.19). During Breaker
0
OT duration of short-circuit (say 1 sec)
' 3 4 l 6 7 8 9 /()
operations, the TRV should be as per specified TRV condition for the respective test duty.
TRV for test Duty 1 (10%) and Test Duty 2 (30%) are more severe than those for Test Duty 3
·~] Envelope of short-circuit wave (60%) and Test Duty 4 (100%)
Io, Ii, 12, ....... 110 r.m.s. value of asymmetrical current t
h. (iii) Making Capacity. (Ref. Sec. 3.19.6.) (Ref. Fig. 11.12)
a eac mstant
The circuit-breaker should be able to close on short-circuit, i.e., it should have rated short-circuit
The r.m.s. value of !!r:~:·d~~lof;m ~f sh~rt-circuit of sh~rt time current test. making capacity. This is tested by closing the circuit-breaker on short-circuit.
g e tune ~terval Oto T of such a wave is given by the expression. (iv) Operating Sequence. (Ref. Sec. 3.19.8) (Fig 12.11)
I,m, ~ ✓½]i 2
dt The circuit-breaker should be able to perform the opening and closing duties as per rated
operating sequence. The requirement is verified by conducting the Basic Short-Circuit Test Duties
where i is the current (variable) 0 with rated operating sequence.
t time (variable) (seconds) (b) Procedure. For breaking capacity tests (TD 1, TD 2, TD 3 and TD 5), the short-circuit
T duration of current in seconds. currents are initiated by closing the make switch of the testing station and the current is inter-
. Procedure of determining equivalent r m . rupted by opening the circuit-breaker under test. The circuit-breaker under test is not closed on
mterv:3-l OT is divided into 10 equal parts ·m:;l;e~1te of short-time .current is as follows. 'fhe time short-circuit (Ref. Fig. 11.12)
these mstants are Io, 11, 12..... etc. upto 110 y 0, 1, 2, .... etc. upto 10. The r.m.s. valnes at For making capacity tests (TD 4a) the short-circuit is initiated by closing the circuit-breaker
under test. The opening of short circuit current is by master-breaker of the testing station. The
. Irms at this instant= -f(.J8 m)2 + (I )2-
wh I I y d.c. circuit-breaker under test need not to open the short-circuit.
ere sym = r.m.s. va ue of a.c. component at this instant
The sequence •of circuit-breaker under test, master circuit-breaker and make switch is pre-ar-
Id.c. =component at this instant. ranged to get desired duty cycle.
It is r.m.s. value of current at this instant Th' (c) Test circuit (Ref. Fig. 11.3) The basic short-circuit tests are carried by out on complete three
F:om these values the r.m.s. value of short ti · is wa~ 1o, Ii, 12 ...... et~. upto 110 are calculated. pole circuit-breaker. However, when capacity of the testing station is inadequate for testing a com-
Simson Formula : me current is calculated with sufficient accuracy by
plete three phase circuit-breaker the test may be carried out on one pole of a three phase circuJ.t-
I--- ✓.1_[12 4 2 2 2 ·
30 o + (Ji + 13 + 15 + I~ + I~) + 2 (I~ + I~ + I~ + I~ + Ito)]
breaker. Even then, a complete circuit-breaker is usually installed in the test bay and only one pole
is connected in the circuit. In case of EHV circuit-breakers with modular construction, the tests
may be carried out on pole. The test voltage is selected such that rated power frequency recovery
175
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTI UIT TESTING OF CIRCUIT-BREAKERS . .
174 . t' s of voltage at line side terminal of circmt-br~aker.
voltage is obtained. The test voltage is selected such that rated power frequency recovery volta
~'ic!RCHO cIRC . .
point giving rise to damped ~aw:tooth :;;1!: ::.acterised by high rate of during initial portio~ of
is obtained. ·
The parameters L and C ·in the station are arranged such that the required current and 'I'R
result and TRV across the circuit br~ 't b akers have different sensitivity ofTRV. The gradmg
(Ref. Sec. 3.16). Different types of circm - re ' L 1
r ~
conditions are achieved L and Care changed for each test duty.
(d) Severity. Basic short-circuit test duty produces severe electromechanical, thermal a
dielectric stress on circuit-breaker. The severity of these components varies with Test Duty 1, 2,
non,flC!VUL
Value VP== V\/3

th
dampen e TRV.
h == Short line fault current. ~

,,....
- - ~ XCBs
J vvvvw ·
Z
1-
7
4a/4b and 5 depending upon type of circuit-breaker. For circuit-breakers with internal source CB = Circuit-breake~· un~er t e s t . ~
energy, the smaller breaking currents generate less pressure. Hence TD 1 and 2 may be mo
Xi== Reactance on hne side. _ ~·
severe. When arcing time for Test Duty 1 and 2 is more by 1/2 cycle than Test Duty 3 and 4, th
Critical Current Tests are necessary. Xs == Reactance on source side. -=- F' 11 6 Circuit representing Short Line Fault condition.
z == Surge impedance of line. ig. . .
11.8. CRITICAL CURRENT TESTS (Ref. Sec. 8.7) L == Length ofline upto fault.
In circuit-breaker with internal source of extinguishing energy i.e., oil circuit-breakers, the a
duration depends upon design of cross-jet pot and speed of contacts. The arcing time for Test Du GING BREAKING CURRENT TESTS
1 (10%) may exceed that of Test Duty 2 by more than one-half cycle. In such cases, additional 'Cri
11,10. LINE CHAR . t It . the value of line charging current tal~e~ by
(a) Rated line charging break.mg cubze~ .' t is upting with over-voltage within permismble
cal Current Tests' are required. the line no load. The circuit-brea:rnr is capa e o m err
Critical current test duties are similar to Test Duty 1 except for following changes. limits. Breaker should not restnke.
- The breaking currents are in the range of 4 to 6% and 1 to 2% ofrated short-circuit breaki Rated line charging current
current. Rated Voltage (V)
A
- TRV conditions are modified. KV
10
72.5
11.9. SHORT-LINE FAUL'f TESTS (Ref. Sec. 3.14.1) 50
145
(a) Requirements. These tests are applicable to three pole circuit-breakers intended for direct 125
245
connection to overhead transmission lines having rated voltage of 72.5 kV and above. 400
420
These are not applicable to 36 kV and 12 kV circuit-breakers. The theory of short-line faults 500
has been discussed in Sec. 3.16. The capability of the circuit-breakers to perform the short-line fau 525
clearing duty is tested by conducting these tests. In high power testing station, the transmission: d t d ofh v a c circuit-breakers rated 72.5 kV and above
line is generally represented by an artificial transmission line comprising R, L, C parameters or (b) Requirement. 'l'hese test are con uc e . · · · · t
. . d , t d l' charging breakmg curren .
by specially built transmission line. to prove their assigne ra e me . . three hase with either overhead line on
For purpose of short line fault simulation, the system can be considered in two sides (Ref. Sec. (c) Test Circuit. The_ tests. are either smgle phase or p
3.16) on-load or with artifical hne with R, L, C.
- Source side having rated voltage and equivalent inductance corresponding to 10% rated The supply circuit has two types :
short-circuit breaking current. . . . Wh' h can ·ve short-circuit current less than 10%.
- Line side impedance. Supply Cucmt 1 . ic gi . 't nt more than rated short-circuit current.
. ·t 2 ., Which can give short-cll'CUl curre
S upp1y Cll'CUl . .
To represent different lengths of lines and corresponding short-line fault current, these values (d) Test voltage. In single phase tests, the test voltage Vt is given by
of line side impedances are recommended. These are selected to get 90%, 75% and 60% of rated
short-circuit breaking current respectively. V
Vt= 1.2 x '{3"
(b) Test Circuit .. The short line fault tests are single phase tests. The circuit consists of a
supply circuit and line side circuit. The parameters are so selected that required TRV conditions
are obtained. where Vis rated voltage of ~ircuit-l~rebalker. ly if the circuit-breaker restrikes during test duty 1 or
(e) Test Duties. Test 3 is app ica eon
(c) Short line Fault Test Duties. The standard test duties L90, L75, L60 consist of rated 2. The test consists-of 10 to 12 operations for each duty.
operating sequence for opening operation only as follows : Test current as percentage of' rated
Test Duty L90 : At 90% rated breaking current and appropriate TRV. Supply Circuit line charging current
Test Duty No.
Test Duty L75 : At 75% rated breaking current and appropriate TRV. 10 to 30
1
Test Duty L60 : At 60% rated breaking current and appropriate TR.V. 1 100 to 120
1
(d) Severity. After opening a short-line fault, voltage waves originating in the circuit-breaker 2 100 to 110
travel to source side and line side. The line wave gest reflected from the fault point and thus within 2
3
a few tens of microsecond, the wave travels to-and-fro between the open circuit breaker and the
176
11.11. OUT-OF-PHASE SWITCHING TESTS UIT TESTING OF CIRCUIT-BREAKERS 177
(a) Requirements. When a circuit-breaker is connected SflORT CIRC
Cable-charging current switching tests are recommetded for circuit-breakers of rated voltages
between two circuit supplied from different sources, the circuit- 24 kV and above to be used of switching cable curren s.
breaker may have to open or close during out-of-phase condi-
tion [Fig. 11.7 (a) or phase opposition [Fig. 11.7 (b)]. The phase of . 't b kb eaking current.
..c-- Rated smgle-capaci or an r ended for circuit-breaker to be
angle between rotating vectors on either sides of the circuit- t b 1 · g tests are recomm
breaker may exceed normal value (0°) and may be as much as Rated single capacitor bank curren rea un h Id b restrike free and switching overvoltages
{c) d for switching capacitor banks. The breakers ou e
180° (Phase opposition). The circuit-breakers which are re- use Id be withm· · speci'fiie d 1·imi·ts.
Fig. 11.7. h
quired to inter-connect two systems or to synchronise the units s ou- Rated back-to-back capacitor ban.k break'mg cu , rrent .and
with the busbars need rated out-of-phase breaking capacity. The circuit-breaker should be capable . b k · ush makmg current. .
of breaking
Sec. 3.17) out-of-phase currents upto its assigned ratings with specified conditions of TRV. (Ref. - Rated capacitor an mr .h ·t h . or switch out parallel capacitor
These tests are intended for circuit-breakers whic swi c m
banks.
(b) Test Conditions. The out-of-phase breaking are either single phase or three phase. The
performance out-of-phase breaking capacity in a test is specified in terms of the following ;
- Value of out-of-phase breaking current Supply Circuit .A . .
. ·t h . g· an impedance h th t ·ts short-circuit current does not
sue a i . the
- Value of out of phase recovery voltage C
Supply circmt A is a circm . a~m . f he circuit-breaker except that, if necessary,
ex eed 10% of the rated d short-circmt
d b 1 thecurrent o. t by th's
value given i requirement so that power frequency
- Characteristics of inherent TRV for out-of-phase switching.
Test Voltages
impedance shall be re uce ~ ow. h .
voltage variation caused by switchmg t e capaci 'tive current does not exceed 10%.
For single phase test, the test voltage (V1) given by the following expressions :
Supply Circuit B . . . . d hich is as low as possible, but not so low that
Vt =2 x T3
For effectively earthed system. Supply circuit B is a Cl!'cmt havmg impe anc~ w ·t ,
.
its short-circuit current excee d s th erated short-circm
h f curre
nt of the circuit-breaker. The charac-
. voltage variat10n
equency . when sw1·tch'mgr
Vt= 2.5 x k For non-effectively earth system.

teristics of the test circuit s~al.l be such th~t t ;h~~w;~ ;or Test-duty No. 4.
is as small as possible and is m any case ess
Where Vis rated voltage of Circuit-breaker. Test duties . .

(a) Out-of-phase Test Duties d' t rmal service cond1t10ns.
Test conditions correspon mg o no . f four test-duties as specified in Table
Test Duty 1 ; 0 and O at 20 to 40% l P The capacitive current switching tests shall consist o
0
below.
Test Duty 2 ; 0 and Oat 100 to 110% I P
0
where I 0 P is rated out-of-phase breaking current, O is opening. Test-duty Test current as percentage of the
Supply circuit rated capacitive breaking current
The rated out of phase breaking current is generally 25% of rated breaking current of circuit-
breaker. 1. A 20 to 40
2. A Not less than 100
11.12, CAPACITIVE CURRENT SWITCHING TESTS 3. B 20 to 40
Capacitor current switching is.a special switching duty for a circuit breaker (Ref. Sec. 3.14, 4. B Not less than 100
Sec. 3.19.19). Capacitor current switching tests are applicable for circuit-breakers which are in-
tended to be used for breaking capacitive currents. The breakers should be restrike free. The switch- The number of tests for each test-duty shall be ;
ing overvoltages while opening single capacitor banks should be within permissible limits.
-10 tests for three-phase tests : t· distributed at intervals of ap-
Circuit breakers to be used for closing parallel capacitor banks should be tested for rated back- -12 tests for single-phase tests with the contact separa ion
to-back capacitor bank breaking current and rated capacitor bank inrush making current. Ref Sec,. proximately 30 electrical degrees.
15.26 for capacitor switching applications for medium voltages.
Applicability Test duties for Capac1·t·ive current Switching tests
Test Duty 1 2 3 4
Capacitive current switching tests are applicable to all circuit-breakers to which one or more
of the following ratings have been assigned. Test Circuit A A B B
- Rated line-charging breaking current (Sec. 11.10) Line Current Switching tests and cable 0 C,P p c,o
charging current switching tests.
72.5Line charging
kV and above.current switching tests are recommended circuit-breakers for rated voltages of Capacitor bank
Current switching tests 0 c,o 0 c,o
-- Rated cable-charging breaking current (Sec. 11.13)
Last two shots of the test duty to be C, 0
C = Close; 0 = open.
178
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECT! CIRCUIT TESTING OF CIRCUIT-BREAKERS 179
Criterion of Suitability of circuit breaker,
AKING CURRENT TEST
'l'he capacitive current switching tests are performed to prove respective assigned ratings,
CABLE-CHARGING BRE . hi h voltage cables or cable networks s~ou~d
The breaker is considered to be suitable for respective capacitive current switching duty (S ( ) Requirement. The circuit-b:~·eaker for ope~mile; successfully with the over voltage w1th1~
11.10.1) if the breaker is restrike free during opening and can withstand inrush currents of specifie
c: p ablelimits.
of interrupting the chargmgl
The recommended cur;::::i
va ue o c~le charging breaking current are as follows .
frequency and peak during closing. The switching overvoltages should be within specified limits.:
11,12.1. Single Capacitor Bank Current Breaking Test Rated Voltage Rated cable charging breaking current
(a) Requirement, These tests are applicable to circuit-breakers which are intended for openi kV A
capacitive loads such as Capacitor banks. Capacitor banks are used for power factor improveme
3.6 10
(reactive power compensation) at receiving end of transmission lines. The circuit-breakers used fi
switching such capacitor banks should have the rated capacitor breaking current. 7.6 10
(Ref. Sec. 3.14). These should be restrike free. 12 25
(b) Rated Capacitor Breaking Current, This is a assigned by the manufacturer on the basis 36 50
of development and proving test. This current varies between a few tens of .amperes and a few 72.5 125
hundred ampems for cfrcuit-breake,s mted 12 kV, 36 kV and 72.5 kV, Alternatively, the capacilj
is expressed in terms of three phase MVAR given by · 145 160
MVAR==V3 xkVxkA 245 250

420 400
For example
a breaking at 36
capacity kV circuit-breaker
equal to with rated capacitor breaking current of 600. A will have.
. d tests or laboratory tests. Field tests are_ con-
600 (b) Test Conditions. These tests are either ~el t d by employing cables or capacitors. Smgle
V3 X 36 X 1000 == 37.4 MVAR ducted on actual cable. Laboratory tes~ ~e con uc e
hase tests are permitted for 36 kV an a ove.
(c) Test Circuit, The teats can be either single phase tests or three phase teats depending
upon
as available test facilities. (Ref. 11.6). The tests are conducted with two types of supply circuits
follows: ;est Circuits C cumnt does not exceed 10% of rated short-
Test circuit 1 has such impend~nce_t~a!!~::~edance
circuit current of the breaker. Te_st c1rcmt that short-cir'cuit current exceeds rated
.
less Supply or ratedI. short-circuit
than 10%Circuit With highercurrent.
inductance on supply side such that short-circuit current is short circuit current of the circmt-breakers. 2 o ening and at least two make-break operat10ns
(c) Test Duties. For each of the duty 10 to 1 p
100%Supply Circuit II. With
rated short-circuit low inductance on supply side such that short-circuit is more than
current.
are conducted. r-,, ,u,ront as P" tt~t ofcat,d
Test Duty Supply Circuit
(d) Test Duties. The single capacitor breaking test comprises for test duties as mentioned cable changing breaking current
below. For each test duty, 10 shots are taken for three phase teats or 12 to 30 shots for single phase
tests. 1 1 20 to 40
Test Duty 2 1 100 to 110

Supply Circuit (See clause CJ 3 2 20 to 100
Test current as a percentage of
1 rated capacitor breaking current 4 2 100 to 100
1
~ 20 to 40%
1 . . t Breaking •rests . d
100 to 110% 11.13.1. Small Inductive Curren . d . fi Bowing cases should have ass1gne
3 Re uirements, The circuit-b:eakers to be use m o
2 l (a) fR!ed Small Inductive Breakmg Current.
4 20 to 40%
va ue
- o Steady magnetizing current of power transformers.
2
100 to 110%
t f power transformers.
The tests sequence in Test Duty 4 are make-break tests. - Inrush curren s o t loaded transformers.
. h t actors or reac or
- Currents of s un re s during starting periods.
(e) Severity and Performance Evaluation. During closing on capacitor banks, the inrush
currents have high frequency. The energy released in prearcing causes heating and pressure rise - Currents of small high-voltage motor t having power factor less than 0.15 and
which depends on magnitude and frequency on inrush currents. Each circuit-breaker has a limit The term 'small inductive :urre:e~ :~~%:lt~u:%:7:of circuit-breakers. In some :::sti:~~~:~
of closing duty with regard to frequency and magnitude of current. which are usually lower than t e r: 1 of small inductive current may be more
current of transformers or motors) t e va ue . .
During opening operations, the circuit-breaker should not restrike and should not produce over-
voltage above permissible limits (Ref. Sec. 3.19, Table 3.4) current of the circuit breakers. lt ge beyond the specified limits durmg breakmg
The circuit-breaker should not produce over-vo a
of small inductive currents.
180
(b) Rated Small Inductive Breaking Current. The Rated Small Inductive Breaking Current
Capacity is the highest value of small inductive current which the circuit-breaker is capable of CTOR SWITCHING TEST
breaking with over-voltages within specified limits.
11,14. REA d t · true represen t a t'10n of actual network conditions.· However/.._
The frequencies of TRV are based on dura- The laboratory tests o no give . (1987) and is likely to be recommended in th e , next·!
laboratory test has been proposed by CIGRE .• .
tion of first loop of voltage after final current SOURCE revision of IEC 56.
zero. (Ref. Sec. 3.12).
(c) The Test Circuit. The Test circuit is il- (a) Test1987
Duties . 't fior Medium Voltage and High Voltage Reac-
CIGRE recommends the following test circm
lustrated in Fig. 11.8. Tests are either single
phase or three depending upon the availability
C L R
tor switching.
of load.
~ d voltage of CB Natural frequency Natural frequency
Test duty Current*
(d) 'fest Results. The circuit-breaker LOAD (Representing inductor, reactor, motor)
hV of Load" hHz. of Loop Hz
should be capable of opening the circuit with 12-36 A 500 9-11 150 200
overvoltages with specified limits. In case, over- Fig. 11.8. Test Circuit for Small Inductive
voltages are beyond the limit, suitable surge Current-Breaking. B 1500 18-22 150-200
suppressors (R-C) combination should be connected on load side and interrupter design may be A 2300 1.8-2.2 150-200
modified. Switching resistors may be incorporated in the circuit-breaker. (Ref. Sec. 3.13.) 36-72.5 B 500 3.6-4.4 150-200
11.13.2. Recommendations for Small Inductive Current Switching Tests A 100 0.9-1.1 150-200
The switching overvoltages produced by small inductive current switching are related with cur- 72.5 and above B 300 1.6-1.8 150-200
rent chopping phenomena. The overvoltage waveform can have different shapes. It is difficult to
assess the degree of effect of such wide range of wave shapes on insulations of loads and supply
circuits.
(b) Purpose of Test. . erformed with following purposes :
Clean shopping overvoltage without reignitions may be compared with standard switching Im- Reactor current breaking tests are p h 't h to interrupt the reactor currents.
pulse Wave (SIW) of 250/2500 µsin case of ERV circuit switching. t' b'lity of the CB or t e swi c
AL To prove the inter~up. i~g a i . durin reignition are not harmful. .
For medium voltage circuits standard Lighting Impulse voltage wave (LIW) of l.2/50µs rnay A2. To confirm that reignit10ns occurrin~ ~ 1 .
A3. Investigations of the breakers behaviour main y in respe
ct of overvoltages production with
serve as guideline.
are summarised Recommendations
below : of IEC 56 1987 for small inductive current switching tests
following respects.
- to determine maximum chopping current. .
1. Transformer
kV and above. magnetizing current for circuit-breakers with rated voltages of 100
- to investigate statistical distribution of the chopp~ng currentt.
- to investigate statistical dis n ~ _10n o d t
. . t 'b t' f the chopping curren . .
Experience indicates that when interrupting magnetizing currents of unloaded transformers . the range of point-of-wave settings with
- to investigate reignition probability, to e ermine
under steady stat_e conditions and at voltages not exceeding their rated voltage the over-voltages
are small. Tests are therefore, not specified to simulate this switching condition. reignitions. t t p
- to estimate the dielectric characteristic of con ac ga .
Switching
condition of the
and no inrush
tests magnetizing current of an unloaded transformer is not a normal service
are specified.
Conclusions. create overvoltage of the two types :
100 2.
kV.Transformer magnetizing current for circuit-breakers with rated voltages below Interruptions of reactor curre~ts ~ay
- Chopping overvoltages having high magni
. tu des of time duration approximately correspond-
Generally tests are not required but in cases of doubt they should be made on the system under - ing to switching
Reignition impulses.
overvoltages overvoltage h avmg
. t'me
I
duration similar to lightning impulses but
actual serv:ice conditions. If this is not possible, three-phase tests may be made in a laboratory lower crest values.
using the actual transformer to be switched in service. In either case, the source circuit should
have as low a capacitance as possible subject to the rated TRV not being exceeded. Any means of Expected over voltages.
voltage limiting to be ·used in service may be connected for the tests. Chopping overvoltages: below 2 p.u.
3. Transformer with a teritary winding loaded with reactors.
Reignition overvoltages: 2 p.u. kV overvoltages above 2 p.u. may not be per-
For circuit-breakers of rated voltages above 275
This shall be considered a special case and agreement reached between manufacturer and user.
4. High voltage motors. mitted. S 't h ·ng
Method to Limit Overvoltages during Reactor wi c i .
A test circuit is under consideration of IEC (1988)
- Use of opening resistors with current breakers
5. Shunt reactors.
A test circuit is under consideration if IEC (1988)
*** Current of p.f. less than 0.15. d t current chopping at lower values of currents. Hence
For first pole-to-clear, the worst overvoltages occur ue o
test d u t.tes A performed with lower value of current.
-
I
182
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION SHORT CIRCUIT TESTING OF CIRCUIT-BREAKERS 183
- Use of ZnO arresters near the circuit-breaker ,,: UNIT TESTING OR ELEMENT TESTING
- Use of high capacitance between breaker and reactor connected between phase to earth. ll,lo. . • oil Air Blast SF6 etc. consist of two or
Means to Limit switching overvoltages during opening of small inductive currents and reactor Almost all m~dern ~HV circuit-breakersi m;~~:::.ter~upters op;rate (open or close) simul-
currents include the following. more identical umts (or mterrupters) per po :ie almost equally. The breaking capacity i? M.V.A.
1. Use of opening Resistors (Resistor Switching) taneously and share the voltage acr~ss the p ·t th r sults can be applied to the capacity of the
is also shared equally. He~ce by _testmg lone u~\; t? ge Element testing in an internationally ac-
To reduce the overvoltage amplitudes, two different ranges of opening resistors are used. po1e. This is known as Umt Testmg or E emen es m .
- Resistance values of the order 10 to 50 Kilo-ohms per phase.
- Resistance values of the order 1 to 5 Kilo-Ohms per phase. cepted method.* b d d by factor a and all the impedances should
While applying unit test the voltage must e ;~ uce·t same at that following expressions :
The resistances used for damping TRV of short circuit currents interruption are several be reduced by factor a to get test voltage across e um
hundred ohms (for line CB) down to a few ohms for generator CB.
a=_!_ when one unit is rested together.
Resistance current is interrupted by auxiliary break. n
2. Use of ZnO Arresters in parallel with the circuit-breakers. a= m when m units are tested together.
n
This is an alternative to the use of opening resistors to reduce peak-to-peak excursion of over-
voltage due to reignition.
where n is number of ~nits per pole. ircuit-breaker with three units per pole. Test is to ~e
The protective level of the ZnO arrester may be kept between 1.5 p.u. and 2.0 p.u. However For example consider 3 pole, ~30 kV c V b t een oles. Voltage across one pole is
additional surge arresters are essential for phase to ground between the CB and the reactor. conducted at normal voltage i.e. 230 k e w p
3. Capacitor between breaker and reactor. 230/\13 = 133 kV.
1
This reduces steepness and amplitude of overvoltage. However it complicates 'the generation a=-n=3
and limitation of overvoltage. n,
Special Note :. Voltages required for testing one unit
Laboratory tests for reactor switching and low inductive current switching are for obtaining =ax 133 =½x 133 =44.33 kV
information about the influence of the CB on the overvoltages. For determination of overvoltages Further: Land C oftest circuit should be reduced to get same natural frequency as that direct
in actual installation, field testing is recommeded by CIGRE.
testing, i.e.
PART C-INDIRECT TESTING I'

In
= .1
21t'1LC
in Direct Testing
The short-circuit power available in earlier testing stations (of the order of 4000 MVA in 1 1
laboratory type testing station) is not sufficient to test a complete breaker (which is ofrated break- fn = 2n ✓LC
ing capacity of the order of 10,000 MVA at 245 kV). Even single pole of a ERV circuit-breaker cannot 21t✓aLx Ca
be tested by direct means. As all ERV circuit-breaker are with several arc interrupter units tested
per pole each unit can be separately tested. This is called Unit Testing. From tests on one unit, the The natural frequency of transient r~striking voltage remains unchanged. Time scale also
capacity of the complete pole and breaker is determined. This method of Unit Testing is adopted remains unchanged. . 'b . cross the pole is not evenly distributed
internationally. Synthetic testing is another popular method which permits testing of breaker of With breakers in which the voltage d1strd1 ution ad the others less The test should be per-
capacity 5, times that of the plant. h
amongest t e um·t s, some u nits will be stresse
. · more
th an . mus t b e ma d em
nit Hence correction . unit
The important indirect Methods include the following : formed so as to test the highest ~tress _com~ng ~ver ~:blished as a reliable method of testing.
testing results. Statistically, umt testmg as een es
1. Unit Testing*. Which means testing one or more units separately.
11.16. SYNTHETIC TESTING
2. Synthetic Testing*. In which the current source providing short circuit current and voltage
source supplying restriking and recovery voltage are different. Fig. 11.9 illustrates the principle
of synthetic testing.
3. Substitution Tests. These are conducted for oil circuit-breaker, the characteristics of current BREAKER
versus time are obtained for different voltages. The performance beyond the tested values is deter- The synthetic test employs two SHORT HIGH
UNDER VOLTAGE
mined by approximation. sources name1y. . CIRCUIT "-' G
GENERATOR TEST
(1) Current source (of relatively SOURCE
4. Compensation Tests. Which are conducted on oil circuit-breakers in critical range of low cur- low voltage)
rent by a suitable compensation such as increased frequency, increase restriking voltages etc. (2) Voltage source (of relatively
5. Capacitance Tests. The capacitor which is charged by a voltage source is discharged through low current). Fig. 11.9. Synthetic Testing Test Circuit (simplified).
the breaker. An oscillatory circuit provides restriking voltage.
- - -*-If- -.
two ----
mterrupters are coup1ed in series , the double-interrupter assembly should be tested together as a 'unit'.
* Most widely used indirect test used for Type Testing. (Ref. Sec.station
If testing 11.7 C).
has a capact·tY, co mplete breaker ts tested instead of unit testing.
184
The current source provides short-circuit current. The voltage source p:rovides restriking volt- - Parallel Current Injection Method (Fig. 11.10)
age plus recovery voltage. Other L, r, C etc. are used to get desired test conditions. The switch - Series Current Injection Method
S 1 is closed to supply short-circuit current La, At near final current zero switch S 2 (which is usually
Parallel Current Injection Method widely used for testing circuit-breakers because it can give
a spark gap) is closed and V3 is applied to the break.er at an appropriate moment. The voltage will
high frequency transient voltages as required by standards.
have transient because of L and C of the circuit.
Ref. 11.10 (a). In parallel current injection method, the voltage circ':1it (2) is effect~vely connected
The advantages of this method are the following. in parallel with current circuit (1) and the test breaker before the mam current Ia m test breaker
(1) The breaker can be tested for desired TRV and R.R.R.V. current is properly simulated.
(2) The short-circuit generator has to supply currents at a relatively less voltage (as compared Test
to direct testing). ·Master Make
breaker LG switch breai<er
~:,--,-~r--,
(3) Both test current and test voltage can be independently varied. This gives flexibility to the s,
test.
(4) The method is simple. It can be applied to unit testing also.
(5) With this method a breaker of capacity (MVA) of five time that of the capacity (MVA) of
the test plan can be tested.
Types of Synthetic Test Circuits
Gen f Aux.,,,----; I ! 2 V
Breaker
There are two types of synthetic test circuit.
Current Voltage
s,y~
Master circuit c ire uit
breaker Make Aux.
-~ - switch breaker
Lfl Sz y
I
VG S.C.t
¼ ff; . t
Triggered
spark gap
1
to
I
(c) Series current injection
t, t2 t~ \3
N
Gen CG 8 CH t2 V
JG I I
I
f
I
I
I
Test I
breaker I
I I
16 -1
I
I IH
------ --- ------
(a) Parallel current iajection
to ~ I t2 t3
I
I I
I I
I I
I I Transient recovery voltage
across test circu·,t breaker
I
I
--~--1----
I
-- - - - - - -------- -t (d)
I
Fig. 11.10. Synthetic Test Circuit and waveform based on Series Current Injection Method.
V -t
Arc voltage Fig. 11.10 (c) represents series current injection method, in which the voltage circuit ~2) is co~-
Transient recovery- nected to current circuit in series before main current zero. As a result the IH and Ia are m opposi-
voltage across test- tion in breaker circuit.
circu it- breaker
. · Stresses produced by synthetic test should correspond to those_in actual network. This is dif-
(b) Waveforms ficult. Several factors influence the stresses during the test. These mclude.
Fig. 11.10. Synthetic Test Circuit and waveform based on Parallel Current Injection Method.
- High current mode - High voltage mode
h [In parallel ,c~rrent iajection_ method, voltage circuit (2) is effectively connected in parallel with current (1) and - instant of applying voltage - t1, tz, t3, tz (Ref. Fig. 11.10)
t e test breaker B before the mam current la reaches zero. This method is widely used for synthetic test circuits for
getting frequencies of TRV] - frequencies of TRV etc.
186
Brown Boveri's Synthetic Testing Circuit. Synthetic test circuit shown in Fig. 11.11 is used
by Brown Boveri, Switzerland. It is used in such a fashion that the short-circuit current is supplied These are development tests.
from a circuit at a relatively low motive voltage while the restriking and recovery voltage is supplied
by a separate H.V. circuit. ~~eT:~~~~!~:::kt::~!sf~~i°:o~~!;~ :~J 0
~;:sc~rrent permitted by the capacity of the plant, i.e.
current i1 of characteristic I. , . ermitted b the test plant at reduced
T
- - - / I / G I i VOlTA6£ C/RCIJIT ( 2) Test the breaker at reduced voltage upto current i2 p 1 y h t . t· II
F 611
voltage v2 obtain the time reqmred
· ,,1or vanous
· curre nt. upto i2 and p ot c arac ens ic .
'-()--,1,..
I {\
~~4~ 03,~ ----1
Af11t3,!/,A~\A
Cs I
t Ur . ~v, 2
,.____ _~ St 1 - - - - - - - - - ~ Ir
TRIP SIGNAL
· 295/(A
'~
U
:::::;;.: . ·
. 3
4
0 11 = H.V.
Generator C2 = Supply capacitance ofH.V. circuit F = Spark Gap
S 1 = Auxiliary breaker is high current circuit G = Short circuit generator ~CLOSE S / ~ G N A L
. · I/;)_~ 5
La Ln = Inductance in high current circuit T = Transformer in high current ~ (\ I\ I\ I\ /J, ~ . vt308"V
S 1 = Control unit for triggering sphere gas F B = Breaker under test 1 =Breaker current: Vs= Voltage U_y--y V V V v 1"?,J,k'(J : · ·· 6
8
Ia Va= Current and voltage in high circuit i11 = Current h.v. circuit.
~"'-..34~kA~ f\ I\ {\ .J\ /\: Oji 7
Ca R = Capacitance and resistance for regulating the natural frequency of high current circuit.
Fig. 11.11 Brown Boveri's Synthetic Testing Circuit. ~---~'~
-
V V VV~'VA
T C I
The circuit on the left side of the breaker under test B is high current circuit which consists of
I /\
short-circuit generator IG, short-circuit transformer and also capacitor Ca and resistor Ra Ca and
I\ I\ f\ I\ 94f\ f'\ ---------,i-'\J},8JV
_ r------8
Ra control the natural frequ1,ncy of high current circuit. The short-circuit power is supplied at a
Ub~~ V V V '.!, ,'1.,k~ f\ (\ · - - - - - - - - 9
12"3'if :V
voltages Vs which corresponds to about 30 kV, this voltages is smaller than recovery Vs required
for testing the specimen. The recovery voltage is supplied by a separate voltage circuit on the right
side of breaker B. Tb 23,BkA
" IO
The auxiliary breaker S1 is opened simultaneously with the tested breaker B and a few I -+-i 10 ~ 1~101+-I I
I · ms
microseconds before the current interruption (ia) in breaker B, the spark gap is triggered by control
St and the voltage V, is applied to breaker B.
ms
Fig 11.l3. Record of'C-O' operation during a short-circuit test on circuit-breaker.
The current iH has a natural frequency of 500 Hz and an amplitude of one-tenth of that of
current ia, The currents are superimposed in current zero zone in such a way that during final 100 Channels of U. V. Recorder :
micro-seconds only current iH is flowing through breaker under test B. The auxiliary breaker S1 U. U Ub =AppliedVoltages 3 = closing signal I r, I.Y, lb = Short-Circuit Current
,, Y, T 1
interrupts high current circuit from H.V. circuit before current is= ia + iH is interrupted by breaker 4 = opening signal T = Contact rave C = Closed
B and breaker B has to interrupt only current iH, The restriking voltage across breaker B is, there- T' · . k O = Open
fore, given by that of H. V. circuit. t = immg mar s t t . characteristic
(3) Likewise plot characteristics III at voltage V3 up O curren is, . .IVthat voltaget
y 4 upto current 'i 1 etc where V 1 is the highest test voltage V1 > V2 > V3 > V4 etc. i1 is e curren
11.17. SUBSTITUTION TEST ~ > ~> ~ at voltage v1 permitted by test plant. . t' h n by
· · III t th xtended by approx1ma ion as s ow
In oil circuit-breaker the current to be 1 (j)AT VOLTAGE V, t/PTO C(IRRENT t~ On plot~ing
the dotted lmes. the charhact.
Form t e ex en eId, 11~'
ertistidc. me th'ee ~~ea:!: ap:~f:rmance can be predicated for values of
interrupted provides the internal sources of · lI AT VOLTAGE ~ UPTO CURRENT t2 current beyond range of testing station.*
extinguishing energy. Therefore the arc -,..
duration depends upon the current to be in- ~
. @AT VJ UPTO CURRENT i3
terrupted i.e. for lower currents breaking j::;: -------f I 11.18. CAPACITANCE TEST* . .
time is more and for higher currents the .::::::::i ~::~~~=-_-_ - b d lt rce Capacitor is connected in series with
In this text a cap~citor i_s charged ya .c: vo age :o~ ac;oss the capacitor. C and L from oscil-
breaking time is less. In subsitution test a an indcutor and mak_mg ~witch. The brdeakter ~s _connec ~ and voltage across the capacitor is dis-
number of tests at closely graduated I I latory circuit. The circmt-breaker un er es is opene
capacities are conducted on the breaker
with internal source of extinguishing ener- 0 * These methods are used for development and research, and not for ce1tificati~n tests. These are not used by designers
gy. Characteristics of arc duration and cur- · f n It nd full current cannot be simulated by these tests.
a~y more. !he stresses occurmg ~t c~n v~e;f~ a of circuit-breakers for proving capability of load switching
rent to interrupted are plotted (Fig. 11.12). CURRENT I - - - Field
Fig. 11.12 Substitution test characteristics. withoutTestmg. _Theovervo
exceeding most1c~onv1~
t"ges ts tes
gti ng ing actual installation. At least 30 switching operations should be
carried out.
188 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION SHORT CIRCUIT TESTING OF CIRCUIT-BREAKERS 189
charged through the arc. The arc gets extinguished at a current zero. This test is used for inves- Effect ofTime-'l'ravel Characteristic: The
tigating the behaviour of the breaker towards restriking voltage. · most important parameter is the time-travel char- 5OHz WAVEFORM
acteristic during opening stroke and the number of
11.19. COMPENSATION TEST* current zeros. If speed is increased, the number of
available current zeros during effective portion of
Oil circuit-breakers have internal source of extinguishing energy. For low currents extremely travel is reduced. If speed is reduced the number
difficult extinguishing conditions may be experienced because of insufficient pressure build up. The of available current zeros is more, but the pressure
characteristics of the breaker in critical range are ascertained by compensation test. These tests in SF 6 puffer cylinder may be inadequate. _J CONTACT
are conducted in critical range. In the test, the pressure in the arc extinction device, lengths and
lJJ
·>
SEPARATION
' I
durations of arc etc. are recorded, test being conducted at reduced voltage. The reduction in voltage During development testing, the time-travel
is· compensated by some other factor such as :
(1) Increased frequency.
(2) Applying impulse voltage at current zero.
characteristic is optimized.
Summary
·
Short Circuit Tests provide a useful data for

;1
z
0
(3) The pressure in the tank of an oil circuit breaker is given by design and development of circuit-breakers and u
P =kv°·511.2 they are necessary to prove the making capacity,
The effect of reduced voltage can therefore be compensated by increasing current. breaking capacity, breaking capacity, short time
capacity and specified operating duty of the circuit OPEN L-1~0-~20:--~30~'4~0--;5¼0--,6~0--=~~80~
> DURATION OF
breaker. The short circuit testing stations are filed -TIMF /milli-secl
~ TRANSIENT TRANSIENT RECOVERY
1m
w VOLTAGE OF HIGH type or laboratory type. Fig. 11.15. Time-travel characteristic
~.if--.;\+- FREQUENCY
The number of useful current zeros, 1, 2, 3
for opening stroke.
§2 r
em
/
POWER FREQUENCY
RECOVERY VOLTAGE depend upon the contact speed. . .
HALF PERIOD=10ms. In laboratory type testing station there are specially ?esi_gned equipment~ such a~ short circmt
l l generators, short circuit transformers reactors master c1rcmt breakers, makmg device etc. In ad-
ARC dition there are equipment for measurements and control.
ARC EXTINGUISHED
VOLTAGE TIME IN ms
Direct tests are conducted according to Standard Specifications.
In unit testing one or more units are tested and from that the capacity of the complete breaking
Fig. 11.14. Record of transient recovery voltage waveform on high speed CRO.
is ascertained.
11.20. DEVELOPMENT TESTING OF CIRCUIT-BREAKERS ,In synthetic testing separate current source and voltage source and used for testing.
Table 10.2 to 10.4 gives a list of various development tests on a typical circuit-breaker.
Short-Circuit Development Tests : In earlier stages of circuit-breaker development the
development tests were conducted on scaled models. Now, full scale prototype are subjected to QUESTIONS
development tests.
1. Why are short circuit necessary ? What information can be obtained from the short circuit tests ?
A complete programme of short-circuit development tests is drawn and adequate numbers of 2. Describe with neat sketch the layout of a simple short circuit plant. Give details of equipment.
full scale prototypes are built. The important components in the interrupter such as contacts, noz-
zles etc. are made interchargeable. 3. What is the difference between field testing a !d laboratory testing? Explain the relative merits of
each.
The parameters which have a significant influence on the short-circuit performance of a cir-
cuit-breaker are identified. Their range is selected. For example, the diameters of contact may be 4. Describe the procedure of direct testing of' a three phase circuit ?reaker fo_r short cir~uit testing. Ex-
in the range of30 mm to 45 mm. In this case three to four contacts may be selected for development plain how is the making capacity, breaking capacity and short time capacity determmed.
testing. 5. Explain the standard procedure of determining rate of rise ofrestriking voltage from a single frequency
Three important parameters which determine the short-circuit performance of a circuit-breaker transient.
include. 6. What is the difference between direct testing and indirect testing ? What are the various procedure
1. Contact separation and the time-travel characteristic during opening operation. of indirect testing ? Describe
2. Short-circuit current magnitude and its co-relation with the contact separation, speed and (a) Unit testing (b) Synthetic testing. .
flow of quenching medium. 7. Calculate the natural frequency for a circuit having inductance 1.9 mH/km per phase capacitance 7.5
n F/km phase to earth, length of circuit 10 km.
3. Arcing time and energy in arc. Parameters are varied and the performance of the circuit-
breaker is analysed. 8. With neat diagrams, explain the principle of synthetic testing.
State the difference between 'Series Cun'ent Injection' and 'Parallel Current Injection'.
* These methods are used for development and research, and not for certification tests. These are not used by
designers any more. The stresses occuring at full voltage and full current cannot be simulated by these tests.
Field Testing. The most convincing testing of circuit-breakers for proving capability of load switching
without exceeding overvoltages is testing in actual installation. At least 30 switching operations should be
carried out.
INSULATION REQUIREMENT AND HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING 191
12,2, OVERVOLTAGES (Ref. Ch. 18, Ch. 46)
To insulators should withstand the over-voltages occurring due to internal and external causes.
The over-voltages are of three categories :
•- Power frequency over-voltages, temporary over-voltages. *
- Impulse voltage surge due to lightning and switching.
The sustained power-frequency over-voltages occur due to regulation, Fenanti effect, etc. (Ch. 18)
The type of earthing (solid/resistance) influences the magnitude of over-voltages. For system
above 145 kV the magnitude of internal over-voltages is significant. These are caused by switching,
Insulation Requirement and High Voltage transients and travelling waves.
Testing of Circuit Breakers Impulse voltage surges occur due to lightning and switching. The switching impulse wave lasts
for some hundreds of micro-seconds.
lntroducti?n-Conditions in Services-Design Aspects-Insulation failure-Some terms-Purpose of The performance of insulators is varified by power-frequency tests and impulse tests.
H.V. testmg-Tests conducted-_-Application of voltage-definitions-Test voltage-Impulse
tests-Power frequency voltage withstand test-Dry/wet-Test on auxiliary circuit-Standard test
wave-Summary 12.3. DESIGN ASPECTS (Ref. Sec. 2.18)
The following aspects should be considered
12.1. INTRODUCTION - Voltages to which the equipment is subjected during service conditions and during high volt-
~he current carrying. parts of circuit-breakers are insulated from earth. Insulation is also age tests.
provided ?etween conductmg parts of different phases. These insulations are subjected to normal - The voltage gradient at conductor surfaces and along solid insulator surfaces at the voltages
voltages, mternal and external overvoltages. The insulation in circuit-breakers serves three pur- mentioned above.
poses : - Technical data about electrical properties of the solid/liquid/gaseous dielectric materials
- to provide insulation between phase and earth. employed in the equipment.
- to provide insulation in the contact-space during 'open' breaker. The stresses are calculated with the help of Electric Field Plots. Digital computation. The
- to provide insulation between phases. designs are based on intensive development tests (Ref. Ch. 10).
12.4. CAUSES OF FAILURE OF INSULATION

(A) Tracking of Solid Insulators. Tracking is formation ofpremanent conducting path along
the surface of insulator. The following are the causes :
INTERNAL CLEARANCE IN OIL
B BETWEEN TERMINALS OF POLE - Degradation of surface glaze by sparking.
. FOR OPEN BREAKER
- Presence of conduction film along the surface of insulator due to moisture, dirt, layer, etc.
1 - Mechanism of sparking along the surface arising due to breaking ofleakage currents along
the surface.
A t
PHASE-TO-GROUND To prevent tracking the insulators should be dry, surface condition should be undamaged and
CLEARANCE clean. Insulators should be cleaned regularly.
L (B) Breakdown by discharge in solid Insulating Material. The discharge occurs on the
n
surface or within the insulator wherever the stresses exceed breakdown value. The surface dis-
charge is caused by higher stresses, than permitted by the surface. The discharges within the in-
INTERNAL PHASE-TO-GROUND sulator are caused by cavities, poor design/manufacture, presence of moisture.
CREARAGE
The high voltage tests cause a harmful effect on the insulators. Though high voltage tests are
Cl' ALONG SURFACE OF INSULATING ROD
SAFE HEIGHT intended to detect defects, the insulator suffers higher stresses during such tests and becomes
2.75 m. min. INOIL . i
weaker. Hence HV tests should be applied only when necessary, unnecessary, tests should be
C3. ALONG INTERNAL SURFACE OF
PORCELAIN
avoided.
(C) Thermal Breakdown. Heat is generated in the electrically stressed insulation, due to
dielectric loss and conduction currents. Heat is imparted to insulation by the neighbouring current
carrying parts. Heat is lost by the insulators by conduction, convection and radiation. Special cool-
GROI/ND LEVEL ing facility is provide wherever necessary. Resistivity of some d!electric materials decreases with
Fig. 12.1 Explaining insulation requirements of an outdoor circuit-breaker. * Supply connection should be preferably to upper terminal and not to Lower te1minal Isolators should be
switched open after switching off the breaker.
192 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION INSULATION REQUIREMENT AND HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING 193
increase in temperature whereas the loss angle increases. Thermal equilibrium implies a stable 12,6, TESTS ON A HIGH VOLTAGE CIRCUIT-BH:EAKERS
temperature at which the heat lost is equal to heat gained. If thermal stability is lost (say to in- The insulation level (Refer Sec. 12.7) of a circuit-Breaker is verified by means of type test and
adequate cooling), the temperature rises indefinitely, leading to insulation failure. routing tests. · h
Increasing the thickness of insulation indefinitely does not prevent insulation failure caused Type tests are conducted on one or first few circuit-bre~ker~ of each type to prove the c a~ac-
by thermal effects. teristics of that type. Routine tests are conducted on eac~ c1rcmt-breaker.
(D) Failure of Electrical Insulation caused by Chemical Deterioration. Some organic High voltage tests on circuit-breakers are the followmg :
insulating materials show slow instability which increases with time and temperature. Paper loses Type tests. (a) Impulse voltage dry withstand ~est.
its mechanical strength within a few days at temperature of the order of 150°C, even ifit is protected (b) One minute power frequency voltages dry ~1thstand tests.
from moisture and air. Oxygen and moisture cause rapid deterioration at such temperatures. (c) One minute power frequency voltage wet withstand tests. .
Moisture causes deterioration of transformer oil and other insulating materials whether (For outdoor circuit-breaker only). Routine tests comprise one mmute power frequency voltage
solid/liquid/gaseous. Moisture has created special problems in SF6 equipment. The moisture gets
dry withstand tests. . .
condensed on insulator surface and cause flashover.
All the above mentioned tests are made on complete circmt-breaker.
At temperatures of 400-500°C, mica products slowly deteriorates, both electrically and
mechanically. Application of Test Voltage
(E) Effect of Oxygen and Humidity, Some organic and inorganic materials oxidise in The impulse test voltage and power frequency test voltage a~e applied as follows : .
presence of oxygen, ozone, particularly when exposed to light. Polythelene oxidises when exposed (A) With breaker closed. Between terminals of each pole m turn and the fra~e ?f the cir-
to bright sun-light. Rubber oxidises and cracks when exposed to light. Epoxy insulators are not cuit-breaker ; the terminals of all the other poles being connected to the frame of the circmt-breaker
suitable for outdoor use. and earthed. . ·
Some materials absorb moisture and lose electrical and mechanical strength under humid con- Table 12.1. Power Frequency Voltage Withstand test and Impulse Voltage Withstand Test
ditions due to hydrolysis; Polythelene, cellulose esters, other polysters are typical examples of such For Voltages upto 72.5 kV (Reference (Values)*
materials.
(F) Incompatibility of Dielectric Materials. Incompatibility means not suitable to be used Circuit Breaker Rated Insulation Level One Minute Power Frequency Withstand Voltage
together. Some dielectric materials are not suitable in particular assemblies because of their in- Rated voltage of Standard impulse
compatibility with surrounding substance. For example, some synthetic materials deteriorate rapid- Circuit-Breakers kV withstand voltage For type tests kV (r.m.s.) For routine test kV
ly when placed adjacent to current carrying copper at temperature of about 80°C. (r.m.s.) positive .or negative (r.m.s.)
polarity kV (peak)
(G) Electro-chemical Deterioration, In some insulating materials, the impurities get dissociated
3.6 45 21 16
under electric stresses, causing ionization of the material. Thereby the material deteriorates.
7.2 60 27 22
(H) In Presence of Arc. The insulating gas/oil used for arc extinction gets decomposed in
presence of arc; Though the products of decomposition recombine after arc extinction, some 12 75 35 28
remainder remains. Thereby the insulating properties of the dielectric arc affected. 17.5 95 45 38
(I) Breakdown in Gaseous Medium. When the dielectric stresses at sharp points increases 24 125 55 50
above the limiting withstand value the internal flash-over can occur between the live point and 36 170 75
earth or.between live points. (Ref. Sec. 7.4 (vii)). · 70
52 250 105 110
12.5. PURPOSE OF H.V. TESTING OF CIRCUIT-BREAKERS 72.5 325 140 140
A circuit-breaker connected inthe system is subjected to high voltage transients due to switch- Table 12.2 (Above 72.5 kV Reference Values)*
ing and lighting. The insulation of circuit-breaker should not fail due to such voltage surges. The -
characteristics of the circuit-breaker insulation are specified by standards. These characteristics Circuit Breaker Rated Insulation Level One Minute Power Frequency Voltage
should be proved by conducting high voltages tests. According to the standard specifications, certain withstand
-
type tests and certain routine tests should be performed on circuit-breakers. The standards per- Standard Impulse Withstand Voltage For type and Routine Tests
taining to H.V. testing cover the following aspects : Rated voltage kV Full insulation kV Reduced insulation Full insulation kV Reduced insulation
(1) To define the insulation characteristics of circuit-breakers. (r.m.s) (peak) kV (peak) (r.m.s.) kV. (r.m.s).
(2) To standardize the insulation levels. 100 450 380 185 150
(3) To specify the tests intended to verify insulation level and conditions under which the test 123 550 450 230 185
are made.
145 650 550 275 230
(4) To specify the markings on the rating plates of circuit-breakers indicating their insulation
levels. 170 750 650 325 275
International Electroteclmical Commission (I.E.C.) and standards institutions like Indian 245 1050 900 460 395
Bureau of Standards, specify, standards covering the above aspects. The manufacturer normally 300 - 1050 - 460
conducts the type tests and routine tests in accordance with the above standards. The following
description is based on I.E.C. Publication 56-4 on alternating current circuit-breakers and refers 420 1425 - 680
to circuit breakers for rated voltage above 1000 V.
* These values are for familiarity. (Ref. Sec. 3.19.2)
194 INSULATION REQUIREMENT AND HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING 195
With breaker open. (i) Between the terminals of all th
(B) 1 • · • 12,8, IMPULSE VOLTAGE TESTS AND STANDARDS IMPULSE WAVES
nected together and frame of the circuit breaker. e po es of the circmt-breaker con-
(ii) Between one terminal of each ole and th 0 h . This test is necessary for all indoor and outdoor breakers. The test is carried out as follows.
the frame of the circuit-breaker In mu1t' . ~ ~ er termmal of the same pole connected of Standard impulse wave of specified amplitude is applied five times in succession. If flash-over or
pole are connected in parallel. . 1
ipo e circuit- reaker the corresponding terminals of each puncture of insulators does not occur, the circuit-breaker is considered to have passed the test. If
puncture occurs or if on two or more applied test wave flash-over occurs, the circuit-breaker is con-
Test Voltages. Test voltages ar 'fi db sidered to have failed the test. During the test some waves should be applied with several of
12.2. e spec1 ie y standards. Examples are given in Table 12.1 and
polarity.
The impulse voltage wave is generated in an Impulse Voltage Generator. During the test one
12.7. SOME TERMS AND DEFINITIO
NS. (Ref. Sec. 3.19. 1/2. Ref. Fig. 12.1) terminal of the impulse generator is connected to the terminal of the circuit-breaker pole. The other
. 1. Creepage Distance. Shortest distance b t . terminal is connected to the earth and the frame of the circuit-breaker.
msulating material. e ween two conductmg parts along the surface of the
The peak value and wave shape of the test voltage is recorded by means of Cathode Ray Os-
2. Clearance. Shortest distance b t . cillograph with a calibrated voltages divider.
3 Cl e ween two conductmg parts along a stretched string.
• earance between Open Contacts Gap b t Voltage divider is used to reduce the voltage for measurement.
· e ween open contacts.
4. Clearance to earth Clear b t Impulse Voltage. An impulse voltage is characterized by
. ance e ween conductor and nearest earthed part
5. Clearance between poles. Shortest d' t . · (a) Polarity
same breaker. is ance between conductmg parts of adjacent poles of the
(b) Peak value.
6. Amplitude Factor= Highest peak value of overvoltage (c) Virtual front T 1 f·O
. Amplitude of power frequency recovery voltage (dJVirtual half time T 2 0·9
. 7. Insulation level of circuit-breaker. It is th . . (e) Virtual time chopping Te.
impulse withstand voltage and corres d. e combmation of rated voltage, the corresponding
characterize the insulation of the c· P?tnbmgkpower frequency withstand voltage, which together Standard lightning Impulse is a full im- t 0·5
t · ircm rea er as regards it bTt t ·h w
pulse having a front time 1.2 m-sec and time to
t
(!)
s resses. For the sake of convenience th t d . . s a 1 1 y o wit stand the electrical
by the rated voltage and impulse with r; e 1msulation level of a circuit-breaker is designated half value of 50 µ-sec. It is 1.2/50 impulse (Fig. ;
0
impulse level. · s an vo tage. BIL refers to Basic insulation level or Basic 12.2). >
8. Power frequency withstand voltage of circuit br k . . Standard switching impulse wave is
wav~ of power frequency (50 c/s) which the insul~ v. ea er. ~tis _r.m.s. value of alternating voltage characterised by prolonged wave-front and TIME-......
specified conditions of test. (Ref. Sec. 3.19.2) c ,Ion of the c1rcmt-breaker should withstand under wave tail. The typical switching impulse wave
has front time of the order of 250 µs and half-
9. Ground Clearance. Distance between . time of 2500 µs. The permissible deviation in
(Ref. Fig. 12.1-Safe height). grou nd a nd the highest earthed point on equipment. Fig. 12.2. Standard impulse wave.
the crest value is of the order of 4 to 12%. The
10. Impulse withstand voltage It is th l' switching impulse wave has been specified for high voltage circuit-breaker rated 420 kV and above.
sulation of the circuit-breaker can· with t edampd1tude o~ the standard voltage wave which the in-
. . s an un er specified test conditions.
11. Indoor circuit-breaker It is the . . 12.9. IMPULSE GENERATOR
building or house such that it. is pro•ect c:cfimt-bre~ker which is designed for installation within a
" - e rom rams snow' abnormal dirt etc In impulse tests impulse voltage wave having a steep wave front and flat wave tails and high
. 12. Outdoor Circuit-Breaker. It is desi ed sue . . . amplitude are usually applied to called 'Mark Circuit'. (Ref. Fig. 12.3). Capacitors C 1 , C2 ....... are
withstand rains snow dew atmosph . dgn t d h i_t can be mstalled under the open sky. It should charged by the rectifier to certain voltage. When the gas S is triggered by means of a spark the
. ' ' eric us epos1ts etc.
Ambient conditions for test : capacitors C1, C 2........ etc. discharge through series gap S 1,.S 2 etc. and the impulse wave is applied
Temperature 20°c. to the apparatus under test. The total d.c. voltages is sum of voltages of capacitors.
RECTIFIER
Pressure .'750 mm of mercury (at ooc).
For other temperatures and pressur th .
k given by es e specified test voltage, should be multiplied by a factor A.C.
Si, S 2 , S 3 , = Sph.ere gaps
SUPPLY Ci, C2 , C3, =Capacitors
k = 0.386b R 1, R 2 , R 3 , R 4 = Resistors
·h 273 + t R - Rectifier
w ere b = pressure of air in mm of mercury
t = temperature in °C
Fig. 12.3. Circuit of impulse generator.
196 SWI'l'CHGEAR AND PROTECTION
12.10. TEST PLANT FOR POWER FREQUENCY TESTS INSULATION REQUIREMENT AND HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING 197
High voltage te st s are. con.ducted on electrical machines, switch gear, insulators, cables etc generally used and are connected in Cas-
These tests are conducted m high voltages tests laboratory The e · t fi d t' · · cade. This method is convenient because a TRANSFORMER 11
frequency high voltage tests are the following : . qmpmen or con uc mg power single unit for very high voltage is very
large and costly. Cascade condition gives
(1) Voltage source: Single phase t d · b .
varied widely changing the field curre!~nera or riven y a.c. motor. The terminal voltage can be flexible test conditions. Cascade connection H.V. TEST
is illustrated in Fig. 12.5. LEAD
volt~!~ ~~;::~!t:;ee ct:~::~:~7::~s~~~:~ are single phase transformer units. For obtaining high Therefore, the insulation of H.V. Test- TANI<
ing Transformer should be carefully INSULATER
(3) Apparatus for voltage regulat' • D · th · FROM EARTH
held at spec'fi d l c . . 10n. urmg e test, the voltage is raised gradually. It is proportioned. When the test specimen
i ie va ue 1or one minute. breaks down, the current is limited by in-
L.T.
(4) Apparatus for voltage measurem t . s ·1 h sertion of water resistance in the circuit
SUPPLY
measurement. These includ ( ') h . e°:. s • pecia met o~s are developed for high voltage- (Fig. 12.4). The k VA capacity of the testing
(' ) th d f . e i sp e1e-gap, (u) transformer rat10 method (iii) potential divider transformers is relatively low (limited by 1
~~e=eents~ so measurmg peak voltage etc. Sphere gap is used for calibrati;n of high voltage meas~ amp.) because current is relatively low.
(5) Switchgear and protective rela · • S fi t d · · Control of voltage is obtained by any
switch circuit-breaker etc. ymg. a e y evice. Switchgear components include gate one of the following methods : Fig. 12.5. Cascade connection ofH.V. testing transformers.
In addition to the equipments (1) to (5) t· d b (1) Variation of alternator field current.
provided to conduct DC test h' hf men 10ne ~ ove, the following equipment is usually
· · , ig requency tests and impulse test. (2) Tapped transformer.
(1) Instruments for measurements and record (3) Resistance and inductance on supply side.
(2) Devices to obtain high voltage D.C. (4) Induction regulator.
(3) Devices to obtain high frequency supply. The switchgear in the layout consists of main-switch circuit breaker, gate switch and is
(4) Devices to obtain impulse wave. provided, with over-voltage relay, over current relay, interlocks, ,earthing facility and safety
measures. The gate switch is placed ion the gate of screen enclosing the test field. It disconnects
(5) Equipment for testing dielectric oil, etc. the supply to the transformer and earths the primary as soon as the gate is opened. Hence nobody
Fig. 12.4 gives a simplified diagram 0 f H V t t· · · can enter the test field when the HV transformer is energized.
• • es mg circuit for power frequency test.
The size and shape of conductor on test side-should be carefully designed so that no corona
uill 3 PHASE INDUCTION
MOTOR
HIGH VOLTAGE
TRANSFORMER
l
occurs. The diameters of conductors are at least 2.5 cm for 100 kV and 30 cm for 1000 kV to avoid
corona under normal conditions and ample cleanness are provided.
§i!JK1we{Jw~ ;;::" "'"'"'~"

FUSE :ti= WATER
12.12. SPHERE GAPS

Purpose, Sphere gaps are used for measurement of high voltages such as peak value of
SUPPLY EXC~ (i) Power frequency alternating voltages.
SINGLE PHASE • • •
ALTERNATOR APPARATUilRCUIT (ii) Impulse voltage waves.
F' 12 4 C' · UNOER TEST (iii) Direct voltages.
ig. · · Ircuit for Power Frequency Voltage Test.
Description of Circuit. Fig 12 4 ill t, t th · The procedure consists of establishing a relation between high voltage as measured by the
age is obtained from a single pha. . us la es, . e arrangement m a test circuit. The test volt- sphere gap and indicating voltmeter, an oscillograph or device connected for voltage measurement.
age can be varied widely by chan si: a.~hgenerator driven by an induction motor. The terminal volt- Under standard test conditions the voltage measured by sphere-gap can be derived from the spac-
voltage transformer. The test voTta;e i: field tu~r;nt.hThe generator voltage is stepped up by high ing. It means from the known diameter of spheres, known test conditions and known spacing of
connected in parallel with the test spec· suppTihe ol t e apparatus under test. The sphere gap is gaps the peak value of disruptive discharge voltage can be derived from the standard table. From
.b imen. e vo tmeter on generator side · LT 'd b this value the other measuring instrument can be calibrated.
ca li rated by means of sphere gap In add't' . . , i.e. . . si e can e
on H.T. side by means of pote~tial .<livid i~on. I~struments fdr meas~rements may be connected Description. Standard sphere-gap is a peak voltage measuring device constructed and ar-
current after breakdown Circuit-b l er. esis ances are connected m the H.T. side to limit the ranged according to the rules specified by the standards, some of v,hich are given below. Before
· rea rnr opens and protects the circuit in case of breakdown. conducting a test, the standards pertaining to High Voltage Testing Techniques and Sphere Gaps
should be thoroughly studied. The sphere gap consists of two metal spheres of equal diameter (D)
1
12.11. H.V. TESTING TRANSFORMER

with their shanks, operating gear, insulating support, supporting frames, leads upto the point at
Such transformers are single phase ·t F b · · which the voltage is to be measured. The standard values of diameter D recommended by I.E.C.
single unit is used. For higher voltages :~i l~0001k·Vo taidnmg tesdt voltages upto 500 kV, usually a Specification are the following twelves.
an upwar s two or more transformers are
D = 2-5-6.25-10-12.5-15-25-50-75-100-150-200 cm (12 Standard Diameters)
198 INSULATION REQUIREMENT AND HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING 199
. One s~here is prefe_rabl~ co_nne~ted directly to earth and the frame of the circuit-breaker. If Potential Divider Methods. In this method, capacitor potential divider (or resistance divider)
resistance 1s connected m this c1rcmt should be of a low v a 1ue. is connected across the H.T. winding of high voltages testing transformer. The potential divider
T~e oth er ~phere is connected to high voltage conductor. The lead coming from high voltage consists of several air capacitors in series. The voltage across one capacitor is a definite fraction of
t rans1ormer or 1mpu1se generator). the total voltage. This smaller voltage is measured by' means of electrostatic voltmeter.
Measurement Summary
Direct and Alternating Volt g Th It · · High voltage circuit-breakers are subjected to type test and routine tests which include High
, transient switchin s . a e. e vo age with a low magmtude is applied so that the
gradually so that t1:ie ~!~a~:t:t:~f:~t n~~ caus~ disr_uptive discharge. The voltage is increased Voltage tests :
low volt . d. . e isruptive discharge occurs, can be read accurately on (1) Impulse withstand test. (Standard Lightning Impulse)
betweena:;h~:e~c:ti:lyA~~el:::~velyt'al dc?nsta~t vo~tage is applied across the gap and the spacing (2) One minute power frequency voltage withstand test-dry.
un i isruptive discharge occurs.
The final measurement should b th f h · (3) One minute power frequency voltage vvithstand test-wet.
e e mean o t ree successive readings agreeing within 3%
plic1:::u:;~;;~~:e~e:h (4) Impulse withstand test (Standard Switching Impulse-For 400 kV and above).
~J~:.!:r:;:1;~:i!{f~r
I~~u~ses t~re obtained from impulse generator. The interval between a~-
Test Condition No. Circuit-breaker Voltage applied to Earthed connection to
::1~:!;ldti:i~~~:ti:t)ber~::~;;;,~!~':i~:~:.;:;;iL\{f bg;~p;to;(a2i~) 1. Close Aa Cc BbF
Tw o vo age se mgs.
2. Close Bb Aa CcF
3. Open ABC abcf
V
V 4. Open abc ABCF
QUESTIONS
1. State the difference between type tests and routine test. Why are high voltage tests necessary in case
of high voltage circuit-breakers?
2. What is the purpose of conducting high voltage tests on circuit-breaker through they are basically
switching devices ?
3. Explain the methods of applying tests voltage in high voltage testing of circuit-breaker.
CLOSE OPEN 4. Define the 'insulation level' of a circuit-breaker.
TEST CONDITION 1 TEST CONDITION 3 5. Explain the procedure coducting power frequency voltages withstand test on a high voltage circuit-
breaker.
6. Explain the procedure of impulse test on a high voltage circuit breaker.
V
V
A B C
OPEN
CLOSE TEST CONDITION 4
TEST CONDITION 2
Fig. 12.6 Application of test voltage for power frequency tests and impulse test.
/ The readings should be such that in one case out of six applications of voltage 2 or less dis-
charges occurs. In the second case out of 6 applied voltages 4 or more discharges occur.
_Transformer Ratio Method. An indicating voltmeter is connected on L.T. side of high voltage
testmg transformer._ The _voltmeter is calibrated by means of sphere-gap connected on H.T. side.
Once the voltmeter is calibrated, the voltage on L.T. side be measured by the same voltmeter and
the voltage on H.T. side be obtained on multiplying with trans ratio.
. INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE 201
A performance record of each equipment is maintained and basing decisions on the service life
of the equipment and the total number hours of service, it has put in. Repairs or replacements are
made to ensure that no breakdown occurs at any time during the service.
Preventive maintenance is carried out in planned manner. Breakdown maintenance is carried
out as and when necessary.
For Switchgear and protective equipment, preventive maintenance is recommended
because failure of a switchgear cannot be permitted.
Installation and Maintenance 13,3, INSPECTION, SERVICING, OVERHAUL

Maintenance covers a wide range of activities aimed at keeping the equipment in perfect work-
~tr~du~tionRMtntenance of circu_it Breaker-Contact-Arc Control Devices-Insulators -Operating ing condition for performing its function as per assigned duties. The choice of activities and schedule
eCc ant18m- lse ays-SF6 Gas-Oil-Safety-Installation-Erection-Drawout type switchgear depends upon local requirements.
- on ro1 pane - Outdoor breaker
1. Inspection. The refers to the maintenance activity which comprises careful observa-
13.1. INTRODUCTION tion/scrutiny of the equipment without dismantling it. It usually includes visual and operational
I
checks.
The switchgear 3:nd protecti".e relaying system should be always alert to operate against an
unexpect~d fault. Switchgear ~hich ':as in quiescent state has to operate immediately. For such 2. Servicing. This refers to cleaning, adjustment, lubrication and other maintenance functions
~nf;o~ erati_on regul~,r and detailed mamtenance is necessary. The lack of maintenance may result without dismantling the equipment.
m ai 1ure m operat10n. 3. Examination. This refers to inspection with necessary dismantling, measurements and non-
M . The Swit~hgear manufacturer supplies "Instruction Manual of Installation, Operation and destructive tests to obtain data regarding the condition of components/sub-assemblies.
amte~ance. These ma?uals should be carefully studied by trained maintenance staff. The code 4. Overhaul. This refers to the work done with the objective of repairing/replacing worn-out
of pr~ctice booklets P_ubhshed by the standards institution, regulations of electrical installations parts and defective parts. The equipment, sub-assemblies are dismantled partly or completely. The
~r; a s~ u~e~ul. De~aded progr_amme ?f maintenance of switchgear should be prepared with pre- condition of components is inspected. Dimensions of worn-out components are measured. The com-
e er~me mterva s betw~en mspections. The period may be one to three months for switchgear ponents worn-out beyond acceptable limit are replaced. The assembly is followed by functional
?perati_on frequently an~ SI~ months to twelve months of switchgear operating rarely. Further, it checks and measurements to ensure satisfactory operation.
~s unwis\to leave t~e Circmt-breaker close for a period longer than six months without opening
ec~u~e t e_ mechamsm ma! b~come sluggish and contacts may need cleaning. Hence during th~· 13.4. GUIDELINES FOR MAINTENANCE OF SWITCHGEAR
periodic ma~ntenance, the Circuit-breake.r is purposely opened and closed by manual command.
The requirement of inspection, servicing, examination and overhaul vary with
The mamtenance schedule is usually in the form of log sheets on which weeks months of the
:~~n e:~~ce
yea_r re tabulat~d. ~a?h ~quipmen~ in the sub-station or the plant is provided with a column. The
pen~d ;hm~Icated agamst each equipment. Further each major equipment is provided
a IS ory car · e ~tails about inspection, operation and remarks are written in these cards.
- Environmental aspects such as dust, chemical fumes, moisture/humidity, ambient tempera-
ture variations, etc.
- Operating duty; frequency of operation, rated current.
The_tshpares, to~ls a nd m struments are important for maintenance duty. The spares are kept in - Switching duty severity, e.g. repeated operations.
Stock w1 proper mventory control.
Manufacturer gives general guideline. It is not possible to obtain exact maintenance schedule
. b ~~e maint;nance ':ork is done by trained staff according to the schedule. In case of difficult meeting local requirement of each site. Hence maintenance schedule is determined after initial pe-
Jo s e manu acturer Is consulted. Operation and maintenance staff should be trained. riodic inspection at each site. In case of switchgear and control and protection panels; distinction
should be made between the maintenance of fixed devices like busbars, insulators enclosures and
13.2. BREAK DOWN MAINTENANCE VERSUS PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE maintenance of switching devices like circuit breaker, isolator, earthing switch, contactor etc.
having moving parts.
Maintenance is classified in two categories as follows :
- Breakdown or corrective maintenance The fixed parts need regular inspection and servicing for re~oving dust, damp, corrosion etc.
- Preventive maintenance Moving parts need regular inspection and periodic replacement of worn-out parts. The func-
.< 1 ) The breakdo1;Vn on Corrective Maintenance activities are undertaken after failure of an tional readiness of switching devices should also be ensured.
fJgu~11::~~;~~~chrempaaI1_nrtaenndanrceecresul_ts ~n ~utage of circuit and supply. In general, it consists oflocat- The maintenance of switching devices is related mainly with the wearing out of contacts,
' ommiss10nmg. deterioration of quenching medium and mechanism components. The maintenance requirements
2
( ) T_he Preventive M~intenance is undertaken to ensure smooth and efficient working of a sys- of vacuum circuit breakers and SF6 circuit-breakers are quite modest as compared with those of
tem, eqmpmh~nt. Preventive maintenance is undertaken as per schedule before breakdown of a sys- oil circuit-breakers, minimum oil-circuit-breakers. In vacuum circuit breakers, the interrupter is a
t em or mac me takes place.
permanently sealed unit and the contacts have long switching life. Puffer type SF6 circuit-breakers
* Please refer : "Testing, Commissioning, Operation and Maintenance of Electrical Equipment" have long switching life and the gas does not need replacement. Hence the present trend is to use
- Book by Khanna Publishers. maintenance free vacuum and SF6 circuit-breakers.
-
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION INSTALLATION AND MAINTENA,."l"CE 203
202
Table 13 .1 gives recommendation regarding the period of maintenance of con tacts and quench- by the manufacturer and sufficient copies should be given to each site. Customers operating staff
ing medium in terms of numbers ofload operations and numbe~ of short circuit ?perations o~ rated should be trained in every activity. Following sections are guidelines for preparations of FQP.
short-circuit breaking current. The schedule should be established for each site by checkmg the
contacts of one pole after every three months observing the rate of erosion. 13,6. MAINTENANCE OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS
During every breaking operation, contac.t looses and some material and the quenching medium Steps in Maintenance of Circuit Breakers
gets decomposed. The decomposed products get deposited on the internal insulating parts of the
2 1. General Inspection. Observe the circuit-breaker visually. Note the cleanliness, terminals,
circuit breakers. The deterioration of contacts and internal insulation is proportional i n, where i earth connections, readings of counters, levels of quenching medium (in case of Oil Circuit-
2
is breaking current in kA and n is the number of breaking operation. After cumulative L i n =K, ·breakers) pressure of quenching medium in case of SF6 circuit breakers etc.
the contacts, internal insulation and the quenching medium needs inspection/servicing. The valua
of K depends upon the type of circuit breakers (Refer Table 13.1). 2. Cleaning and Drying. Use trichloroethylene or other cleaning agent recommended by
manufacturer. The fluid should be compatible with the surface to be cleaned.
Table 13,l Maintenance of Quenching Medium Contacts
---- Use air-pressure jet (3 kgf/cm 2 ) for cleaning.
Maintenance of Quenching Medium Replacement of contacts
Type e,fC.B. KI. i 2 n Use clean cloth which does not leave fibres or particles on the surface.
Load* Operation Fault Operation Load** Operation Fault Operation Care should be taken to avoid falling of dust, iron particles, nutbolts washers etc. inside the
Air C.B. - - 3000 10 to 15 - breaker. Avoid water, moisture or dampness during the cleaning,
Bulk Oil C.B. 2000 6 2000 6 2000 Congealed lubricants should be removed by means of solvents. The rolling and sliding surfaces
should be cleaned, relubricated.
MOCB 1000 3 1000 6 1000
Before assembly of the circuit-breaker, the interrupter support porcelain components etc.
Air Blast C.B. - - 15,000 25 15,000
should be cleaned in dry clean atmosphere.
SF6 C.B. 5000 25 15,000 25 15,000 After assembly, evacuate the breaker pole to remove moisture, dust particles etc. and then fill
- - 20,000 100 20,000 oil or SF6 gas.
V.C.B.*
Internal dust and moisture causes gradual deposits on internal surface resulting in gradual
* Shelf life 20 years. increase of surface leakage currents and internal flashover due to tracking. Hence cleaning and
** Mechanical Endurance Test should be performed with specified number of operntions on no load to drying is important.
confirm suitability of mechanism. Grooves for O-rings on flanges should be cleaned with trichloroethylene, air jet so as to remove
Table 13.2. Maintenance of Contacts hardened grease and dust, Such a dust or grease will make the uneven sitting of the new O-ring
Life of Contacts and cause gradual leakage of SF6 gas/oil.
Type ofC.B. Number of fault operations on No dust, chalk-marks fibres, hard grease etc. is allowed on the O-ring grooves.
Number of load operations on
rated load current rated short-circuit cu,:rent Terminals should be cleaned of dust, oxide coating if any by emery paper without iron particles.
VCB 10,000 50-100 3. Insulation Surface. Inspect visually, carefully for signs of cracks, tracking or any other
defects.
SF6 4,000 15-25
Clean the internal surfaces and external insulating surfaces as mentioned in 2 above.
MOCB 1,000 3-6
Insulation should be free from electrical or mechanical defects.
Air break CB 1,000 1-6 Perform insulation resistance measurement tests after cleaning and assembly. Insulation resis-
Air Blast CB 4,000 15-25 tance measurement gives indication about the health of insulation.
In case of oil circuit-breakers and minimum oil circuit-breakers, the internal insulation should
13.5. FIELD QUALITY PLANS (FQP) be cleaned thoroughly by means oftrichloroethylene, clean cloth and air jet. The deposition of sludge
and carbon particles, conducting dust particles shall be removed before reassembly.
The activities in the field (site) include :
In case of SF6 circuit-breaker, the decomposition products (gray colour) get deposited on inter-
- Receipt and Storage of Equipment - Civil Works
nal surfaces of insulators. These are non-conducting when dry. If the circuit-breaker is dismantled
- Installation (Erection) - Testing & Commissioning during moist atmosphere, these surfaces are not cleaned before assembly, the internal flashover is
- Operation and Maintenance; Trouble Shooting likely to occur despite the good properties of SF6 gas.
- Overhauling
In case of vacuum interrupters only external cleaning is possible.
- Replacement after expiry of Life/Obsolecence
As per ISO 9000 recommendations, the customer's requirements for field services should be In case of air blast circuit-breakers, no internal cleaning is generally necessary as fresh medium
fulfilled and well-documented. is used for arc-quenching. In case of porcelain-clad outdoor vacuum circuit-breaker, the pole units
Field Quality plans contain : documents, instructions, data, drawings, formats for above, should be internally clean and dry to avoid internal flash-over by tracking.
list of spares, list of tools/facilities, "Do's and Donots", Safety precautions, etc. should be prepared Glass fibre pull rods should be cleaned thoroughly.
INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE 205
204 Slow initial movement indicates excessive friction between sliding parts.
Particular attention should be paid to the nozzles, arc control pots. arc control plates. They Slow movement during middle of stroke indicates very high dynamic load during arc quenching.
should be cleaned. If burnt or disfigured, replace them. Slow movement during final part of the stoke indicates excessive damping or low energy of
After cleaning and drying measure insulation resistance by Megaohm-meter (Megger) between: operating mechanism during opening.
- Two terminals of each interrupter. A straight rod is connected to the moving contact or movable part (contact or mechanism). This
- between the terminal and earth. . rod is in tul'n connected to the curvo-roller or rectilinear transducer (Travel Recorder).
4. Drying. Circuit breaker pole can be internally dried by circulating dry hot air or by evacuat- Curvo-roller is a specially designed motor driven drum mounted on the top-hood of the MOCB.
ing to 2 mm of mercury. The pencil attached to the rod fixed on the moving contact touches the paper on the drum. The
In case of SF 6 circuit-breaker or porcelain clad vacuum circuit-breaker, the drying of pole units motor is driven electrically. The drum rotates at known speed. The graph sheet fixed on the drum
has definite circumferential speed. During the opening stroke and closing strokes, the pencil gives
should be carried out before filling SF6 gas or dry nitrogen. the time/travel characteristic making on the graph sheet on the curvo-roller.
SF gas or dry nitrogen does not remove the water drops and dust deposited on the internal For high speed SF6 circuit-breaker the curvo rollers are not suitable.
6
surface. Hence drying and evacuating is necessary.
Rectilinear transducer is fitted suitably on the breaker frame. It has a cylindrical resistance
A small portable vacuum pump with teflon hose is connected to the valve. The breaker is kept with internal moving piston. The piston is attached to the rod with and swivel joint at the end.
under vacuum for a few hours. Thereafter the SF6 gas/dry nitrogen is filled.
The swivel joint r.nd rod of the rectilinear transducer are connected to the moving rod attached
The moisture is eliminated due to application of vacuum. to the contact movement system. In case of SF6 or oil CB, a suitable rectilinear seal should be
Drying is recommended before filling of fresh SF 6 gas/nitrogen/oil in the breaker• designed to permit movement without leakage of SF6/oil.
5. Interrupter. Study the operation and maintenance manual of the circuit-breaker. The rectilinear transducer is connected like a potentiometer. The central terminal gives varia-
Note the important settings and measurements of moving contact, other movable parts with tion proportional to the travel of the contact.
reference to fixed flanges and the allowed tolerance in the settings. Check simultaneous touch of The output is given to UV recorder. The trace of Time/Travel is obtained on U.V. Recorder. The
3 poles if slow closing and three lamp method. trip signal/closing signal is also recorded simultaneously.
Main activities in the interrupter maintenance include : The Time/Travel characteristic should match with that obtained in the manufacturer works.
- Observation, cleaning, replacement of main/arcing contacts ; PTFE nozzles, arc-control pot (b) Method of checking the Contact Setting. Follow manufacturer's instruction booklet. In
plates etc. case of MOCB and SF6 ; measurement of distance from the top flange surface to the tip of closed
- Cleaning the other parts as well. 1
contact may be possible.
- Replacing hardened O-rings, worn-out sliding parts. In case of vacuum interrupter, a gauge with pointer may have been provided by the manufac-
- Removal of carbon/metallic decomposed products. turer to indicate contact erosion.
- Cleaning of venting systems to ensure free passage of oil/gases. The vents should be made Measurement of Contact Resistance
free but not enlarged. The resistance between terminals of each interrupter and each pole is measured by means of
- Cleaning terminals and sliding contact surfaces. micro-ohm meter.
- Assembly with proper settings of components. The resistance across one pole is (n x r) where r is resistance per contact-pair/joint and n is
6. Mechanism. Check operation 'open' ; 'close' ; 'closing followed by opening' locally. If operation number of contact-pairs/joints in series per pole.
O. C. CO are satisfactory the mechanism is satisfactory and does not need any major repair/main- A pair of contacts has a resistance of about 15 micro-ohms.
tenance.
Contact resistance is inversely proportional to the contact pressure. Low contact pres~,ure may
Check operation counter. If the mechanism has operated more than 1000 times, it needs v~ry be due toweek springs or worn out contacts. High contact resistance causes excessive heating of
close observation and may need overhaul. Check the condition of springs and dashpots. Two im- contacts while carrying normal current and possible welding during through short-circuit.
portant tests to determine the health of the operating mechanism, linkages and moving contact
(c) Mechanical Assembly. Check that all the nut bolts are in their position and check their
settings include : tightness.
- Checking simultaneous opening and closing of 3 poles.
- Checking no-load times vs. travel characteristics of moving contact for 0, CO, O-CO opera- Check circlips, split pins.
Clear and lubricate sparingly.
tions.
Oil dashpots should be checked for current level and operation. Air Dashpots should be checked
(a) Method of obtaining Time-Travel Characteristic on no-load. In case of MOCB or for current operation.
SF6 CB poles, this characteristic is extremely important because the breaking capacity is related
Clean inspect and replace worn-out partfi during overhauls.
with the time/travel characteristics of moving contact. No-load characteristic gives sufficient in-
· In case of spring operated mechanism check the ratchet wheels and prawls for broken or
dication about the health of mechanism linkages. chipped teeth. ·
For satisfactory arc interruption the moving contact should open and travel with optimum char-
Valves of pneumatic mechanism or hydraulic mechanism should not be disturbed unless the
acteristic. diagnostic tests indicate the need for their checks.
"' Insulators of circuit-breakers installed in heavily polluted areas and sea-shores need frequent external cleaning.
206
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE 207
(d) Inter-pole linkages. For ensuring simultaneous operation of 3 pole~ (wi~hin pole .dis- 17. Control Relays or Contractors. Inspect mechanical parts for free movement with control
crepancy of 5 milliseconds), the inter pole linkages should be checked for dete~10ratwn of. spnngs and main solenoid or motor circuit isolated clean arc chutes. Inspect contacts and renew, if neces-
other components. Linkage pins circlips, nut-bolts, etc. should be checked. Venfy that fixmgs are sary.
tight and pivot pins are secure. Any flexible braids shall be inspected, especially for fraying at the terminations and renewed
BATTERY SUPPLY if necessary. Where exposed to external atmosphere, the braids shall be treated with a suitable
Maloperation of mechanism, interpole linkage, dash-
pots etc. can be revealed by the time/travel record of 3 protective compound which will not impair their flexibility.
poles plotted on UV recorder as described earlier. 18. Pressure Gauges and Pressure Switches. The readings of pressure gauges are checked
Congealed lubricants should be removed from sliding, against a standard gauge.
rolling surfaces. The parts should be relubricated as per _J.-----j-_..,._ ...._...._j-_.--t--t-R The operation of pressure switches should be checked against their setting.
the instruction of the manufacturer. _ 19. Final Verification. Before returning to service after the overhaul, the circuit-breaker is
Method of Checking Simultaneous Contact Touch subjected to operational checks by performing C, 0, CO operation from local control cabinet and
The moving contacts of each phase should meet the from the control room.
fixed contact practically simultaneously. At electrical Simultaneous touching of the contacts of three-phases is verified.
method of checking the contacts is illustrated in Fig. 13.1. C.B. Insulation resistance is measured between the terminals of open interrupter and between the
A low voltage supply, lamps are needed. Simultaneous Fig. 13.1 Method of checking simultaneous lower terminal and earth.
glowing of lamps indicates simultaneous making of con- contact meeting during slow closing. Insulation resistance of auxiliary wiring is also measured.
tacts.
7. Main Connections. Ensure that good contact is maintained and connections are right and 13.7. TYPICAL MAINTENANCE RECORD CARD
secure. History card is kept for each circuit breaker.
8. Secondary Wiring and Fuses. Ensure tight and secure connections, cleanliness and
freedom from dust and moisture. Heater in the cabinet should be checked and repaired, if necessary. Circuit breaker S.N.
9. Earth Connection. The main and secondary earth connection should be tight and free from Make
dust and rust. Brake
10. Heater. The heater provided in the control cabinet should be in working condition. Inspection date
11. Shutters. The shutters mechanism in metal-clad medium voltage Switchgear should be. Permit to work number
verified after pulling out of drawout unit and de-energizing the busbars.
Component Observation Action taken Initials
12. Busbars and Busbar Chambers. The busbars and the busbar chambers should be check-
ed for cleanliness of insulators, tightness of joints and freedom from dust, damp and foreign Mechanism
materials/insects etc. Linkages
There shall not be any loose joints or signs of overheating, melting, sparking. Insulation
13. Auxiliary Switches, Indicating Devices and Interlocks. Auxiliary switches shall be
Quenching
kept in clean an sound condition because the correct functioning of other items of equipment, in-
cluding protective gear depends on auxiliary switch. Medium
Inspect the contacts and clean or renew if necessary, where possible verify correct contact force Main contacts
and correct timing of contacts. Indicating devices such as mechanical ON and OFF indicators, Arcing contacts
semaphores etc. shall be inspected to ensure that they are in good order and operating correctly.
Terminals
Interlocks and locking devices shall receive particular attention especially those associated with
earthing and testing facilities. A defective or worn device may result in a dangerous condition. It Final verification
shall be verified that any incorrect operation is satisfactorily inhibited lubricate as necessary.
Particular attention shall be paid to the required timing of the auxiliary contacts controlling 13.8. MAINTENANCE OF AIR BREAK CIRCUIT BREAKER, FUSEGEAR FOR LOW
the trip circuit. AND MEDIUM VOLTAGES
14. Isolating Contacts. Clean inspect for signs of overheating, renew or recondition if neces· The schedule of maintenance depends upon the frequency of load operations and fault opera-
sary, lubricate as required. tions. For frequent load operations/fault operations, maintenance requirement is high. For indoor,
15. Overload devices and Protective Relays. Routine maintenance should be carried out dust-free installation with infrequent load operation, the following schedule is recommended :
at correct intervals. - Inspect as often as possible with maximum internal of 12 months.
16. Instruments and Protective Transformer. Routine maintenance should be carried out - Examine at 5 years interval.
according to instructions. - Overhaul when examination and diagnostic tests indicate need. Maximum interval of 15
years.
208 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE 209
Table 13.3 Maintenance for Vacuum Circuit-Breaker activated alumina filters and dissicants. SF6 gas subjected to arcing_ becomes co~rosive, i~ritant and
bas bad odour. It should not be inhaled or left in atmosphere. It is collected mto service tank of
Clause Maintenance operation Routine Maintenance gas handling unit by means of the compressor. ·
Inspection Post fault The breaker poles are not dismantled before reclaiming the SF6 gas in the service tank of the
Examination maintenance
gas handling unit.
1. Operation check X
Spare cylinders of SF6 gas in sufficient quantity should be arranged in advance before starting
2. General inspection X
the maintenance work of SF6 circuit-breakers.
3. Cleaning X X
Opening device (trip)

If the sub-station has only a few SF6 circuit-breakers, the simple smaller gas handling unit is
4. X
adequate. For large sub-stations having several SF6 filled equipment, a larger gas handling unit
5. Insulation X X
is necessary. A chemical laboratory for testing SF6 gas is also recommended.
6. Circuit-breaker enclosure (Interrupter) X
Pole Unit and Interrupter. At a suitable interval one interrupter per pole to be examined
7. Main connections X to establish the rate of burning and erosion of the contacts and the general condition in order to
8. Secondary wiring and fuses X assess the necessity for further maintenance etc. This work must be carried out under dry weather
9. Mechanism X
conditions and precautions taken to avoid the ingress of any moisture dirt into the pole units.
10. Auxiliary switches, indicating devices and interlocks X
Slight burning of copper or copper alloy contacts should not cause any trouble but heavier burn-
ing should be removed with a fine file (emery or carb~rundum paper sh~uld not be u~ed). Cop_per
11. Shutters X X alloy and other arc resisting metal contacts should be mspected for any signs of excessive burmng.
12. Switching spouts X X X In general, considerable burning of contacts can be tolerated before replacement becomes n~ces~ary
13. Isolating contacts but it is recommended that here contacts require dressing, the minimum amount ofmatenal shall
X X
be removed and the manufacturers recommended profile maintained.
14. Vacuum interrupter X X
It is imperative that the force between contact shall not be materially reduced. An~ burning
15. Isolating and earthing switchgear X away from the arcing area should be noted and investigated. Transfer contacts shall be mspected
16. Earth connection X X for any signs of a burning and cleaned as necessary.
17. Overload devices and protective relays X X The nozzle of the interrupter is usually made from PTFE. It shall be examined for excessive
18. Instrument protective transformers X
burning or erosion and this can be done by comparison with a new nozzle. In general the dimensions
and profile of the nozzle are not as critical in SF6 circuit-breaker and, therefore, a greater amount
19. Control relays or contactors X
erosion can be tolerated before replacement becomes necessary (5%).
20. Busbars and busbar chambers X
However the manufacturers recommendations in this respect should be carefully followed.
21. Final verification X X '
The insulation adjacent to the arcing area should be cleaned as necessary. Burning of this in-
sulation will indicate a misplaced arc and if found this must be investigated.
13.9. MAINTENANCE OF VACUUM CIRCUIT-BREAKER
The entire interrupter is generally filled with thin dust of erosion of Tet1on nozzle combined
Vacuum interrupter is sealed for life and does not require any replacement of contacts for with fluorides of contact material. This dust is insulating when not exposed to SF6 gas. Immediately
several thousands load operations and about 50 operations on rated short-circuit. Mechanism needs after dismantling of the breaker, this dust absorbs moisture and becomes conducting. Hence it
periodic lubrication as recommended by the manufacturer. The other parts need cleaning and should be wiped-out completely by means of air-jet, cloth, trychloroethelene. This cleaning is es-
general inspection.
sential resistance goes down and internal flashover occurs during the normal closed position be-
tween the live part and earth due to surface tracking along internal insulation.
13.10. MAINTENANCE OF SF6 CIRCUIT-BREAKER
The important steps in the maintenance of SF6 circuit-breaker include internal cleaning and
During periodic maintenance, the gas sample from SF6 circuit-breaker is collected and tested replacement of SF6 gas.
for moisture and other impurities (IEC 376). The gas is circulated through filters containing ac-
tivated alumina. The activated alumina absorbs the impurities like S2 F 2, SF4 moisture etc. The The operating linkages should not be disturbed unless diagnostic tests or a visual examination
gas can be used again after regeneration. indicate that this is necessary, The setting dimensions should be verified.
For installation and maintenance of SF6 circuit-breaker a gas handling unit is necessary. This Filters and Dessicants. Filters (activated alumina) are installed in SF6 circuit-breaker to fil-
consists of a vacuum pump, valves, pipings, a compressor and a service tank. ter out or adsorb some of the breakdown products. As a last operations prior to closing up the cham-
bers.of the circuit-breaker the filters and dessicants should be replaced. Under no circumstances
The SF6 gas in the breaker gets decomposed during quenching process. Most of the lower fluorides should untreated filter or dessicant material removed from the circuit-breaker after service be
recombine, but some remain (S2 F2, SF4 etc.) in the decomposed form. They are partly absorbed by heated.
210 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE 211
Table 13.4 Maintenance for SF6 Circuit-Breakers For h.v. switchgear 1000 V or 5000 V (d.c.) megger is preferred. The insulation resistance of
h.v. circuit-breaker is very high (above 10000 megaohms of infinity).
Clause Maintenance operation Routine Maintenance Insulation resistance of control circuit, trip circuit, relay circuit, secondary circuit, etc. is
Inspection Examination Post fault measured by means of 500 V megger. Value obtained should not be less than 1 megaohm.
and overhaul maintenance
For primary circuit, the insulation resistance is tested with the breaker closed ; between lower
1. Operational checks X X terminal and earthed frame for each interrupter.
2. General Inspection X X
With breaker open, insulation resistance is measured between terminals of each interrupter.
3. Cleaning X X
Test voltages of Insulation-resistance. The voltage which could be applied to primary in-
4. Opening device (Trip) X X sulation when making resistance test varies according to the voltage rating of the switchgear.
5. Circuit-breaker enclosure X
Table 13.5. Test Voltages for Meggering
6. Gas system X X
7. Sulphur hexafluoride gas X X X
3-phase system rating of primary Test voltage recommended for insulation resistance
insulating of switchgear test (to earth and between phases) kV (d.c.)
8. Insulation X X X
9. Local control kiosk Upto 1 kV 1
X X
10. Pressure gauges X Above 1 kV 3.6 kV 2
I
11. Pressure switches X Above 3.6 kV to 12 kV 5
12. Main connection X
Above 12 kV 5
13. Secondary wiring and fuses X
14. Earth connection, X
13.13. LIKELY TROUBLES AND ESSENTIAL PERIODIC CHECKS TO AVOID THEM
15. SF6 gas heater X
\ The point to be checked during the periodic maintenance include the following :
16. Interpole linkages X X
17. Main mechanism (a) The operating mechanism of the circuit-breaker should be in good working condition both
X
mechanically and electrically.
18. Auxiliary switches indicating devices and interlocks X
(b) Insulation resistance phase to ground of each pole should be above 2000 mega ohms, (upto
19. Interrupters X X 1.1 kV); 10,000 mega-ohms for above 36 kV.
20. Local air receives and pressure vessels X
(c) Contact pressure is important. When the contact pressure is enough even a line contact can
21. Filter~ and desiccants X pass normal current without overheating. The resistance of pole unit should be less than 50 micro-
22. Overload devices and protective relays X X
ohms. ·
23. Instrument and protective transformers X Trip circuit and battery supply. Maintenance of the trip circuit and battery supply is es-
24. Control relay or contactors X
sential for the satisfactory operation of all protective relays. The battery should be inspected daily
25. Busbars and Busbar chambers for correct voltage, specific-gravity etc. and it should be kept on trickle charge. The inter-cell con-
X
26. Final verification
nectors should be in good condition. There should be a pilot lamp or alarm indication to draw the
X X X attention of the operator, if the trip coil battery voltage falls below certain limits.
(d) Every relay should be tested once in six months, with suitable testing set and the records
13.11. INSULATION RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT
of such tests should be logged in a maintenance resistor. During tests a check should be made if
It is the responsibility of the user to ensure that the insulation of electrical switchgear has any of the overload ,or time setting .on the relay require change due to the increase or decrease in
been te~ted an~ the r~sult re.corded before commissioning the equipment. During the life of electri- the load conditions since the date of last test.
cal eqmp~e;1t msulat10n resistance testing will give a good indication of the condition of the equip- Following defects are possible :
me1:t and if these tests are recorded can help in deciding maintenance requirement for the whole
eqmpment. (a) Improper contact or misalignment of the contact prongs of the trip battery circuits, between
the cubicle and the drawout truck.
13.12. INSULATION RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT AT SITE (b) Point in an auxiliary wiring of supply from battery, or discharged battery.
Insulation resist~nce i~ m~asured by means ofMegaohm meter (Megger). 'l'he megger comprise (c) Circuit-breaker operating mechanism not being sluggish due to mechanical defects, or stiff-
a 1:1-egaohm met~r ~1th bmlt-m d.c. generator. The minimum reading is zero and maximum is in- ness due to dust or rust, lack of lubrication, etc.
?nity. The scale is m megaohms. The two terminals of megger are connected across the insulation (d) Wrong CT or VT connections.
~.e. one. to th~ condu~tor. and other to earth body. The handle is rotated by hand or motor. The (e) Wrong relay settings for the load conditions.
msulat10n resistance md1cated by the pointer in megaohms.
INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE 213
Table 3.6. Common Troubles and Remedial Actions
Sequence Card for Erection of Switchgear Equipment
Trouble Possible causes Possible Remedial Actions
S.No. Operation Tools, Lifting gear Drawing No. Technique &
1. Low insulation etc. productive
Moisture Circulate dry hot air or oil
Resistance (below 2000 Dirty insulation surface through the breaker pole for 4 to
Mega-ohms) between internal and/or external 6 hours. ·
Poor oil Dismantle, clean, reassemble
Phase terminal and Carbon/copper particles sticking Insulation resistance should be
earthed frame, with to internal surface above, 2000 Megaohm, for 1.1
breaker closed kV and above 10,000 megaohms
Phase terminals of a above 36 kV
pole.
2. Resistance between Reduced contact pressure Dismantle, repair and assemble The drawing include
Terminals of Pole too high Loose connections again. If necessary, replace the 1. Circuit diagrams of the plant.
(above 100 micro-ohms) Contact surface damaged due to contacts
(15 micro-ohm per repeated operations 2. Civil Engineering plans, foundation plans etc.
joint/contact) Insufficient contact wipe 3. Dimension drawings of equipment.
Oxide film on contact surface
(a) Location of switchgear. The switchgear may be
3. Unequal contact Wipe Contact erosion due to repeated Inspect contact tips (i) indoor ;
and Travel in 3-pole load operations or short-circuit Replace if badly eroded
Measured from top (ii) outdoor.
operations Adjust contact if lengths are
surface of interrupter Unequal length due to wrong unequal in three pole For medium voltages from 3.3 to 24 kV indoor switchgear is popular. (Refer Ch. 15)
flange and the contact tip adjustments of linkages.
by a simple rod with (b) Indoor switchgear should be located in a clean, dry room free from vermins, snakes, mois-
- breaker open ture, dust etc. Floor should be dry and levelled. The floor should withstand load of about
- breaker closed 1000 kg/m 2 (200 lb/sq. ft). Enough space should be left in front and in the rear of the switchgear
as recommended by the manufacturer. About 1.7 metres in front and 0.7 min the rear of 11 kV
4. One of the pole does not Pull rod for contact damaged Dismantle the pole and repair
close drawout switchgear.
One the links of that pole the defect
broken The following points are kept in mind :
Contact of that pole severely 1. Fire-proof doors, roof, ceiling etc.
damaged.
2. Sealing of cable ducts.
5. Breaker operation too Excessive friction in the pole . Identify the cause 3. Sub-division of switchgear.
Slow During opening unit. Take Remedial action.
(Timing from trip Contact grip too high 4. Installation of fire-fighting apparatus.
command to contact Trip coil operation sluggish. (c) Unpacking. The equipment is packed in crates and is brought to site by railway and motor•
separation instant too Low battery voltage, hence
large (60 ms instead of truck. Packages are lowered on the site by means of rope, hoist or crane carefully. Care is taker
higher trip coil pick-up-time
says 40 ms) that they are always held in upright position throughout. On unpacking, the items are checkec
against the list.
6. Breaker does not operate Open control circuit Check control circuit Further the items are carefully inspected visually. If any damage is found, the matter shoul 1
on Electrical command Spring defective Check closing spring visually be informed to the manufacturer and insurance company immediately, and the damaged equipmen
Trip circuit open Identify the cause and take
Trip latch/coil defective
should be given to insurance company.
remedial action
Spring not changed Check supply to spring (d) Foundation. The foundation is prepared according to the foundation plan. Holes ar
If breaker operates with manual changing motor. provided for grouting of foundation bolt. Trenches and passages are provided for cables and othE
operation of trip release, the Check pressure switches, piping. The floor should be correctly levelled and marked according to the drawing.
mechanism is O.K. relays, control wiring.
(e) Erection. The equipment is installed according to the procedure mentioned in the instru'.
tion manual. Some types of lifting device, special tools etc. may be necessary. The assembly 1
13.14. INSTALLATION OF DRAWOUT METALCLAD SWITCHGEAR erected vertically. The vertically is checked by means of spirit level. If necessary, packing piecE
(a) Preliminary Preparation. The preliminary preparations include study of drawings ac- are added in the base plate for obtaining proper level. After doing necessary adjustment and checl
ceptance, report checking certificates and test reports of the equipment, completion of civil engineering the level, the concrete mixture is poured into holes around foundation bolt~ and t~e nuts ~1
ing work arranging the tools, lifting gears etc. organising the labour, prepare the schedule of tightened. It should be remembered that porcelain insulator.columns_ are wea~ m tension. Dunn
installation, peparing sequence cards for erection of major items etc. Such cards indicate the se- erection, they should not be shifted under assembled state w1t~out stif~ners. Stiffners are remov1
quence of operation items involved, procedure in brief etc. after assembly. Circuit-breaker should be .dried out before fillmg gas/011.
J~STALLATION AND MAINTENANCE 215
7. Be familiar with circuit and auxiliary supply circuits. Switch-off both.
(e) Relays. It is advisable not to adjust the relay-mechanism. The faulty relay should be sent
to the manufacturer since relay repair is as a specialized job. The recommended precautions to be taken before working on High Voltage apparatus (Above
Contacts of relay should be inspected for any sign of burning where necessary, glass paper 650 V).
should be used for cleaning. All the terminals of the relay should be checked for tightness. The No person shall un.dertake any repairs, maintenance, cleaning, alteration of such works, on
wiring should be checked for security. any part of High Voltage Apparatus unless such parts of the apparatus are : Dead.
({) Bus-bars earthing connections. The bus-bar contacts and making surfaces of connectors Isolated and all practicable steps taken to lock off from live conductors :
should be cleaned with emery paper or smooth file. The bus-bars assembled as soon as they are Efficiently connected to earth at all points of disconnections of supply to such apparatus, or
cleaned.
between such points, and the point (s) of work; (Caution Notices fixed;
(g) Connection of main cable. Refer Sec. 15.21-Sub-section : Cable termination.
Screened where necessary to prevent Danger and Danger Notice fixed;
(h) Earthing. The earthing bar of the switchgear, the metallic non-current carrying part are
connected to station earthing system. The risers are brought out from earthing system upto the Released for work by the issue of a 'Permit to Work' or 'Sanction-for-Tesf
equipment earthing points. And unless such person is fully conversant with the nature and also the extend of the work to
Safety. The maintenance work should be carried out with written permission of responsible be done.
people. A scheme should be adopted to issue permit card authorising the maintenance work to be It is the duty of the person issuing the Permit-to-Work or Sanction for Test to ensure that the
done. Steps should be taken by concerned authorities to ensure safety. These steps include : foregoing provisions are complied with.
1. Isolation of the part from live parts during the period of maintenance. No switching on by (a) Cleaning and painting of earthes metal enclosures, connections of circuits to or from live
mistake. high voltage systems live line testing and live insulator washing may be carried out by only in
2~ Danger notice such as the one given below should be placed. accordance with the special instructions relating to these purpose issued by the Chief Engineer.
3. The neighbouring point should be locked to avoid switching by a third person. (b) Live Line Work on high voltage overhead line may be carried out in accordance with rule.
4. Earthing. The work equipment and conductors should be earthed by means of earthing con- (c) Where the design of apparatus precludes the strict compliance with all details of these
nections, from both ends. precautions, the work shall be carried out to the instructions of a Senior Authorised Person who
5. Proper tools, safety devices should be provided to the electricians. must be present, and after agreement with the Control Engineer.
6. The electricians should be well trained. 8. Check the Safety Clearances between nearest live pomts and other physical objects during •
7. First-aid should be available. maintenance. (e.g. ladders, platforms, lifting devices, metal-bars, etc.) Safety clearances must al-
ways be maintained. Otherwise the flashovers can result. Keep screens between live zones and
8. Switching on should be allowed only after completion of work after cancellation of the permit
by the authority. maintenance zones.
Death can be caused even on 400 V installations, because negligence or accident. 9. Recommended precautions to be taken before working on Medium and Low Voltage systems.
Medium Voltage : 1 to 36 kV
13.15. SAFETY PROCEDURES Low Voltage : below 1000 V
1. Follow the safety rules faithfully. Precautions to be taken before working on Medium and Low Voltage Systems. The
2. Take permission from authorised person for doing specific work. consequenceG of shock or serious burns from short circuit associated with medium or low voltage
3. Make sure of switch-off the Supply from both ends. The switching-off and switching-on should systems may be serious or, in some circumstances fatal. Wherever practicable, therefore, work on
be as per safety rules and with prior permission of the authorised person. medium and low Voltage Apparatus, conductors and equipment shall be done while they are
dead and earthed.
The repair/maintenance work of High Voltage Apparatus should not be undertaken unless the
apparatus is made DEAD and Isolators are open and locked. When working on dead medium and low Voltage Apparatus suitable precautions should be
taken by screening or other means avoid danger for inadvertent contact with live conductors with
. 4. Place caution notice and danger notices near the work place and near the switching ter- the working zone.
mmals.
It is not always possible to make dead of earth Medium and Low Voltage Apparatus. All
WATCH; DON'T SWITCH-ON work on Medium and Low Voltages Apparatus must be carried out as if it were live unless it is
MEN AT WORK provided dead earth from all the ends.
When working on live Medium and Low Voltage Apparatus suitable precautions should be
DANGER440V taken by screening or other means to avoid danger from inadvertent contact with live conductors
DON'T TOUCH of earthed metal work.
5. Keep barriers, ropes around the section under maintenance to clearly indicate maintenance Work on live Medium and Low Voltage Apparatus conductors or equipment should be under-
zone and boundary of the neighbouring live zone. taken only by a Competent Person.
6. Earth the various metallic parts of structures, bus sections, conducting parts etc. at two or Note. Attention is drawn to the fact that certain statutory requirements Prohibit work on
more places before commencing the maintenance work. · live medium and low voltage apparatus conductors or equipment.
217
216
_ Time tests .. . •t
13.16. INSTALLATION OF OUTDOOR CIRCUIT-BREAKERS ~ Insulation resistance test on main and aux1h~ry s
Cll'CUl
Outdoor circuit-breakers are mounted on pre-fabricated galvanised steel structures. - Measurement of low resistance between termmals of pole
The important steps in the installation include the following : _ Checking of earthing connection .
Receipt and storage Operation of breaker from local control cabmet. d
- 0 eration of breaker from control room by manual command; by re~ay comm~n .
The packing cases are inspected and stored in indoor/covered stored in a planned location. In-
- p h ·ld remai·n unchanged for at least a month (at given ambient tempera-
door equipment are stored indoor, outdoor equipment are stored outdoor. The gas pressure s ou
Civil Works. These are carried out as a part of civil works. The foundation plan is decided on ture). QUESTIONS
the basis of requirements of the clearness and the base of the equipment/structure. Pockets are
provided for grouting the foundations bolts. Cables are laid on trays located in the cable trenches, 1. State the difference between : .
Earthing mat is made welded iron rod mesh and is hurried in the yard of depth of upto 1 metre. - Breakdown maintenance and preventive mamtenance
The risers are brought up upto earthing point on the structure, equipment base. - Servicing and overhaul
2. State the step in installation of and outdoor Circuit Breaker: ,
The installations work is started after completions of foundations.
3 Describe the steps in installation of an indoor metal clad sw1tchg~ar.
1. Check the readiness of foundations and their dimensions as per the drawings. Check the . C . . . h cks on a 6 6 kV or 3.3 kV metal-clad switchgear.
locations of holes for grouting with reference to foundation plan. 4. State omm1ss10nmg c e ·
5. Explain in detail the following for a circuit Bre~er :
2. Check the level of foundation surface.
_ Procedure of Insulation Resistance Test at site
3. Place the base frame/structure of the circuit-breaker in position. Place foundation nuts
_ Procedure of High Voltage Test at site
spring washers and tighten. Make connection of earthing riser to the structure.
_ Method of checking simultaneous contact touch
4. Assemble operating mechanism in its position. 6. Prepare a check list for routine maintenance of an SF6 Circuit Breaker.
5. Assemble support porcelains and interrupting heads.
6. Place the 0-seals with care while assembly 5.
7. Join the links in the mechanism with the links in the pole units as explained in manufacturer's
Instruction Book.
8. Give auxiliary supplies to mechanism.
- for motor
- for trip circuit and closing circuit.
9. Tighten all the bolts and other hardware. Remove packings.
10. If provision available, operate slow opening and slow closing.
11. Measure Insulation Resistance. Dry-out the pole units if necessary.
12. Fill quenching medium after drying out operation. Check leakage and ensure leakage free
assembly.
13. Operate 'C and O' with manual initiation of releases.
14. Operate C.O. with electrical command. Measure Timings. Check simultaneous operations
of 3 poles.
15. Try 0-CO operations with electrical command.
16. Measure insulation Resistance and resistance between terminals of poles.
17. Make terminal connection, earthing connections.
18. Operate breaker from local control panel.
19. Operate the breaker from control-room by operators instructions and then by operating the
rel event relays.
The breaker is ready for putting into service.
Precommissioning Checks/Tests
These are performed in accordance with the agreed field quality plan and include :
- Leakage tests
- Operation C, 0, CO
- Time/contact travel characteristics
219
AND THEIR APPLICATION t f the current loop and the cut-off.

. . Time between commencemen o
Pre-arcing Time, t ff nd final current zero.
- , T' between cu -o a .
Arcing Tune. ime . . 1 s acting time. . . . d)
- T tal Operating Time. Pre-arc1~g t.im~ p uh' h opens the circuit (in which it is mserte
- o . t ting device w ic . 1
F se Fuse is a current m errup t. the circuit exceeds a certam va ue.
- bu fu~ing the element when the curren _m is designed to melt when the fuse operates.
iuse element. The part of the fu~ :h1chds replacement when the fuse blows out.
-
_ Fuse 1·ink • The part of the fuse w ic nee
HRC Fuses and Their Application CONSTRUCTION . T r with this fuse which blows out
>14, 4 . . 1 d or Rewirable Fuse, Everyone is fam1 ia h ter The fuse carrier can be
Introduction-Type-Definition-Construction-HRC Fuse link-Shapes of fuse element (A) Semi-enc ose 1 in and somebody puts on a ea . the cost involved is
-Specifications of a fuse link-Characteristics of a fuse-Cut-off-Classification P-Q-R, Selection when all the hostel l~mpcsaanrebegp~:ceJ and the service can be :estoroesde.dTt:u:tmosphere. Hence it
of a fuse link-Protection of motor-Discrimination-Tests on fuse. t the new wire • · th's case) 1s exp .
pulled ou ' H ver the fuse element (wire m i h l'mited breaking capacity. For ex-
14.1. INTRODUCTION
very muc~ ~ess~b~:U~ te~perature. Such rew~rable ~uses f ;~el normal current have a breaking
is affectecco;dfng to I.S. : 2086-1963 the rewirab e t~:voe a breaking current of 4 kA.
Fuse is a simplest current interrupting device for protection from excessive currents. As such, ~mple, a f 2 kA and those upto 200 A normal curren . . . ffected by ambient condition a~d
it is used for overload and/or short circuit protection in medium voltage (upto 33 kV)* and low volt-
age (upto 400 V) installations. Modern High Rupturing Capacity Cartridge Fuses (HRC) provide a
curr;:::her. the characteristic of such fu;~ is ~o;t:::: f~s:t :a:
limited application;° ind_ustr;:~
several oth;r aspects me_ntione! belo:i·c an:~;hting loads. For all important _and cost y eqmpm .
reliable discrimination and accurate characteristics. In some respects HRC fuses are superior to
itchgear. Its use is limited to omes db cause they give a reliable protection.
circuit-breaker. sW d t 'd fuses are use e
totally enclose car ri ge red to cartridge fuse
. ble fuse as cmnpa 1 1
14.2. TYPES OF DEVICES WITH FUSE Disadvantages of rewira d. 'rcuits of higher fault eve.
. . Hence cannot be use m c1
(1) Low breaking capacity. . . ce rotection is not reliable. . . .
1. Semi-enclosed or Rewirable Type. The fuse which can be seen in our houses are generally
(2) Absence of accurate ch~ract~ristic. Hen p ire is exposed to air' hence it is ox1d1sed. This
of this type. The fuse carrier can be pulled out and the blown out fuse element (wire which melts)
can be substituted by a new one and carrier is replaced in the fuse base. (3) It is subjected to dete~1orat10n. because the w
2. Totally enclosed or Cartridge Type. The fuse element (the conductor which melts) is increases the resistance causmg ~eatmg.
enclosed in a totally enclosed container and is provided with metal contacts on both sides. (4) Accurate grading not possible
This type is available in two types : (5) No current limiting feature.
(i) D type (ii) · Bolted type (6) Slow speed. 't. a cheap and easily replaceable fuse. One should
I',' However 1 1s
3. Current Limiting Fuse-link. A fuse-link which limits current to a considerable lower value (7) Risk of external flame and 'ire.
. . t' this type of fuse. .
than the prospective peak. be caut10us m se1ec mg . 14 1) The typical fuse comprises.
4. Drop-out-Fuse, A fuse-link in which the fuse-carrier drop out after the operation of the (B) D-Type Cartridge Fuses (Fig. . .
fuse thereby providing isolation between the terminals.
5. Expulsion Fuse. A fuse in which the arc occurring during the operation of the fuse is ex- PLArl: INDICATOR
FUSE CAP I
tinguish by expulsion produced by the arc. STRIKER WIRE
6. HRC (High-Rupturing-Capacity, i.e. Breaking Capacity cartridge fuse). A cartridge
fuse link having breaking capacity higher than certain specified value (e.g. above 16 kA for medium
voltage cartridge fuse).
7. Striker Fuse. A device which incorporates a fuse and a mechanical device, the operation of
FUSE
fuse release the striker with certain pressure and displacement. Striker is used for signalling-trip- WIRE CERAMIC
ping/indication. BODV
8. Switch-fuse. A combined unit comprising, fuse and switch.
14.3. DEFINITIONS Fig. 14.1. D-type fuse. . 4. Fuse cap.

. , 3 Cartridge.
- Operation of fuse-link. Process of pre-arcing and arcing resulting in 'blowing' of fuse-link. 2 Adapter-ring. · th f
1. Fuse base. . . The cap is screwed on e use
- Cut-off. The melting of fuse-element before the current reaches the prospective peak. The
value of current at which the cut-off occurs is called cut-off value.
The cartridge shown in Fig. 14.1 \1is f'us:o:~~:st~~:~~~~:~tor and circuit between two ter-
base On complete screwing the cartr~ ge ip .
. . . l t d through the fuse lmk. .
* Recently, HRC fuses have been developed for applications upto 66 kV for distribution systems. mmal 1s comp e e
220
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION 1rnc FUSES AND THEIR APPLICATION 221
(C) Link type
2. Rated Voltage. Fuse is rated normally in terms of r.m.s. voltage. Operating voltage must
This type is available in two types. be equal or less than the rated voltage of the fuse. When fuse is used in DC circuit, the operating
(i) Knife blade type (Fig. 14.2). voltage must be lower than rated r.m.s. voltage. Manufacturers provide data on this derating.
(ii) Bolted type (Fig. 14.3). 3. Fusing peak current. (Ifm) The peak fusing current depends on maximum possible short
(d) Bolted type (Fig, 14.3). Fuse link hast . . circuit current to the circuit.
on the plates of the fuse base Thi t ff wo con~uctmg plates on either ends. These are bolted
be taken out without getting~ sh:clzpe o use reqmres an additional switch so that the fuse can Irm should be less than IrsM
lfm < 1.4 lrsM
lrm should be less than I "s-p where I "s-p is peak of sub-transient fault current given by
I" s-p :=: 1. 6 X ~ X I "s-rms
\
I "s-rms is subtransient fault current of the circuit.
4. I 2 t Value. The !2t value is a measure of the heat capacity of the thyristor. Generally I2t
METAL
CAP value is given for a period of 10 m. sec. For times in excess of this, I 2t will be larger. For adequate
protection against short circuit I 2t of fuse should be lower than I 2 t of the thyristor. If fault current
exceeds on cycle rating of the cell fuse has to perform current limiting function. Hence !2t of the
cell must be compared with total I 2t of the fuse, i.e. pre-arcing and arcing time. This varies with
fault current and supply voltage, Published data allows such calculations to be made for combina-
tions of fuse ratings, fault current and supply voltage.
5. Arc Voltage. This depends on L/R ratio of circuit.
Stresses on Solid State Devices for Selection ofHRC Fuse. These include power frequency
(50 Hz) current stresses and Transient Current Stresses.
Fig. 14.2. Kinfe blade type. .
. Fig. 14.3. Bolted type fuse link. Abnormal power frequency currents which exceed steady-stage current rating of a device occurs
14.~.1. HRC Fuses for Semiconductor Devices and Th . t frequently. Under fault conditions, the equipment should be disconnected from supply to prevent
Sohd State Devices (Diode Thyristor et ) ~r1s ors to the solid-state device.
series connected HRC fuses. The HRC f \ are ~rotected a~amst surge currents by fast acting A thyristor has following current ratings :
0.5 millisecond and arcing time less th us5es -~~- sohd state devices have pre-arcing time less than
IrAv average steady state current.
cuit current would reach peak value in ~no ~;. iseco~ds (Ref. Fig. 14.8). The prospective short-cir-
cuit, the short-circuit current does t m~ isecon s _(half cycle). However with HRC fuse in cir- IRMS RMS value of steady current.
corresponding to cut-off. . no reac prospective peak and current is limited to a value IrRM repetitive peak current.
Generally, fuse is connected in series with th . . IrsM non-repetitive peak surge current.
of parallel connected semiconducting devices. e semi-conductor device or in series with a group
a
~hen a fuse blows, part of circuit is removed from the current path
Fig. 14.4 shows the locations of HRC fi . . ·
Transient current stresses are expressed in terms of Maximum di/dt and peak current. In
various applications steady state ratings of the devices are specified. However, solid-state..devices
are prone to failure immediately or after a very short service, if the circuit is not adequately
uses m smg1e phase thyristor circuits.
designed and protected.
o------o
To achieve reliability and long life, the entire circuit and auxiliaries should be adequately
designed and protected, against peak voltage transients, maximum du I dt, maximum di/ dt and
· peak current. These abnormal transients are likely to occur during on/switching/off state as follows
Maximum du I dt peak voltage during switching off and when off transient
(a) (b) Maximum di I dt When turning on
(c)
(d) Peak current When fully on
Fig, 14.4. Use ofHRC fuse for thyristor protection.
A capacitor is connected in parallel with a thyristor to act as a "snubber' to limit du I dt and
Ratings of HRC Fuses for Thyristor Protection prevent unintentional firing and also to ah1wrb energy from voltage spikes. A resistor of 8 to 60
Definitions of HRC Fuses (sec 14 3 ) d R . Q is generally required in series with this capacitor prevent high di I dt when the thyristor is turned
1 R t dC t F . . . . an atmgs (sec. 14.8) are suitably modified as follows. on.
. a e urren . use ratmg is s l t d t .
values are the maximum r.m.s. current Pe ec ~ 'bol sufiit the t~yri~tor current in the circuit. These High voltage transients can also be limited by non-linear voltage suppressors, matched to the
. ermiss1 e or the circmt and thyristor. maximum voltage rating of the thyristor and which have sufficient energy absorbing capacity to
dampen the transient.
223
222 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION f.IRO FUSES AND THEIR APPLICATION
The di I dt at turn-on can be limited by the inductance inherent in the circuit or by an inductor SPECIFICATION OF A FUSE LINK
14,8, · · db th
added in the circuit. High frequency inverters and other applications requiring high di I dt can util- Voltage Rating. This is spec1fie y e
ize fast turn on thyristors. The magnitude and rise time of the signal applied to the gate also in- - 1 ·c cturer The rated voltage of the fuse should be
manu1a ·
fluence the di! dt capacity of a device. Manufacturer's recommendations should be followed. · ual to or more than : .
eq (a) Voltage of the circuit in a smgle phase a.c. or
14.5. FUSE LINK OF HRC FUSE two wire circuit. . .
The fuse link is a unit in which the fuse element is enclosed. The fuse link is replaced when it (b) Line voltage in case of three phase a.c. circ~1t.
blows out. (Ref. Fig. 14.6).
The outer cover is usually of steatite,
a ceramic material having good mechani- (a)
cal strength. Epoxy resins have been
recently introduced and are replacing the
ceramic material.
__ SILVER WIRE(BR/D6E)
) / {._
Silver Strip
__
(c) Voltage between two outer wires in three wire
d c circuits.
.. '"' Frequency. A fuse link suitable ~or 50 els m~y
;/;.
not have same ra
cuits.
ting for other frequencies of d.c. cir-
. • t t d b the FUS£ ELEMENT

(b) 3 Current Rating, This ratmg is s a e . y h
The fuse elements are fitted inside .. rer It is r.m.s. value of current w~1ch t e
the body. The ends of the fuse elements manutacturry.continuously without deteriorat10n, and
fuse can ca . d l' ·t
are connected to the metal end caps. The (c) with temperature rise within spec1fie 1m1 s.. . c::J
CJ
metal caps are screwed to the ceramic 4 Minimum Fusing Current. The m1;mmum
Tin bridge of narrow Small cross-section
body by means of special forged screws to .. t at which the fuse will melt. Asymptotic va~ue
withstand the pressure developed under cross-section gave rning gov,erning short circuit cufrren t from the characteristic of total operatmg
overload characteristic characteristic 0 curren
short-circuit condition. End contacts are Fig. 14.6. HRC fuse link.
welded to the metal end caps. These con- time. . • f ·ng
tacts bolted on the stationary contacts on ..__....____.;. ___.O.___~..____..__. . 5. Fusing Factor. The ratio of m1mmum us1
current to the current rating, i.e.,
the panel. A
TIME LAG Minimum Fusing Current. Thus factor is more than 1.
An indicator pin is provided, which CENTRE INSERT Fusing Factor= Current rating - . th · ·t if the
indicates when the fuse blows out. Fig. 14.5. Shapes of fuse elements. 'rcuit The current that would flow m e circm . .
6. Prospective peak curren~ ~f a ~1 d • p k alue of first current loop of short circmt
The fuse body is filled with powdered fuse wern replaced by a link ofneghg1ble impe ance. ea v .
pure quartz.
The fuse element is of silver or copper with a special shape. Normally, thtJ element has two or waveform. . k urrent under the prescribed conditions of
7 Breaking capacity. Highest prospectiveJea f ~ king Fuse cuts-off before reaching the
more sections joined by means of a tin joint. The element consists of several identical strips similar volta~e, power factor etc. which the fuse is capa e o rea .
to those as shown in Fig. 14.5. The strips are interconnected such that the arc spreads instantly
to all the strips. peak.
~- ~-1000
8. Operation offuse link, ,q: ~
0
The characteristic of the fuse is governed by material and shape of the fuse element.
Process of pre-arcing and ar- ~ ~
14.6. ACTION OF HRC FUSE cing resulting in blowing of fuse 3
link. ~ 100
Normally the fuse elements are in parts which are connected in the middle by tin bridge. The
9; Cut-off. The melting of i;_
melting point of the tin bridge is precise and about 230°C.
fuse-element before the current -~
The bridge does not melt at temperatures below the melting point. Since the melting point is reaches the prospective peak. ~
higher than ambient temperature, the melting is not affected by the ambient temperature. The value of current at which ~ 10
MINIMUM
The current passing through fuse element produces heat which is proportional to i 2 rt. With a the cut-off occurs is cut-off ~ FUSING
certain current, the temperature rises and the tin bridge melts producing a break in the circuit. value. Cut-off current is of in- t CURRENT
Thereby an arc is produced. This arc immediately spreads over the neighbouring elements and they it!
too melt. The metal vapour diffuses with the quartz powder and the product of chemical reaction
produces a substance of high resistance which becomes an insulator. Thereby the space between
stantaeous value.
10. Pre-arcing time,
Time between commencement
f ·0001 ,oot
PRE ARCING TIM£ IN L06 SCALE
0.1 !0 60
.SECONl)S
· t· of a HRC fuse
the caps is filled with a material of high dielectric strength, as the current is interrupted. of the current loop and t h e cut - Fig. 14.7. Illustrates typical ch aract ens ic ·
off. (ms) .
14.7. SHAPE OF FUSE ELEMENT 11. Arcing time. Time between cut-off and final cur_rent_zero. (ms)
The fuse elements are in the form of a wires or thin strips, The shape depends on the charac- 12. Total operating time, Pre-arcing time plus arcmg time. (ms)
teristic desired. Usually there are identical parts connected by a bridge of silver or tin.
224 ·•. •8 RC FUSES AND THEIR APPLICATION 225
14.9. CHARACTERISTIC OF A FUSE having a distinguishing value of prospective eumnt of test-:ire~it not grea_ter than th~
be one 't t· f the fuse The power factor of an A.C. test-circuit and the time constan
Normally the characteristics give pre-arcing time plotted against prospective currents upto the
rupturing capacity rating of the fuse. Both the axis are plotted on logarithmic axis. ·
.bt:~~J ~:~:-~ir~~~
0
i:afl be the s~me for all tests for a given category of duty, and shall be of
ropriate values as stated in the table 14.1. .
It is observed that as the prospective current increases, the pre-arcing time reduces. Further app Table 14.1.
the characteristic becomes asymptotic and there is a minimum current below which the fuse does
not operate. For currents near the minimum fusing current, the operating time is long. (Also refer Power factor (Lagging) of'
Fig. 14.9). Prospective current of Time-constant of
Category of' duty test-circuit not greater
test-circuit (Amperes) test-circuit not less than
than
14.10. CUT-OFF AC 1 andDC1 1,000 0.6 0.0030
The HRC fuses, slow acting of fasting, exhibit and interesting property known as Cut-off 'fhe AC2 andDC2 4,000 0.4 0.0040
short circuit current is interrupted before it reaches
the peak of first prospective current loop. AC3 andDCa 16,500 0.3 0.0100
SHORT C!R((J/T
If the melting of fuse element prevents the cur- APPfED
1
,,--.. \ 1 AC4 andDL\ 33,000 0.3 0.0100
rent through the fuse link from reaching the other- I \
wise attainable peak value the fuse to said to have \-·PROSPECTIVE C(Jl?RENr AC5 46,000 0.15
cut-off. The instantaneous maximum value attained ' Ip
I
is called cut-off current. I Note. AC4 is the highest category of duty normally requ~red for A.C. service, only when it rs'
I
Fig. 14.8 illustrates the cut-off action. On occur- known to be insufficient should category of duty AC5 be specified.
rence of short circuit, the current starts increasing. It ''I
would have reached a magnitude IP if no fuse were I 14.12. SELECTION OF FUSE LINKS
TIME-
there is protect. HRC fuse does not allow current to FINAL CURRENT ZERO The roblem is not as simple as one may imagine. An improper.blowin~ out o!'~use itselfm~y
reach IP. Instead, the element is cut-off and after a
brief arcing time the current is interrupted. The cut-
J
PR£
be comp!·atively insignificant but it may result in stoppage of a c~rtam machi~e ou~lure cer!~i~ 01
circuit Such causes may lead to loss of production. *Hence reliable fuses s ou e use , w ic
ARCING
off value depends upon (1) normal current rating of TIME h ld. b selected such that it will blow out under abnormal conditions ~nly. It should not operate
the fuse ; (2) prospective current (3) the asymmetry ~u~rng t:mporary permissible overloads of switching surges. The followmg aspects should be con-
of circuit waveform. TOTAL OPERATING sidered in selecting the fuse :
TIME
Cut-off property has a great advantage that the (I) Nature of Load
Fig. 14.8. Cut-off characteristic.
short circuit current does not reach the prospective (i) Normal current
peak Hence the circuit is not subjected to electrodynamic stresses corresponding to peak prospec- (ii) Starting current, duration
tive current. Hence the bus bar design is considerably simplified because now the maximum value
of current for design purposes in cut-off value. (iii) Permissible overloads.
(iv) Whether steady load of fluctuating load
14.11. CLASSIFICATION AND CATEGORIES (II) Nature of Protection Required
(i) Overload of short-circuit protection.
According to B.S. : 88-1952 Fuse links are classified depending upon their fusing factor into
3 classes (ii) Opening time slow or quick operation required.
Class P Fusing factor less than 1.25 (iii) Peak prospective current, desired cut-off value.
Class Q Fusing factor less than 1.75 (III) Fault Current
Class K Fusing factor more than 1. 75 (i) Fault current, peak prospective value.
(ii) Fusing factor desired.
. F t _ Minimum Fusing Current
F usmg ac or - R t d (iii) Rupturing capacity.
a e current
Quick acting and slow acting fuse. The fuse is quick acting or slow acting depending upon (iv) Category of duty AC 1 and AC5 or DC1 to DC4 [Refer Sec. 15.11 BJ. . . . .
its characteristic. In some fuses there is a combination of these two features. (IV) Grading or Discrimination between other fuses and circuit ~reakers m the circuit.
Note on categories of duty. Clause 8 ofB.S. 88: 1952 states that every fuse shall be assigned These aspects will be discussed in the subsequently paragraphs br~efly. . .
for convenience one or more of 5 categories of distinguished by the values of prospective current of
test circuit stated in the table given on next page below, and denoted respectively by the number
(i) Steady load or Fluctuating load. Fluctuating loads are those :n
which peaks of c~par.a-
tively short durations occur. Steady loads fluctuated but a little from their normal value e.g. eate1 s.
1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, the number 1 to 4 being preceded always by the letters AC or DC respectively to
whether the fuse is suitable for use in alternating-current or in direct-current and the number 5
* A vertical boring machines in a factory was out of order for two days. On tra:ting the trouble, ~t w=nd
being preceded always by the letters AC. The category of duty of which any fuse is assigned shall
that a fuse in control circuit had blown. The loss was estimated to be 40 lllllchme hours, about s. ·
227
226 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIO FUSES AND THEIR APPLICATION
In selecting a fuse for steady loads one has t9 decide whether to give over-load protection 0 I 1111
50,()(}()
short circuit protection. For over-load protection of steady loads class P fuses of fusing factor 1.25
are preferred. The fuses give protection against small but sustained over-currents. The fuse is I
I lj\l\ I\J\
selected from the available fuses on the basis of normal current of the circuit. The fuse of rated 26,000
I\J\J',
current equal to the normal current may be selected. If such fuse is not available the next greater
10,000
1\1\ l'[\ h
f5
rated current fuse is selected. The standard rated currents of fuses are as under : [
2 - 4 - 6 - 10 - 16 - 25 - 32 - 50 - 63 - 80 - 100 - 125 - 160 - 200 - 250 - 400 5..000 i:;
-- 500 - 630 - 800 - 1000 - 1250 amperes. \ \ Cl
. I
'!I!! 'I
~
2.,1)00 I'
I\ ' ~
'- i
~
(ii) Fluctuating loads. 'I'he criterion for selection is that the fuse should not blow under tran- ~ ' ~ ~
"r-- - ,._
,._
- i I 'II.
j
sient overloads. For such feature the current/time characteristic of the fuse should be always above
the transient current characteristic of the load, with enough margin. Hence it is necessary some-
~l,000
l!.J -
I\ I\
-
I\. I\
"' "
,._
'- I !
600A
igg'.'.j
~ Jff3:1
~
501J r,
times, to select a fuse rated current greater than normal current of the circuit. Further, fuses of 1,
'.1.1.iO,A
"" I'- '- I

~
class Q having fusing factor 1.75 m:ay be suitable. r--- 200A
'- " I'- '.i' I I
150A
(iii) Switching surges. Switching of transformers, fluorescent lighting capacitor, motors etc.
-~200
<':
f-·
tI " l'-1'
;-..
r--- ,-. 11 I
I I IOOA
BOA
the current in-rush takes place. The fuse selected in the circuit should not blow out during the
\J.J tOO
~
" 60A
50A
switching period. The chosen fuse should generally have a normal rating 25 to 50 per cent above
the normal full load current of the pro·tected apparatus and the fusing factor should be such that
~ 50 -- '11 I
40A
30A
starting current is less than the fusing current. ~ I, I
E to ii
ISA
Guidelines for Some Applications for steady-load Circuits :r

~ 10 I-:-
I
~.
In circuits where the load does not fluctuate much from its normal value (e.g. in heating circuits) l >-
select the standard cartridge fuse-link intended for fuses having a current-rating equal to or next 5 I I
+I I
111
greater than the anticipated steady-load current. If other over-current protection is provided, or if
discrimination is required, a cartridge fuse-link for a fuse of still greater current-rating may be 2
selected. I :,I I
,0001 •Of O,f 10 1 to 100 100
For Fluctuating-load Circuits 5£C, SEC• 5£C, SEC, 5~C• MIN• MIN•
PRE-ARCING-TIME
When the load varies above normal in peaks of comparatively short duration, select fuse-links Fig 14.9. Time current characteristic ofHRC fuse-link.
in accordance with the following general rules :
(a) Transformers and Fluorescent-Lighting Circuits. In general cartridge fuse-links intended 14.13. PROTECTION OF MOTOR*
for fuses of the current-rating next higher than the anticipated normal load current will stand the The over-current relay provides
transient current-surge.
over-current protection to the motor.
(b) Condenser Circuits. Select a cartridge fuse link intended for fuses for current-rating 25 per- Hence the fuses provide short circuit CHARACTERISTIC
protection and high starting currents OFHRCFUSE
cent greater than that of the circuit, to allow of the extra heating causing by the capacity effect.
on locked-rotor. While choosing the
(c) Motor Circuits. When the starting current of motor is known a suitable cartridge fuse-link fuse for the motor, the normal current MARGIN TO AVOID OPERATION
can be selected by assuming that the starting current surge will persist for 20 seconds, and choosing OF FUSE DURING STARTING
of the motor is noted. The charac-
one intended for fuses that will carry to the starting current for this time. Reference should be teristic of current vs. time of motor for
made to the time/current characteristics (Fig. 14.9).
the starting period is plotted on the STARrtN CHARACTERISTIC
When the starting current is not known, useful approximately assumptions are (i) that the same graph on which the charac- OF INDUCTION MOTOR
starting current of a direct-stated motor is about 7 times of the full-load current and (ii) that the teristic of some fuses are plotted.
starting current of a motor with a 75 per cent auto-transformer starter-tapping is about 4 times The characteristic of fuse should
the full-load current, and about 2-5 times with a 60 per cent auto-transformer starter-tapping or lie above the characteristic of motor at
with a star-delta starter. For most slip-ring motors, normal running conditions, and not starting all time. Further, there should be an
conditions, determine the fuse-link that should be used and it is ordinarily sufficient to select one TIME-~
appropriate margin to ensure that ~he
capable of carrying the normal load-current. fuse does not operate unduly durmg Fig, 14.10. Pre-arcing time/current c~ar_actefristitc of fuse matched
with starting character1st1cs o mo or.
Fuse manufacturer provides tables and graphs for general guidance in selection for motor start- starting.
ing, and is for use when only the supply voltage, the horse-power of the motor, and method of start-
ing are known.
* Also refer Ch. 31: Protection of Motor, Sec, 15.6, 15.12.
Also, the breaking capacity of the interrupting • HRC FUSES AND THEIR APPLICATION 229
device, i.e. contactor or circuit-breaking should be fully CHARACTE.RI.STIC OF Fl/SE
exploited.
For this purpose the other switching device should
t CHARACTERISTIC OF
L,_,,-,OVERLOAD C!l?CU/T BREAKER
be coordinated with the fuse in such a way that for the COil CHARAC.TERIS TIC
value of fault currents upto the breaking capacity of 1
the circuit-breaker (or contactor) the circuit-breakers
operates and the fuse does not. For this purpose the
A
1
charac~erist~c of the circuit-breaker (or contactor) relay
operatmg coil should be below the characteristic of the
fuse as shown in the figure. These characteristics
... ____ _
should intersect as a point (A) preferably above the
breaking current capacity of the circuit breaker.
Here, the fuse gives back-up protection to the
motor and is connected on the supply side. TlME ---i,... TIM£-
When starting current of motor is not known as Fig. 14.11. Co-ordination between fuse and Fig, 14.12, (a) Co-ordination of Fig. 14.12. (b) Fuse on load side and
the following approximations may be made : switching device, fuse on supply, circuit-breaker fuses in radial circuit. circuit-breaker on supply side co-ordination.
on load side,
Type starting Motor starting current X times full

load current /NFEED
(1) Direct on line 7 to 8
(2) Stator-rotor starter lto 2
(3) Star-delta starter
Hv 5/DE FUS£ (DROP~OUT}
2.5 to ::S
(4) Auto-transformer 2.5 to 4
14.14. DISCRIMINATION Hv ttkv OISTRIBUT/ON SYMBOL FOR

TRANSFORMER FU5£
When there are two or more protective equipments providing protection for the same circuit
e,f!, t~o ?r I~ore fuses, a fus~ and a circuit-breaker etc. there should be co-ordination between them.
Discnmmatwn concerns with correct operation of correct device. It means the co-ordination be-
twh een the fuse. a?d the 0,ther equipment should be such that only the nec:ssary device operates
t e other remammg unaffected, ' Lv 5/0£ FUSE
14.15. PROTECTION OF RADIAL LINES
Co~sider a simple case of two fuses A and B in series as shown in Fig. 14.12 poWer feed is from
1eft to nght.
A is called major fuse.
B is called minor fuse. Fig. 14.12. (c) Co-ordination between fuses on HV and LV sides of distribution transformer,
Whe1;1 fa1;1lt_occ~rs beyond B, only should operate and A should remain unaffected. This is called Co-ordination of Fuse and C.B., Fuse on load side of the C.B.
Proper Drncnmmat10n.
In distribution boards, the circuit breakers is connected in the supply side [in-coming] : bus-bars
For proper discrimination in this case, the pre-arcing time of the major fuse A must be greater and fuses are connected in load side. In such cases for faults on an out-going feeder, the fuse of
than the total operating time of minor fuse B. that feeder should operate first. Circuit-breaker should be as a back-up. The characteristics offuse
Since the Ct_It-off characteristic is difficult to be determined the manufacturer usually gives and circuit-breaker should be matched such that the fuse takes less time for operation than cir-
tables fo~ selection of major and minor fuses base on the tests performed. Such tables are useful cuit-breaker (Fig. 14.2 (b )] . Consider HV and LV fuses on corresponding side of a distribution trans-
for select10n of fuses. former. Fuse on LV side should operate for faults on low voltage system beyond the LV fuse. Fuse
on HV side should protect the transformer. It may be mentioned here that for economic considera-
, A_s a guid_e r~le'. a r.atio of 1.5 between the ratings of major and minor fuses is likely to give
satisfactory d1scnmmat10n upto s.hort-circuit currents of 40 kA, tions, no circuit-breaker and relays are generally provided for protection of distribution trans-
formers below 500 kVA. The dropout fuses are used on HV side. (Refer Figs. 17.25; 17.26; 17.27).
230 231
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION FUSES AND THEIR APPLICATION
14.16. PROTECTION OF MESHED FEEDERS WITH STEADY LOAD _ BY HRC FUSES They have been developed for making capacities (prospective) upto 46 kA. They can safely
In I?eshed-network fuse should have same rating may )>reak, depending upon ratings, currents of the order of3 times rated load current. Fig. 14.14 gives
b_e pr_otv1ded for flmes~ connected circuit, though the short ·aview of an open switch-fuse unit. Both 3 pole and 4 pole units are available. Switch-fuse units
circm current ~wrng to the fault may be different for can be installed on metal-clad switchgear.
~ach component circuit e.g. in Fig 14.13 when J total flo I 4
m Fuse / 1. ws t 14,18. HIGH VOLTAGE CURRENT LIMITING FUSES
-
11 =12 +/3 +/4 Typical Applications
I TOTAL - Transformer protection (distribution system)
If all fuses are of same rating. - High voltage motor protection
. I 1 will operate first, giving a satisfactory discrimina- - Backup protection for circuit-breakers
tion. - Capacitors prntection
- Protection of underground distribution systems.
. ~owever in some cases the impedance of individual Range and Dimensions*
circmt may be c;uite different for example, Current 1-2
may be about 85 per cent of I-total. In such cases both Rated voltage (Mean Length (mm) Diameter (mm) Rated current Amp
fuses 1 and 2 may operate. In such cases the ratio Max) hV
lcoAfPONENTllroTAL should be estimated and the fuses Fig. 14.13. Selection of fuse for meshed 3/3.6 192 51 6.3 to 100
h~vi?g a~curate characteristics should be employed to di _ feeders. 76 125 to 150
cr1mmat10n. s 3/3.6 292 51 6.3 to 100
76 125 to 355
6/7.2 292 51 6.3 to 63
76 50 to 164
10/12 1292 51 6.3 to 40
76 31.5 to 100
20/24 4,42 51 6.3 to 40
76 25 to 71
14.19. EXPULSION TYPE HIGH-VOLTAGE FUSE

Expulsion fuse comprises of hollow open ended tube made of synthetic resin-bonded paper. The
fuse element is placed in the tube and the ends of the element are connected to suitable fittings at
each end. The length of tube is generally longer than conventional enclosed fuses. The arc caused
by breaking of fuse element causes decomposition of inner ·
coating of the tube and the gases thus formed assist arc
extinction. Such fuses are developed for 11 kV, 250 MVA
and are used very commonly for termination of distribu-
tion transformers over-head lines, cable terminating with
overhead line.
14.20. DROP-OUT FUSE

The melting of the fuse causes dropping of fuse ele-
ment under gravity about its lower support. Thereby ad-
ditional isolation is obtained. Such fuses are used for
protection of out-door transformers. When the linesman
Fig. 14.14. Switch-fuse COI!lbination incorporating HRC fu observes operation of the fuse, he can lift the complete
Courtesy : Easun Engineering Co. Ltd. India. ses. tube from the hinge by means of a special insulator rod
and brings down the tube for replacing the element. After
14.17. EQUIPMENT INCORPORATING FUSES replacing the element the tube is replaced in the hinge
Switch-Fuse. The combination of switch d fi • . and the device is closed in a way similar to closing of
voltages. It is a compact combinat' an use is very widely used for voltage and medium Isolators. Drop-out-fuse-isolator combination is generally
Fig. 14.15. Expulsion fuse-one pole
are in the following range : wn, generally metal enclosed. The ratings of switch fuse units pole mounted. in closed position.
60 A, 100 A, 200 A, 400 A, 600 A, and 800 A. * VDE 0670; IEC 282-1 ; DIN 43-625.
232
Striker Fuse
.stri~er is a .m~cha~ic~l devic.e having enough force and displacement which can be used for
l
closmg s1gnal/trippmg/md1cator circuits. A force of a few kg can be obtained.
14.21. TEST ON FUSE

Tests are necessary to provide the least characteristic and ratings of the fuse. All tests on fuses
are type tests and at least three samples of each current rating are tested.
1
The tests conducted are the following :
(i) Rated current test, temperature rise.
(ii) Current time characteristics. Metal-enclosed Switchgear, Controlgear and
(iii) Determination of minimum fusing current. Determination of maximum non-fusing cur-
rent.
Contactor
(iv) Test ?f duty, i.e. satisfactory opening at rated voltages for current upto rupturing Introduction-High voltages indoor Metalclad Switchgear--Low Voltage Indoor Metalclad
capacity. Switchgear-Low voltage circuit-breakers-Low voltage controlgear and
Contactor-Contro,1-panels-Control Room-Flame-proof Switchgear.
(v) Cut-off characteristics.
(vi) Resistance measurements.
15,1. INTRODUCTION
(vii) Various performance tests.
In Conventional Outdoor Installations (rated 36 kV and above) the various substation
The manufacturer gives the ratings to the fuses on the basis of the Type Tests. equipment like circuit-breakers CTs, PTs, Isolator etc. are installed under open sky. Necessary
clearances are provided between phases, phase and ground. The equipment for such outdoor switch-
QUESTIONS gear are manufactured separately and are erected at site as per the switchyard layout.
1. Compare 'HRC Fuse' and 'Circuit-Breaker' as interrupting devices. For low voltages (below 1000 V) and medium high voltages (below 36 kV) the clearances re-
2. What is the meaning of HRC fuse ? How does it operate ? quired between phases, between phases and ground are relatively small. Hence all the components
3. What is 'cut off? How is it beneficial in protection of bus-bars ? (busbars, circuit-breakers, fuses, CTs, PTs, Isolators, meters, instruments, Relays etc.) can be
4. Explain the aspects to be considered in selecting a fuse. provided in/on factory assembled metal enclosed units. Such switchgear is called Unit Type Metal
5. What are the considerations in selecting fuse for Enclosed/ Metal-clad switchgear.
(a) Motor protection (b) Transformer protection (c) Heaters (d) Lighting local.
Circuit breakers rated b.elow 1000 V and Switchgear rated below 1000 V are generally indoor
6. Explain the following terms for HRC fuse : type and are used at final load points. Unlike HV circuit-breakers, LV circuit-breakers may have
(a) Cut-off (b) Pre-arcing time ( ) Ar · t' to operate repeatedly at relatively low powers factor currents. Hence the design and specifications
7 D' th th d f c cmg ime.
· iscuss e me o o selecting the rating of HRC fuse for motor starter. oflow voltage switchgear and circuit-breakers is markedly different from HV Switchgear. Control-
8. Defme 'Normal Current' and 'Fusing Fact~r' for HRC fuse. gear is used for switching and controlling power consuming device such as motors, furnaces,
9. Write short notes on any two : vehicles, equipment, processes etc. Contactors are used at switching devices for normal and overload
- Drop-out fuse currents. Short-circuit currents are interrupted by HRC fuses or circuit-breakers.
- Striker fuse Control Panels are installed in control room. From control panel, the operator can know, what
- Characteristics of HRC fuse is happening in the plant. The operator can control, start, regulate or switch-off the main-circuits
- Co-ordination offnse with back-up breaker. from control panels. The control panels are designed and assembled to customer's specifications.
- Co-ordi~ation of circuit-breakers with back-up fuse.
- Protection oflow voltage induction motors.
15.2. TYPES OF SWITCHGEAR
Indoor switchgear is used for medium, low and high voltages. It is in a variety of forms these
switchgear units and applications in industrial plants, production floors, workshops, power stations,
sub-stations, electrical distribution networks. The indoor switchgear is used in industrial plants
such as chemical, petrochemical cement, dairy, textile plants, floor mill etc. They are also used in
power plants and in distribution sub-stations.
(1) Stationary cubicle type, in which the components occupy fixed positions.
(2) Draw-out type or truck type switchgear in which the circuit breaker is installed on a carriage
which can be pulled out to provide isolation. (Ref. Fig. 15.2).
(3) Compound filled or SF6 filled switchgear. In which certain enclosures are filled with dielectric
liquid or the whole switchgear enclosure is filled with SF6 gas. (Refer Chapter 7)
(4) Fuse switch units and ring mains.
235
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION METAL-ENCLOSED SWITCHGEAR, CONTROLGEAR AND CONTACTOR
234
(5) Flame-proof or Explosion-proof switchgear which is designed and built specially for hazard- 4 DRAW-OUT TYPE METAL-ENCLOSED SWITCHGEAR
15..
ous locations. In this type of switchgear, the circuit-breaker and some ?th~r compone_nts are mounted on~
(6) Cellular type. (Which is now obsolete). The units are separated by brick-walls and R.C.C. 'tl drawable carriage. After opening the circuit-breaker the circmt~breaker 1s drawn-o~t m~ch~m-
slabs. Wl 1 b manual gear resulting in isolation. The carriage is pulled out. In some earlier es1gns
(7) Corridor switchboard. A switchboard on which the devices are mounted on two opposite ?alkl~ y rangement ~as provided to raise the breaker-unit. Drawout switch-gear has mainly fol-
sides separated by accessible corridor. Ja.C 111g ar .
•lowing components : (Refer Fig. 15. l a).
(8) Mimic diagram board. A switchgear on which the mimic diagram of main circuit is
reproduced.
(9) Metal-clad switchgear. In this switchgear, the components are arranged in separate com-
partments with metal-enclosures intended to be earthed. The components include : Switching
device, busbars, CT, VT etc. this barriers between compartments are metallic and earthed. The 1,
shutters may be insulating or metallic. Metal-enclosed switchgear called cubicle switchgear has no
internal compartments.
(10) Indoor switchgear. Switchgear intended for indoor use.
(11) Switch board. An assembly comprising switchgear, electrical connections etc. and support-
ing frame.
(12) Out-door Kiosk. An enclosed outdoor self-contained unit connections are via bushings or
cables. Metal enclosure contains CB, CT, VT, Busbars, Meters etc. 1 = Busbars
2 = Circuit-breakers (SF6)
(13) Compartmented Switchgear. A metalclad switchgear having barriers of insulating Refer
Ch .. 15-B. 3 = Current transformer
4 = Voltage transformer
PART A-HIGH VOLTAGE INDOOR METAL ENCLOSED SWITCHGEAR 5 = Cable termination
6 ~ Low-voltage compartment
7 = Cladding
15.3. GENERAL FEATURES OF INDOOR METAL-ENCLOSED SWITCHGEAR 8 = Shutters
The indoor switchgear is generally factory assembled and unit type. Each unit has horizontal 9 = Isolators, etc.
bus-bars of standard length. The required number of units are assembled in a line. The bus-bars
are connected. The components are enclosed in sheet metal enclosure or cast iron enclosures. Hence
these switch-gear are called Metal clad or Metal-enclosed switchgear.
The term switchgear covers a wide range of equipment for switching, interruption, measurement,
control, indication etc. In indoor switchgear there are several components. These are assembled and
provided with an enclosure. The components for switching and interruption include (1) Switches, (2)
Switch-fuse combinations (3) Air-break/Bulk-oil/Minimum oiWacuurn/SF6 circuit-breakers (4) H.R.C.
Fuses, (5) Isolators, (6) Earthing switches.
The components for measurements include current and potential transformers, measuring in-
struments. Fig. 15.1. (a) Metal-enclosed, 12 kV, Indoor Draw-out type Switchgear.
The items in protective system include relays, instrument transformers etc. The components ,t:==:;:::::'.'~==R!:
are chosen to suit customer's requirement. Normally the following interlockings are provided: Jr
+
_H,C_--!_11,i,'\)
Bus bars are essential components of switchgear. Bus-bars are defined as conductors to which (1) The circuit-breaker must be in the open posi- rr~j
several incoming and outgoing lines are connected. Bus-bars are of copper or aluminium. They are
1:1
~jt )
,~~1·lsJ:j\{ .])
supported on epoxy-insulators block or resin bonded paper or resin bonded laminated-wood. The tion before it can be lowered in its position/drawn 1,1 \· \
design, type depends on rated normal current and short-circuit capacity. The bus-bars are enclosed
in bus-bar chamber. For single bus-bar arrangement, three conductors are provided for phases and out. (2) The circuit-breaker cannot be closed before
one for neutral and earthing. The bus-sections of neighbouring units are connected by copper raising it to plug-in position/pushed in. ..~II'
,1I1f✓1f=.J
aluminium links.
The incoming and outgoing power cables are provided with cable-terminations. Power cables (3) Circuit-breaker can be closed only after rais- 1·.
ing to its final plug-in position. rnucK
are brought in through cable trenches and terminated in the switchgear units. The rated voltage DRAWNOUT .
corresponds to busbar voltage. * (4) Interlockings between isolators, earthing
Current-transformer used in metal-enclosed switchg~ar are generally ring-type. They are fitted switches and circuit-breaker. re. ·_ 'BJ
on insulated primary. The insulation is provided by cast epoxy-resin fittings. Details of erection and arrangement in this type TRUCK PUSHED-IN '1
Earthing facility is important .. Each enclosure is earthed. of switchgear are given in Sec. 13.4 Fig. 15.1 il- Fig. 15.1. (b) Indoor Metal enclosed Switchgear with
When circuit-breakers are incorporated in the switchgear, several inter-locks are necessary. lustrates the arrangement. The circuit-breaker is in- 1, Busbars 2. Circuit-Breaker (SF 6)
stalled on a movable truck. The circuit-breaker is 3. Primary Relay 4. Cable-end seals
* High voltage: About 1000 V e.g. 3.6 kV, 12 kV, 36 kV, as per IEC. tripped by a relay or by manual signal. 5. Current Transformer 6. Voltage Transformer
Medium voltage : 1 to 36 kV as per CIRED. 7. Earth.
236 METAL-ENCLOSED SW~TCHGEAR, CONTROLGEAR AND CON'I'ACTOR 237
15,5, SWITCHGEAR WITH VACUUM INTERRUPTERS
,. e'
I
I
I
~ Vacuum interrupters have become popular in n1etal-clad switchgear. Several leading manufac-
turer in the world have introduced 7.2 kV, 12 kV and 36 kV vacuum switchgear during 1980's.
I
I ''
'II'
I
I
I
Mechanism is either 'solenoid closing/spring opening type' or 'spring-closing/spring opening
I
I
I
□□ '' type, Refer Fig. 15.3 illustrating operation of a triple-pole 12 kV metal-clad vacuum switchgear
I ' operated by a solenoid closing/spring tripping mechanism. When solenoid (I) is energised, the
I ''
I
I
I
I
e-
9/J
+
fi + ''
!~
~j ~~
1. Cable end
2. Voltage 1transformer
breaker closes as follows :
The magnetic field of the solenoid (17) lifts the plunger (2) through a distance of about 14 mm.
3. Current transformer the linkages, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12, 13 turn such that Insulating Rod (13) is driven vertically upwards so
4. Minimum-oil as to close the breaker. Simultaneously during the closing operations, the springs 14 and 8 get
circuit-breaker charged and contacts are held in closed position by spring pressure.
5. Metal enclosure
6. Truck in withdrawn While opening, the contact sprir1g '8' and return spring give the required force to open the con-
positions tacts through about 8 to 12 mm travel. (Ref. Sec. 2.9.4 Solenoid mechanism.)
Vacuum switchgear used for motor switching incorporates RC surge suppressors having R =100
1--o~ t---c-+++---t(J00·----,,..___1!40
ohms and C = 0.1 µF. (Ref. Fig 18.5). The RC surge suppressors absorb switching surges and are
ARRANGEMENT OF J<i 105 CURRENT connected between phase and ground.
TRANSFORMER AN() CABLE 8,r/(
i------1675 - _
l8
FOR HOVI/JG ON
LEFT HANO SIOP
tripping
RIR HOVING ON RIGH ,open
HANOS/06
.thf'ff-phase asslNflb/y
Fig. 15 ,2. Draw-out type swi~chgear.
Table 15.3
Rated Voltage MVARange a
Rated Current Range Fig. 15.3. Details of Drive Mechanism of a 3-phase Metal enclosed 12 kV, 25 kVA
12 kV* 250 MVA Vacuum Switchgear with Solenoid-closing Mechanism.
(Courtesy: Brush Switchgear Ltd. England)
350 MVA (a) 3-phase Assembly (b) Closed position (c) 'fripping position
400 A, 800 A, 1200 A, 1600 A
500 MVA l. Solenoid 2. Plunger 3. Lever 4. Latch 5. Linkage
2000 A, 3000 A, 3500 A 6, Lever 7. Drive rod 8. Contact Pressure Spring 9, Lock nuts
750 MVA 10. Sleeve 11. Lock nuts 12. Lever 13. Insulating rod 14. Return springs
7.2 kV* 15. Air buffer (Dash pot) 16. Air-gap 17. Magnetic circuit 18. Vacuum Interrupter.
250MVA
400 A, 600 A, 800 A, 1200 A
350 MVA 1600 A, 2400 A, 3200 A. PART B-LOW-Voltage Metalclad Switchgear and Low Voltage Circuit-breaker
500MVA
3.6 kV* 15.6. UNIT TYPE METAL CLAD LOW VOLTAGE SWI1'CHGEAR AND MOTOR
150 MVA
400 A, 800 A, 1600 A, 2000 A CONTROL CENTERS [REFER FIG. 15.4]
250 MVA 1200A The design is cif totally enclosed in superior quality gray iron castings. The rugged construction
440 V** 15.6 MVA 400 A, 600 A, 800 A,, makes this type of switchgear ideal for industrial use on production t1oor, workshops, supply sys-
26MVA tems, electric plants, industrial plants etc.
1200 A, 2400 A
The Switchgear and motor control centres are built of unit type bus-chambers of standard
lengths having standard flange opening as the top and bottom, various units of bus-bar chambers
* Circuit-breaker may be minimum oil, air break vacuum of SF t securely bolted to each other forming and totally enclosed bus-bar chamber, with necessary number
** C' . b ' 6 ype.
1rcuit- reaker or contactor generally air break type. · oft1ange openings for incoming and.outgoing feeders. The bus-bar chamber is provided with detach-
Contactor are used for control gear for repeated load switching. able covers on both the ends.
238 METAL-ENCLOSED SWITCHGEAR, CONTROLGEAR AND CONTACTOR 239
Incoming and outgoing 15,7, LOW VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKERS

feeders are mounted on the top
The circuit-breakers intended for circuits below rated voltage 1000 volts a.c. or 1200 volts d.c.
and bottom of bus-bar chambers
the feeder units are direct!; are covered under the group low voltage switchgear. The construction, ratings, designs, specification
coupled to the bus-bar chamber for low voltage-breakers are generally different from those of high-voltage circuit-breakers (Ref,
through the flange openings. !EC_ 15.7). However the theory discussed in Secs. 3.2 to 3.5 applies to voltage circuit-breakers
The complete switch-boards also.
assembly is mounted on a rigid 15.7.1. Classification.
channel is on framework suitable The low voltage circuit- cross
for wall mounting, or detachable breakers are classified as fol- wiring duel
pedestals for suitable floor lows:
mounting. (1) According to the method
These switch-boards are of control for closing operation,
front access type. All components viz.,
are accessible from the front of - Dependent manual
the board for easy maintenance closing,
and replacement. The switch- vertical bus
Fig. 15.4. Low voltage-Motor control centre: - Independent manual
board can, therefore, directly Metal-clad, indoor, low voltage switchgear.
closing,
placed against the wall, result- (Courtesy: Larsen and Toubro Ltd., India)
- Dependent power clos-
ing in minimum floor area plug-in/ draw-out
ing, mechanism
coverage.
- Stored energy closing.
There are basically four types of designs : (2) According to the
(a) Switch-board with outgoing switch fuse units for medium for interruption :
main distribution boards. - Air-break circuit main bus
(b) Fuse distribution boards with outgoing fuse units breaker (Ref., chapters
to serve sub-distribution boards. 2 and 7)
(c) Motor-control centres consisting of outgoing - Oil immersed.
C.B. operating handle
mo.tor starters backed by HRC fuses or switch fuses (3) According to the degree
umts. of protection provided by the
. (d) Switch-boards with incoming and outgoing cir- enclosure (Ref. IEC - 144, Sec. lighted pushbutton or
cmt-breakers. 15.21). indicating lamp
Fig. 15.5 Low voltage Metal-clad switchgear.
15.7.2. Rated Quantities
l .
The rated characteristics of
low voltage circuit-breaker are
slightly different from those for
high-voltage circuit breakers.
neutral bus - ·
I~1
thermal over-load
relays
' Rated Voltages

90
'
lJ
·oe
. - Rated operational volt-
age (U0 ) is a value ofvolt- ----.. current trans formers
.,::a, age to which the making
'
. and breaking capacities
and short-circuit perfor- type A circuit breaker
·CUI mance categories refer.
~ . - Rated insulation voltage
•.·. outgoing connections
(Ui) of a circuit-breaker
refers to the voltage to horizontal
Fig. 15.6 (a) Low voltage sheet-metal which the test voltages, earth bar
Fig. 15.6. (b) Low-voltage sheet-metal clearances and creepage
enclosed load control centre. enclosed motor-control-centre. contr.ol circuit trans former
(Refer Fig. 15.7 for Details) distances refer. Rated in-
sulation voltage is Fig. 15.7. (Cross-section of the load control centre in Fig. 15.6 (b).
240
-
generally the maximum operational voltage.
For polyphase circuits, the rated. voltage refers to voltage between phases.
Rated Currents
,{> lvlETAL-ENCLOSED SWITCHGEAR, CONTROLGEAR AND CONTACTOR
'k<
\
Rated short-time withstand current refers to. r.m.s. val~e o~~urrent (fci'r~.c. circuit-
241
<<\breakers) which the circuit-breakers can carry for a specified short-time (ge~erally 1 se l{ (Ref. Sec.
l
/23,19.7). .
- Rated thermal current (Ith) is the maximum current r.m.s. value of d.c. current or steady Short-circuit Performance Categories
value a.c. current, which the circuit-breakers can carry in eight-hours duty.
- Rated uninterrupted current (Iu) is the value of which the circuit-breaker can carry in Category Operating seq;encefor short-circuit tests
an uninterrupted duty. · P-1 0-t-CO
Rated Duty P-2 0-t-CO-t-CO
- Eight hour duty (Ref. Sec.15.13)
- Uninterrupted duty O - represents a breaking operation.
- Rated short-circuit making capacity. The rated short-circuit making capacity of a cir- CO - represents a making operation followed by breaking.
cuit-breaker at rated voltage, rated frequency and rated power-factor (or time-constant) is t - represents specified time-interval.
the value of prospective peak current that the circuit-breaker is capable of making and is Type of releases for low voltage circuit-breakers. Release is a device, mechanically con-
expressed as prospective peak current. In a.c. circuit-breakers the rated making capacity nected to a circuit-breaker, which release the holding means and permits openings or closing or
should not be less than the rated breaking capacity multiplied by factor n. The factor n is circuit-breaker.
of the order of 1.41 to 2.2 (Ref. Table) and depends upon the rated short-circuit breaking - Overload release. The over-curtent release is intended for protection against overloads.
capacity. (Ref. Secs. 3.19.5 and 3.19.6).
- Thermal overload release resporias to overloads by means of thermal action of the current
- Rated short-circuit breaking capacity. Breaking current in a pole of a circuit-breaker flowing in the release.
refers to the current at the initiation of arc during the breaking operation. Rated breaking - Shunt release. A release energized by the voltage source, i.e., parallel to the load.
capacity (Jen) refers to the r.m.s. value of a.c. component of current which the a.c. circuit- - Under voltage release is a shunt release which permits opening of a circuit-breaker when
breaker can break under the specified conditions of voltage and power factor. the voltage across the terminals of the r1;Jlease faults below a predetermined value.
Relation between rated short-circuit making capacity, short-circuit 15.7.3. Test on Low-voltage Circuit-breakers
breaking capacity and power factor
- Type tests.
Rated short-circuit breaking - Routine tests. (Ref. Secs. 10.2, 10.3)
capacity Standardp.f'. Minimum S. C. making capacity
Type tests
Jen :s; (amperes) (n xlcn) - verification of temperature rise limits. (Ref. Sec. 10.2.2)
1500 0.95 -- dielectric tests. ·. (Ref. Ch. 12)
1.41 xin
1200 to 3000 0.9 - short-circuit making and breaking tests. (Ref. Ch. 11)
1.42 xin
- rated short-time withstand current. (Ref. Sec. 11.6)
3000 to 4500 0.8 1.47 xin - mechanical endurance test.
4500 to 6000 0.7 - electrical endurance test.
1.53 X In
6000 to 10000 - verification of overload performance.
0.5 1. 7 X In
Routine tests
10000 to 12000 0.3 2.0xI,, - mechanical operation tests.
20000 to 5000 0.25 - calibration of releases.
2.1 xin
20000 to 50000 0.2 - dielectric tests. (Ref. I.E.C. 157) ',.
2.2xI,,
Relation between power-factor and factors n is based on the ratio RI L of the circuit. (Ref. Eq. 15.8. 'EXPLOSION-PROOF' OR 'FLAME-PROOF' SWITCHGEAR
3.17)
The term "Explosion-proof' is used in USA and 'Flame-proof is used in UK and India, 'Pres-
R sure-proof type' in Germany. These three terms are synonymous.
COS<p= - ~ z 2
\/R- + ro L Flame-proof enclosures of switchgear are specially designed and built for installation in haz-
By increasing R, cos approaches unity. Refer Eq. 3.17, which gives the variation ofd.c. com- ardous locations. The hazardous locations include those which have
ponent as - Highly inflammable gases/vapour or liquids.
idc =Ae(-RIL) t - Combustible dust.
- Combustible fibres floating in air.
By increasing R, the value of idc decreases more rapidly. Hence the value of n reduces with - Highly inflammable liquids like petrol, naptha, benzene, ether, acetone, etc. 'I'hese explosive
improvement in power factor.
mixtures of air and inflammable gas can explode in presence of electric arc or electric spark.
243
i., . AL-ENCLOSED SWITCHGEAR, CONTROLGEAR AND CONTACTOR .
MET . ore fre uently. During the mechamcal endurance
The primary consideration in the design or flame- proof enclosures is to prevent such ex- ••·••· Contactors is usually intended to opl~at~lF, timis on no load to verify their resistance to
ontactors are operated 0.001 to m1 ion
plosion. The flame-proof switchgear should be built such that ~st .
C .
Jnechan1cal wear. . . 't d trol circuit. The contactors are designed according to
The construction should be strong, enough to withstand the high pressure from within, caused Contactors have a marn circm an_ a ~on
by explosion of gas which enters the enclosure. thod of energising the control circmt, namely. .
rne atic - electro-pneumatic
- The design should be such that the flame or spark within the enclosure should not be carried _ electromagnetic - pneum
out of the enclosure.
- The enclosure should be gas-tight. 1l SOME TERMS AND DEFINITIONS . .
- The flame-proof switchgear should be installed, as far as possible away from hazardous loca- 15. 1. Electromagnetic Contactor. A contactor in which the opening and closrng of marn con-
tion, in the rooms where explosive gas is absent. The switchgear should be 'flame-proof, or . • h' ved by means of a electro-magnet. .
'explosion-proof and should satisfy the codes and standards specified for such switchgear. tactors is ac ie ·. • actor in which the force for closing and opemng the
2. Electro-pneumatic Contacto~. A cont ted pneumatic device The electrically operated
When gas or mixture of air and gas explodes inside the enclosure, the flame of the burning rnain contacts is provided by an electrd1ca~ly t':er~y the air from auxili~ry compressed air system
mixture should be confined entirely within the enclosure and should not be communicate to outside lve opens the passage of compresse air, ere
atmosphere, so that the ignition of inflammable gas is prevented.
It is, therefor, necessary to make the enclosure strong enough to withstand high pressures
va
ente;s : e .:~~r::it
1· d of the contactor and the contacts are operated.
The conducting parts of a contactor designed to close or open. The current
generated within the enclosure due to internal explosions. The enclosures are built ruggedly. The
sizes are also relatively ample.
·
flow:.f;:in ~::~:t.
ai th 1• to the load through the main circuit of the contactor.
The contacti, in the main circuit intended to carry the load current when
SF6 Gas insulated Switchgear (GIS) is met,al enclosures filled with SF6 gas. SF6 gas is not flam-
mable and is ideally suitable for 'Flame proof Switchgear'.
the ~~n~::::;: ~r~:.:~ :::i:~::~i.t which is energised or deenergised electrically for opening/clos-
SF6 switchgear is hermetically sealed. The internal gas pressure is 3 kgf/cm 2 . Static seals and ing operation of the contactor. . .
6 Auxiliary Circuit, The circuit other than the main and control circmt.. . 1 d
dynamic seals are provided with flanges, rotary shafts to ensure gas tight construction. 7. (a) Contact (make contact). A control contact which is closed when mam c~ntact is c ose .
PARTC (~) Contact (break contact), A control contact which is open when the mam contacts are
LOW-VOLTAGE CONTROL GEAR AND CONTACTORS closed.
15.9, LOW VOLTAGE CONTROL GEAR 15.12. CONTACTOR STARTERS FOR MOTORS [Ref. Sec. 31.4.1.) . r
Control gear is a general term covering switching devices and their combination with associated Contactor starters are commonly used for starting squirrel cag~ induction motors. The starte
control, measuring, protective equipment intended for control of power-consuming equipment. has the following components enclosed in a sheet metal enclosure ' .
Control gear comprises the following : 1 One or more contactors.
- some form of switching device capable of make and break the current in one or more electric 2: Control circuit consisting of solenoid, auxiliary contacts etc.
circuits, such as contractors, circuit-breakers, switches, thyristors. 3. Overload relays.
- measuring equipment comprising CTs, PTs, measuring instruments, measuring circuits, etc. 4. Start, stop, reverse push buttons.
- regulating equipment such as voltage regulator, current regulator, speed regulator, Generally there are two distinct circuits namely, main
temperature regulator. circuit through which the current flows to the motor ; and
- protective equipment such as fuses, relays. an auxiliary or control circuit. The contact,or.s are the
- structural components such as enclosures, support structures, bus-bars, interconnections. switching units which can perform e:en 10 million ?pera-
tions under normal conditions. It consists of three man~ ~on-
Control gear is primarily used for control of power r.onsuming equipment such a~ motor, fur- tacts (for 3-phase motor starter) and one or. t;10 aux1~iary
nace, rolling mill, paper making machinery. contacts. There is a control coil. When the coi~ 18 energized,
the contactor closes by attracted armature actwn. When th~
15.10. CONTACTORS coil is de-energized the contactor opens. Remote contro. o
Contactor is a mechanical switching device capable of making, carrying and breaking electric the starter can be obtained by making suitable connection
current under normal circuit conditions including operating overload conditions. in the starter. [Ref. Fig. 31.2 (b)]
The contactors are baE.i.::ally for operation under normal conditions and overload conditions. In reversing contactor starter, there are two contactor~,
This condition distinguishes the 'contactors' from 'circuit-breaker'. Circuit-breakers must necessari- one for forward rotation and other for reverse. Only one is
ly be capable of making, carrying and breaking short-circuit currents as per the assigned. closed at a time. Phase reversal is obtained b! the to ~on-
However contactors may be capable of making and breaking short-circuit currents, if they are tactors. Fuses Provide back-up and shott-circ.mt
'.
protect10n.
(R f S Fig 15.8. Contactor.
Thermal relays provide over-load protection. e . ec. (Courtesy: La;sen and Toubro Ltd., India)
designed for short-circuit duties also.
31.4.2)
244
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTI
The following types of starters are common :
(1) Direct on line contactor starter . AL-ENCLOSED SWITCHGEAR, CONTROLGEARAND CONTACTOR 245
( 3) St ar- d eIt a contactor starter. . (2) Reversmg contactor starter
· Operating cycle comprises one closing operation followed by one opening operation.
For large number of cycle the following expression is recommended :
15.13. RATED CJlARA.CTERISTICS OF CON
.
(2·) Interruptmg
·
(l) Type - Electro magnetic
medium
_ El t
TACTORS
.
ec ro-pneumatic -Pneumatic
r0
i2 dt D Ith x T
2
i == current
• >.,.:. .... ,,,,.,
- air - oil - SFa gas T == total operating cycle time
(3) Rated Values -vacuum
Ith == rated thermal current.
Ci) Rated Voltages
(d) Temporary Duty. Duty in which the main contactr:: remain temporary closed for such a
- Rated operational volt e (UoJ fi c,,-...,..n that thermal equilibrium is not n.uched.
phases. ag or three phase contactors. It is the rated voltage between
Example. 10 minutes, 30 minutes, 60 minutes and 90 minutes.
- Rated insulation voltage (UJ. It is the vol ta e to . . . (e) Making Capacity. Rated making capacity of a contactor is the value of the current under
are referred. g which the dielectric tests, creepage distance steady condition which the contactor can make without welding or excessive erosion of contacts
(ii) Rated Current and without excessive display of flame.
- Rated thermal current (I . i is th . The making capacity of a contactor is specified with reference to the following :
tw ·
d uty without the temperature e maximum current the t t
r· d' con ac or can carry on eight-hour - voltage between poles before contact making.
1se excee mg the per · 'bl . .
- R ated operational current (I I f . miss1 e 11m1ts. - characteristic of the test circuit.
<Y o a contactor IS stated by th "'
Ii; pccount the rated frequency operat· 1 l e manu1acture by taking into - utilization of category.
I n case of contactors for moto ' . t drnna . vo tage ' rated du~0 Y an d u t·1· .
I 1zahon category The rated making capacity of an a.c. contactor is expressed in terms of r.m.s. value of sym-
rs, ms ea of/m dd't' t h .
mum.~ated through put may be assigned. a 1,,10n o t e rated operational current, maxi- metrical component of current.
(m) Rated Duty and Serv1'ce C d't• . (f) Breaking Capacity. The rated breaking capacity of a contactor is the value of current which
on 1 ions •( . the contactor can break without excessive erosion of contacts or display of flame. For a.c. contactors,
(a) ~ight hours duty. Contactors carr st
th.e maximum temperature rise is attained.
mmed on the basis of eight hours duty.
~h::ire l . ( •
normal current for more than eight hours until
.
. d thermal current (Ith) of the contactor is deter-

the rated breaking capacity is expressed by r.m.s. value of symmetrical component of current.
The condition of reference for breaking capacity are the following :
(b) Uninterrupted duty Contact . - characteristics of test circuit. - recovery voltage - utilization category.
(more than eight hours, week~, month;r rema)ms closed without interruption for a prolonged time Utilization Categories of Contactors
Th d d . ' years .
. e ust, irt, oxide coatings on c Category Applications
(c) Intermittent duty D t . ont_acts lead to progressive heating
defi_n~te .relation with no lo;d p~r1o~n b:h1ch the .contactors remains clo~ed for periods havi AC-1 Non-inductive or slightly inductive loads, resistance furnaces
=~~g:~;:~:·i~~n:ermihttednt duty, th~ co~t~io~~:'!u:~~
o reac e .
~~a~iEt~~~s arehtdoo sh?rt to allow the:a~
m sue urat10n that the thermal
AC. AC-2 Slip-ring induction motors : Starting, plugging*
F or example: AC-3 Squirrel-cage induction motors : Starting, switching, off
I . Squirrel-cage motor: Starting, plugging, inching**
. n ~n mtermittent duty, current of 200 A fl AC-4
;~;;~~~~nl d~ty mayt·be stated as: 'Intermitte~7t!~~o~~;11n~tes. inl/elv5ery.fi[teen minutes. This D.C. DC-1 Non-inductive and slightly inductive loads
' opera mg cycles per hour · ' mm mm or as 'Intermittent
4 ' DC-2 Shunt-motors : Starting, switching off
15 X 100 = 26.67% DC-3 Shunt-motors: Starting, plugging, inching
The standard values of on-load factor are : DC-4 Shunt-motors : Starting, switching off
Th 15%,25%,40% 60% DC-5 Shunt-motors : Starting, plugging, inching.
e standard classes of intermittent d t ' .
Class 0.03-upto 3 operating I u y as per IEC 158.1/1970 are as follows : For details regarding conditions of making and breaking currents and power factors for various
eye es per hour
Class 0.1-upto 12 ,, ,, ,, ,, categories, please refer IEF 158.1 'Contractors'.
Class 0.3-upto 20 ,, ,, ,, ,, (g) Utilization Category of Contactor. Utilization of contactor is characterised by values of
Class 1-upto 120 " " " ,, current and voltages expressed as multiple of rated operation current and rated operation voltage
Class 3-upto 300 " " " " and power factor or time-constant and other test conditions.
Class 10-upto 1200 " " " "
* Plugging : stopping the motor rapidly by reversing the primary connection.
** Inching (Jogging) : energizing the motor once or repeat periods to obtain small movements for mechanisms.
247
METAL-ENCLOSED SWITCHGEAR, CONTROLGEAR AND CONTACTOR
246 DUPLICATE BUS
Cubicle arrangements . ARRANGEMENT
15.14. TESTS ON CONTACTORS The cubicles are arranged m k--+-,r-----"1
The tests on contactors (Ref. IEC 158.1) are classified as a line, side by side. Sometimes,
- Type tests - Routine test - Special tests the relay cubicles are _arranged THIS INDICATES THIS INDICATES A
AN OPEN C!OSED CIRCUIT
Type tests include the following : .back-to-back w~th thei_r respec- CIRCUIT
tive control cubicles, with .a co:-
- Temperature rise tests - Operating limit tests
ridor in-between. The cornd~r is
- Dielectric tests - Mechanical endurance tests ro~fed and troughs are provided LAMPS FOR INOICAT/tJN
- Making capacity tests - Short-circuit tests (if applicable) for wiring which run between the AMMETER INDICATING
- Breaking capacity tests control and relay panels. The THE CURRENT
Routine tests include : perator's control desk, personal- IN THE FE.EDER
~omputer and Video-Display HANDLE
- Operating tests - Dielectric tests. FOR BREAKER
Special test included electrical endurance tests.
Screen, Event Recorder are
sually located at the centre of
CONTROL
cw
fhe control room. Mimic-diagram
PARTD board is at the front.
Panel Types*
15.15. CONTROL BOARDS OR CONTROL PANELS F' 15 9 Two units of a panel with Mimic-diagram.
These are illustrated in ig. Th~ diagram shows the circuit arrangement,.
In generating stations, receiving stations and sub-sbtions, the control and relaying equipment Figs. 15.4 and 15.9. There are
is installed in control-rooms. The arrangement of control and relay equipment needs careful atten- a variety of patterns. The . FEEDER I
tion to suit the layout and operational requirements of the installation. The requirements vary dimensions of cubicles are standardised.
widely with the type and size of the station. (a) Panel with Mimic Diagram .
(a) Large Installations. When control of a large number of circuits is desired; as in the case (b) Relay Panel. As mentioned ~arher, t~e
of generating stations, the arrl;lngement should be such that, the indicating apparatus should be relays are on a separate panel. Fig. 15.\il-
clearly visible from the central place. To achieve this purpose, the equipment should be compact. lustrates a typical panel. The type and num er TWO OVER-CURRENT
The terminals should have good accessibility. The general trend is to provide separate panels for : of relays depends on requirements. ANO ONE EARTH FAULT
(i) Control and indication equipment and RELAY
(c) Ins.trument Panel. Indicati;11g am-
(ii) Relay and indication equipment, voltage regular equipment. meters voltmeters, energy meters, thei~ selec-
The diagram of main connections are given on the front face of the panel, there diagrams in- tor switches, recording instruments, ~f any, OTHEi<. RELAYS
dicate the positions of the circuit breakers and isolators. The control operator gets the idea as to fitted on instrument panel. Other types mclude
which breaker open or closed. The controls of generator and main transformer circuits are generally (d) Synchronizing panel.
brought on a separate control-desk, located centrally, in front of main control-board. Separate con- OTHER RELAYS
(e) Automatic voltage regulator panel.
trol desks are provided for prime-movers and boilers.
(f) Process control panels. AUXILIARY
(b) Medium Size Installation. In medium size installations, panel width can be increased to (g) Event recorder. Every operation in _the RELAYS
accommodate relay and other equipment. In case of complex protective schemes, a separate relay main circuit/control circuit is recorded on prmt- □ □ D
panel is necessary.
out. .
Construction (h) Fault Recorder. The oscillographic . Fig. 15.10. Relay Panel, only one unit shown.
The constructional features vary with the manufacturer and applications. However, a general record of variables is printed on gJ.'.aph sheet.
pattern can be described. The control and relay boards are built of self-contained sheet steel (i) SCADA Supervisory control and Data
cubicles. These cubicles are assembled on common channel-iron base plates according to the needs.
Aquisition.
The cubicles are fabricated as follows : The angle-irons or channel-ir.ons are cut according to
drawings. The pieces are welded to form the frame. Sheets are cut on shearing machine to required 15.16. CONTROL ROOM-LAYOUTS . dt finstallation. Fig. 15.10 illustrates
sizes. They are placed on the frame at appropriate position and are welded. d nd on the size an ype O •
The layouts of contro1-room epe_ 11 d . the room are indicated m the figure. .
The sheet of thickness 3 to 5 mm are used. The wiring is suitable for 250 V and are generally a typical layout. The types of panels msta e m
of grade 7/0.029 cable. The standard colour code (B.S. 158) is generally used. Terminal Blocks are
used for connecting the wires.
. o the ower line through coupling capacitor. Co~muni~ation can
Synchronising Arrangements /.
* Carrier communication panel is connected t_ hp l D C supply for protective relating is obtamed from
be carried out between the stations by camer c anne s. . .
The panel for synchronising, can be conveniently arranged on the upper portion of the cubicle.
The indicating instrument show "Incoming Volts", Bus-bar Volts" and "Slow or Fast". battery system.
>
248

BUSBAR-ZONE GENE
ALARM GENERATOR .
PROTECTION ANo voL~!1°lR PROTECTION
~ ..__ EGULATION ELAYS PROTECTION AND METERINb
...... VOLTAGE RE,GULATION
SYNCHRONISING
FRAME
\.,, .,, ~ ~ ~ - - - - - - , 1 - B - L _ A . . , / N K
p~~~~~~~
1
G~~if:J~R
ANO
GENERATOR
CONTROL Ii
t
FEEDERS ALARMS
FEEDERS
}tedium Voltage Metal Enclosed Switchgear
,------
UNIT
} BOARD OPERATOR'S
UNIT {
with SF6 CB and VCB
....... ,.,, -DESK
BOARD
Part I : Introduction - Classification•- Range - Application - Special requirements.
Fig. 15.11. Layout of a contro I-room. Part II: Constructional aspects - Variants - Cable terminations - Degree ofpl'otection - Design
aspects cable termination systems.
1. Describe the construct· f . QUESTIONS Part Ill : Switching Phenomena - Motor Switching - Capacitor Switching - Repeated Switching
wn o an mdoor t I 1 - Associated problems SF6 B and VCB.
2. What are the various tvn fd . ~e a c ad switchgear.
3 Wh. ., "'es o es1gns m medi I Ch. 15-C : Low voltage controlgear and Switchgear.
. ich are the essential compon t . um vo tage in door switchgear.
4. Describe the construct· f en s m metal-clad switchgear? PART I : APPLICATION AND RANGE
5 . wn o a draw-out t
. Descnbe the contactor starter 'th YJ)e or truck tYJ)e switchgear ?
6 D 'b WI reference t 't
. escn e the construction ofSF6 metal-clad ~t\s components and the function. (Ref Fig 312) 15.17. TYPE AND RANGE
7. Why the metallic non-current . sw1 c gear. State its advantages. . . . . The various types of Indoor Metalclad/Metal-enclosed switchgear described in Ch. 15A Part A
Wh. carrymg metal t f .
8 D ich safety p~ecautions should be considere!~r :ho :w1~chgear should necessarily be earthed ? .have undergone significant improvements during 1980s.
. raw an electncal single line diagram f m e es1gn of metal-clad switchgear ? • Indoor Metalclad/Metal-enclosed Medium Voltage AC Switchgear are used in industrial and
9. State the design features of Fla o a ~etal-clad switchgear. . distribution substations, power plants etc. for voltage between 1 kV and 36 kV. Such switchgear
10. What are the me 't f me-proof switchgear. are purchased by a very wide range of users. The earlier versions called cellular type and fixed
n s o vacuum s ·t h
11. Define the following terms 'th w1 c gear? type are no more preferred in India. Metalclad and Metal enclosed factory assembled drawout type
wi referen t
- Brealdng capacity ce o contactors : switchgear are now very common.
12. Discuss in detail th . . - Category of duty - R The earlier designs had bulk-oil circuit-breakers and later minimum oil circuit-breakers. The
high voltages circui;.:aJo~ differences in the specifying th t· ated thermal current. SF6 circuit-breakers and vacuum circuit-breakers have become very popular due to their non-ex-
rea er. (a.c. only). era mgs oflow voltage circuit-breaker and
plosive and maintenance free performance and better capabilities for repeated reliable switching
under various switching conditions. With these circuit-breakers the switching phenomena like
motor switching, capacitor switching, arc furnance switching, traction duty etc. has become easy.
The constructional of medium voltage switchgear can have several variants. The design is
generally tailor-made to meet customers particular requirements.
15.18. me AND CIRED CLASSIFICATION

IEC defines voltage classes as follows :
Low Voltage. Upto and include 1000 V.
High Voltage. Above 1000 V.
IEC does not distinguish between Medium, High, EHV and UHV switchgear.
CIRED (The international conference of distribution systems) defines the following :
Low Voltage. Upto and include 1000 V.
* Ref. Sec. 7-13 for SF I Medium Voltage. Above 1000 V and upto and including 36 kV.
6 nsulated Metal-clad Sw't h .
Ref. ch. 15-B for medium voltage swit h ~ c gear us.ed for voltages from 12 kV to 760 kV High Voltage. Above 36 kV.
Ref. ch. 15-C for Low Volt c gear with VCB and SF6 CB. .
The above are rms phase to phase voltages.
1
age Controlgear and Sw't h , Chapter 3, Table 3.3 gives the vari9us assigned ratings and the range of High Voltage AC cir-
1 c gear.
cuit-breakers based on IEC 56 and IS 2516. ··
250 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION r&)J:DIUM VOLTAGE METAL ENCLOSED SWITCHGEAR WITH SFs CB AND VCB 251
. IEC 298. Revised Edition 1979 defines for the first time the various t es of indoor metal 1
switchgear as follows : YP cad
2: Relays, Metering, instruments; A, V, 1'IW, 1'f.Wh, cos , f.
3. Earthing. Facility to apply an earth connection readily to the circuit connection (and also
Metal-enclosed Switchgear is a general term for switchgear assemblies having earthed ex fo busbars).
t~r~dald~ettalfien clo~ureshupto but ex~luding the external connections. Metal-enclosed switchgear i~ 4. Testing. Provision for making test connection to circuits (and also to busbars).
d1v1 e m o o11 owmg t ree categories.
1. Metalclad Switchgear in wh'1ch th e mam
· components are arranged m · separate compart- 5. Maintenance. Provision of inspection, checking, servicing overhaul.
. .
mentbs wift~ me tatl· barriers. _The shutters covering the fixed contacts (when carriage is drawn out) 6. Safety to operators against explosion, fire, shocks, accidents. Interlocks to prevent wrong
may e o msu 1a mg materials. closing or opening.
2 7. Degree of Protection. This is designated by IP followed by two numerals. e.g. IP 3X, IP
m t · .c~~partme;te~ Switchg~ar. It is a metalclad switchgear, but the barrier are of insulating
atehria · obmpare s-;itchge~r gives higher internal clearance between live parts and nearest 5X.
ear parts ecause of msulatmg barriers. A typical metal-enclosed switchgear has following components (Ref. Sec. 15.3) :
3 - Busbars, busbars connections
• Cdubi~tlehSwitchgear has no internal compartments. It is more commonly known as metal
enc1ose sw1 c gear. · - Switching devices : Circuit-breakers, load break switches, isolators, earthing switches.
Table 15.1-B gives the range of above types. - CTs, VT
follo~n~~talclad Switchgear : separate metal compartment is provided for at least each of the - Cable termination for incoming and outgoing power cables.
- Instrument and relay panel, metering panels.
- Each main switching device - Electrical and mechanical interlocks.
- Components connected to one side of switching device e.g. the feeder circuit. The required components are arranged to form the factory assembled units and the total
- Components connected to the other side of switching device, e.g., busbars. switchgear. In metalclad switchgear the components are housed in compHrtments. In metal-
The partitions between compartments are metallic and are earthed. enclosed switchgear, there are no partitions and compartments.
The Cubicle switchgear (Metal enclosed switchgear).
of p~~i~i:~~~~:s:ft~~ptr:~:~~i:: ;:rs:;!~:a\~:;l:~~!!o;~~ above. The dt~grt· ee ofdprotection

ments. · re are no par 1 10n an compart-
Table 15.1-B Range of Metalclad Switchgear and Main Ratings ~I II M~!~N li~I
a b C d
§ ~ e f
Rated Voltage Busbar Rated current R.ated S.C. Rated Insulation Level Fig. 15.12. Variants in Metal enclosed Switchgear Panels.
kV, rms Preferred type Arms
arrangement current 1 sec a =Standard metal-enclosed panel b = Standard compartment panel
continuous kArms 1 in, 50 Hz Impulse kV
kVrms peak c = Duplexpanel (Double bus-bar) d =Busbar and cable entry reversed
7.2 ME Single 630-3150 12.5-50 e =Top cable entry f =Panel with cable entry and cable exit.
20 60
C Double
In fixed type switchgear (no more preferred). The circuit-breaker unit is fixed and required
12 ME Single 630-3150 12.5-50 i'solators and earthing switches are provided with it.
iB 75
C Double In withdrawable switchgear (described below) the circuit-breaker unit is on withd.rawable
17.5 ME Single 630-3150 12.5-40 truck. After opening, the circuit-breaker truck can be withdrawn by pulling out the truck for isola-
38 95
C Double tion and inspection. While putting in service the circuit-breaker carriage is pushed in and the
24 ME Single 630-3150
breaker is closed.
12.5-40 50 125
C Double The variants in the configuration of cubicles of a drawout switchgear have been illustrated in
36 ME Single Fig. 15.12. The layout of the total switchgear and the configuration of the individual cubicles is
630-3150 12.5-31.5 75 170
C selected in accordance with the customers requirements.
Double
Fig. 15.12 (a) illustrates one unit of a Metal-enclosed switchgear defined as cubicle switchgear
ME = Metal-enclosed ; C = Compartment ; MC = Metalclad. in IEC.
This particular unit has following design features :
PART II. Constructional Aspects - Tubular single bus bars mounted directly against the wall side of the cubicle.
- Front access for cabling therefore, the cubicle can be mounted directly against the wall.
15.19. CONFIGURATION AND VARIANTS
Fig. 15.12. (b) shows a metal-enclosed type design with fully separated compartments for bus-
The functional ~eq~irements of a metal-enclosed switchgear include : bars, circuit-breakers, cable termination and with independently operated shutters.
nor~~fc:~!::~:s~1stechqmg to'n/loff ~turhi?g normal conditions for operation, automatically during ab- Fig. 15,12 (c) illustrates Duplex Back-to-Back arrangement with complete duplication ofbus-
. , uen 1a sw1 c mg etc, · bars, and, circuit breaker compartments. By equipping both the cubicles with the circuit-breakers,
DIUM VOLTAGE METAL EI~CLOSED SWITCHGEAR WITH SF6 CB AND VCB 253
252 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIO The standard cubicle design provides the degree of protection known as IP3}f, being that nor-
automatic bus transfer scheme and/~r uninterrupted power supply scheme (UPS) is possible (Re ly specified for indoor switchgear. For cubicles used in particularly pollute1t wivironments this
Sec. 43.19). A front-to-front layout with appropriate arrangement of th bl t· . · be increased to IP5X. The switchgear is also available in a 'vermin-proof design, additional
loo mw d up 1·1cat·10n w1•th maximum
.
security
·
of supply. Principle of d
e ca e connec 10ns provid
1·
descn·b e d 1n· S ec. 17 .4 . up 1ca e us ai system 1,
t b b . cautions being taken to prevent the e1,1try of insects, etc. In this case particular attention must
paid to ensure that all cable access openings are closed off when erections is completed.
. Fig. ~5.1 2 (d) and (e) show cable entries from below and from above at a suitable predete
mme~ height above the floor level to suit the routing of cables with respect to civil works. r- Designations applicable to switchgear
15 12
s [ig. • (f) shows a single cubicle with cable connection from floor level and higher lev I First Numeral Description
fe~~er:ns·ahngueldmben~ mday bedsuittlable ~orhvolt_age control equipment, small generators, etc. where t;~ 3 Protected against solid particles 2.5 mm dia
o e m epen en y sw1tc ed/1solated. 4 Protected against solid particles 1 mm dia
5 Dust protected
15.20. DRAWINGS AND DIAGRAMS Dust tight
6
The. design ~nd construction of a metal enclosed switchgear is based on the following. First Numeral Description
81 0 orX Not protected against water since installed indoor.
. 1. ;11-gle L~ne Diagr~ms. The diagra_m illustrates the main circuit and the main components
viz. CB, isolato1, busbars, mcomers, outgomg lines CTs, VTs etc. (Fig. 17.26). IEC Recommendation No. 298 now includes standards for the performance of'arc-proof testing.
. th2. El~cthrical Layout Dia~rams. This illustrates the arrangement ofbusbars and components test requirements are for an internal fault arc of full short-circuit value to be continued for
m e sw1tc gear and the cubicles. · second without danger to an operator standing in front of the cubicle. For some contracts, proof
capability is agreed by the manufacturer and corresponding tests are performed, the cubicle
with\e~:;:~c~~:~~! ~!f1fflam. Thi_sl. illustrbalte physical arrangement of cubicles and switchgear
, oor, ce1 mg, ca es trenches etc.
being slightly modified by the addition of a separate door as for the vermin-proof cubicle designs.
When 'arc-proof switchgear is used the substation building has to be designed accordingly in order
cuit:·ie::~:.:~~~~1:r:::;i!;::~. illustrate control circuits, protection circuits, interlocking cir- achieve the correct degree of protection. 'fhe hot gas must be routed to a place where it can do
no harm to operators.
5
. · ?eneral Ar~angement and Overall Dimensional Drawings. These give the various The operating practices of some countries require special enclosure designs. The two most com-
d1mens10ns, foundat10n plan and general arrangement of the cubicles.
mon requirements are for the circ.uit-breaker truck to remain within the enclosure when in the
Metering Facilities test/isolated position.
These include :
Maintenance Earthing
- Measurement of current voltage po MVA MVAr · . During operation and maintenance the first function performed on a switchgear is earthing of
, circm
and Ou t gomg . ·ts. ' ' wer, , , on busbar side, cable aide ' incoming
· · busbars and equipment. Operating practice as regards earthing is highly diverse so that alternative
- Instruments are provided in the panel and are connected to CTs VT must be provided ; the following are the most f'requently employed and are available in standard
- Instruments for tariff purposes e.g. kWh meter. ' s. cubicles.
- Relays for protection supervision etc. - Hand applied earths. Earthing cables manually applied by means of an insulated operating
Busbar VT~ mibe on withdrawable cubicle or as fixed cubicle. rod.
The in stru~el} s and relays are flush mounted on the front side of the switchgear. - Circuit-breaker earthed.
Enclosure Designs, Degree of Protection, Arc-Proof Test Truck mounted circuit-breaker with an appropriate set of connections short-circuited. and ear-
The degree of protection against accident 1 t t ·th r thed. The truck is provided with the necessary voltage testing and interlocking facilities. As a fur-
dust etc. is defined in detail in IEC Recomme~d~~~n:~ wi Ive parts and against the ingress of ther variant, fittings are available which permit a normal feeder circuit-breaker to be used for
earthing purposes.
Standard ~egrees of protecti~n by enclosures applicable to switchgear as re ards :
1. Protection of persons agamst contact with r , · · · g - Earthing switch, either of the non-fault or fault-making type.
protection against ingress of solid foreign bodies : d~:~ 01 movmg parts ms1de the enclosure and The isolator is permanently mounted in the cubicle and key-interlocked with the circuit-
2. Standards specify the following : breaker. Live-line indication motorized operation of the isolator and electrical interlocking are pos-
Designations for these protective degrees are defined by IEC sible when a voltage transformer is installed on the cable side.
The degree of protection by enclosure is O fi d b t ·
enclosure. They are carried out on standard c n irme y ests. These tests are type tests for Ancillary Devices and supplies
test should be carried out in accordance withproducts or probtotype. Where this is not feasible the These include load break switches, fuses, voltage limiting devices such as surge suppressors,
an agreement etween manufacturer and user.
surge arrestors, neutral grounding resistors etc. These are housed in separate compartments of the
15.21. DESIGNATION FOR THE DEGREE OF PROTECTION metal enclosed switchgear. Auxiliary transformers required for substation lighting may also be in-
corporated in the cubicle. The Auxiliary DC supply 9110 VDC/220VDC) is obtained from Rectifier
~ht~ designati on used for the degree of protection consists of the letters IP followed by two char- set and battery. Batteries are kept float-charged. Auxiliary AC supply is obtained from Auxiliary
ac t eris 1c numera1s : ·
Transformer.
Itt1h·s recoml mended that the characteristic letter and numerals be marked on the name plate (Ref. Sec. 17.3 for details about load break switches and sec .. 17.13 for Factory substations).
or on e enc osure. '
I
254 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION MEDIUM VOLTAGE METAL ENCLOSED SWITCHGEAR WITH SFs CB AND VCB 255
1
15.22. CABLE TERMINATIONS SYSTEMS In mixing or filling the epoxy compound, care should be taken to prevent its contact with human
kin and to protect human eyes because the compound (while not polymerized) contains toxic chemi-
The incoming and outgoing cables require proper terminations system. Fig. 15.12 (a) to (/) il-
lustrates the locations of cable terminations in the metal enclosed switchgear. ~al agents that may cause local irritation and inflammation.
In earlier decades oil-impregnated paper insulated cables were used and these were terminated Locking and Interlocks
in metal boxes filled with liquid cable compound such as bitumen compound. Metal-enclosed switchgear require several safety features including screens, locks and inter-
During 1970's epoxy cable sealing systems have been introduced. locks.
The classification of cable boxes/cable joints/cable terminations can be made by various methods Padlocks are filled to ensure that unauthorised persons cannot operate the switchgear.
as follows : .
Key type interlocks ensure that one operation releases the key to perform the next sequential
1. Classification based on voltage class. Upto 1 kV, upto 6.6 kV, upto 11 kV, upto 33 kV.
operation.
2. Classification based on application. Jointing between straight lengths, trifercation, ter-
mination, type of cable. Electrical interlocks are essential in all metal-enclosed switchgear. With electrical interlocks,
·t is impossible to disconnect a switching device from the busbars. When it is in closed condition
Jointing is used for obtaining long length of cable line than available length of single cable. ~econdly, interlocks ensure that the switching device is in final correct position before it can be
The number of joints/km length of cable line should not be more than six. The cable joints must be closed.
hermatically sealed, corrosion-resistant and should be mechanically and electrically strong.
Some important features include :
3. Classification based on material. Cast iron jointing box, lead jointing box, epoxy junction
box and type of cable. - Unless circuit-breaker is open and in final correct position and isolators closed, it should be
· impossible to close the circuit-breaker.
4. Classification based on design shape. Straight, T-shaped, Y-shaped and X-shaped.
- It should be impossible to close the circuit-breaker until earthing switch is opened.
Epoxy Cable Sealing ·
- If a circuit-breaker carriage is used for earthing its tripping should be inoperative.
Epoxy cable jointing systems are widely used for cable joints. Load break Switches, Fuse-switch Units
They have a number of advantages over cast-iron and lead cable boxes. They are compact and By suitable choice of circuit-breakers, load break switches and fuse switch combination ; the
lighter in weight take shorter time and less labour for installation. Epoxy resins readily adheres metal clad switchgear can be made economical. (Ref. Figs. 17.26, 17.27).
to metals, provide reliable hermetic sealing, is not attacked by corrosion, and are sufficiently resis-
tant to moisture. Circuit-breakers are used for fault interruption and back up. Load-break switches for normal
opening and closing operation. Further details in Sec. 17 .13.
~poxy kits are manufactured at factories and delivered on site in the form of hollow epoxy or '
plastic shells. The shells are mounted on the cable joint and filled with epoxy resin plasticizer filler PART HI. Switching Phenomena Associated with
and hardener.
Medium Voltage Switchgear with SF6 CB and VCB
Plasticizers and fillers gives thermal stability, elasticity and mechanical strength of epoxy resin
and ~e~uce thermal exp~nsion coefficient of the compound to a value approaching that of copper 15.23. GENERAL ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
alummmm and lead, which are most frequently brought in contract with the compact with the com-
pound when cables are joined together. rrhe hardener accelerates polymerization of epoxy resin.
Thereby reducing the hardening time of the compound. This term denotes the cost arising from purchase, operation and servicing with respect to a
~poxy jointing systems are most often used for the low voltage, medium and high voltage con- specific required switching function. It is important to take the sum of all these costs into considera-
nect10ns of 1, 3.3, 6.6 and 11 kV cables. tion. SF6 and Vacuum circuit-breakers have very modest maintenance requirement. Hence they
The epoxy cable j~inting system is comr>osed up epoxy body, sheet steel screen, two cones with are economical during their long service life (about 20 years).
metal collars fitted with them. One of the cones is attached to the tabular portion of the cable in Mechanical Performance
the factory. The other cone is fitted at site.
Mechanical trouble accounts for the majority switchgear failures. Servicing requirements of a
Afte~ maki~g conductor jointing the epoxy compound is poured from a low height in the form mechanical nature can be very costly.
of a contmuous Jet, 12 mm wide while doing this, tap the cable jointing system with a wooden ham- Earlier switchgear with bulk-oil and minimum-oil circuit-breakers were designed for endurance
mer to help the escape of gas bubbles of the surface. ofl000 mechanical operations only. After that, overh,aul was necessary. Modern VCB and SF6 CB
. ~heck the compound for its hardness 15 hours after filling the cable jointing system by touching mechanisms for medium voltages are tested for the endurance of 5000 to 20,000 mechanical opera-
it w_ith your hand ; at ~ temperature of 20°C the compound must harden in 12 hours after filling. tion. The sliding parts are of PTFE requiring no oil lubrication. The maintenance requirements of
A higher or lower ambient temperatures the hardening time is respectively, shorter or longer. mechanisms are modest.
Epoxy compound is delivered on site already packed and with the filled introduced. The har- Electrical Switching Phenomena
dener is introduced at the time of installation of the cable jointing systems and terminations. The This concerns :
compound must be thoroughly mixed with the hardener and left to settle 10 to 15 minutes for the - The reliable breaking of currents ranging from full or partial short-circuit currents, through
escape of air. The ready compound is effective for a period of: load currents down to magnetizing currents, motor switching, capacitor switching etc.
0.5 to 1 hour at an ambient temperature of 0° to 10°C. - Electrical side-effects likely to endanger other network elements e.g. switching over voltages
1.5 hour at an ambient temperature of 11 ° to 20°C. produced when switching motors or transformers, restrike phenomena, voltage escalation
2 hour an ambient temperature of 21 °C to 35°C, phenomena etc. and precautions.
256
. SJIITCHGEAR AND PROTECTI . DIUM VOLTAGE METAL ENCLOSED SWITCHGEAR WITH SF6 CB AND VCB 257
Competent handling of various •th' fi . . .
Import switching function s:'71 c m~ uncti~ns ~r,ismg from special service conditio In circuit-breakers in which the dielectric strength across the contact gap. gets rapidly re-es-
ing : s associated with Medium Voltage switchgear include the follo lished after current chopping (e.g. VCB, ABCB), there is no re-ignition of arc after current chop-
g and this can lead .to inadmissible high s~itching overvoltage.
- Integrated Current Switching Capacity (r,J2 n) In case of OCB, MOCB thel5ossibility of current chopping is less as the pressure generated in
Switching function '""'!<iit'C•Qlue111,;1.111,,~ chamber is low for smaller currents. (Refer Sec. 6.3).
Associated Phenomena In case of ABCB and double pressure SF6 blast circuit-breaker, the possibility of cur~ent chop-
1. Motor Switching, switching of low magn t' .
currents. e 1smg - Current chopping during opening. is more. (Ref. Sec. 6.3, External Extinguisher source).
In case of single pressure puffer type SF6 CB. The gas is blown over the arc axially and the
- Voltage escalation during closing of motors. diameter is reduced to zero at current ~~ro. Hence possibility of current chopping is less. (Ref.
- Overvoltages and failures of motor insulation. 7.5). - 1
2. Low arc current.
- Longer arcing time for self-generated pressur In case ofVCB current chopping is likely for certain range of current. However in modern VCB,
type CB like MOCB, OCB. e the chopping current is limited below 5 A by use of special chromium copper sintered contact tips
3. Capacitor switching cable switching. with a small amount of material (1 %) which vaporise easily. The vaporisation of this material helps
- Restrike I?heno~enon! voltage surge, Breaker
flashover, msulat10n failure. in post arc conductivity and very low chopping levels.
- High frequency inrush currents, pressure-rise.
4. Switching of Inductive loads. 15.25. SWITCHING-ON OF A MOTOR, VOLTAGE SURGE DUE TO MULTIPLE
- Current chopping. REIGNITION
5. Repeated switching.
---==-----------------__
. 'l'his term denotes the sum of all current 1
- Breaker suitability with reference to maintenanc
__J_~s~chedule.
- . .·
e
So far, we discussed overvoltages occurring during opening of circuit-breakers. In motor closing,
switching over-voltages can occur during closing of a circuit-breaker due to multiple re-ignition
phenomena possible with VCB. ~
which may be admissible switched befor . ~~ u~~ rangmg fro~ rated current to short-circuif
- Long-Term Rated Current C , _e anCy a e_n rnn need be paid to the switching chamber Consider closing of a VCB for starting a medium voltage motor.
airymg apac1ty. ·
. It may be assumed that all switch e r . . In the first pole to close (or p:i;:estrike when contacts come closer), a surge wave is injected into
entire service life. g a is capable of handling the current it is rated for during the motor by the supply circuit (cable network, capacities) the surge is of at least peak to phase
MOCB, SF6CB anq. VCB have different switchi h . . voltage if the source is rigid, i.e. 4aving large capacitor or cables on supply side.
applications. ng c aractenshcs and need particular study before The voltage appearing on motor terminals Um will be
l5.24. INTERRUPTION OF INDUCT

. CURRENTS. (Ref. Sec. 3.12) IVE CURRENTS AND SMALL INDUCTIVE
whereUm
Um = Us (
=Voltage appearing at motor terminal
z::~i )
Followfiing values of small/large inductive currents occur in practice Ux = Incident surge amplitude
T rans ormers on no-load
Neutral-grounding reactors : Upto 20 A Zc = Surge impedance of supply cable
Neutral grounding transformers with re t : Upto 2000 A Zi = Impedance of motor
Load currents of motor ac or : Upto 400 A
Starting current of motor : Upto 1000 A Typical values of Zc are 0.5 to 8, ohms and Zi are 20 to 50 ohms. With these values
No-load current of motor : Upto 5000 A
Induction furnaces : Upto 20 A Um=2U8
Circuit-breakers which are capabl fb . : Upto 2500 A Due to damping and other effects actual value of Um is between 1.5 to 1.8 U8 •
inductive currents very small to interr:;t, reakmg short-circuit currents of several kA, find these The three poles do not close simultaneously due to prestrike, difference in contact touch. The
The current may get chopped at curre t I pole discrepance is of a few milliseconds (1 to 5). As the first pole close or prestrikes, the surge
.. . n c before natural current zero giving rise to voltage from the first pole to close will cause oscillations in the motor winding and the open terminals of
Vp=lc ✓~IC \ other two windings, will show oscillatory overvoltage. Assuming first prestrike occurs a maximum
voltage of the wave the peak voltages across second and third pole may approach a value of 2.0,
fn = (2rc ✓LC) 2.3 (= 0.5 + 1.5 to 1.8) times peak phase to neutral voltage. If any of those poles then close or
where Vp = Peak of switching overvoltage Volts prestrike, a surge wave of the same magnitude will be injected into motor circuit. Also the wave
I~ = Frequency of transient Hz ' may be enhanced by reflection at motor terminals by factor 1.5 to 1.8 resulting in theoretical max-
L = Inductance in load circuit, Henry -itnum swing of 3.0 to 4.1 per unit.
C = Shunt capacitance ofload circuit J:t'arad The above analysis for closing on a standstill motor. If the motor is running at full speed while.
le = Chopped current, A, instantaneo~s Val:e the energising, and out of phase condition may occur, resulting higher than above values.
l
258
HJM VOLTAGE METAL ENCLOSED SWITCHGEAR WITH SF6 CB AND VCB 259
The large motor above 75 kW are supplied at medium volta es Th · ·
power cables of some length between the switchi d . g · e supply IS given throu contacts of the SF6 puffer type circuit-breaker must travel a certain distance before circuit-
provided near the motor or switching for prov·a· ng ev1ce ant_d the motor: Lumped capacitor a
. . . i mg compensa IOn for reactive power. aker is able to interrupt (buildup of the required blasting pressure). For this reason the reigni-
Followmg switchmg conditions are involved : probability of SF6 self-extinguishing circuit-breaker is low. Reignition if any takes place
Closing - On no load rough contact gap filled with ionised gas and does not allow the over voltage to reach high value.
rrent is interrupted at next zero.
- On running motor which was switched off.
The capability of interrupting high-frequency transient currents (di I dt at current z~ro upto a several
- re-switching of motor during starting.
Switching off : - One load o0A/µs) is a unique characteristic of vacuum circuit-breakers. The associated phenomena such as
irtual current chopping or multiple reignitions with voltage escalation occur with vacuum circuit-
- During starting. reakers. Such phenomena do not occur with puffer type SF6 circuit-breaker because of the gentle blast-
- On no load. g of the arc in the current range cannot interrupt high frequency currents. A reignition if any occurs,
Severe conditions causing switching overvoltage include : ly once on the 50 cycle wave due to insufficient contact travel. Sequences ofreignitions with sawtooth-
- Opening stalled motor e voltage characteristics as they occur from vacuum switching principles, do not occur with the SF6
- Opening motor while starting. tcuit-breaker. This property is useful for puffer type SF6 in motor-switching applications. Hence puffer
- Closing the running motor. • ·>••·L. ••,n SF
6 circuit-breaker are used without additional RC surge suppressors.
Contact speed and contact material ofvacuu . .
fluence on the prestrike behaviour. m circmt-breaker and vacuum contactors have in
CAPACITOR SWITCHING
The amplitude and rate ofrise ofovervolta t l . . . .
of the motor, the surge characteristics of th ge a c ~smg is mfluenced by the surge characteristics In medium voltage range capacitor switching applications include :
T . . e connectmg cable and supply network - Cables on no load, upto 100 A.
ype of circmt-breaker seems to have no influence on the normal prestrikes .
- Capacitor bank switching upto 2000 A.
When the length of cable between the 't h . .
switching overvoltages increases rat f . swd1 c and the motor mcreases, the time to peak of The switching is of two types.
, e o rise ecreases
H' h . . - Opening of single capacitor bank and associated restrike phenomenon (Sec. 3.14.lJ_.
L ig sudrge im~edance of supply reduces the rate of rise and amplitude of surge-voltage
- Closing of one capacitor-bank against another (Parallel bank-switching) and associated
umpe capacitors (used for power factor cor t' ) '
supply bus enhance the amplitude a d t f . rec IOU or a large number of cables connected to phenomenon of high frequency, high amplitude inrush currents during pre-ignition.
. . n ra e o rise of surge-voltage. Opening of Capacitive Currents (Refer Sec. 3.14.1).
. While closmg vacuum contactors or vacuu . . .
sients may occur due to multiple hi h fr m c1rcm~-br~~lrnrs, hi~h frequency repetitive tran- Where the current is interrupted the capacitor remains charged at+ Vph· After half a cycle the
(described above) causes high fre g tque~cy reigmt10ns while closing. The pre-ignition voltage of contacts. On supply side reaches - Vph· Thus the contact gap is subjected to ;2 Vph· half
quenches the high frequency curren1u::?" br~ns_i~nts with saw-tooth wave forms. Vacuum gap cycle after current zero.
repeatedly at high frequency 10 to 100 sklfz ;~:mg voltag~ ~auses pre-strike again. This occurs
phenomenon usually does not results in volta e a few_ m1ll_iseconds (1 to 5). However sucp. a If contact gap does not withstand this voltage, the breaker restrikes causing release of energy
from capacitor to supply side and another voltage rise after next current zero giving 4 Vph· The
caus~s limitation of amplitude of overvolta e g es~alation ~mce the b:eakdown of vacuum gap
stallmg currents is avoided by ap . tg . When mt~rruption ofstartmg-currents of motor and result is that the stress on theinsulation and the contact gap due to this voltage is much higher
propria e control actIOns • th l · t • than before the first restrike. With increasing over voltage, the danger of further restrikes is very
next most severe switching conditi'on .11 d . , e c osmg ransients represent the
· . wi pro uce switching t · t · , . high.
nse of excessive overvoltage and su . d rans1en every time g1vmg a statistical
. . ccess1ve egradati f t . 1 . So-called "Soft" circuit-breakers e.g. minimum oil and bulk-oil circuit-breakers which have no
motor msulat10n break-down. on° mo or msu at10n eventually leading to
forced oil circulation, circuit-breakers with magnetic blowout and airbreak contactor have a ten-
dency to restrike. They are not suitable for capacitor switching due to possibility ofrestrike.
15.26. MOTOR SWITCHING WITH PUFFER TYPE SF6 CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
SF6 circuit-breakers have higher rate of dielectric recovery of contact gap and are, therefore
The puffer type SF6 circuit-breaker have aver 1 . restrike free for large capacitive currents. Vacuum breakers have best dielectric recovery and are
physical properties of the SF g d1 Y ow current choppmg level. This is due to the
· 6 as, an ow pressure ax· 1 bl t · f~ • . ideally restrikes free.
easy ionizability. of sulphur the ·1 . SF ia as m pu ier prmc1ple. Because of the
' . p asma m circu. t b k . . Switching a Capacitor Bank into the Busbars
tively low temperature wh1'ch cou t t . 6 I - rea er remams conductive down to rela-
' n erac s mstabili · f th . The making current Im of a capacitor bank being switched into the power system can be cal-
the current before the natural current Th z1~g o e arc and there with interruption of
excellent arc extinguishing properties o;;;· is aed:rc IS blasted ge1:tly, whic_h however due to the culated from the rated current le of the capacitor bank, the natural frequency fc of the transient
cause of this axial gentle blasting th 6 h q~ate to assure mterruptIOn of the current. Be- current between the power system and the capacitor bank and the frequency of the power system.
. ' . e current c oppmg level of th ffi t S . . The making current of an uncharged capacitor being switched on at the voltage maximum is given
Is very low. Hence overvoltage oc . d . · e pu er ype F6 circmt-breaker
. . currmg urmg motor 'th' d by
w h ithm permissible limits The d1'el· t . sw1 c mg ue to current chopping are
. · ec nc recovery of the co t t f SF . .
rapid. This is due to the electronegat· b h . n ac gap o 6 circuit-breaker is very ... (1)
. . ive e avIOur of SF6 and its dissociation products. In addition,
260
SWITCHGEAR AND PR01ECTJ
!c
T~e natural frequency can be calculated from the inductance L of the power system a d t
capacitance C of the capacitor. n
fc=Il2n-{I;c
The maximum rate of rise of current
.
Smax is
· given
· by
Smax = Im 2nfc
Making currents up to approximate! 15 kA d · ...(
20 A/~ts occur in practice. y an rates-of-rise or current upto approximate!
Connecting Capacitors in parallel
The capacitor to be switched on is not cha d d . . .
This is assumed to be the most unca 1 , voura
bl rge an is switched on at the voltage maximu
e case.
The equations (1), (2) and (3) are also I'd . th'
system L in equation (2) is to be replaced ~a \hm. ds ~ase. Howeve~, ~he inductance of the powe
Voltage Controlgear and Switchgear
nected between C and C fi 1· ·t· . y e m uc ance L2, L2 is mductance of inductor cori'
1 2 or 1mi mg m rush currents. . ,•, .. ,,..,,.. v, APPLICATIONS AND BASIC REQUIREMENTS
In practice, the inductane L bet th . . The low voltage controlgear, contactor, low voltage switchgear etc. have been briefly described
L of the system and can be ne 1!ctedween e ca~ac1tors is very low as co~pared _to the inductanc Sec. 15.6 to 15.15. The classifications by IEC and CIRED define Low Voltage as voltage upto
tance L2 between the capacita~1ce C1. !~e i:~ns1ent currents are determmed mainly by the induc~ and including 1000 V. (Sec. 15.20). The definitions of metal-enclosed switchgear mentioned in Sec.
15.29 apply to the Low Voltage Switchgear covered in this chapter.
The natural frequency fc is given by : Low voltage switchgear and controlgear has a very wide range of applications. The switchgear
fc = l/21t ✓L,C subjected to severe electrical and mechanical stresses associated with particular application. The
low voltage switchgear has to perform the specified duty over a long span of operating life, with
The total capacitance C is given by ~ minimum maintenance requirements. The space available is generally less and the switchgear
should be compact. The design should be good-looking, compact, Safe and easy to install, operate
C= C1 C2
and maintain. The degree of protection and surface treatment are equally important.
C1 + Cz ... (4) The major differences between low voltage switchgear and High Voltage Switchgear include
and L2 is inductance between c c As +' f th k' following:
occur whe . 't 1, 2· 'c > ' e ma mg currents and rate-of-rise of current which
n capac1 ors are connected in parallel a h h. h h - Specifications and ratings are different.
capacitors are connected to the powers stem M ~e muc ig er t an those which occur when - Characteristics of low voltage circuits with respect to stresses on switching device during
of rise of current upto 1000 Alµs are y 'bl ·. akm~ currents upto 40 kA (or higher) and rates opening and closing are different than those of HV circuits.
. poss1 e m practice.
The makmg currents which occur when a 11 I' . - Number of Switching operations demanded from low voltage switching devices (between pe-
inadmissibly high-rate-of-rise of presn . p .;a _e mg capacitors cause very high pressures and riodic maintenance intervals) are very high (several tens of thousands to a million) as
L2 between the capacitance C and C :sure itnboi c1r~uit-•breakers. For this reason the inductance against a few thousand for a medium voltage switching device. The contact life ofLV switch-
1 2 mus e provided. ·
ing device is important.
In VCB, SF6 CB there is no excess of pressure in the interrupter.
- Medium voltage switching device has higher creapage distance, higher internal clearances
than that of LV switchgear.
- LV switching device has generally a short contact travel. (a few mm) as against a long con-
tact travel'ofMV switching device (a few cm). Due to small contact travel, the contact travel
characteristics of an LV switching device is markedly different from that of MV switching
device .
.- Contact bounce assumes great significance in LV switching device.
- LV switches designed from very long mechanical life and contact life. The contacts are pres-
sure type with minimum contact wiping and contact wear.
- In HV switchgear only four types of switching devices are used. These are circuit~breakers,
Isolators, Earthing Switches and Load-break Switches (Sec. 17 .3). In LV Switchgear several
types of switching devices are used (Sec. 15.31).
15.29. COMPONENTS AND MODULAR STRUCTURAL CONFIGURATION

The LV Switchgear or controlgear has modular construction. The module of required rating
are assembled to form the complete switchgear. Modular construction (called unit type construction
in Sec. 15.6) enables the manufacturer to simplify the inventory_ and to produce required tailormade
switchgear economically and in batch quantities. User gets his requirement at lower cost, with
necessary variation and in shorter delivery periods.
262
SWI'fCHGEAR AND PROTECTION ,, Low-VOLTAGE CONTROLGEARAND SWITCHGEAR 263
In the modular construction of LV 't h d
ratings are assembled to ether as e sw1 _c gea.r st~n _ard modules of specified dimensions and Type of Switch Classification based on Switching devices
iron clad switchgear (Figg 15 4) l p r l~eqmred circuit diagram. Modular system is used for cast-
15 . 7 ). · · , ow Vo age metal-enclosed load control centre (Fig. 15.6 a b· p· Motor starters Switching on and off the Contactor starters, Oil immersed
' ' lg,
motor circuit; capability to starters, star-delta starters,
The essential components in low v It ·t h · make and breaker the Direct-on line starters.
metalclad switchgear described in Se o la5g3e s_w1 c gear mclude components similar to high voltage starting currents.
c. . , i.e.,
- Switching devices. Circuit-breaker or contactor - Switching the circuit under For safety, for isolation.
Isolating switches
or som~ other device along with its operating TERMINAL no active load.
mechamsm. ..
FRAME Manually operated switches. Switches operated by hand or
- Fuse Boxes or Fuse-switch combinations ARC
by foot.
CONTROL
- Busbars DEVICE OPERATING
- Incoming cables and cable terminations MECHANISM Remote controlled switches Power operated Compressed air, motor mechanism
or solenoid operated switches.
- Outgoing cabl.es and cable terminations
- Structure for supporting the modules, enclosure. Limit switches For switching when Mechanical switch is arranged to
- Earthing facility, earthing switches, earthing particular limit of physical operate by physically moving part
busbar. quantity is reached. on the machine. Limit switch
Fig. 15.13. Appearance of modern air-break contacts can be connected in motor
- Interlocking facility contactor. starter circuit.
CTs, VTs, over load relays as required No restoring force Lever switch, pressure switch, cam
Stop switch
Measuring instrument chamber switch
Control· cabling; etc.
Lock switch With mechanical lock and Motor protection circuit-breaker.
trip-free release
15.30. SWITCHING DEVICES
Key or push button With restoring force With contactors
Several types of switching devices are used in LV . h . .
circuit-breakers, Contactors auxiliary 't h 1· . sw1_tc gear. The sw1tchmg devices are called Selector switches For selection of circuit Change over switches Multiple
, sw1 c es, 1m1t switches, motor starters etc
between two or more switches.
Table 15-C-1 gives the list and features of various switching devices. ' . alternative current paths
Table 15-C-1. Switching Devices in LV Switchgear
Auxiliary switch For switching on/off auxiliary Auxiliary circuits are for
Type of Switch Classification based on circuits several pairs of switching, operating, locking
Switching devices contacts which include signalling etc.
Circuit breakers (indoor, metal Breaking capacity for NO-Normally open
enclosed, with current limiting - Air break circuit breakers used NC-Normally closed
s~o:d-_circuit current breaking. exclusively in low voltage
features) Ref. Chapter 5 NO-NC
-Miniature -Moulded-case C1rcm~-br~aker has assigned switchgear both for AC and DC
short-cm:mt breaking capacity Short-time contacting NO
duties (Ref. Chapter 5)
and makmg capacity. - Miniature circuit-breaker molded
case circuit-breakers (Sec. 5.11) 15.31. MECHANICAL RATED LIFE OF A SWITCHING DEVICE
- Oil-circuit breakers, SF6 circuit
breakers, Vacuum circuit-breakers Rated Contact Life. These terms are complementary. The LV switching device is designed
ar~ used for MV switchgear and HV and rated to perform a large number of mechanical operations per hour and several thousand
switchgear. They are not used in LV
switchgear mechanical operations during its operating life.
Switch-fuse combinations (Ref. Rated Mechanical Life of a switching device is expressed in terms of the number of switching
Sec. 14.17) Use of HRC fuse along with
manual Switch Fig. 14.14
operations can be performed without loading the current path. Nominal value of rated mechanical
Contactors (Ref. Sec. 15.10) life is assigned at 90% of the limiting value.
Switching load current and - Air-break are used in LV
overload currents.
switchgear. Rated Contact Life is assigned with reference to the capability contacts to perform number
- Suitable for large number of of switching operations on full load.
switching operations on Majority of switching devices are capable of performing more than assigned number of switch-
load/overload
Load-break Switches.
ing operations during the life. Table 15-C-3 gives data about typical values of rated mechanical life
Switching on load current - for various types of LV switching devices.
and overload current. Rated. opening and closing
capacity upto 1.5 In. Lever switch
with arcing chamber.
265
" VOLTAGE CONTROLGEARAND SWITCHGEAR
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION r,OW- d 'tl
264 In LV switches, for small sliding components sliding surfaces are preferre w1 1
Table 15-C-2. Reference Values of Rated Mechanical Life of LV Switchgear Devices
I
-- _ plastic sliding against steel .
Rated Rated Mechanical-
Class as Switching life in Number of - Plastic sliding against plastic . ·ntered met~ls Permanently lubricated bearing
Type of switching device perVDE' frequency switching Porous plastics are pref~rred a~ they ahct hk;;~E (Teflon) are.used on plastic and metal contact
0660 per hour on operations on no are preferred. Special coatmgs sue as
no load load .,11,rtace::; to reduce coefficient of friction.
1000
-
Isolators, large switches, lever switches, high speed switches, AI 10 MAIN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT AND QOMPONENTS IN A SWITCHING DEVICE
large circuit/breakers etc. large motor starters. (103)
---
--
15,33: 15 13 (a) represents a single phase schematic di~gra_m showing essential components as-
Medium and small circuit breakers, Medium and small motor BI 20 10,000 . ~1gd with the Low Voltage Switchgear (contactor or c1rcmt-brea~er).
switches for railway vehicle, high speed switches (104)
soc1;~e main components shown in Fig. 15.13 (a) include the followm~: 1
Large contactors, pressure switches ~anual motor switches. CI 50 100,000 • h' d · - Fixed contact termma
_ Sw1tc mg ev1ce • b b
(105-) • · 1 _ Terminals for connect10n to us ars
Movmg contact termma . t' )
- • • · _ Overcurrent trip (usually e1ectromagne 1c
Smaller contactors, Control switches for intermittent DI 500 10,00,000
- Tripp~ng umt ,_. 't h Operating handle or drive
operations switching devices for small haulage equipment. (106) _ Latchmg system 1or sw1 c 1
. Enclosure
Contactors for intermittent operation in auxiliary drives, in EI 3000 100,00,000 - Undervoltage tnp
rollin~ mills, for special machine etc. (107)
1. Main switching device
2. Fixed contact
15.32. DESIGN ASPECTS FOR LONG MECHANICAL LIFE 3. Moving contact
4. Connection (terminal)
Long mechanical life is an essential requirement of a LV switching device for the economic 9 5. Tripping unit (electromagnetic)
use-Long mechanical life cannot be expected from switching devices having higher contact load 6. Tripping unit (thermal)
s---+<..-.c 7. Handle or operating mechanism
(Table 15-C-3, Al). However, devices such as contactors having lower contact load are designed for 8----t-,,,L!..:,:~
very lage switching frequencies and mechanical operating life W1, E1), / 8. Undervoltage trip
~10
9. Latching system
For achieving long mechanical life, the design of contactors has been perfected over the years
through continuous design and development efforts. Following principles are used : • -____ J 10. Enclosure
- Small, low weight components. Fig. . . (a) Schematic diagram ofLV Switching Device. (Single phase representation)
15 13
Components are made of optimum size with reduced weights and removal of unnecessary extra/ ~ Fig. 15 _13 (b) shows the configur~tion of a simple air-break circuit-breaker incorporating the
material. This ensures reduced dynamic stresses. Earlier designs had oversize -component~. above components and also the followmg :
- Form Locking of components. - Fixed contact - - Moving contact
Use of form-locking design, i.e. the structural forms of neighbouring components are such that - Arc extinction device - Support frame. .
the assembly is easily made by mutual supporting and guiding position with minimum screws, The ptinciple of air-break circuit breaker and arc extension by elongat10n of arc has been
springs, clips, pins etc. The components should remain in desired position during 'open' and 'Close' described in Chapter 5.1.
switch position by their mutual shape.
4
Pressure contacts. Long mechanical life and long contact life-requires reduced mechanical 1. Main switching device 2. Fixed contact
2
4. Connection (terminal)
contact wear. Pressure contacts are preferred in which contact wear due to wiping action is I 3. Moving contact
5. Tripping unit (electromagnetic) 6. Tripping unit (thermal)
avoided. 6 8. Under voltage trip
7. Handle or operating mechanism
Maintenance-free bearings 7
9. Latching system 10. Enclosure
12. Arc Quenching device.
:J3earings get worn out quickly during mechanical operations due to heat developed with 4 11. Support frame
mechanical loading and wear of sliding components during operations. Bearings are 'weak spots'
in the switching device. Be11I'i_ngs are not accessible for maintenance during service Hfe. They_cannot Fig. 15.13. (b) Configuration ofLV Air-break Switch.
be easily replaced. - /
15.34. MAIN.(JIRCUIT COMPONENTS ASSOCIATED WITH CONTACTOR STARTERS
Wear of bearing components depends ~n (1) temperature during continuous mechanical opera-
tion due to mechanical loading (2) Coefficient of friction of sliding surfaces and effect of lubrication OFLV
(3) Characteristics of materials (4) Commulative travel of sliding surface (km) and material lost by Direct-on-line started Induction Motors, The components include,:
abrasion (rubbing actions) mg/km. _ Contactor - Thermal relay
- HRC fuse · . h d t ·1
Ahrasion between steel shaft and brass housing is reported to be 150 times that between cor- Fig. 31.2 (a), (b) and 31.4 in Chapter 31 protection of Induction Motor gives t e e ai s.
responding steel shaft and plastic housing.
266 267
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION LOW-VOLTAGE CONTROLGEARAND SWITCHGEA..B.
15.35. PROTECTION ASPECTS (B) For the Opening Action (Breaking operation). The following definitions are applicable (Fig.
The protection of LV loads is provided by 15.15).
- Thermal relays and overload tripping devices 1. Tripping time. It is the time from the occurrenc~ of the condition ':hie~ cause tripping
until the holding system is removed or the restormg force of the switch 1s released. The
- Under-voltage tripping devices
times of additional relay devices, whether dependent on or independent of the current,
- HRC Fuses for short-circuit protection are included in the tripping time.
- Circuit_breakers with current limiting feature for short circuit protection, stalling
protection. 2. Inherent operating time. It is the time from
when its holding device is released until the com-
Chapter 31 gives details about motor-protection. MIN. DURATION OF ARC DURATION
mencement of opening of the contacts of the last TRIP SIGNAL
current path to open.
15.36. CONTACT TRAVEL CHARACTERISTICS OF LV SWITCHING DEVICE DURING 3. Opening delay. It is the time from the occurrance ~ 1----+--+--v.
OPERATING AND CLOSING OPERATIONS, SWITCHING TIME DEFINITIONS, of the condition which causes tripping until the irl
commencement of opening of the contacts of the it~
T~e switching device performs opening and closing last current path to open. It is the sum of the trip- ti 1----.L----1------1--__,,__,___- + - -
operations. The contact travel characteristic is plotted •
ping time and the inherent operating time. isi}': TRIPPING
TIME
with Time on X axis (in milli-seconds) and contact travel
on y axis in mm. MIN.DURATIONOF 4. Arc Development time. It is the time from the '-' DELAY UNTIL
CONTACTS OPEN
COMMAND SIGNAL commencement of opening until the maximum of ,____ _ _ TOTAL BREAK TIME - - - - - ;
~
The important time-steps in the contact trav~l char-
acteristics for LV switching devices as defined in VDE
0660 are as follows :
I
~
i--->-~
the restricted short-circuit current.
5. Arc Duration. It is the time from the commence-
Fig. 15.15. Time-travel characteristic
during opening ofLV switch contacts.
ti t---"'---'--.£_--l---l----1- ment of the contacts in the first pole to open until (Definitions as per VDE 0660)
Definitions of remote controlled LV Switching i'." the end of the current flow in all poles.
Devices in main current path. 8 OPE:TING I -PLOs~NG TIM
DGLAY -l !-
CLOSING TIME 6. Total breaking time. It is the time from the occurrance of the condition which causes
(A) For the Closing Action (making operation) the CLOSING D E L A ~ tripping until the end of the current flow in all poles.
following definitions are applicable (Fig. 15.14 i--~--- TOTAL CLOSING TIME-----i
(a)). (C) The Minimum Duration of the command pulse
Fig. 15.14. (a) Time travel characteristic during
It is the shortest time for a closing or opening pulse which is necessary for the complete or
1. Delay before movement. It is the time from closing of LV switch contacts. (Definitions as
per VDE 0660) opening of the switch. The minimum duration of the command pulse may include any intentional
the commencement of the commune! pulse to time delays.
the commencement of the movement of the contacts.
(D) The transfer time of a change over switch which operates with "break before
2. Closing time. It is the time from the commencement of the command until the contacts make".
of the first pole to close first make contact.
It is the time from the opening of the one contact position until contact is first made at the
3. Del:1y before closure. It is the time from the commencement of the command pulse other.
until the contacts of the
first pole to close first make OPEN (E) The overlap time of a change over switch, which works with "Make before break".
contact. It is equal to the It is the time from the find closure (closure after completion of bouncing) of the one contact
sum of the delay before position :until the opening of the other.
movement and the closing
time.
15.37. CONNECTION AND CROSS SECTIONAL AREA OF CABLES
4. Duration of bounce, It is
the time from the first The external circuit is connected to the switching device by means ofleads (cables/conductors).
make until the final con- The part which provides the connection is called the "Connection". The connections carry the circuit
ms current. The type of connection and size of connection used depends upon nominal value current.
tact in a switching opera- Duration of
tion (Fig. 15.14 (b)). Bounce --+---+--....i Types of Connections
5. Total closing time. It is .___ _ _ TIME - + - - - - + - 1
The current carrying paths include the connections. The get heated due to I 2Rt losses. Connec-
the time from the commen- SECOND r-lNAL tion resistance should be low. They should not become loose due to mechanical vibrations. Types
FIRST BOUNCE CLOSING
cement of the command CLOSING of connections include
THIRD
pulse until all contact & BOUNCE BOUNCE
Screw connections are used with curved spring washers, flat plate and nut etc. Spring washers
members have finally Fig, 15.14. (b) Time-travel characteristic of contact bounce during
closed. ensure constant high pressure connection and securing the position of screw.
closing ofLV switch/contactor.
Flat connections are used for higher current ratings.
Plug connections are without screw. The male part is inserted into female part. The grip is
provided by the spring action of the female part.
Soldered connections are used for smaller wires upto 2.5 mm 2 cross section. Table 15-C-3 gives
data about applications.
LOW-VOLTAGE CONTROLGEARAND SWITCHGEAR
Material
Table 15-C-4 List of Contact Materials
Main Properties Remarks

269
l
Table 15-C-3. Application of types of Connections 1. Main Contacts
Type of connections Silver High electrical conductivity. Silver plated.
Application wire size Silver
Screw with spring washer Copper
1 x2.5 mm2
Screw with Frame Terminal Palladium alloy Corrosion resistance Sintered
2x5mm 2 Palladium
Flat connection Gold alloy
Flats of high current
Plug connection Arcing contacts \
Tu!!gsten-copper High arc resistance Sintered
Soldered connection
Upto 2.5 mm 2 Tungsten
Tungsten-silver
15.38. CONTACT CONFIGURATION AND DESIGN ASPECTS

15.40. CONTACT SPEED DURING OPENING OPERATION .
The requirement of Contacts depends upon
The speed of contact for opening stroke determines the time of arcing and conta'ct erossion. For
- requi~ed frequency of operation, i.e. number of switching operations per hour and rated con- higher breaking current, higher contact speed is used. In LV switches the contact speed is in the
tact life.
range of 0.25 mis and 0.5 mis. Contact travel is a f~w mm. I1;1 MV switches contact spE:_ed is in t~e
- required normal current rating
range of 1 mis and 4 rn/s. In HV switches the contact speed 1s 2 m/s to 6 mis and contact travel 1s
- required rated electrical between 100 cm and 175 cm.
performance charac-
teristics Fig. 15.17 (a) and (b) indicate the effect of opening speed and closing speed on contact erosion.
SILVER
- rated utilization category
PLATING '
!
100 20
The contacts are in pairs, with I COPPER CONTACTS
are fixed contact and other moving
TIP ~ T I P
t(J)
I
I
WITH MAGNETIC
(J)
contact. ~STEM zZ I BLOW-OUTS zZ
STEM oQ I oQ 15
~~
- I- I
Main contacts are designed for COPPER
STEM C 8~ I
achieving low contact resistance, b o:::w I o:::w
Wa_
I SWITCHING w a. ~100mm/sec
3 o 50 I- 0
long contact life. I-
Oo I CURRENl
Oo 10
~g I 250A <,: 0
I I- 0
Contact pressure is important. z~ z~
Orn I I Orn
t
=w
Contacts for LV switches are o E I I OE
I I 5 \
generally designed without contact I I
~
grip. C
i=9
i
Fig. 15.16. (a to{) illustrates d 0
1 1
various configuration of contacts ¾ 2 0 200 400 600 800
e 3
for LV air break switches, and LV OPENING SPEED - - RATE OF CURRENT RIS~-->-
Fig. 15.16. (a to{) Contact configurations in LV switches.
air/break contactors. Switch with magnetic blow-out. Copper Fig. 15.17. (b) Effect of closing speeds on contact
contacts, switching voltage 110 V d.c. erosion for silver contacts.
Requirements of Contact in LV Switching Devices Fig. 15.17. (a) Effects of Opening speed on
contact erosion for air-break.
~or LV circuit-breakers, the same principles mentioned above are applicable. Distinction is es-
sential between. · · 15.41. AUXILIARY SWITCHES
- Ma~n contacts havi~g lo:-V contact resistance, high electrical conductivity. Fig. 15.18 (a) shows schematic diagram of an auxiliary switch, connected with isolator
- Arcmg contacts havmg high arcing resistance, high temperature withstand and low burning. mechanism. Fig. 15.18 (b) indicates the sequence of switching operations. An auxiFary switch has ,
The low contac~ resistance material does not have the high arc-resistance properties. Hence several pairs of contacts. The types of contacts include the following. \
' \
sep_arate sets ofmam c?ntacts and arcing contacts in case ofLV circuit-breakers. Alternatively the - Normally-closed contacts - Normally open contacts \
mam contacts are provided with arcing tips.
- Changeover contacts - Fleeting contacts \ . '
15.39. CONTACT MATERIALS Normally-closed contacts. These are closed when the main switch is open and open wheJ\
the main switch closes. ·
. Ta?le 15 ~ives a list of contact materials used for main contacts and arcing contacts in LV Normally open contacts. These are open when the main switch i.s open and close when the
J3witchmg devices. ·
main switch closes.
270 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION LOW-VOLTAGE CONTROLGEARAND SWITCHGEAR 271
MAIN CONTACTS
hree -pole over current release. During abnormal conditions,
tand · openmg
the corresponding release is actuated
· of t h e mam
· swi·t ch.mg d evice.
·
N.C. CONTACTS 0
the switch mechanism is unlatched thereby causmg
0
Ref. Fig. 31.2, 31.4.
--
N.O. CONTACTS S
s
In case of MV switchgear, various protective relays are conne?t.ed to the second~ry_ of ~T and
C.O. CONTACT W
w VT These relays operate in response to respective abnormal condit10ns and close tnp circmt. Ref.
FLEETING Fi~. 27.3. Overcurrent release, undervoltage release etc. are not ~rovided ~n main ci~cuit as in LV
CONTACTWi Wi switchgear. Fig. 15.13 (a) and Fig. 15.13 (b) show components, with a typical LV switch.
N.C. AND N.O.
CONTACTS WITH
OVERLAP
15.43. DEGREE OF PROTECTION, IP CODE
LEADING N.0.
CONTACT LV and MV switchgear are installed indoor and need protection against ingress of dust, water,
DELAYEDN.C ternal bodies. The operators should be protected from accidential contact with line parts or
CONTACT :oving parts. These aspects must be considered while designing the LV switchgear and MV
ON OFF
Fig. 15.18. (a) Schematic diagram of an Auxiliary Fig. 15.18. (b) Contact positions of the auxiliary
switchgear. The enclosures should have adequate provisions of'Protection'. The following ~rotection
Switch for an Isolator. switch during operation. are covered in the IEC 144, DIN 40050 etc. Specify various grades of Degree of Protection by IP
code numbers. (P = Protection).
Changeover Contacts. These have two separate fixed contacts for each position. They have
one moving contact which closes with either fixed contact depending on the main switch position. Standard degrees of protection by enclosures are applicable to ~espec~ive electric~! machi~es
(IEC 34.5), LV switchgear and controlgear (IEC 144) etc. They specify design and testmg reqmre-
Fleeting contacts. These are closed briefly during the transition of the switching device from ments with respect to :
one position to the other.
1. Protection against accidential contact of persons with live parts or moving parts inside
Auxiliary switch operates with operating device, with the help of auxiliary switch, auxiliary enclosures and protections of internal parts against ingress of external solid part~ such as
circuits such as command, actuation, alarm and measurement circuits, ar~ closed and opened in dust, solid wires, objects. These two functional requirements are usually combmed ma com-
conjunction with the main circuit switchgear.
mon numeral of the IP code.
Auxiliary switches are of great importance, especially in extensive control and interlock systems 2. Protection of internal parts covered by the enclosure against ingress of external water and
and must therefore function reliably. Special attention must be given to the reliable making of con- liquids falling on the enclosure at various pressures.
tacts because auxiliary circuits often operate at low voltages and high currents.
The IP code is usually defined in the standard in four digi\s e.g.
15.42. TRIPPING DEVICE AND RELAYS Code letters IP :'lre common. They indicates reference to the degree of protecti~n.
First characteristic numeral disigrates degrees of protection provided by enclosure against
Tripping devices are components of switches which release them mechanically. Relays are con-
contact by persons as well as against ingress of foreign bodies.
trol devices which electrically control other devices. Tripping devices are relays are operated by
changing physical, predominantly electrical quantities. Second characteristic numeral designates degree of protection provided by enclosure
against harmful ingress of water of liquids.
These are measuring and non-measuring tripping devices. Table 15-C-8 gives list of tripping
devices and relays. The LV switchgear enclosures are designed for achievin~ specific de~ree of protection and _are
Table 15-C-5, Tripping Devices and Relays
tested in special laboratories as per test procedures for particularly specified degree of protec~10n.
The tests are simple and consist of showering talcum powder dust or water at spay of specified
Function Abnormal condition causing operation intensity for specified time. After the test the amount of ingress of dust/water into the enclosure
Overload release is measured. It should be within specified limits.
Over current above set value
Under current release Ref. Sec. 15.21 for standard numerals as per IEC 144.
Under current below set value
Reverse current release Current direction reversed 15.44. MEDIUM VOLTAGE VACUUM CONTACTORS FOR 3.6 TO 12 kV
Under voltage release, no-volt release Voltage value below set value Courtesy: Siemens, West Germany.
Fault current release Fault current above set value Application
Fault voltage release Fault voltage above set value The vacuum contactors are particularly suitable for controlling AC loads with a high switching
Over current in common conductor rate and unlimited on time.
Current in the common conductor above set value.
They are used for the following functions :
Fig, 15.13 (b) shows single line diagram of LV switch with (1) Electromagnetic over-current - Switching of three-phase motors in AC 3 duty
trip with auxiliary switch (2) Electrical of Electronic timed (3) Undervoltage or shunt trip (4) Switch
latching mechanism. - Inching in AC4 duty switching off of three-phase motors during run-up
- Switching of transformers
Fig, 15 shows schematic circuit diagram of a three phase LV Motor Control Switch in Corporat-
ing (1) Open-Circuit trip (2) Undervoltage trip (3) Auxiliary switch unit (4) Connector block (5) - Switching of capacitors
I
- Switching or resistive loads (e.g. electric furnace)
High voltage vacuum contactors are designed to meet IEC - 470, DE 066, BS 775-2, AS 1864
etc.
Construction and function (Ref. Fig. 15.19)
The vacuum contactor consists of a low-voltage section, a high-voltage section and an integral
rocker as a dynamic link between the solenoid operating mechanism and the vacuum interrupters.
The LV·section contains the solenoid mechanism, at,xiliary switch blocks, centrally arranged
terminal blocks, mechanical closing latch, and a mechanical lock-out ...
1
The main RV parts are the moulded plastic housing with the three vacuum interrupters and
the power terminals. The contactors are fitted with vacuum interrupters for the required par-
ticular voltage (3.6/7.2/12 kV). When the contactor closes the operating stroke of the solenoid is
HVDC Circuit-Breaker and Metallic Return
transmitted by the integral rocker to the moving contact of the vacuum interrupter. The contact
gap is closed by the atmospheric pressure and an additional spring. When the solenoid circuit is
Transfer Breaker (MRTB)
interrupted the two restoring springs establish the contact gap by acting on the integral rocker. Introduction to HVDC Systems - Why no need of HVDC Circuit Breaker in main power poles ? -
The contactor has a life expectancy of upto 2 x 106 operation cycle. Bipolar 2-Terminal HVDC System - Three Terminal Parallel Tapping - Multi-terminal (MTDC) -
Back to Back HVDC Coupling Station (BBCS) - Metallic Return Transfer Breaker (MRTB) in Earth
Return Path.
HVDC Arc Interruption by Artificial Current Zero-Energy Considerations in Breaking of Direct
Current in HVDC Circuit Breakers - HVDC Circuit Breaker Principle - Commutation Principle -
Control of du I dt - Triggerred Vacuum Gap - HVDC Switching Devices in use - Metallic Return
Transfer Breaker in 2TDC - Switching Arrangement in 3T Parallel tapping HVDC - Type of
Breakers in Main DC Circuit : Type A, Type Bl, Type B2 - Time considerations. HVDC Circuit
Breaker for Parallel Tap-Conclusions.
16.1. INTRODUCTION TO HVDC SWITCHING SYSTEM

- HVDC Transmission Systems have become commercially successful in India and m~ny
other nations after around 1980. High Voltage Direct Current Transmission (HVDC) is
\ an alternative to 3 Phase, 50 Hz, AC transmission in following applications :
- Bipolar Long Distance High Power Transmission from Super Thermal Power Plants/Super
Hydro Plants to Mega-load centers. Typical Ratings of s,.,uch HVDC Links ; single circuit 2
Pole ± 500 kV DC or ± 600 kV DC, 1500 MW, 2000 MW, 6000 MW, 750 km to 2000 km
long, without any compensating substation in between. For example : Rihand Delhi HVDC
Fig. 15.19. Cross Section of Vacuum Contactor. Side View Link : 820 km, ± 500 kV DC, 1500 MW. Chandrapur Padghe HVDC Link of same rating.
Courtesy: Siemens, West Germany.
- System Interconnections (100 MW, 500 MW, 1000 MW, 2000 MW).
- Frequency conversion (50 Hz/60 Hz)
- Back to Back HVDC Coupling Station between two neighbouring AC Grids. National Grids
with several such interconnections.
- Submarine Cable Transmission through oceans and lakes for feeding power to islands or
for interconnection between two Grids separated by long ocean/channel.
- Multi-terminal interconnections between several AC Networks by Long High Power HVDC
Transmission Bus.
Table 16.1. Particular Applications of HVDC Transmission Systems
Type Principal Criteria of Choice
1. Long 2-Terminal Bipolar High Power HVDC - Economy in capital cost,
Systems e.g. Rihand Delhi, India 1991 ; - Better power control, accurate, fast control of
Chandrapur-Padghe (1997) power flow (30 MW/min) through particular
line, this is not possible with AC Line in a
Network.
--;- Lower transmission losses as no reactive power
' flow.
- Energy Conservation
- Higher Stability Limit
274
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION HVDC CIRCUIT-BREAKER & METALLIC RETURN TRANSFER BREAKER
Type
275
2. Principal Criteria of Choice Devices are rated for normal current breaking with low arc energy, (i.v.t.-joules). They are not true
Back~to-Back HVDC Coupling Stations between
two mdependently controlled AC Net k Technically Superior HVDC Circuit Breakers which would break HVDC Short-circuit currents or full load DC Currents
V. dh h l B wor s e.g
m ac a ack-to-Back (WR/NR) 1989 ·. - Better Stability of AC Networks at both ends. at rated DC Voltage of poles. Such HVDC current interruption involves high energy arc switching
Chandrapur Back-to-Back (WR/SR) 1998 ' (i.v.t-joules) which is difficult due to absence of natural current zeros.
- Excell~nt Interconnection which provide
operational flexibility of power reversai8 Artificial Current Zero Arc Interruption Principle
accur~te fast power and frequency control'
dampmg of power swings etc. ' Why is an HVDC Breaker different from an High Voltage AC Breaker? Why is the low voltage
- Large scale blackouts in Interconnected AC DC Breaker different from an High Voltage DC Breaker*?
Networks are prevented.
3. Lo~¥ High Power Submarine Cable-Links (e AC breaker easily interrupts the arc at natural current zero in the AC wave. At current zero, the
BrK1hsh Channel HVDC Link between France afci No continuous charging currents. Hence M eoergy (1/2 Li 2 ) to be intenupted is also zero. The contact gap has to cool and recover the dielectric
U , 1983) upper limit of power and length of cable.
4.
strength to withstand natural TRV. With DC Breaker, the problem is more complex as the DC waveform
Multi-Terminal HVDC interconnection System does not have natural cunent zeros. Forced arc interruption would produce high transient recovery volt-
between three or more independently controlled Accurate, Fast, control of power exchange
AC Networks between 3 or more AC Networks age and restrikes without arc interruption and ultimate destruction of the breaker contacts.
(e.g. N~w England-Hydro Quebek Canada-USA - No total Black-outs. The artificial current zero principle must be employed in HVDC switching devices for interrup-
5-Termmal HVDC System) ' - Higher Stability Limit tion of DC arcs. The artificial current zeros are produced in the LC oscillatory circuit in the loop
- Lower losses of circuit-breaker while opening the contacts. The arc is extinguished by the circuit breaker. A ZnO
Energy Conservation arrester in parallel limits the Transient Recovery Voltage and absorbs associated energy. The limit
Modern Power Systems have a few HVDC . is imposed by the energy (i.v.t-joules) associated with the interruption. DC Current has no natural
links and a large 3 phase AC Network of tr mt_er~onnectio~s a~d ~ few_long 2TDC transmission current zeros like in AC Current.
transfer power in DC form from one AC t a~;m1ss10n and d1stnbut10n hnes. These HVDC Linlrn
and distri~mtion, and utilisation, 3 Pha: 5~0-irz 1~nother. For rest o~the generation, transmission During circuit breaking, the current through the capacitor and parallel reactor produces oscil-
operates simply and automatically i'n h . system shall contmue. The 3-Phase AC system lations and several artificiaLcurrent zeros are obtained in the current. The breaker interrupts the
· 1
are s!mp sync Trromsm
e, easy, of loVl'.,er cost, AC Power fi .
Design ' exp ans10_n,
· opera t·1011 etc. of AC Systems arc during one of the current zeros. The subsystem for producing artificial current zeros requires
locat10ns conveniently. ans armers and AC Switchgear can be used in several large energy storage capacitor bank, trigger gap, ZnO arresters, reactors etc. The HVDC Breaker
More than 60 HVDC Transmission S t h Pole has ZnO arresters in parallel with the main break for absorbing switching overvoltages. Ar-
4 HVDC Systems in India. Several new srheems ave bden instal!ed in the world (1995) including tificial Current Zero Principle is employed in all the present medium voltage and high voltage DC
has matured and has been accepted as me~ are un er planmng/execution, HVDC Technology switching devices. In these devices, the Arc is interrupted at artificially produced current zero and
The protection and switchgear .
a:
merits. HVDC is a solution to intercon:::::r~~~ pa~t Mo~ern .~ower Systems due to its several.
er ys em tab1hty Problems.
thus involves low arc energy dissipation. The Breaker Pole itself is airblast type or Minimum-oil
type. The presently used DC switching devices are of lesser current rating and with medium DC
3 Phase AC Systems Whereas in ;{~~1reme1,1ts. of HVDC Systems is quite different than that of
Voltage. They are not true high power HVDC Breakers which would interrupt full rated DC Cur-
Breakers are essenti~l at every switch _rans~1s:10n Systems the protective relays and AC Circuit
not need any Circuit Breakers. mg porn and :or every transmission line. HVDC Poles do rent/Short-circuit Current of HVDC Poles. During 1970s, research and development efforts were
focussed on development ofHVDC Circuit Breakers and HVDC Systems. These development have
In HVDC Systems, Protection and Cont 1fi . . been technically successful but are not used in practice due to high cost and complexity of HVDC
tor Control. There are no HVDC Circuit-Bre~~eruncti~ns are mtegra~ed with the Thyristor Conver-
from abnormal currents and voltages etc Th . st Fo1 norm1;1l operational control and for protection Breaker Systems.
fa~lts beyond the capability of the thyrister r:~s or ~antral is ~mp!oyed. In the event of single-pole The Original Objectives of HVDC Breaker Development
tnpped after reducing power flow and the fatilt troi' ~h~ AC c1rcmt breakers of the faulty pole are
The development of HVDC Circuit Breakers was undertaken by CIGRE Working Group on
to be in service for such single pole fault
All the present HVDC Systems are
Breakers are provided on AC Side of C
:it! ..
y po e is ISolated. The healthy HVDC pole continues
;ou~HVDC Circuit !3reaker in the DC Poles. Circuit

HVDC Breaker during early 1970s. The converter control by thyristors was not yet fully developed
then. HVDC Breaker development was with the following three basic presumptions :
The control of DC current DC v ltonver edr ransformers. [Fig. 16.1 (a) to (e)]. Presumption 1. HVDC Circuit Breakers would be essential for protection during abnormal
0
ver t er-transformers and simultaneous
' age
th an . t DC Power flow is · ac h ieve
· d by Tap-changing of con- conditions and also for normal switching operations and lack ofHVDC Circuit-Breaker Technology
functions. Therefore, there is no need of a~n~~~nt~ol ~f converte~· valv~s take care of protective would be a bottle-neck in the use of HVDC Systems in Network. This presumption was based on
breakers are provided they will not b y d C1rcmt Breaker m Mam DC Poles. Even if such the AC Breaker and Protection Principles and proved to be wrong for HVDC Systems by early
flow would be advers~ly affected. e operate 'as the Converter Controls and continuity of power 1980s. The HVDC Converters with thyristor control do not need of HVDC Circuit Breaker. The
However, the HVDC Switching Devices in fi f . . thyristor control itself regulates the DC current. Breakers on AC Side of Converter Transformers
are necessary in the earth return path. orm o Metallic Return Transfer Breaker (MRTB) are enough. Fig. 16.1 (a toe) show the practical schematics.
,,.- t m present 2-Terminal HVDC s t fi ·
re urn currents during change over from th t ys ems or mterrupting earth
ing Arrangement are also used in HVDC ear 11 r~ urn.to pole r~turn (Metallic Return). DC Switch-
. para e tappmg for current reversal. These DC Switching * Refer Sec. 5.9 and Sec. 4.7.1 for Low Voltage DC Arc Interruption achieved by J1igh resistance arc
interruption methods. Arc is lengthened, cooled, split, to dissipate energy as heat. These methods are·
* The notion that HVDC will replace 3-phase AC .
is for a few particular applications listed above I~~~~g. 3-Phase.AC Network will continue for ever. HVDC applicable only to Low Voltage DC Circuits Breakers. This method is not suitable for Medium DC Voltage
has no independent stay. . • . · · SyS tems are between 2 or more AC Systems. HVDC (3.3 kV and above) switching devices due to high arc energy dissipation required. Artificial Current Zero
Method is applicable.
277 HVDC CIRCUIT-BREAKER & METALLIC RETURN TRA.~SFER BREAKER
Presumption 2, HVDC Circuit-Breakers would be essential in Multi-Terminal HVDC Sys-
The HVDC Line has two pole conductors, Pole 1 and Pole 2. One pole is positive with reference;.
tems. This presumption also proved to be wrong during late 1980s. The 5-Terminal New-England, to the earth and the other is negative. The neutral points of the 12-pulse-thyristor coverter bridge .
Hydro Queback MTDC System with HVDC Converters has thyristor control of valves and no HVDC is earthed via the earth return transmission line and earth-electrodes. There is no HVDC Breaker
Circuit-Breakers. Fig. 16.l(e) shows a practical schematic. in the system. 'rhe MRTB Metallic Return Transfer Breaker is provided between the neutral point
Presumption 3. Development of High Power FiVDC Circuit-Breaker may be technically im- of the rectifier and the earth.
possible as flow of DC energy cannot be interrupted instantaneously. This presumption was also One of the terminals acts in Rectifier mode and the other terminal in Inverter Mode.
proved wrong by 1985 as truly High Power High Voltage HVDC Circuit Breaker has been developed The converter at sending end terminal (e.g. Rihand) is operated in Rectification Mode
successfully by a group of companies under a CIGRE HVDC Breaker Development.Project. (AC ➔ DC) by appropriate firing angle of thyristor-valves. The receiving end converter (e.g. Delhi)
is operated in Inverter Mode (DC ➔ AC) by appropriate firing angle of thyristor valves. The power
Though HVDC Breakers could have been used after 1985, they have never been used in prac- is fed again into AC Grid at receiving end (Delhi). Thus the HVDC Link transfers power from one
tical HVDC Systems due to following reasons. AC Network (1) to the other AC Network (2).
- HVDC Circuit Breakers are not necessary as the control and protection functions are per- Smoothing Reactor in DC Poles reduces the current ripple from DC waveform. Smoothing Reac-
formed by thyristor control of converters. The short-circuit currents in HVDC System are tor has high inductance (e.g. 0.4 H) and carries DC Current. Therefore stored energy (1/2 LI2 ) is
controlled quickly and automatically by converter control and the switching is carried out high and pole current interruption is difficult and not resorted to.
by AC circuit breakers. DC Filters eliminate DC Harmonics from DC waveform and thus minimise telephone inter-
- If HVDC Breaker is used, each HVDC Circuit Breakers would need another Back-up ference in neighbouring areas. DC Filter Capacitors also provide reactive powe:f compensation to
Breaker. HVDC Poles would need two HVDC Breakers at each switching point (one for main AC System for regulating AC Bus Voltage and for converter operation. Earth return currents in
and other for back-up) and in addition to the thyristor control for protection and automatic bipolar operation are usually small (< 3%) of rated DC current). Earthing of converter neutral is
by an earth electrode about 15 km away from the terminal. The earth electrode line is installed
controls. Such a system would be prohibitively costly and complex.
between the neutral and the Earth Electrode. The earth return current can be interrupted by a
- The breaking of full load DC currents (2 kA to 5 kA) at High Voltage (± 500 kV DC) and specially designed MRTB. Full details of HVDC System are described in Chapter 47. Chapter 16
with large energy in inductance (0.5 L/2), is a complex, costly process and unreliable. It recovers details about the HVDC Circuit Breakers.
quires a very costly and complex HVDC Switching System. Such a system is practically un- During normal operation as well as during abnormal operation the DC current, DC voltage
economical. With such a HVDC Circuit Breaker the already costly HVDC Schemes would and power flow are controlled by controlling phase angle of thyristor firing of Rectifiers and in-
be economically unacceptable as against alternative EHV AC Systems. verters and by tap-changer control simultaneously, continuousi'y and automatically. Tap changer
_The high cost a~d complexity of HVDC System with HVDC Circuit-breaker is not acceptable as control is slower (10 seconds) and thyristor control is faster (few tens of milliseconds).
against the alternative EHV AC System of proven simplicity and reliability. During a temporary fault on DC Line, the following operating modes are tried :
HVDC Systems without any HVDC Circuit Breaker in Main Poles - In the faulty pole, Converter at Rectifier Terminal is put to inverter mode, and voltage is
. T?days HVDC Sy~tems [Fig. 16.l(a)-(e)] are without HVDC Circuit Breakers in main pole. AC reduced. This results in "starvation" of line fault current and fault dies out within a few
C1rcmt Breakers are mstalled on AC side of converter transformers. Current in DC Poles is con- tens of milliseconds.
trolled by thyristor valves quichly and accurately without need of DC Circuit-Breakers. In the event - Meanwhile the other healthy pole conducts more power without any interruption.
of a fault o_n DC side or in converte~ transformers, the DC current is blocked quickly by several - After a few tens of milliseconds, the converter of the faulted pole is put back to rectifier
control actions from both the termmals and the AC Circuit breakers are the rectifier end and mode and the service restoration is attempted. Voltage is increased and normal Bipolar
opened. Even ifHVDC Circuit Breaker were present, the converter control and AC Circuit-breakers Mode is restored.
would be and essential for operational control and protection. - If the line fault is permanent or if converter/valve is faulty, the converter control reduces
Meta~lic Return ~ransfe~ Breakers (MRTB) is installed in the neutral to earth return path in the voltage and power, then the AC Circuit Breakers of that pole are tripped for protection.
one termmal-substation. This MRTB DC breaker is rated for switching earth return currents at - If the fault in one of the station poles is permanent, the HVDC System is automatically
medium voltage DC. transferred from the usual Bipolar mode to Monopolar Mode and the DC power flow is made
continuous without interruption. This Monopolar Mode is either to begin with, ofMonopolar
16.2. SCHEMATIC OF A 2-TERMINAL, BIPOLAR LONG DISTANCE HVDC TRANS- with Earth Return (MPER). But for long duration Monopolar Operation, Monopular with
MISSION SYSTEM Metallic Return is preferred. This is explained below.
-The monopolar operation can have two operating modes
S~ch Systems 1:re used for Long Distance High Power Transmission due to economic line con-
struct10n, red~ce~ Im~ losses, easy rapid and accurate power flow control through a particular high 1. Monopolar with Earth Return. Full pole current flows through one pole conductor and return
p~wer tr.ansmission lmk (e.g. from Rihand (UP) to Delhi, ± 500 kV DC, 1500 MW, 820 km long earth. The earth electrodes get rapidly consumed during the Monopolar earth return mode. The
B1pole Lmk, 1991). earth currents cause damage to substation earthing systems and gas/water pipelines if allowed to
. The principle of operation of a typical 2-Terminal bipolar point-to-point HVDC System is ex- flow for long time .
p~amed by means o~ the schema~ic Fi~. 19.1.(a) The two AC Networks are connected by an HVDC 2. Monopolar with Metallic Return. Full pole current flows through one pole conductor and
Lmk. The HVDC Lmk has two identical converter substations one at each end Each converter returns through other pole conductor (Metallic Return). The Monopolar Operation with Metallic
substation has the following : ' ·
Return can be made continuous as there are no problems of earth electrode consumption and
- AC Circuit Breakers - AC Harmomic Filter Banks problems of galvanic corrosion of metallic pipes and earthing mesh due to' heavy ground current.
- Converter Tri:i.nsformers - DC Harmonic Filter Banks The transfer from Monopolar Earth Return Mode to Monopolar Metallic Return Mode (and vice
- Converter Valves - DC Smoothing Reactors. versa) is accomplished by the .MR'rB.
278 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION HVDC CIRCUIT-BREAKER & METALLIC RETURN TRANSFER BREAKER
.,...:__.AC -HVDC AC
SR PO LE-1 SR
DCF DCF
V
M RTB
ER SA - Switching Ar~angement [shown in Fig. 16.1 (d)]
3i_ -=- EE
M, N - Points of connection for SA
1, 3 - Terminal of 2-T HVDC System
\.,_ ~
/.(
2 - Additional Parallel Tapping at MN
V P2
DCF P 1 - Pole-1, P 2 - Pole-2
DCF
MRTB - Metallic Return Transfer Breaker
SR POLE-2 SR CB - AC Circuit Breaker
V - Valve, T--· Converter-Transformer
Fig. 16.1. Schematic of a 2-Terminal Bipolar HVDC System
(a)
indicating Circuit Breakers on AC Side.
(There are no HVDC Breakers in Main DC Poles) N
AC-1 AC System 1 V Thyristor-Converter Valves
AC-2 AC System 2 MRTB Metallic Return Transfer Breaker
ACCB AC Circuit Breakers 'r Converter-Transformer with OLTC
SR DC Smoothing Reactors ER Earth Return Line EE Earth Electrode
ACF-CC - AC Harmonic Filters and Compensating Capacitors
Pole 1 Path with say, positive DC Polarity with respect to earth
Pole 2 Path with negative DC Polarity with respect to earth
DCFDC Harmonic Filters
The MRTB is an HVDC Switching Device based on Artificial Current Zero. MRTBs are used
in todays commercial HVDC Systems. But the HVDC Systems do not need/have any HVDC Breaker
in the pole circuit. ·
Full details of HVDC System are described in Chapter 47. This chapter covers details about Fig. 16.1. (c) Additional Parallel Tapping with 2-Terminal HVDC System.
the HVDC Circuit Breakers.
In India the neighbouring Regional Grids will be ultimately interconnected by small back-to-
16.3. BACK-TO-BACK HVDC SYSTEM back HCDC Coupling stations rated about 500 MW each. Vindhyachal Back-to-Back (1989) couples
Western Region with Northern Region. Chandrapur back-to-back (1998) couples Western Region
The interconnection between two independently controlled adjacent AC Networks is either by
conventional AC Transmission Line (Interconnecting AC Line) or by an HVDC Back to Back Cou- with Southern. Three more HVDC Coupling Stations are in initial planning/execution stage (1998).
pling Station (e.g. Vindhyachal Back-to-Back 1989) or an HVDC submarine Cable Link (England- HVDC Coupling Stations enable rapid, accurate power exchange in either directions between
France 1970s). the two AC Networks, improved stability of both AC Networks, better frequency control. Fig. 16. l(b)
"' SR -=- illustrates the essential parts in a Back to Back HVDC Coupling Station.
1 The principle of operation of a typical HVDC Coupling System is explained in Ch. 4 7.
Pl M
RE
Ide -=-
-Ac----Dc-----.,..._-
Fig. 16.1. (b) Back-to-Back Coupling System;
Interconnecting Substation between two adjucent AC Networks
S. A.
(There are no HVDC Breakers in Main Poles)
AC-1 AC System 1 V Converter Valves
AC-2 AC System 2 RE Reference Earthing
ACCB AC Circuit Breakers T Converter-Transformers with OLTC
ACF-CC - AC Harmonic Filters and Compensating Capacitors
P2 N
SR - Smoothing Reactors
Pole 1 Path with say, positive DC Polarity with respect to earth Fig. 16.1. (d) Switching Arrangement (SA) of Fig. 16.1 (c).
Pole 2 Path with negative DC Polarity with respect to earth P 1 - Pole-1 P2 - Pole-2
Vi, V 2 - Thyristor Converter bridge with several thyristors in series per arm
280 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION HVDC CIRCUIT-BREAKER & METALLIC RETURN TRANSFER BREAKER
H:>.4. MULTI-TERMINAL HVDC SYSTEMS (MTDC) Metallick Return Transfer Breakers (MRTB) are provided in earth return circuits in Rectifier
An MTDC System interconnects three or more independently controlled AC Networks [Fig. 16.1 Terminals for the switching from Monopolar Earth Return Mode to Monopohr Metallic return Mode
(e)-1, 2, 3, 4]. HVDC Systems are the solution to black-outs in Large Interconnected Power Systems. as described in Sec. 16.2.
The surplus AC Network (e.g. 1 and 2) can supply power into the HVDC Pole Lines via the 16,5, SCHEMATIC OF DC SWITCHING SYSTEM AND WAVEFORM OF IDC WITH
converters operated in Rectifier Mode (AC~ DC). The deficit AC Networks (e.g. 3 and 4) can draw
power from the HVDC Pole Lines via the converters operated in Inverter Mode (DC ~ AC). The
ARTIFICIAL CURRENT ZEROS
overall system st~bility is improved, the transmission losses are reduced, energy is conserved, large In Fig. 16.2 (a) the Main Break (MB) represents a Circuit-Breaker Pole which is capable of
~cale black outs m the total AC System are prevented. Such blackouts do occur in AC Networks breaking the arc at artificial current zero. Single pole MOCB/Air-Blast CB have been used success-
mterconnected by AC Transmission lines during cascade tripping of interconnecting lines. The first fully. The DCSwitching System has an additional LC-Circuit in parallel A. Triggered Vacuum Gap
~TDC System in the world is the New England- Hydro Quebek 5 Terminal HVDC System (1996) (TVG) is in this parallel path. The ZnO Arrester is in parallel for transient overvoltage absorption.
m U_SA and Canada. The MTDC System does not need HVDC Circuit Breakers as each terminal Refer Fig. 16.2 (b ). The DC current Ide starts rising from the instant of fault (t1) on the DC side of
has its Converter Controls for controlling DC voltage, power and current. The Circuit Breakers are the DC pole. The fault is sensed by the protection and control circuits. The tripping command is
provided on AC Side. given to the MB and trigger command is given to the TVG.
Ide
,_,...ARC !de
Ide 12
MB
CD TVG
12 /L-n-J C
t1 4
L
Fig. 16.2. (a) Schematic of DC CB Fig. 16.2. (b) Current Waveform

Ide ~ DC current through the pole and circuit breaker MB
MB - Main Breaker with interrupter
TVG-Triggered Vacuum Gap
ZnO - Zink Oxide Arrester (Ref. Sec. 18.5B)
Pi - HVDC Transmission. line Bus Pole 1
w
I
....J
J
....J P2 - HVDC Transmission line Bus pole 2
L, C - Inductor and Capacitor in parallel with MB
t 1 - Fault occurs on DC pole conductor, current Ide starting rising
0 0
a. V = Valves
0.. t 2 - MB opens and arc is initiated in MB contacts, TVG sparks over
~ V) AC 3 w ACCB = AC Circuit Breaker
z z LC is brought into the circuit in parallel with MB
....J
I
::i
I
ER =Earth Return Line Tim'e tis in milliseconds, (t 1) to (4) is about 100 ms.
a: a: T =Converter Transformer
I- I- As the Main Break opens (at t 1), the DC arc is initiated between the contacts. Ide flows through
u
a u MRTB - Metallic Return Transfer Breaker
the arc in the MB. As the TVG sparks over, the parallel LC path comes into circuit and the Ide
ci
oscillates producing artificial current zeros (1, 2, 3, 4 ... ). The MB interrupts the arc at one of these
G) artificial current zeros. The transient recovery voltage (TRV) across the Main Break tries to produce
a restrike between open contacts of MB. The ZnO Arrester limits the transient recovery voltage
across the MB and parallel path. The ZnO Arrester absorbs the energy in the bypassed current
associated with the TRV. The Ide is finally interrupted at one of the artificial current zeros.
Pl P2 16.6. CONCLUSION
From the experience of present HVDC Systems, the true HVDC Circuit Breaker is not neces-
sary in HVDC Poles of2TDC, MTDC, Back-to-Back HVDC Systems. All the control and protection
(0 functions are performed effectively by the converter controls without the need of HVDC Breakers
V V in pole circuit. HVDC Circuit-Breakers/Switching Systems, though available are ofno practical use
as they are complex, costly and umeliable for practical use in the Main DC Poles. However Metallic
Fig. 16.1. (e) MTDC System with 4-Terminals. Return Transfers Breakers. HVDC Switching Arrangement based on Artificial Current Zero Prin-
(AC-1, AC-2, AC-3, AC-4 : AC Networks) ciple of arc quenching are used in present 2-TDC and 3-TDC Systems. The details about HVDC
Switching Systems are covered in following sections.
HVDC CIRCUIT-BREAKER & METALLIC RETURN TRANSFER BREAKER
16. 7. ENERGY CONSIDERATION IN BREAKING DIRECT CURRENT IN HVDC CIRCUIT- Energy Equation . . s stem let V == D.C. voltage at sending end,
. 16 5 representing HVDC transmission y ' o
BREAKERS Re fier F 1g. • . , d't'
Vo is a function of i, t during transient sw1tchmg con 1 ion.
(Refer Secs. 3.2 and 4.5 for fundamentals of energy in L, C and difference between A.C. and
D.C. arc interruption). . MAIN LINE SIDE _
SOURCE SIDE :+-Vcs-: CIRCUIT INDUCTANCE
Forms of Current Zeros INDUCTANCE
/BREAKER/ .............. .
In a.c. circuit-breaking, the current is interrupted at current zero of the alternating current ""- ---ei---t-<'
wave [Fig. 16.3 (a)]. As the contacts separate, the arc is initiated. The arc has a tendency to dis-· + ~ L, 1,_:!:_..
11 - L,, T," .,..---s
appear around current zero. The arc is quenched at current zero by removing the ionised medium
from contact space by flow of quenching medium. The contact space filled with fresh dielectric
medium has then to withstand the Transient Recovery Voltage. The arc provides a resilient tran- HVDC
C
" TRIGERRED
VACUUM GAP
sition between the current carrying state and the voltage withstanding state. The post ·zero con-
ductivity of_ contact space assists in dampening the TRV.
SOURCE
I
PRE-CHARGED PARALLEL
I TRIGGERED AFTER .... '. ....
CONTACT SEPERATION :
OF C.B. :
CAP/\C 1T
____
o_R_ _~1N_D_u_c_T_A_Nc_E_ _ _ _--() ............ ..
n------
~
't h' System
Fig. 16.5. Schematic of HVDC S w1 c mg . . .
. t Tent I flows through line induction L and resistance
~~/ Before switching off, the steady hd1r~c./u{ d final conditions are as follows :
R and the d.c. circuit-breaker CB. T e m1 ia an
Fig. 16.3 (a). Current zeros in A.C. waveform. Fig. 16.3 (b). Forced current zero in AC wave t==O, i==l
(current chopped at instant F).
t == ta i == 0 · · b
. 't' 1 lue I to final value in time ta. The voltage equation can e
Current decreases from mi .ia va
1-
T F
Fig. 16.3 (c). Abrupt forced current zero in D.C.
1-
Fig. 16.3 (d), Artificial current zeros in DC by inserting

written as-
L di + iR + V CB == Vo
dt
... (16.1)
di == Voltage drop across line inductor L .. , Volts

LC parallel circuit across the circuit-breaker contact where L dt
separation.
iR == Voltage drop across resistance R ... , Volts
While breaking direct current, the natural current zero is not available. Hence the problem in VcB == Voltage across a circuit-breaker CB ... , Volts
D.C. circuit-break.er is to bring down the. current from full value to zero, smoothly without chopping Vo= Sending end voltage, Volts . .
it abruptly. The abrupt current zero can be achieved by a high pressure blast on the arc zone. Such
an abrupt forcing of current zero (current chopping) would result in excessive overvoltages [Fig. The energy (W) can be derived from simple relation given by
16.4]. Hence, the switching system should bring
down the direct current to zero artificially W = J;a iV. dt ... joule~
I
without chopping it [Fig. 16.3 (d)]. D.C. circuit-
breaker should be capable of breaking all the ~ . . t'
Multiplymg equa 1011
(16 1) by idt and integrating with respect to time,
. t ta J ta J
values of currents from ra.ted normal currents
to highest short-circuit currents without exces- -ilY- ta Voidt::::La Lidi+ o i2Rdt+ o VcB•idt
... (16.2)
sive overvoltages.
This discussion can be visualised by com- rearranging the terms and simplifying
paring the flow of current with flow of water in
a pipe-line (Fig. 16.4). If valve is suddenly p
J
~a V CB . idt = L/2 -
ta
½ L Jta
Vo . idt + o i2 Rdt
.. .(16.3)
closed, the flow of water is stopped and the pres- Total Joule Losses
Total Magnetic Inpu t
n + Converted
sure rises suddenly. The level of water in the Switching == Energy in - E nergy fro 1
surge tank thereby increases. Likewise, by in- Netw ork into heat of arc
terruption of current I by current chopping the Fig. 16.4. Analogy between water flow and current flow. E ·gy I n d uct ance Th t t 1
ne1 . the switching duty is a question of energy. e oa
energy in system inductance gets converted to, From equation (16.3) it can be seen that t aies The task of the switching system
. . . . t h ed by the three componen enerb. . .
capacitive charge, increasing voltage across system capacitance. If current is interrupted at zero sw1tchmg energy ge_ s s_ ar d' . vithout abrupt change in magnetic energy.
value, the rise in voltage would be minimum. is to achieve the sw1tchmg con ition ' l th ·ent in inductance cannot be changed
. l t .3 er fundamenta s, e cun . d . t
As discussed m c mp e1 ' as ~ . l . capacitance cannot be change ms an-
instantaneously (in zero time). Snmlarly tie energy is
284 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION 285 HVDC CIRCUIT-BREAKER & METALLIC RETURN TRANSFER BREAKER
taneously. If the current in inductance is forcibly chopped to zero in zero time, the energy in in- The parallel LP-C circuit is switched immediately after opening of the contacts of Main Circuit-
ductance has no way to dissipate except to get converted into energy in capacitance in form of breaker CB. This switching is achieved by closing of a switch S or by triggering a vacuum gap or
2
charge, i.e. if½ L/ in equation (16.3) is made zero instantaneously so as to interrupt the current, a thyristor in place of switch S.
2
the component ½L/ gets converted into ½CV2 the resulting overvoltage will stress the insulation' When switch Sis closed, the capacitor C discharges through the circuit-breaker causing current
i opposite to current 11. Current i is oscillatory, the frequency of oscillations depend upon value of
and cause flashovers. To avoid this, the current I should vary with relatively low di/ dt. In general ·
Lp and C.
the value of time ta varies between 10 to 30 milliseconds. The total switching energy can be in~
c~ea_sed quickly bey?nd the ~agnetic energy so as to quench the arc. The switching energy can be The oscillations of i are superimposed on the main current I 1, thereby producing several artifi-
dissipated by chargmg capacitors (energy storage) or through resistors (energy dissipation). cial current zeros in the main current 11 . These current-zeros are created during the arcing state
R:ec~ntly developed (198~'s) Metal Oxide Resistors (ZnO) have superior voltage/current char- in the main circuit-breaker (Fig. 16.6).
acteristic and energy absorpt10n capability. Such resistors are used in HVDC switching-system. The current 11 is interrupted by the main circuit-breaker at a suitable current zero (Fig. 16.6).
In practical d.c. systems, the value of d.c. current is of the order of a few kilo amperes and the
The rate of rise ofTRV depend upon the dl 1/dt at current zero. The dl1ldt is reduced by proper
value of voltage_ across the circuit-bre_aker would be of the order of 10 to 200 kV. The switching
power would be m the range of a few kilo-watts to a few megawatts depending upon the inductance selection of C and LP. The rate of TRV is also reduced by connecting ZnO arrester, and capacitors
of the line and smoothing reactors. across the interrupters of the main circuit-breaker.
The final current zero in the main circuit-breaker (CB) does not stop the current. The current
16.8. HVDC SWITCHING SYSTEM is now commuted to the parallel circuit. However, the capacitor C offers an open circuit to steady
In a.c. circuit-breakers, the arc is extinguished at natural current zero of the wave. Thus the direct current and the direct current in the main path dies down on its own. The principle ofHVDC
energy in system inductance at current zero is practically zero and current interruption is relatively circuit-breaker described above is called Commutation Principle as the current is commuted from
easy. main circuit to parallel path for achieving artificial zeros.
In ~.c. Swit~hin_g s~stem, a LC resonant circuit is introduced in parallel, just after contact
~eparat10n ~fn~am circmt-breaker. Thereby oscillations are produced in the main current resulting 16.9. CONTROL OF dl/dt and dvldt
m a few artificial current zeros. The main circuit-breaker catches one of the current zeros so as to Interruption of direct current is not simply a problem of creating artificial current zero. The
quench the arc and break the direct current. circuit-breaker should be capable of withstanding the TRV. For comparison with A.C. circuit-
16.8.1. Commutation Principle of HVDC Circuit-breaker breaker, the rate of change of current in an a.c. circuit-breaker for breaking 40kA is of the order
The principle of a HVDC switching system is illustrated in Fig. 16.6. of 20 A/µ sec. Whereas the rate of change of current in a d.c. circuit-breaker for interrupting 5000
A would be around 1000 A/µ sec.
!he Mai': Circuit-~reaker (CB) may be, MOCB or ABCB. The circuit-breaker should be capable
ofwithstandmg very high rate ofrise of transient recovery voltage. It should also be able to dissipate To reduce dl I dt and dV I dt the following steps are taken in HVDC circuit-breaking system :
the arc energy. It should be capable of opening consistently with precis.e opening time. - Additional saturable reactor (LsAT) is connected in series with the Main Circuit-breaker to
Ls and LL represent the circuit inductance on either sides of the circuit-breaker. reduce dl I dt prior to current zero.
C and LP represent properly selected values of inductance and capacitance. - A combination R-C 1 is connected in parallel across the interrupter to reduce the dVI dt after
zero.
The capacitor C is pre-charged by a separate charging circuit (for obtaining current i in the
loop). ..· Resistance R is connected across load side through S. Each circuit-breaker has a limitation
... _...'-.._PROSPECTIVE CURRENT of withstanding the TRV stresses depending upon the properties of extinguishing medium
WITHOUT COMMUTATION
and the flow pattern within the interrupter (Refer Ch. 4). Hence besides commutating cir-
;6J1: : :::11L NORMAL i
CURRENT:
--
:
:
ACTUAL CURRENT cuit, there should be provision in the switching system to reduce dl/dt before final current
...---IN ARC DUE TO COMMUTATION zero and dVI dt. For reducing the severity of stresses on the circuit-breaker, switching stress
~: A : :
::, : CURRENT ZERO factor F should be low. The interrupters which can withstand higher factor F are more
O; suitable for HVDC main circuit-breaker.
~~lJRs :.· -~.--t_im_e_ __) §~~'~JA-: ND CURRENT ZERO
UENCHED
F = di
dt
X dV
dt ...
(16 4)
.
trn: TIOI~
CONTACT OF
MAIN CB
: ARC
: -::Dc-:U-=:-RA--:-:T=1o=N,-,--f-+I
: F = Switching stress factor (watt/sec2)
>"'
w:
: SEPARATORS : .
where dl/dt = rate of change of current (A/sec)
~: dVldt = rate of change TRV after final current zero, (V/sec).
I::; : VTG S TRIGGERS : ARC
~ : CURRENT COMMUTES; NOLTAGE Since the current in the inductance cannot change instantaneously, the saturable reactor reduces
-~~~B:-;--;:~:::::-::::::-:::::7""""-.j.:,,;_l'::::::====~J_____ dl/dt, since the voltage across the capacitance cannot change instantaneously, the capacitance
TIME (MILUSECONDS)-
CONTACT / reduces the dV/dt.
ARC QUENCHED
SEPARATE
Fig. 16.6. Waveform of current zero achieved by commutation principle.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION 287 HVDC CIRCUIT-BREAKER & METALLIC RETURN TRANSFER BREAKER
286
16.10. TRIGGERED VACUUM GAPS (TVG) Vacuum circuit-breakers have basic advantage of very high rate of dielectric recovery. However,
they have a limitation oflower voltage per interrupter. Hence they are not preferred for HVDC.CB.
Since the commutation process MAIN CIRCUIT
BREAKER SF6 CB are sensitive to initial TRV (ITRV) during first microsecond after current zero. Hence
should be established immediately
after contact separation, conventional
make switches are not convenient for
switch S. Triggered vacuum gaps are
preferred. These are vacuum gaps
+
Ls ~~c,i -,
I
they are not preferred for HVDC-CB.
16,14. SWITCHING DEVICES IN PRESENT BIPOLAR HVDC SUBSTATIONS
SOURCE
I C.D I The change over from Bipolar mode to Monopolar mode necessitates both convertor control and
with a third electrode (trigger). When L----· - ___ _,
I switching arrangements on DC side. HVDC yards have following DC switching devices.
a pulse is given to the trigger, the SIDE r--~~~----i I
1 __ 7 1
1. Medium voltage HVDC circuit breaker in neutral bus circuit to transfer earth return current
vacuum gap breaks down giving a
conducting path (Fig. 16.7).
I
I
ICsl
I
I C
+
Lp I
'-+---~ ~~ to metallic return current. Such a circuit breaker has high normal current rating (1000 A to 2000
16.11. SURGE SUPPRESSION

+ I
L_
=RI I -
S JSURGE L----~-;;~MUTATION
_ _J SUPPRESSOR CIRCUIT
I I
I
I
I
I
A) and medium DC voltage rating.
2. HVDC Isolator Switches. These are designed to open HVDC circuits after the current is
brought to zero by convertor control.
The current chopping by D.C. u--~--------------'-----J 3. Earth switches. For discharging dead circuits to earth for safety.
circuit-breaking (forced current Fig. 16. 7. Modification of basic circuit of dampen The DC voltage Ratings, Normal current Ratings, Breaking current rating and speed (time) of
zero prior to artificial current zero) dl/dt and dV!dt. the above are quite different. But present systems do not have any HVDC circuit breaker in main
can cause increase in voltage. To pole to break full short-circuit in DC poles at rated DC voltage. Present schemes have following
limit to such voltages, surge suppressor are necessary on both sides of the circuit-breaker. The surge arrangements in the event of a fault on HVDC side.
suppressor is a combination of suitable non-linear resistor in series with capacitor and a vacuum If a fault occurs on HVDC pole side, the convertor control acts rapidly and the fault current is
gap. Now ZnO Arresters are used in addition to the surge suppressors.
reduced rapidly by putting rectifier into invertor mode. The line is de-energized within about 120
ms.
16.12. COMPLETE CIRCUIT OF HVDC SWITCHING SYSTEM
After about 120 ms the re-energizing is attempted. If the fault is permanent, the complete faulty
Summarising, the complete HVDC circuit-breaking scheme comprises the following components pole is removed from service by blocking the convertor bridges and ·tripping AC circuit-breakers
(Fig. 16. 7) : feeding that pole.
- Main circuit-breaker (CB) with R 1 and c 1 in parallel with the interrupters for reducing
This principle is followed in present 2 TDC and MTDC systems. Hence present 2 TDC and
dVI dt after final current zero.
- Saturable Reactor (LsAT) in series with CB for reducing dl I dt before final current zero. MTDC systems do not need HVDC circuit-breaker of high interrupting ability. Present HVDC sys-
- Parallel series circuit containing triggered vacuum gap S, pre-charged capacitor C and reac-· tems use HVDC circuit breaker of low interrupting ability for transfer between earth return and
tor LP for producing artificial current zero after contact separation in· CB. metallic return.
Surge suppressor (SS) containing triggered vacuum gap in series with non-linear resistor, As the DC fault current is rapidly and automatically controlled by conuertor control, real need
capacitor and parallel ZnO Arrester. of HVDC circuit-breaker for interruption of HVDC fault currents is being questioned, debated and
doubted. Even the recent MTDC systems are without HVDC CB for fault current interruption and
16.13. MAIN CIRCUIT-BREAKER FOR HVDC SWITCHING depend on conuertor control for operation and protection.
The main circuit-breaker (CB in Fig. 16.7) has following functional requirements : In case the pole is to be tripped, the tripping is from AC side by tripping AC circuit breakers
- It should be able to open and close the normal currents and fault currents in conjunction on the AC network side of convertor transformers which feed the pole.
with the other components in the switching system. The bipolar HVDC system is divided into two poles for the purpose of protection and control.
- The short-circuit currents should be interrupted in minimum time. In the event of a permanent fault on one pole, almost half the rated bipolar power continues through
- Overvoltages should be minimum. the Monopolar operating Mode with either earth return or metallic return. The convertors of each
- High switching stress withstand capability. pole are provided with on-line microprocessor based controls.
The main circuit-breaker is subjected to much more severe temperature stresses than conven-
As the basic requirements of operation, control and protection are performed essentially by the
tional A.C. circuit-breakers because energy to be dissipated in the D.C. arc is much larger than
convertor control system and tripping can be performed for the faulty pole from AC side by AC
A.C. arc (Refer Eq. 16.3). In A.C. circuit-breakers, the energy dissipated in the arc (Refer Ch. 4) is
circuit-breakers associated with the faulty pole, the lack of HVDC circuit-breakers has not posed
low as the arcing time is only of the order 10 to 20 milliseconds and during the period the current
. any .limitation to 2TDC systems or MTDC systems.
varies sinusoidally. Arc resistance is also not increased deliberately. Whereas in main DC circuit-
breaker, part of the energy in inductance is dissipated in the arc.
16.15. TYPES OF HVDC CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
DC circuit-breaker should be able to withstand high switching stress factor F (Refer Eq. 16.4).
The following circuit-breakers have been successfully tried in HVDC experimental systems : The types of circuit-breakers are identified with reference to
- Air-blast circuit-breaker. - Minimum oil circuit-breaker. - switching time - current to be interrupted
- Minimum oil circuit-breaker with pumping feature or with pressurised chamber (Refer Sec. 8.4). - switching energy - voltage at which the current is interrupted
Minimum-oil circuit-breakers can withstand high rate of the TRV and initial TRV. Hence they ·- voltage (TRV) after current interruption.
are suitable for HVDC. However, they have inherent disadvantage that.the arcing time is depend- The current to be interrupted by HVDC circuit-breaker depends upon the (1) Switching time
ent on current (2) Action of convertor control (3) Short-circuit ratio ofHVDC system with respect to Ad Networks ..
288 flVDC CIRCUIT-BREAKER & METALLIC RETURN TRANSFER BREAKER 289
Two extreme cases of HVDC circuit-breaker applications are 16,16, HVDC Circuit-breaker Capabilities and Characteristics
1. ld~al ?igh capability HVDC circ~it-breaker associated with ideal protection system These include the following :
which 18 so _fast th~t ~he DC current 1s suppressed and interrupted immediately after oc- - Voltage capability - TRV capability
c~rrance of fault withm shortest possible time (app. 15 ms) before the current has time t - Current interruption capability - Energy absorption capability
0
rise to full value (30 to 40 ms.)
- Switching time.
2. Low capability HVDC circuit-breaker which is capable of interrupting lesser v;lue of DC
Each of these characteristics has a significant influence on the performance of the circuit-
fault current ~t lesser voltage at the time when the DC fault current and DC voltage ha
been de-energized. 8 breaker individually and simultaneously. These characteristics also influence the behaviours of the
HVDC system at the time of the breaker action. Therefore .the requirements of the characteristic
Practical HVDC Circuit-breakers (Proposed-1986) of the optimum. Circuit-breaker are determined by the system operating strategy with respect to
f ll
The Practical
d) proposed
. . HVDC . · 't· b rea k ers (for which
circui · prototypes have been success- energizing and de-energizing sequence during and after a fault.
u Y ttehstet have a capability to mterrupt DC currents at DC voltage; in between the two extreme
cases a In DC circuit-breaker the current is artificially brought to zero since DC current has
- the breaker is not interrupting the current immediately on occ~rrence of fault. no natural current zero. The current suppression generates a voltage transient. The prospective
peak value of voltage transient depends on the rate of suppression of current (dI I dt) and inductance
- The breaker comes into action before the convertor control brings down the fault current
and voltage to zero. L in the DC circuit.
Besides the current zeros, there is another major difference between AC and DC systems. In
HVJ53e prop~sed pract~cal H\'."DC circuit-breaker have certain specified capability to interrupt
curren sat c:rtam specified HVDC system voltage and Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV) HVDC system, current and voltage on DC side is routinely controlled by the convertor control. The
1~~~p~~oposed practical HVDC circuit breakers are classified into two categories called A-type and sanie controls can be used to assist the circuit-breaker in its interrupting process by reducing the
DC voltage and DC current when the breaker operates. In the limit it is possible to open the DC
Type-A Breaker is fast and does not depend on converter control action circuit-breaker at zero current and zero voltage, after an elapsed time of the order 120 ms (Type
1 B-2 Breaker).
rupt'f!rt:·!n!fa~:~e~;;:.~~ afd tt8pets.J1pdo1,1 convertor control to act befo~e the current inter-
It b'l' · is ur er lVI e mto Type Bl and B2. Type B-1 Breaker has full The required voltage and current capability of HVDC circuit-breaker is therefore associated
:im a;o1tc::eaa~t~~1 J!~s~=~~~ility. Type B-2 Breaker has limited capability with respect to sys- with the questions "whether the control is assisting the breaker or not?" and "to what degree are
the controls assisting the breaker". In.other words "what is the sequence of time events with reference
Table 16-1-B. Classification of Proposed Practical HVDC Circuit-breakers (1986) to occurrence of fault, action of controls to reduce fault current and pole voltage and operation of
Class of HVDC Breaker · Operating time HVDC breaker ?".
Characteristics
1. Type 'A' HVDC Circuit-breaker Therefore there are opposite demands on (1) complexity of controls and (2) complexity of HVDC
-High current and voltage breaker. The choice is made after making a compromise between them in economic and technical
capability and fast HVDC -Less than 15 ms considerably - Breaker capable of breaking
shorter than usual AC breaker. peak DC fault current at rated terms.
breaker. Breaker interrupts
fault current before current - Breaker reduces fault current voltage and rated TRV A closed HVDC circuit breaker is designed to carry maximum load current continuously and
peak. bef~r~ the current reaches - Breaker requires very high fault current for short-time. When a fault occurs on HVDC line or Tap-off, the DC current starts
- Breaker does not depend on positive peak energy absorption capability
- Breaker quenches arc before - The demand on convertor rising rather rapidly before the convertor control comes into action. The rate of rise ofHVDC fault
convertor control to reduce current (dI I dt) depends upon the value of prevailing system voltage and inductance (L) in the sys-
fault current. the control of thyristor control is reduced
convertors bring down the - Breaker very complex and tem. HVDC side has large inductance due to smoothing reactors and the series inductance ofHVDC
DC current and voltage. costly. . · line. The convertor control acts and reduces the current to 5 per cent of rated current and reduced
2. Type 'B-1" HVDC Circuit-breaker
DC voltage to low value (LVDC). Therefore of opening of HVDC breaker is delayed, relatively low
-
Breaker with reduceq. current - 60 to 90 ms current interruption is required (5 to 15% of Normal Load Current),
interruption capability and - Breaker is simpler than type
full voltage capability A breaker. Alternatively if the HVDC breaker operates fast enough (less than 15 ms) before the DC fault
- Breaker operates after the - Breaker depends on convertol' current reaches the prospective peak, the interruption rating can be modest. However for such a
current is brought down by control to reduce fault cunent. scheme, fast protective system (detecting time of only a few ms) and a fast circuit-breaker (less
convertor control - Breaker takes lesser time
than Type B-2. than 10 ms) must be used.
- Breakers has full voltage
capability and TRV capability - Compromise between complex
control and complex breakel'. 16.17. DEFINITIONS OF SWITCHING TIME FOR HVDC CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
3. Type 'B-2' HVDC Circuit-breaker
- Breaker with minimum - 90 to 120 ms Between the instant of occurrence of DC fault and final current interruption by HVDC circuit-
voltage capability, TRV - Breaker simpler and least breaker the switching time has following component times :
capability and current capability. costly.
- Breaker operates only after - Breaker least useful 1. Time to sense the abnormal condition (fault) and to send trip signal to circuit-breaker. This
DC current and voltage are - Controls are costly and is called relay time.
brought to low value by complex.
- Time required for restoration 2. Time to open circuit-breaker contacts. This is called opening time of CB.
convertor control.
of system after temporary line 3. Time to commute the current out of the arc and subsequently to reduce the current to zero.
faults is very long (150 ms).
290
abo/: :::: ~!;~~;~~::~r:; st

!~:~i to_ re ore the systei:n. on the healthy pole should be added to the
pole unless the isolators (disconn::;:~ :~::1:~~~pa~ih,ty'i~ll i,~w~~ cabnnot be restored on healthy
following time must be added. n an iso a e e rea1rnr. In such a case, the
4. Time for opening disconnector sw't •h Th h I h
!
can be restored after a total time given ~/ a~~itio: 1 ~: ;b~:~~ can be energized and full power 1
16.18. SHORT-CIRCUI'l' RATIO (SCR) OF HVDC SYS'fEM
Short-circuit ratio of HVDC syst
the connection point of HVDC
· d fi d h ·
t emt ish e me as t ? ratio _of fault MVA of the AC sys,tem at Electrical Substations,* Equipme1it
sys em o t e rated capacity of line.
SCR = · Fault MVA of AC system
and Bus .. bar Layouts
Rated MW Capacity of DC System Introduction - Connections - Bus-bar arrangement - Single bus-bar systems - Duplicate bus -
SCR indicates the strength of AC t t h · Ring bus - Sectionalizing - Generator connections - Classical system - Unit system ,- Direct
Sec. 20.14) sys em a t e pomt of connection of HVDC substation. (Ref.
generator switching - Multiple generator transformer units - Layout of switching yard - Bus-bar
Effective Short-circuit Ratio (ESCR) design- Summary.
It is defined as the ratio which in 1 d f It MVA · ·
ters. ESCR is now more common! cud es au mcludmg contribution of AC harmonic m~ 17.1. INTRODUCTION
strength of the connected AC syste~:s;C·RThed P{;~~m~nce of HVDC link is associated with the The electric power system can be divided into the following regions :
AC system. The AC systems are called stronag~ k tgive af'mlleasure of the strength of connected 1. Generating stations 2. Transmission systems 3. Receiving stations
• , wea e c. as o ows ·
AC system 4. Distribution systems 5. Load points.
SCR ESCR In all these regions need switchgear. Busbars are conducting bars to which a number of local
Weak system feeders are connected. Bus-bar operate at constant voltug·e. Busbars are insulated from earth and
<3 < 2.5
Strong system from each other. Besides the bus-bars there are other equipment in the electrical schemes such as
>6 >5 circuit-breakers, current transformers, potential transformers etc. These equipments can be in-
stalled according to various schemes depending upon requirements. The total plant consists of
16.19. Conclusions several equipment.
The Substations have following distinct circuits :
1.. HVDC circuit-breakers are classified into 1~ou r , ca t egones
. :
1
1. Main Circuits. Through which power flows from generators to transmission lines. The com-
(i) Low voltage Metallic Transfer Breaker ponents in series with the main circuit ofpower flow include: Bus bars, Power Transformers, Circuit
~~~) Type A Breaker which does not depend on control actions Breakers, Isolators, Current Transformer CT, Line Trap Units, Series Capacitors, Series Reactors,
1 Diode or Thyristor Rectifiers. The components in shunt circuits connected phase to ground include
~:~)) TyType : BBreakler which depends on control action but has high voltage capability Shunt Capacitors, Shunt Reactors, Static VAR Sources, Harmonic Filters, Voltage Transformers,
pe 2 rea rnr does depend on co t 1 t' dh . Surge Arresters.
2 HVDC B l i· - n ro ac ion an as no high voltage capability.
. rea rnrs are llkely to be used for a switching off parallel taps 1. Bus-bar and conductor systems are of following alternatives :
3. Though the HVDC C.B. have been develo d h . . . . - Tubelar or Solid Aluminium or Copper Conductors supported on Porcelain or epoxy in-
For Further Reading : pe ' t e1r use m HVDC systems is not envisaged. sulators.
1. Book : "EHV AC and HVDC Tran ·, · . .
- Isolated Phase Busducts
Ed. 1996). sm1ss10n Engmeermg and Practice" Khanna Publisher, Delhi (2nd - Flexible ACSR stranded conductors.
2. Ch. 47, Fig. 47.19, 20, 21, and sec 20.14. - Single core or Multicore Power cables through trenches.
2. Auxiliary Power Circuits through which power flows to Substation Auxiliaries. The supply
conductors are generally Power Cables.
QUESTIONS
1. With the help of sketches exp la• tl . . , . . 3. LV Control Circuits Measurement, Protection, Control, Monitoring, Communication Circuits.
breaking. ' ID ie pnnciple 01 Artificial Current Zero Circuit adopted in DC circuit SCADA and Computer/Microprocessors. The supply conductors are generally of Control Cables.
2. D~·aw a schematic of a two-pole two terminal HVD . . . . 4. Auxiliary Low Voltage AC and Low Voltage DC Supply Circuits. The conductors are generally
HVDC Circuit Breakers are not necessary. C System IDd1catmg mam components. Explain why of power cables or solid busbars.
3. Explain th<J configurations of a multi-terminal HVDC S , . ' . . Main Circuit and Equipment are described in Sec: 17.2 to 17.28.
,t Explain the function of Metan · R t Tr ystei_n without a HVDC Circmt Breaker.
System. Ic. e urn ansfer Breaker m a typical Bipolar Two Terminal HVDC * Refer following books by Khanna Publishers for more details :
5. Discuss why HVDC c·. •t B · - Electrical Substation Engineering and Practice, S. Rao
ncm reakers are not • necessary in HVDC Tr ansm1ss10n
. . System.
- Power Transformers and Special Transformers, S. Rao,
-- EHV AC and HVDC Transmission Engineering and Practice, S. Rao.
292
17.2. SUBSTATION EQUIPMENT A11..n-. SWITCHGEARANDPROTECT10N p,LECTRICAL SUBSTATIONS, EQUIPMENT AND BUSBAR LAYOUTS 293
.nJ.'l.u OUTDOOR YARD LAYOUT
Each bay has several equipment connected in certain well defined pattern as shown in Fig.
. An outdoor switch-yard in a substa- 17.1. Circuit breaker is connected between the busbar and each outgoing and incoming circuit.
tion has several three phase equipment, Isolator is provided on each side of circuit breaker. CTs are provided for measurement and protec-
BUS BAR ISOLATORl
t~ree phase busbars. Their relative loca- . tion. The protection zones should overlap and cover the circuit Breaker. Hence CTs may be neces-
tions and connections are illustrated b
-
s·~ngle ~ine Schematic diagrams,Y "'I T 1':,;1~
_J , ..."_P._.r._.w-,----.:!:.L!_ on
sary each .side of the Circuit Breaker. VTs are generally connected to busbars and incoming line
side. Surge Arresters, (Lightning Arresters) are connected phase to ground, at the incoming feeder
- Smgle lme layouts, r:LATOR C. T. OVERHEAD LINE as the first apparatus and also at the terminal of Transformer, terminal of Capacitor Bank, terminal
- Three phase layouts,
Th
. . e outdoor busbars are either
Rigid Aluminium Tubes supported on
Post Insulators or Flexible ACSR Con-
EARTHING,_
SWITCH
._..
1LIGHTENING
T ARRESTER
=
,l.
of Shunt Reactor, terminal of Generator, terminal of Large Motor for diverting Switching/lightning
surges to ground. Power transformers are connected between of two voltage levels (Fig. 17.23, Sec.
17.11).
Shunt reactors are used with EHV lines to regulate voltage low cluring loads.
ductors supported on Strain Insulators Fig 17 1 s· . .. Fig. 17.3 illustrates the covering of circuit-breaker by the protective zones.
Th~ bus bars are generally in tw; . . . -:;r
mgle Lme Schematic Diagram of one bay in Switchyard,
horizontal levels as shown in the 3-Phase La o . .
~1~f~ are_g~nerally by vertical flexible AciR
ummmm Alloy Conductors).
~!;n
F~g: 17.1 (b). The connections between the tw
umnuum Conductor Steel Reinforced) or AAA~
"""'f-----~----- T-__ __I_'":':,,'°"'
+--- - -- -------- ---- ---- __ J
1 , · PROTECTION
The relative locations of CB • 1 t FEEDER

"th· ,1soaorsandb b fill PROTECTION
:::s~oJ~!:~q;1;::;:;!::t1o;a::~;:~::::d pr;~:tt::: r:q~::!i:::.n;~:lr~::~~~~ga~:~:~:~:~ Fig. 17 .3. The location of CT's should be such that
+ 7
6 5
' pro ec
4 3
10~
l,;
and control requirements must be satisfi1ed
I '.
/r'2,j,
I
•
CB is covered by protective zones.
7 -----11
f'tt,
1
CONDUCTOR EARTHING
2 ~ 8 ~
CIRCUIT BREAKER OR
7 7 7
·LEVEL-2
3~-
ISOLATOR
=
SERIES REACTOR
4-~-
9. ---'[7---
LINE TRAP
1
ISOLATOR WITH
10. fl)
OR
EARHING SWITCH
5.~I••
?
CURRENT TRANSFORMER
7 GAPLESS GROUP
8 6 11.
ARRESTOR
s.~~ 111
8
8
s. Hlllllllll~ ...J1 1
•
SURGE ARRESTOR COUP LI NG CAPACITOR

6. - - a : , - o R ;16 & CAPACITOR VOLTAGE
7 r TRANSFORMER
1. Line PLAN 6.~0R~:=,12
4. Isolator Line Side
2
· Surge Arrester 3.CT
5 · Circuit-Breaker POWER TRANSFORMERS
I
7. Earthing Switch
10. Strain Insulator for 1 fi Bus bar Tubular Rigid
6 .Isolator CDisconnector) I
9.Post-Insulator Support SHUNT CAPACITOR SHUNT
12. Shielding conductor (ACSR) . Gantry (Beam)ll.Support Structure
REACTOR
Fig. 17. B Layout of a single bus Fig. 17.4. Symbols of3 Phase-Equipment.
294
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION ELECTRICAL SUBSTATIONS, EQUIPMENT AND BUSBAR LAYOUTS 295
Table 17.1-A. Substation Equipment and their Functions Table 17.1-B. Various Subsystems in Substations and their F'unctions
Equipment -
Function System Function
,...
2.
1. Bus-bar
Incoming and outgoing circuits connected to bus-bars. - ,,
1. Substation Earthing (Grounding) system
- Earth mat
To provide an earth mat for connecting neutral
points, equipment body, support structures to
Circuit-breake:i;s - Earthing spikes earth. For safety of personnel and for enabling
.Automatic switching during normal or abnormal conditions. - Earthing risers earth fault protection. To provide the path for
3. Isolators (Disconnectors) discharging the earth currents from Nimtrals,
Disconnection under no-load condition for safety, isolation and maintenance. Faults, Surge arresters, overheads shielding wires
4. Earthing Switch etc. with safe step-potential and touch potential.
To discharge the voltage on dead lines to earth.
5.
6.
Current Transformer
Voltage Transformer
To step-down currents for measurement, control, and protection. - 2. Overhead earth wire shielding or Lightning Masts. To protect the outdooi· substation equipment from
Illumination system (lighting)

lightning strokes.
To provide illumination for vigilance, operation
3.
To step-down currents for measurement, control and protection. - for switchyards and maintenance.
7. Lightning Arrester -- buildings
(Surge Arrester) To discharge lightning over voltages and switching over voltages to earth, - roads, etc.
8. 4. Protection System To provide alarm or automatic tripping of faulty

Shunt Reactor T o provi'de reactive power compensation during low loads. part from healthy part and also to minimize
- protection relay panels
in ERV substations - control cables. damage to faulty equipment and associated
9. - circuit-breakers system.
Series Reactors - CTs, VTs, etc.
To reduce the short-circuit current or starting currents.
10. Neutral-Grounding 5. Control cabling For protective circuits, control circuits, metering,
Resistor To limit the earth fault current. circuits, communication circuits is a underground
power cables.
11. Coupling capacitor
To provide connection between h. h It 1' 6. Power cables. 'l'o provide supply path to various auxiliary
current equipment. ig vo age me and power line carrier equipment and machines.
12. Line-trap 7. PLCC system power line carrier current system For communication, telemetry, tele-control, power
To ~t~requenc~ signals from entering other zones. - line trap line carrier protection etc.
13. Shunt capacitors - coupling capacitor
To 'd . - PLCC panels
provi e compensat10ns to reactive loads oflagging power factors.
14.
15.
Power Transformer
To step-up or step-down th
to another a c voltage at
· ·
t~:o lt
age ;nd transfer power from one a.c. voltage
same requency.
8. Fire fighting system.
- sensors, detection system
- water spray system
To sense the occurrence of fire by sensors and to
initiate water spray, to disconnect power supply to
affected region to pin-point location of fire by
Series Capacitors - fire protection control panels, alarm system indication in control room.
Compensation of series reactance oflong lines. - water tank and spray system
Mam Data of a Typ I 9. Cooling water system This system is required for cooling the valves in
ICa 4001230 kV Outdoor ACS u b st a t'10n - Coolers HVDC substation.
Operating voltage - water tank
400 kV 230 kV 10. DC Batteries sets and Battery chargers Auxiliary low voltage DC supply
Rated current
2000A 2000A 11. Auxiliary standby power system For supplying starting power, standby powe:v for
Maximum Short-circuit current in busbars - diesel-generator sets auxiliaries
40kV 40kV - switchgear
Minimum phase to phase clearance - distribution system
5.75m 2.5 m 12. Telephone, Telex system, Microwave system. For internal and external communication.
Minimum phase to phase clearance -
3.65m 2.0m
Number of horizontal levels of tubular bus bars/flexible bus bars 17.3. ISOLATOR AND EARTHING SWITCH
2 2
Height of tubular bus bars of first level above ground 17.3.1. Requirement and definitions
7m 6m Isolator (disconnecting switch) operates under no load condition. It does not have any specified
Height of tubular busbars of second level above ground
13 m
current breaking capacity or current making capacity. Isolator is not even used for breaking load
4m
Tubular Aluminium Busbar Al ASTM B241 currents.
4" IPS* 4" IPS Circuit-breaker can make and break electric circuit under normal current or short circuit con-
• IPS = International Pi
pe Standard ditions.
7
296
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION ELECTRICAL SUBSTATIONS, EQUIPMENT AND BUSBAR LAYOUTS 297
Isolators are used in addition to circuit-breakers, and are provided on each side of every · · These are outdoor air break disconnecting switches of the gang-operated horizontal break type
cuit-breaker to provide isolation and enable maintenance. cir. rating of 7 kV and above. These isolators are designed for all outdoor applications including
While opening a circuit, the circuit-breaker is opened first then isolator. While closing a cir 't • olation of circuit breakers, transformer banks and surge arresters and line sectionalizing.
the isolat?r is closed first, t~en ci_rcuit-breaker. Isolators ar; necessary on supply side of ciri~:t~ :orizontal upright mounted switches can be equipped with arcing horns for interrupting small cur-
breakers m or?er to ensure ISolahon (disconnection) of the circuit-breaker from live parts for the rents such as line charging or transformer-magnetizing currents.
purpose of mamtenance. Automatic switching of isolators is preferred. Gang-operated earthing switches can be mounted on one side of the break jaw end of the main
. I~olators used in power-sy~tems are generally 3-pole isolator. The 3-pole isolators have three switches.
identical pol.es. Each pole consists of two or three insulator posts mounted on a fabricated support. The grounding switches can be closed easily through a lever mechanism by use of the handle,
!he conductmg par~s ~re supported on the insulator posts. The conducting parts consist of conduct- but only when the main isolator is open, due to the provision of a mechanical interlock.
mg ~opper or al~mmmm rod, fixed and moving contacts. During the opening operation the con-
Horizontal Break Centre Rotating Double Break Isolator
duct~ng rods swmg ~par~ and isolation is obtained. The simultaneous operation of three poles is
obtamed by me~hamcal mt.erlocking of the three poles. Further, for all the three poles, there is a This type of construction, has three insulator stacks per pole. The two on each side are fixed
common operatmg mechanism. The operating mechanism is manual plus one of the following : and one at the centre is rotating type. The central insulator stack can swing about its vertical axis
(1) Electrical motor mechanism, (2) Pneumatic mechanism. through about 90°. The fixed contacts are provided on the top of each of the insulator stacks on the
side. The contact bar is fixed horizontally on the central insulator stack. In closed position, the
P_neu~atic mechanism was preferred in substations with Air-Blast Circuit Breakers. Now, with contact shaft connects the two fixed contacts. While opening, the central stack rotates through 90°,
SF6 circmt-Breakers, motor-mechanism is preferred. Further the isolator can be provided with ear- and the contact shaft swings horizontally giving a double break.
thi_ng s~itches where required. The earthing switch consists of conductor bar, When the earthing The isolators are mounted on a galvanised rolled steel frame. The three poles are interlocked
switch is to be closed, these bars swing and connect the contact on line unit of isolator to earth. by means of steel shaft. A common operating mechanism is provided for all the three poles. Fig.
, To prevent the mal-operation, the isolator is provided with the following interlockings : 17.5.2 shows one pole of a triple pole isolator in closed position.
1. Interlocking between three poles for simultaneous operation.
2. Interlocking with circuit-breakers.
Isolato: cannot _be opened unless the circuit-breaker is opened. Circuit breaker cannot be closed
unless the ISolator is closed.
Load Break Switches
. In addi~ion to is?lators and circuit-breakers, there is one more device called Load Interrupting
Switch, which combmes functions of the isolator and a switch. These are used for breaking load
current.
Earthing Switch
I
th far~hi~~ switch is connected ?etwee_n the line conductor and earth. Normally it is open. When
1. e i~~ is ~s~~n~~cte~, ~~e earthmg switch is closed so as to discharge the voltage trapped on the
me. o~g e me i~ 1Sconnected, there is some voltage on the line to which the capacitance
~~twee? ~ne and eart~ 1~ charged. This volt~ge is significant in high voltage system. Before starting
e mam enance wor t_ ese v~ltages are discharged to earth by closing the earthing switch. +I
Normally, the earthmg switches are mounted on the frame of isolator.
Sequence of Operation while Opening/Closing a Circuit
While opening: (1) Open Circuit-breaker
r-"""F;:j..,_---~-,,,--=F""iJ
(2) Open Isolator
(3) Close Earthing Switch (if any).
While closing: (1) Open Earthing Switch
(2) Close Isolator
_ (3) Close G.ircujt-breaker.
17.3:2. Types of Construction of isolators
- Vertical Break type (Figs. 17.3 and 17.5)
- Horizontal Break type, either centre-break or double-break
(Fig. 17.4)
ll~~it~i~o!
- Vertical Pantograph type (Fig. 17.6). '~ ~
The vertical p_antograph type design is preferred for rated voltages of 420 kV and above. The Fig, 17.q.1. Vertically Break 25 kV Isolator
other types of designs are used from 12 to 420 kV. (Courtesy: Hi-Yelm Indu•;tries Pvt. Ltd., India.)
298 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION ELECTRICAL SUBSTATIONS, EQUIPMENT AND BUSBAR LAYOUTS 299
CONNECTOR
PAf:J
0
Upper end
of pantograph
Suspended
contact Bar
Solid
Solid
rotary
insulator
Fig. 17.5.2. Vertical Break Isolator (not described here)

(The insulator stack on right side swings about its vertical axis, Operating
The contact pipe swings in vertical plane.) mechanism
17.3.3. Pantograph Isolator
Fig. 17.5.3 illustrates the construction of a typical pantograph isolator. While closing, the
linkages of Pantograph are brought nearer by rotating the insulator column. In closed position the
upper two arms of the pantograph close on the overhead station busbar giving a grip. The current
is carried by the upper busbar to the lower busbar through the conducting arms of the pantograph.
Fig. 17.5.3. Pantograph insulator for UHV sub-station.
While opening, the rotating insulator column is rotated about its axis. Thereby the pantograph
blades collapse in vertical plane· and vertical isolation is obtained between the line terminal and - Millivolt drop tests (Refer Sec. 10.2.4)
pantograph upper terminal. - Short Time Current test (Refer Sec. 11.6)
Pantograph isolators cover less floor area. Each pole can be located at a suitable point and the Type tests are conducted on one or first few isolators to confirm the design and rating. Following
three poles need not be in one line, can be located in a line at desired angle with the bus-axis. routine tests are conducted on Isolators. These are conducted on each Isolator manufactured by
the company before dispatch to site. .
17.3.4. Ratings of Isolators and Tests - Power Frequency Voltage Withstand Test
The definition regarding Normal Current Rating, Short time current rating, Rated voltage, - Mechanical Operation Tests
Rated Insulation level for isolators are similar to the corresponding ter:ms applicable to high voltage - Measurement of Resistance.
a.c. circuit-breakers (Refer Sec. 3.19). Isolators do not have breaking or making capacity.
The terms Type tests and Routjne tests defined in Chapter 10 are applicable to Isolators also. 17.4. BUS-BAR ARRANGEMENTS IN SWITCHYARDS
The following type tests are conducted on Isolators :
There are several ways in which the switching equipment can be connected in the electrical
- Temperature Rise tests (Refer Sec.10.12.2) layout of generating station, receiving station or a switchgear in a distribution system. The selection
- Power frequency voltage withstand tests (Refer Sec. 12.10) of the scheme is in general affected by following aspects :
- Impulse voltage withstand tests (Refer Sec. 12.8) 1. Degree of flexibility of operations desired.
- Mechanical Endurance tests (Refer sec. 10.2) 2. Importance ofload and local conditions. Freedom from total shut down and its period desired.
3. Economic consideration, availability and cost.
300 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION ELECTRICAL SUBSTATIONS, EQUIPMENT AND BUSBAR LAYOUTS 301
4. Technical considerations. (a) Single bus-bar arrangement. This simple arrangement consists of a single (three-phase)
5. Maintenance, safety of personnel bus-bar to which the various feeders are connected. In case of a fault or maintenance of a bus-bar
6. Simplicity. the entire bus-bar has to be de-energized and the total shutdown results.
7. Provision of extension. Hence this type of arrangement provides least flexibility and immunity from total shut-down.
8. Protective Zones. However, this scheme is the most economical and simple. It is used for switch-boards, small and
With these basic requirements there are several combinations, some of which are briefly medium sized sub-stations, small power stations.
described below. (b) Duplicate bus-bar arrangement. The duplicate bus-bar system provides additional
. For a small and medium sized station where shut-down can be permitted at times, simple flexibility, continuity of supply and permits periodic maintenance without total shut-down. In the
smg~e bus-bar system c8:n be favoured. For major plant such a large generating station or receiving event of fault on one bus the other can be used.
stat10n, bus-bar system 1s carefully designed and a costly system is always justified. Technical con- Fig. 17.8 (a) shows the duplicate bus-bar arrangement in a generating station. Each generator has
~ide:rations a::e more important than economic considerations. In major plants, shut down results only one circuit-breaker and between the circuit-breaker and each busbar there is one isolator. There
m d1sconnect10n of supply to a large area. Hence, to avoid shut-down, the major plants should have are two buses called main bus and reserve bus. The coupler can be closed so as to connect the two buses.
elaborate bus-bar system, with duplicate buses, sectionalization alternative supply arrangements While transferring the power to the reserve bus, the following steps may be taken :
etc. The technical considerations include function of each equipm~nt, its location, sequence of opera- 1. Close tie circuit-breaker, i.e. bus coupler. The two buses are now at same potential.
tion, relative loc~tion, interlocking, facility of periodic maintenance with alternative supply etc. 2. Close isolators on reserve bus.
Economy i~ most important. The extra-high voltage equipment such a isolator, circuit-breakers etc. 3. Open isolators on main bus.
are generally costly. Hence unnecessary equipment should not be provided.
The power is now transferred to the reserve bus and main bus is disconnected. In more impor-
l iNCOMING FEEDERS
tant stations, two circuit-breakers are used per generator, one for each bus.
GENERATOR
GENERATOR BREAKER
ISOLATOR
~ ~
BUS BAR
I
,/
, I BUS
I COUPLER
I I'
) ) OUT-GOING DISTRIBUTORS
Fig. 17.6. Single bus-bar system (single line diagram of three-phase system).
Fig. 17 .8 (a) Duplicate bus-bar systfm1 (Single line diagram of 3-phase System)
1 -
e For 400 kV Switchyards two Main Buses plus one transfer bus scheme is preferred. The transfer
bus is used for transferring power from Main Bus I to Main Bus II.
i
t
a
(c) Sectionalization of bus (Fig. 17.9). Sectionalizing the buses has added advantages. One
section can be completely shut down for maintenance and repairs while the other continues to supp-
~ ly. Secondly by adding a current limiting reactor between the sections, the fault MVA can be
r1!
e
~
:
reduced, thereby circuit-breaker of lesser capacity may be permitted.
(d) Ring bus [Fig. 17.S(b)] Ring bus provides greater flexibility. The supply can be taken from
any adjacent section. The effect of fault in one section is localised to that section alone. The other
i section continues to operate.
i--20m--+-j- -
(e) One-and a half breaker arrangement. One-and-a-half breaker arrangement needs three
--~~ circuit-breakers for two circuits. Any circuit-breaker can be switched-off for the purpose of main-
~~
tenance, without the provision of bypass. (Fig. 17.10)
4.41''221_
s
li
The number of circuit-breaker per circuits 1½, hence the name.
1. Capacitive Voltage Transformer 2. Line Trap 3. Current Transformer Refer Fig. 17.10 having two bus-bar sets I and II. In 1½ breaker arrangement, circujt I and
4. Isolators 5. Circuit-breaker 6. Post insulator circuit II can take supply either from bus-bar I or bus-bar II. Thus this arrangement gives high
.11(-Main buses; R-Reserve buses security against loss of supply. Such arrangeme~Us particularly suitable for the switchyarcls in
Fig. 17.J. Section through a feeder bay in a 220 kV Switchyard. large generating stations in which very higlipower is to be handled by individual circuits. (Say 500
302 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION ~1,EC'l'R!CAL SUBS'l'ATIONS, EQUIPMENT AND BUSBAR LAYOUTS 303
mesh formed by the buses. The circuits are tapped from the node points of the mesh. In the figure
shown, four circuit-breakers are utilized to control eight circuits. In the event of a fault on any
circuit, two circuit-breakers have to open, resulting in opening of the mesh.
17,4.1. Bus-bar System Recommended for Large Important sub-stations
- Duplicate bus-bar arrangement with additional transfer bus
- 1½ circuit-breaker arrangement
- Mesh arrangement
Single bus-bar system is not preferred.
Duplicate bus-bar system is suitable for highly interconnected power network in which
flexibility is important. It gives no security against bus,bar faults.
SUPPLY
Fig. 17.8 (b) Ring bus. 1! circuit-breaker arrangement is preferred in important large stations where power hand-
2
~J.J. .~~-
led per circuit is large.
Interconnected Mesh gives maximum security against bus-bar faults are requires minimum
outage against busbar faults. It uses fewer circuit-breakers than 1½ arrangement. It lacks switching
flexibility. It is preferred in sub-stations having large number of circuits.
J. J.
)
SECTION/ZING
CIRCUIT BREAKER \ SEC7:ION-B
17.4.2. Maintenance Zoning
The sub-station layout should be designed with due considerations to maintenance zoning, i.e.
grouping of various equipments such that they can be isolated and physically separated from neigh-
SECTION-A
bouring live parts for maintenance.
Fig. 17 .9. Sectionalization of bus.
In simple single bus-bar feeder circuit the following three maintenance zones are required :
MW) 1½ Breaker arrangement uses½ circuit-breaker per circuit. The higher cost is justified because
- circuit-breakers maintenance zone
of higher security and by passing facility obtained. - bus-bar zone including bus-bar isolator
The 1½ circuit-breaker arrangement has been used in important 400 kV, 750 kV sub-stations. - feeder zone including the feeder isolator and feeder-side equipment.
({) Mesh arrangment. Another method of economic use of circuit-breakers in a sub-station is
mesh-arrangement (Fig. 17 .11). In mesh arrangement, the circuit-breakers are installed in the
· In duplicate bus-bar arrangement there are usually seven zones : '
CIRCUIT-I
--r BUSBAR-1
)." tSOLATOR
- circuit-breaker zones
- two bus-bar-isolator zones
- two bus-bar zones
- a circuit-breaker, isolator zone and circuit-connection zone
- a feeder zone including feeder isolator, bypassing isolator.
9:urn, line side equipment.
·17.5. USE A LOAD BREAK SWITCHES

/. I
In distribution systems, voltage upto 33 kV are used. The fault levels may not be high enough
to justify the use of circuit-breakers economically.
9":· In such cases, the load break· switches are used in conjunction with H.R.C. fuses and circuit-
breakers. Load break switches are capable of making breaking currents under .normal conditions. They
)." I
can carry the specified current of specified values for specified time. They are capable of making but
not breaking, shoit circuit currents. Switch Isolators or Switch Dis-connectors combine the functions
Qc•
)." I
of switch and isolators. Load-break switches serve the following requirements :
- breaking rated currents.
- making rated currents.
--l-- BUS BAR-I/ - making specified S.C. currents.
CIRCUIT-I/ - carrying specified short-circuit currents.
Fig. 17.10. One-and-a-half Fig. 17 .11. Mesh Arrangement
circuit-breaker arrangement. (Only four circuit-breakers control -- interrupt small inductive, capacitive currents.
eight circuits.)
l""1
305
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECT! ECTRICAL SUBSTATIONS, EQUIPMENT AND BUSBAR LAYOUTS
304
17,6,2. Unit System of Generator Connections: (Scheme without Generator-Circuit-
Wh~le selecting t~e sche1?es with load break switches, circuit-breakers or H.R.C. fuses shoul
:e pro;?ed a t s ti:ategitc locatrn~s so as to interrupt fault currents, since load break switches canno reaker)
The standard ratings of generator-transformer units in Thermal and Nuclear Power Plants in
o so. 1g. 17 .12 111us rates typical uses of load break switches.
dia are : 200 MW, 236 MW (nuclear), 500 MW. Identical units are installed and are connected
parallel on HV side of main step-up transformer (generator transformer).- There is no circuit-
aker between the generator, generator-transformer and unit-auxiliary transformer. Each unit has
RING
... MAIN Ill L.B.S. LB S
.....__,____·_·_ · RING MAIN
""
e following, (Ref. Fig. 17.14).
CABLE Ill ►
CABLE cpFUSE 1. Main Generator
2. Main Unit transformer
FUSE 3. Unit auxiliary transformer
TEE-OFF-FEEDER 9c.B. 4. Busduct between 1-2-3
5. Auxiliary Bus
6 6. HVBus
(a) r 7. 'l'-off between 1, 2 and 3
8. Unit auxiliaries (motors etc.)
~
RING MAIN ~ L . B .
L.B.S. RI N_G..,.
S .,.____ ►MAIN
~ )I C.B.
.' B 9. Transmission lines
-D 10. Main C.B. Fig. 17 .1.
I CABLE CABLE
Fig. 17 .14. Unit system of generator connection.
Several identical units are connected to feed power to the EHV bus as shown in Fig. 17.19.
Each Unit has its own Boiler (Steam Generator). The various boiler auxiliaries, generator
auxiliaries together are called unit-auxiliaries. The auxiliaries of the generator units are supplied
l
ISOLATOR power at 11 kV, 6.6 kV, 3.3 kV, 400 V AC. The power for the auxiliaries supplied by the same
TEE-OFF-FEEDER generator via the unit-auxiliary transformer.
The Auxiliary Switchgear in the power plant is an indoor metal clad drawout-type switchgear
(b) (c) at 11 kV, 6.6 kV, 3.3 kV, 400 V AC.
Fig. 17.12. Use of LBS (Load Break Switches) The main switchgear on HV side of the Main Unit Transformer is either 132 kV, 220 kV or
supplemented by CB or HRC Fuses. 400 kV outdoor switchgear or a SF Gas Insulated Switchgear called GIS (Gas Insulated Substation).
17.6. SWITCHGEAR IN GENERATING STATIONS In the conventional unit generator connection system (Figs. 17.14, 17.15 and 17.19, we do not
need any circuit-brnaker between the generator and main step-up transformer. The connection is
The switchgear in generating stations can be classified as
direct by mean of Isolated Phase Busduct (Sec. 17 .8).
- main
. .switchgear ••
- aux1hary •
switchgear The unit is started by taking auxiliary power from the main HV bus and the generator is
of generator associated transformers and tra s' ~o ~ or1~' uist _ars CT s, PT s etc. m the main circuit
Mam switchgear comprise circuit-breakers i 1 t b b , , · brought to rated speed then rated voltage and then synchronized with the main HV Bus by closing
Auxil' 'tch . . n m1ss1on me. is generally ofEHV and outdoor type
1ary sw1 gear 1s generally mdoor type and cont 1 th · 'li · the main circuit breaker.
turbine, boiler and the station auxiliar· A . . ro s e varmus aUXI aries of the generator, Station Transformer
·t h · ies. ux1 1iary The common station auxiliaries like lighting, feed water pumps, air conditioning and cooling
sw1 c gear 1s at two or three voltage level such as 11 kV
6.6 kV, or 3.3 kV, 415 Volts. ' GENERATORS systems, battery-charging system, oil-filtration plants etc. are supplied power through the step-
'.]'~e ratinf:S and requirements of main switchgear and down station transformer (Fig. 17.15). The Starting power for unit auxiliaries is usually taken from
aux1hary switchgear are quite different U t ·t theHVBus via the station transformer. In some power plants, a quick staring gas turl:.>ine generator
capac1'tY of200 MW, the auxiliary switchgear. is generall
p O uni
is provided for starting power and peaking power.
at tw~ voltage levels such as 6.6 kV and 415 V. For unft
capacity of 500 MW. Three voltage levels are necessary 1. EHV bus
11 kV, 6.6 kV, 400 V. ' --t---~f-----+-- GENERATOR 2. Circuit breaker
BUS 3. Main transformer
17.6.1. Main Switchgear Schemes 4. Auxiliary transformer of unit
(a) Classical Method of Generator Connections 5. Generator
6. Auxiliary C.B.
~ener~tor voltage is l_ess than 27 kV because ofdesign
7. Auxiliary bus
?ons1derat1ons. The classical system consisted of connect- 8. Station service transformer
mg a numb~r o~ generators to a common bus-bar through
9. EHVyard
generator c1.rcmt-breakers. This system is used in man 10. Auxiliary system
small med!u:t:? sized ~tations and pumped storag~
schemes. With mcrease m the size of generator units lo d
and fault currei:its also increase and the classical syste~
becomes techmcally unacceptable, and unit syst m is
T T T
Fig, 17.1.3. classical (old) system of generator 7
11. Isolated phase bus duct
12. Isolated phase bus-duct.
connection, for small units. Fig. 17 .15. Single line diagram-Unit system of generator-transformer connections in thermal power stations.
preferred. e
307
LECTRICAL SUBSTATIONS, EQUIPMENT AND BUSBAR LAYOUTS
17.6.3. Unit Scheme Employing Generator Circuit Breaker

This concept was developed by European Companies during 1970s for unit ratings of 500
and above to ~inimise the installation cost. Fig. 17.16 is the schematic. The Gen. C.B. is connecte ' - - - - - . . . . - - H.V. BUS
between the Generator and the T-Off for Unit Auxiliary Transformer. The rating of Generat
Breaker dApends on MW rating and percentage impedance of the generator. The Generator-Break
is either Air Blast Circuit Breaker or Puffer-type SF Circuit breaker. The three poles are enclos
in stainless steel or aluminium enclosures, and the enclosures are coupled axially with the bus
duct.
7
.
Jwww
STARTING T
lL OWER 1. EHV bus GENERATOR
2 2. Circuit breaker (EHV) CIRCUIT
3. Main transformer.
110KV1
11 BREAl<ER
4. Auxiliary transformer.
10 5. Generator.
6. Auxiliary transformer. BUS
GENERATOR
7. Auxiliary bus.
8. Generator circuit-breaker. · di'ng transfiormer Fi_g. 17.18. Multiple generator transformer unit.
9. ERV-outdoor switchyard. Fig. 17 .17 . U se ofth ree wm . ,
single generator transformer umt.
10. Transmission lines.
Note. Station Service Transformer (10) is eliminated. bus Transformer is connected between the generator bus and higl~ volta~e b_us (Fig. 17 .18). Such
sch~me can be adopted in small hydro-electric power station, havmg umt size upto 15 MW and
6 7
total transformer capacity upto 60 MW. .
Fig. 17.16. Scheme with Generator Circuit-Breaker. However, this scheme is not very common in modern thermal stations due to high capacity of
modern turbo-generator (500 MW and above).
With the generator breaker, while starting the unit, the generator breaker is kept open and
the starting power for unit auxiliaries is taken from the HV bus via Main Unit Transformer. 17.7. AUXILIARY SWITCHGEAR IN POWER STATIONS
The auxiliaries are started and the turbine is brought to rated speed. Then the excitation is The auxiliaries in thermal power station include boiler aux~l~aries, condenser auxi_liaries, g~n-
increased till rated voltage of generator is reached. The generator is synchronised with the LV side
of Main Unit Transformer by closing the Generator-Breaker. The input to turbine is increased and
erator and turbine auxiliaries, station auxiliaries, etc. The auxiliary motors are of ratmg,
from fractional horse-power to several thousand horse-power. The total po':~r req~ue Y
~:nf~g
generator shares more load. · ·1· · · fth order of6 to 8 per cent of the station output. The purpose ofauxihary switchgear
auxi ianes is o e T . I 200 MW nit capacity class
When generator breaker is switched off, the auxiliaries continue to get power from the main is to facilitate switching, control and protect of various auxi ianes. n u d O 415
transformer. The Station Transformer is eliminated and this results in major reduction in capital generating stations, the auxiliary system is generally at two voltage levels such as 6.6 kV an .
£Ost. kV.
Station Service Transformer is eliminated. Starting power for Auxiliaries is drawn from main However with 500 MW unit class power stations, three voltage levels, such as 11_ kV, 6.6 l~V,
HVbus. or 3.3 kV and 415 V are necessary, so that the auxiliary switchge!r o~ enou~~ b_re~kmg ca~ac1ty
can be installed. The auxiliaries concerned with the unit ~re called Umt Auxihanes , and are sup-
Generator Circuit Breaker Scheme is not yet preferred in India as starting power is not easily
available from other power stations via transmission lines. plied by generator via the unit-auxiliary transformer, (Fig. 17.15). .
The auxiliary of the station common to all the units are called Station Auxiliaries (Fig. 17 .19).
17.6.4. Main Switchgear in Generating Stations
To determin.e the rating of circuit-breakers in auxiliary system, the following aspects should
The power flow from the generator to the transmission system is via the main switchgear at
132 kV/220 kV/400 kV. The switchgear is either with outdoor SF6 C.B. or with indoor SF 6 Gas be r:onsidered :
Insulated Switchgear (GIS). Before 1980s the Air Blast Breakers and Minimum Oil Breakers were - Fault level at H.V. bus.
popular. They are not preferred any more and are found only in older installations (1985). _ Contribution to fault current from H.V. bus via the starting transfo~mer.
17.6.5. Single and Multiple Generator Transformer Unit _ Contribution to fault current via the station service transformer. (Fig. 17.15)
In single generator-transformer unit, transformer of almost same rating is provided with each · _ Contribution to fault current by the large auxiliary motors.
generator. Three winding transformers are used where two values of high voltages are required Typical rating of circuit-breakers in auxiliary system are as follows :
(Fig. 17.17),
In multiple generator-transformer unit, two or three generators are connected to a generator
308
X
I
-rl-x,Lx
X
I 1
1
X .
12
1-
2-
3-
SWITCHGEAR AND PRO'rECTio
EHV transmission line.
EHV switchgear generally
outdoor.
EHV bus, generally outdoor
CTRICAL SUBSTATIONS, EQUIPMENT AND BUSBAR LAYOUTS
1
309
l
UNIT-I
X X i 3
UNIT-2
4-
sectionalised.
Main transformer of generator
transformer unit (outdoor)
'·
Rating almost equal to that

of 5. (a) Non-segregated bus ducts at 415 V. (b)
5- Turbo generator (indoor).
Metal Enclosures Fabricated, Aluminium/Steel
6- Isolated phase buses,
Conductors, Aluminium Channels (or Flats)
continuous type (Fig. 17.21). Insulators (Porcelain or Resin Cast)
7- Unit auxiliary transformer
(rating about 6 to 8%, Fig. 17.20. Segregated enclosures of conductor used for auxiliary system at 6,6 kV or 11 kV.
that of 5).
8 -- Auxiliary switchgear
(say 12 kV). 17,8, ISOLATED PHASE BUS SYSTEMS (Fig. 17.21)
9 -- Current limiting reactors The conductors between generator, unit transformer, unit-auxiliary transformer are enclosed
switched during emergen~y
or starting. in hollow, tubelar aluminium enclosures. The enclosures are continuous* and are connected in star
10 - Auxiliary transformers. ' and earthed at each end. The conductors are supported on epoxy insulators within the enclosures.
11 - Auxiliary switchgear Such a system is called Isolated Phases Bus System, and is used in all thermal power stations
(say 7.2 kV). having generator rating of 60 MVA and above. The eddy currents induced in the enclosures flow
12 - Auxiliary switchgear (415 V). longitudinally in the enclosures. Thereby they produce associated magnetic-field outside and within
13 - Metal enclosed conductor the enclosures. This field interacts with the field of the main conductors. As a result, in case of
Fig. 17.20. '
isolated phase bus system, the magnetic-field is substantially reduced, outside the enclosures.
A= 'I'o auxiliary equipment
X = Switchgear Thereby the electrodynamic forces between main conductors during external short circuits are sub-
Z = These interconnections are stantially reduced. (To about 5% of their value without enclosures.) Therefore, the insulator design
generally omitted. is simplified. Heat is produced in the enclosures as well as in the conductors. Upto normal current
ratings of 20 kA, air natural cooling may suffice. Between 20 kA and about 40 kA normal current
rating forced air cooling is preferred. Above 40 kA conductors are water cooled. Maximum permis-
sible temperature of conductors and enclosures is of the order 85°C. The design is such that the
enclosure current is almost equal to conductor current. Aluminium conductors are of octagonal or
Table 171 double-channel or tublar cross-section. Enclosures are also aluminium [Refer Fig. 17 .21 (b )) .
Rated voltage kV Breaking capacity MVA
Normal current ratings A
12 1000 400,800, 1200, 1600,
750 2000,3000, 3500
500
350
7.2 500 400,600,800
350 1200, 1600, 2000,2400
250
3.6 250 400,600,800, 1600
150 2000,2400
0.415 31 400,500,800, 1200 Fig. 17.21. (a) A view of isolated phase bus duct 1. Enclosures, Tubular Fabricated, Welded,
26 2400
15 (continuous type enclosures) Continuous Construction of Aluminium Earthed
and Star Connected at both ends, Insulated from
, .. Generators and Transformers.
type'Io~:i~~~!~~~::~~tsc~;:a:s~s/id~o~ type. Similar units are in~talled side-by-side. The following 2. Aluminium Conductors
Sec. 15.4). m rawout type metal enclosed mdoor auxiliary switchgear (Refer 3. Insulators Support, Porcelain or Synthetic Resin
Gast.
- Air-break .circ~it-•breaker, with magnetic arc elongation (for LV). Fig. 17.21. (b) Isolated phase bus system for conduc-
tors between generators and main transformers.
·- Vacu~m ~ircmt-breakers with RC surge suppressors. (Refer Sec. 15.5)
- SF6 c1rcmt-breaker (Refer Sec. 15.27).
* For normal currents above 4 kA, continuous type enclosure is preferred [Fig. 17 .21 (b )]. For currents less than
4 kA discontinuous enclosures may be used.
310 ECTRICAL SUBS'fATIONS, EQUIPMENT AND BUSBAR LAYOUTS 311
. In continuou~ type .of design of bus-ducts, the sections of each enclosure are welded to get con- aidmum DC component, compared with electromagnetic force on a phase conductor without
tmuous run. In d1scontmuous type design, the next section is insulated from the previous one, see 's,~riclosure.
Note as below. f Furthermore, the bus conductors are a channel type, with a large section modulus, for this
The advantages of Isolated Phase Bus System include : .?ireason, and due to the high mechanical strength of insulators supporting the bus conductors, the
- Reduced electrodynamic forces between conductors during short-circuit conditions hen ,,,\; buses have ample momentary current strength.
simplified insulator design. ' ce 4. Free from Electromagnetic Inductive Overheating and Inductive Interference, The
- Almost, total absence of faults in bus section. , >external leakage magnetic flux is very slight, rendering practically negligible inductive overheating
- Safety of personnel. on the peripheral steel structures and pipings and inductive interference on adjacent control wiring.
- Reduced maintenance. 5. High Current Carrying Efficiency. Bus bar conductors are the channel type which dis-
- Magnetic shielding, no induced current in neighbouring metallic frame works, reinforce- plays very little skin effect and has a large cooling surface. The conductor surface and the interior
ments, etc. of the enclosure are painted for efficient heat dissipation. As a result, temperature rise is small
Generator circuit-breakers, discussed earlier, are also enclosed in continuous metal enclosure and current carrying efficiency is quite high.
Thereby the advantages mentioned above are inherited by the generator circuit-breakers too, s. • 6. High Airtightness. Standard connections between the housing units are welded, presenting
. The co~ductors of auxiliary system are enclosed in segregated or non-segregated metal enclosures a completely enclosed construction having a high airtight characteristic.
[item 13, Figs. 17.19 and 17.20]. Such enclosures are compact and minimise the phase to phase faults.
7. High Dielectric Strength. The bus conductors are supported on corrugated insulators with
. They are dust-proof, vermin proof water-proof, and ensure maintenance free and fault free ser- high dielectric strength to prevent insulation deterioration.
vice. The enclosures of segregated bus ducts are made of fabricated, rolled steel sections, to which
steel sheets are welded or screwed. The construction is generally made of standard section of about 8. Reduced Maintenance, Construction itself is simple, and all standard joints are welded.
2 metres length connected lengthwise. The thickness of sheets should be above 2 mm. Moreover, the metal housing prevents infiltration of dirt and dust. Actually, maintenance and in-
spection are practically unnecessary.
17.9. CONTINUOUS HOUSING TYPE ISOLATED-PHASE BUSES 9. Simpler Installation. Each unit is shipped to the site in a completely assembled1 state, after
having been fully built, factory-tested and packed, permitting the buses to be easily installed at
!he high-capaci~y and high-safety, continuous housing-type isolated bus employed in power the site and requiring little incidental construction work. Overall construction costs are thus
stat10ns and substations represents one of the most reliable current buses.
reduced.
f:s sho~n in Fig. 17.22, each phase conductor is separately enclosed in a metal housing, and the CONSTRUCTION
housmg umts are ~onnected ele~trically. Housings of three phases are short-circuited on both ends to
enable current to circula~e sufficiently. Since the circulating current is approximately as much as 95% 1. Conductor Support. The support used for each bus conductor is of high-strength construc-
of the c.onductor current, it greatly reduces the external magnetic field produced by the conductor current. tion which ably withstands large electromagnetic forces. To allow for free expansion and contraction
Accordingly, the larger the conductor current is, the greater effect is demonstrated. of the conductor caused by temperature changes, one of the conductors in each unit is fixed, while
the other is loosely supported in the axial line.
I
i i
i i
-+-- -·+--
i
i
iI
Conductor
Fig. 17.22. Fundamental Principle of continuous Housing Type Isolated-phase Bus Collar
I i 1
ADVANTAGES i
.. 1. Nonexisten~e of Phase-to-phase Faults. Each phase conductor is enclosed by an in-
dividual metal housmg separated from adjacent conductor housings by an air space. This design
y
prevents phase-to-phase faults from occuring. ( Fi~ed)
· . 2. _Large Momentary Curre~t Strength. Since the metal enclosure has an electr.omagnetic Fig. 17.23 Conductor Support (Rated current: 6,000 A and above)
shieldmg effec~, the electromagne~1c force on phase conductors is reduced to approximately 1% in
an AC magnetic field, and to 3% m an AC magnetic field caused by short-circuit current with a
312 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIO ELECTRICAL SUBSTATIONS, EQUIPMENT AND BUSBAR LAYOUTS 313
~· Insp~ction .c~ver. A_ watertight inspection cover is provided on the enclosure for assemb] 4, Wall-penetrated Portion. As shown in Fig. 17.28, the flanges of the enclosed buses are
and mspect10n. Thrn inspection cover is a clamp-on t.ype (shown in Fig. 17.25) for easy removal, to the frame embedded in the building wall. A seal-off bushing is used (see Fig. 17 .29) to
<>1.1.m_,,,..,~
The same clamping is off air circulation.
J
Hole for applied to this type of
bolt clamping Reinforcement \
channel ( less than 2,500A
or tar Enclosur~
Conductor
Stepped~:
bolt
-·-·~·~·
Bus center
--~--·--
\ \
Bus conductor
, ! I
LI
i
~
Flange Embedded frame Seal off bushing
Gasket ';;\ Anchor bolt
:/,1 Enclosure
(Moveable)
Outdoors Wall----,.. Jndoors
Fig. 17.24 Conductor Support (Rated current: Less than 6,000 A)
Fig. 17.27. Wall-Penetrated Portion Fig. 17.28 Construction of Seal-off Bushing
3. Connectors. An expansion connector composed of aluminium sheet layers is used as a connector
between the conductors. One sideis w~lded at the factory, and the other side is welded after installation 5. Flexible Connectors. For protection against vibrations and possible foundation sinking the
to e1:sure completely welde~ c_ons~ruct1on. The enclosure is connected at the installation site after con- connections with generators and heavy transformers - as well as those in the wall-penetrated por-
nection of the conductor, elimmatmg bothersome maintenance and inspection after operation. tion - are of special flexible construction. Flexible copper braids with adequate slack are used in
the bus conductor connections to prevent undue stress from affecting the conductors and the ter-
minals of machines.
Generator
Inspection
cover
Inspection Transformer
hole
Fig. 17.25 Hinged part of inspection cover.

Fig. 17.29. Example of Installation of an Isolated-phase Bus
Factory weld Flexible boot\ A 1 Enclosure Clamping nut ,
Flexible
copper braids
--------
' r,:.::.=~ ---·
'------.. Bus conductor
! I , I
!
·-·~---._J H--l
I .
I'
:.
.
r---------
I Viewed from AA section
Fig. 17.30. Construction of Flexible Connector
,;:~, ~ BUS TRUNKING SYSTEMS

Busbar Trunking System is the modern factory built Electrical Distribution System designed
Aluminium
Sheet Layers
' Enclosure ~ not only as an alternative to cables but have many advantages over conventional cable distribution
system is fast becoming Industry/building standard for future. Decentralized distribution is the
Field weld
main highlight of this distribution system i.e. each equipment/appaliance used in the installation
is protected immediately by a protective device & can be maintained individually without disturbing
Fig. 1.7.26.
other distribution networks thus reducing downtime. This system also eliminates separate require-
ment of distribution & panel boards. Loads can be fed from Plug-in Boxes. unlike cables where each
SUBSTATIONS, EQUIPMENT AND BUSBAR LAYOUTS
floor/machine is to be fed separately from the main switchboard. Furthermore, this system can be
_ Any section of bustrunking can be removed without disturbing adjacent sections.
installed quickly with minimum technical expertise.
_ Joint assembly can be removed/installed at any time to isolate/join two sections ofbustrunk-
COMPACT LOW IMPEDANCE SANDWICH BUS TRACKING. TECHNICAL FEATURES
ing in installed condition.
Insulated Sandwich Bus Trunkkg is prefabricated, pre tested system in standard length and _ Disc spring washer are used in Uniblock joint to uniformly distribute pressure. The disc
shapes available in Copper and Aluminium in ratings from 500A to 5000A suitable for system vol- spring washers accomodates the thermal expansion of the busbars and housing at joint area.
tages up to l000V. These can be used as rising mains and for horizontal power distribution. It _ Plug-in boxes with MCCB/SFU's/Fuse holders or load break switches can be provided with
consists of three phases and neutral conductor with option of pre decided sp •ci tically located Plug-in
0
door interlocking and interlocking with bustrunking to ensure "Plug-in" and "Plug-out" pos-
points. The basic construction and assembly features of these systems make them different from sible only in 'OFF' condition.
other systems. Busbars are insulated from each other by electrical insulating materials throughout - Extra safe cable connection in plug-in boxes without additional cable support.
it's length except at joint and Plug-in points, and are tightly packed in enclosures (bolted at regular
intervals). - Plug-in boxes can be easily mounted, ensuring 100% automatic polarity.
- 4 Pole isolator is provided in Plug-in boxes upto 125A for extra safe connection on live
STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS bustrunking. All plug-in boxes are compatible with all ratings of bustrunking.
- Equipment is designed for low voltage power distribution as per IEC 60439 (1 & 2) and IS _ Safe, easy and quick plug-in/plug-out is possible on live bustrunking. Earth contact of Plug-
8623 (1 & 2) in boxes with bustrunking makes before phase and neutral and is last to break when
- System is designed for rated operational and insulation voltage - lO00VAc, rated impulse removed.
withstand voltage-12kV and rated frequency of 50 Hz. - Each Plug-in box has three gland plates to connect cables from any three direction after
- SBC: Copper bustrunking available from 800A to 5000A (3<!>, 4W) and SBA: Aluminium providing cable glands.
bustrunking is available from 500A to 3600A (3<!>, 4W).
- Bustrunking enclosure is made of CRCNG.I. sheet of 1.6 mm (16 SWG) with anti corrosive OTHER COMPONENTS
coating and finally epoxy polyster powder coating of flint grey shade (RAL-7032).
1. Reducer. These are required to connect two dissimilar rating/type ofbustrunking. Reducer
- Busbars in SBC type are made of 99.9% pure ETP grade Copper, whereas busbars in SBA
type are made of 99.5% pure, 19501 grade aluminium. Busbars are with full round edges may be designed with switching or isolating device.
for easy insertion/withdrawal of Plug-in boxes and joint blocks. 2. Sectional Isolator Unit. These are required to isolate the bustrunking run in between, for
- Earthing: Internal earth of G.I/Copper of cross-section equal to 50% of phase (option-1) and various reasons. Section Isolator Unit can be fitted with Load Break Switches/SFU's/MCCB's.
External earth of Cu/Al of desired section can be provided, duly riveted/bolted along with 3. End Cover, These are provided to close the open end of Rising main/bustrunking at the end
bustrunking enclosure (Option-2).
and it provides necessary IP level.
- As a standard practice, degree of protection is IP-54 for Plug-in type and IP-55 for feede~
type bustrunking. 4. Vertical Support. One set of Vertical Support is generally provided per floor per rising
- Individual busbars are covered with multi layers of F-class flexible insulation material to main along with rigid or spring hanger (as applicable) when the floor height is more than 3.5 mtrs
achieve excellent mechanical and electrical strength even at high temperatures and humid to avoid horizontal swing in bustrunking sections.
condition. Continuous insulation has low water absorption and no possibility of pin holes 5. Wall/Floor Flange. These are plates designed to cover the cut-out made for passing
and insulation cracking. bus trunking through walls or floor. WALL/FLOOR flanges are required to be fitted to the both sides
- System is designed for ambient temperatures of 40°C with temperature rise of 55°C on of wall or floor. When using the flange together with floor support in case of rising mains. These
bustrunking as per standards. are placed between the floor and base channel.
- Three plug-in outlets on front side of 3 mtr section can be provided as standard, (5nos. max 6. End Feed Box (Direct). To feed bustrunking through cables, Direct End Feed Unit (EFU)
on special request).
is available with sufficient space for direct connection through lugs and bolts. MCCB, SFU, Isolators
ADVANTAGES and Fuse Holders etc. can be fitted in End Feed Unit as per specific requirement. 375 mm length
- Close proximity of busbars doesn't allow mutual inductance between phases yielding low ofbustrunking is integrally fitted (measured and charged with bustrunking) along with End Feed
reactance, low impedance, low voltage drop and low power loss. Unit as standard practice so that joint between End Feed Unit and bustrunking is exactly same
- Specially designed housing bolted at every 250 mm act as a heat sink to yield improved as of two normal bustrunking lengths. Undrilled cable gland plate is provided for multiple cable
thermal characteristic, high mechanical and short circuit strength. feeding option. End Feed unit can be made LHS or RHS type as per site requirement.
- Due to compactness system can be installed in lesser space. 7. Flanged End Bqx (Adaptor Box). Flanged End Box is used to accomodate Flange End
- System is maintenance free and adds elegance to the surrounding. and connect it to Panel or Transformer through flexible connections. It differs from End Feed Unit
- Due to elimination of air there is no rise of chimney effect, so no fire barriers are required. since it does not have any integral bustrunking length.
,:__ Automatic polarity is maintained during installation. Flanged End Box may be provided with necessary busbar arrangement for phase matching of
- System can be mounted edgewise OR flatwise, horizontally or vertically in any direction bustrunking with equipment and usually contains openings/window for busbar accessibility.
with all kinds of bends and tees etc.
8. Expansion Unit. It is usually recommended to be installed after at every uninterrupted
- Flexible and safe distribution system leads to easy and fast installation. System is com-
pletely re-usable. run of 50 mtrs to accomodate for composite expansion of complete bustrunking run. Expansion duct
,LECTRICAL SUBSTATIONS, EQUIPMENT AND BUSBAR LAYOUTS 317
is set by fixing bolts to prevent duct expansion during transit and installation. After complete in-
stallation, the fixing bolts are removed to allow thermal expansion of bustrunking at full load.
9. Fixed Tap-off Provision (500-S00A). It is specially designed Tap-Off Point along with Tap-
Off Box arrangement provided on main bustrunking as per the requirement ready to use L LINE
MCCB/SFU etc. .
SA
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS ◄l1t------t
- Typical applications mainly includes Rising Mains, Horizontal Power Distribution, Trans-
mission of power from Transformer to Switchgear, Generator to Switchgear & Switchgear H f--JJ1, ◄ HH
CCYT
to Switchgear as shown below: LT LT
17.10. SWITCHING SUB-STATIONS

There are several sub-stations between generating stations and final load points. They general-
ly comprise step-down transformers and switchgear. In case no transformer is involved, the sub-
station is called switching station (Fig. 17.22).
It~
CT
,._,,,i T
33-,-k;.v
/
L
-)~--.1-1/
I CB
~\
I
I
(
I
C
BB
I
rCCVT r I )
2W
TRFR
T
Icvr CYT
f svs
132 kV
(a) With five breakers.
I I
II I
I
I I
,11f-- . ~11, oJJf-- • '---111,
(b) With four breakers. L LI NE L L

Fig. 17.22. Intermediate switching station with two incoming lines
and two outgoing lines.
L - Line CB- Circuit-breaker
17.11. LAYOUT THE SWITCHYARD EQUIPMENT BE- Busbar I Isolator
LT- Line trap CT- Current transformer
Fig. 17 .23 gives the layout of switchyard equipment of a receiving station having two incoming ES- Earthing switch VT- Voltage transformer
lines and four outgoing lines. In this figure CT's and PT's are not shown. There can be several SA- Surge arrester
possible arrangements. The figure shows a single bus-bar arrangement [Refer Fig. 17. 7 (b) for a CCVT- Coupling Capacitor and Voltage Transformer.
typical side view]. 3W- Three-Winding Transformer CVT - Capacitor Voltage Transformer
Fig. 17.23. Single line diagram of a substation with single-busbar scheme.
318 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION ELECTRICAL SUBSTATIONS, EQUIPMEN'r AND BUSBAR LAYOUTS 319
17.12. LOCATION OF CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
. H.T- SUPPLY
l 1 ISOLATOR Ii
LIGHTNING
llllli•·ARRESTOR
§--
;/~/-
J J
~i ~f
CIRCUIT BREAKER (OUT-DOOR)
6
_c-Y .:"" OUT-DOOR TRANSFORMER
-\--AA---0--\~
(c) Duplicate bus.
,,. 7F-·-· ·UNDERGMUND CABLE
(a)Single bus-bar (b) Sectionalised
ttttt
METAL- CLAD
arrangement. single bus. 5WITH6EAR
Fig. 17 .24. Location of C'l"s. INDOOR WITH
AIR BREAK C,b.
17.13. TYPICAL SUBSTATION IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
In 11 kV distribution system, the cost of elaborate protection may not be justified for protecting
TO VARIOUS SHOPS
transformers upto about 500 kVA. The sub-stations are generally unattended. In such cases H.V. ·
Fuses such as drop-out fuses is the only protection provided on h.v. side. Hence the scheme for such (a)
sub-stations is very simple (Fig. 17 .25). The fuses should be coordinated. Fig. 17.26. Typical switchgear arrangement for medium size
factory, incoming sub-station.
ffi75A FUSE 17.15. BUS-BARS
fl/o,4tsk V ~ 500
TRANSFORMER
KVA
The 'Buses' concerned with switchgear do not have any wheels, not do they transport people.
However, they all called buses, perhaps due to their commonness with omnibuses that they do have
C.T- 1000/s conductors and do transport electric current. Earlier, the conductors to which several local feeders
or sources are connected were called Buses. Now the conductors carrying heavy currents are also
CIRCUIT BREAKi::tl called Buses. The standard definitions are given below :
0-415 l<V BUS ·r H:C SUPPLY
250A FUSE /.ISOLATOR
Fig. 17.25
17.14. SWITCHGEAR FOR A MEDIUM SIZE INDUSTRIAL WORKS
The switchgear in the sub-station of local points, such as industrial works, railway track-side
I lrOP-OUT
FUSE
] : TNANSFIJli'MER
Oi/TD(}OR
sub-station, cinema houses, large buildings, foundries, etc. come in a variety of forms. Their re-
quirements vary depending upon fault levels, kVA rating, voltage rating and other local require-
x=~~TOR l FUSE
ments. In general the sub-station comprise the following :
- incoming line section
- secondary switching section.
- transformer section }tsouroR I
i l m
Incoming line section may comprise outdoor circuit-breaker or drop-out fuse, or it may comprise
metal-clad switchgear. Draw-out type switchgear may be used for indoor installation. The secondary
switching section can have one of the following forms : ::ALCLAD
SW/TCH<il:AR
WITH 5WITCH
- Draw out type switchgear with air circuit-breakers or vacuum or SF6 C.B.
- Stationary moulded case or miniature circuit-breakers.
- Motor control centres.
i i J FUSE UNITS
Fig. 17 .26 illustrates two typical schemes. Recently, SF6 GIS has been introduced for 11 kV TO !IA/fl0lj5 MACHINES
and 33 kV substations. Fig. 17.27. Typical switchgear arrangements for medium size
factory, incoming sub-station. ·
320 TRICAL SUBSTATIONS, EQUIPMENT A..'11.l'D BUSBAR LAYOU'rs 321
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIO
17.16. SOME TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Table 17.2. Properties of Pure Aluminium and Copper'
(a) Bus-bars. Conductors to which a number of c1rcm
· ·t s are connected. Property Units Copper Aluminium
Electrical resistivity at 20°c 2 0.017241 0.02828
(b) Bus-bar connection. The conductors thr t £ th 1 · · ohm. mm
and individual piece of apparatus. a orm e e ectncal connect10n between the bus-bars m
(c) Open bus-bars. The bus-bar which does n oth ave pro t ec t·1ve cover. Temp. Coefficient of resistivity ac~l 0.00411 0.00403
(d) Enclosed bus-bar. The bus-ha th t · · · App. softening temperature oc 200 180
bus-ba:r enclosed in metal enclosures :re :a1::dcont:1red \n a dd~ct obr a cover of any material. The Thermal conductivity Cal 0.923 0.503
-- --
of aluminium or sheet-steel. me a enc ose us- ars. The enclosures are either cm. sec. C 0
(e) Outdoor bus-bars An open or t 1 1 db

oc 1083 657
sky. Outdoor busbars ar~ t d me a enc ose u~-b.ars designed for installation under open g/cm3 8.94 2.703
suppor e on glazzed porcelam msulators.
({) Indoor bus-bars. The bus-bars designed for indoor use. '\C . Copper. The electrical and mechanical properties of copper a:re int1uenced by impurities and
..:manufacturing process. The impurities increase the resistivity but are sometimes necessary to get
(g) Compound immersed bus-bars E l d b b · ·
ing materials. . nc ose us- ars immersed m liquid or semi-solid insulat- 'desired properties. In many cases, where extreme mechanical properties are not desired, 'high con-
ductivity electrolytic tough pitch copper' is used. 'Tough pitch' indicates that the oxygen contents
(h) Oil immersed bus-bars. (i) Solid-insulated bus-bars 11re controlled within close limits. The conductivity of tough pitch copper with oxygen content of
(j) Compressed gas insulated bus-b B b . · about 0.02 to 0.04 per cent is about 100 per cent I.A.C.S. (International Annealed Copper Standard).
sure above atmosphel'ic pressure. ars. us- ars enclosed m enclosures filled with gas at a pres- . Electrolytic copper should have minimum 99.9 per cent copper by weight.
(k) Ratings Copper is used in the form of rods, strips, various sections like angle, channel etc., the latter
being preferred for high values of currents. '
(i) Rated current (Normal Current Ratin ) Th • ,
carry continuously with temperature .
lowing.
.tfi:
e r_ms v~lu~ of current which the bus-bars can
nse w1 m specified hm1ts. The standard values are the fol-
Copper starts becoming soft at 200°C. Hence the permissible maximum temperature short-cir-
cuit condition is 200°C. Copper oxides quickly at temperatures above 85°C. Hence, for normal cur-
rents, the maximum temperature permissible is 85°C.
200, 400, 600, 800, 1200 ' 1600 , 2000 , 2400 , 3000 Am peres. At present, the trend is toward using copper where space required is minimum and quantity
is not large. For large requirement of quantity, aluminium being preferred1 as its use is economically
(ii) Rated voltages. Therms values ofvolta e b t . .
Standard values are the following (in kV): g ' e ween lmes for which the bus-bars are intended: justified.
Aluminium. Aluminium is used for bus-bars of indoor and outdoor switchgear.** Aluminium
0.415, 0.6, 3.3, 6.6, 11, 15, 22, 33, 110, 132, 220, 400, 500, 765 kVrms. is also used for enclosures and conductors of Isolated Phase Bus Systems in generating stations.
Note : The preferred voltages are printed in bold print. Aluminium is now being used for primary tubes of current transformers, current carrying blades
of isolators, conductors in SF6 switchgear, etc. Aluminium castings (5 to 12% silicon) are used in
(iii) Rated frequency. usually 50 Hz. (60 Hz. in USA). assembly bus-bar. Aluminium castings are used in the framework of circuit-breakers where weight
(iv) Rated short-time current. This car
breakers/switches/isolators. It is defined as t{:::: \
with temperature rise within specified 1·1 't . c
d · .
to the sh?rti~e c;1rrent rating of circuit-
va u~ of the circ~11t which the bus-bar can carry,
should be minimum. Aluminium is used in form of strips (thickness above 2.5 mm), rectangular
bars (width above 10 mm), round bars (diameter above 10 mm), for bus-bars applications. For heavy
currents, channels and angle sections are used. While using aluminium for bus-bars, the difficulties
m1 s, 1or a specified duration.
The specified limits are : arise due to the following aspects :
An1bient temp. average 1. Higher resistivity, hence associated problems of temperature rise.
: 35°c 2. Lower tensile strength than copper.
Ambient temp. peak (1 hr.) : 40°c 3. Lower thermal conductivity than copper.
Temp. rise permitted : 40°c 4. Higher coefficient of linear expansion than copper.
Short time current duration : 1 sec. or 3 sec. 5. Higher joint resistance and associated problems about jointing.
6. Special welding techniques are necessary.
17.17. MATERIALS FOR BUS-BARS The following procedure is satisfactory for making bolted or clamped joints in bus-bar and con-
. Copper and aluminium are used for bus-bars Co . nections of switchgear (between aluminium and aluminium) :
being increasingly used for bus-bars Th t . · pper bemg scarce and costly, aluminium is 1. Clear the bus-bar joint surface with rough emery.
higher softening temperature ood ~ech e ~a eria1 us~d for bus-bars should have low resistivity, 2. Apply an oxide inhibiting grease on the prepared joint surface immediately. The grease***
substituting the copper with 'a!uminiu :meal properties .and low ~ost. Dur!ng 1960's the need for is applied to prevent the exposure of prepared surface to air and moisture.
who import copper. Now aluminium. :;1.
ec~me ve~y urgent, particularly m countries like India
IS emg mcreasmgly used for various t,witchgear applications. * Properties vary with alloying and manufacturing process. The figures given in the table are for reference alone. -
** Aluminium for bus-bars : EIE- M, IS 5082, E91E - WP, IS 5082.
*** Esso Multipurpose Grease H Caltex 2. Indian Oil Multipurpose Grease.
322 ECTRICAL SUBSTATIONS, EQUIPMENT AND BUSBAR LAYOU'l'S 323
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECT!··
3. Make joint as early as possible (within about (c) DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
2 hours) by bolting or clamping. '
Alumin~um to copper joints present a proble (i) Materials. Copper was used for electrical busbars and is now almost totally replaced by
that the resistance of joint increases wi'th t' dm ~lumtnium. Aluminium is now used for busbars in generating stations, sub-stations, transmission
t b' t 11· • ime, ue iind di~tribution systems, indoor and outdoor switchgear. The aluminium used for bus-bars should
o ime a ic corros10n. ~hile making such joints
copper bus~b1:1r areas are tin-plated or silver plated . have high.conductivity, good mechanical properties, high softening temperature, etc. IS : 5082-
The ~lummium bas-bar areas are prepared . }992. Wrought Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys for Electrical Purposes: Bars, Rods, Tubes and
described above. Then the joint is made. as :sections specifies the requirements of aluminium for busbars .
. J\n~ther method .is to use bimetal strips with (ii) Forms. The structural forms of bus-bars are generally selected on the basis of mechanical
alummmm on one side and copper on the other.
'.f~ese plates ar~ used for making Al-Cu joint. Such of strength, supporting arrangement. When the spacing between bus-bars is small
Jmnt~ '.1re use~ m Europe for outdoor constructions mechanical forces become significant. Typical bus-bar shapes include :
The Jomts resista~ce after four days should be les~ - Single flat rectangular sections - Multiple rectangular sections
th~:n about 20 micro-ohms for busbars f . d
, switchgear. The pressure between contac~s ~to~f
be adequate.
J (Thin-alumini.um strips welded to the bus-section)
Fig. 17.28. Flexible joints. ·
- Angles, channels
- Hollow tubelar sections
- Double channels
- Hollow rectangular sections.
(iii) Current carrying capacity. The various aluminium companies give regular tables of
The desired length of bus-bars is obtai db . .
ard length [2 to 6 metres]. The joints betwne y ~o:bect~ng reqmred number of sections of stan cross-sections and their current carrying capacities based on ambient temperature (40°C or 50°C)
welding or bolting or clamping. een neig ourmg bus-bars sections are made either and temperature rise (35°C average, 40°C maximum). for various conditions and arrangements.
. . Expansion joints should be provided when th 1 . The current carrying capacity varies with arrangement, cross-section, proximity, type of enclosure;
Jomts are necessary when the bus-bars t . t e. en~h of bus-bars become significant. Flexibl ambient temperature, etc.
ermma e m switchgear or transformer terminals. :
For preliminary calculations, Table 17.3 gives reference values. •
17.18. BUS-BAR DESIGN
Table 17.3
(a) TYPES OF CONSTRUCTIONS Approximate Current Ratings of .Aluminium Bus-bars
- Indoor or Outdoor • • Shape of Busbar Rectangular, solid
- Open or Enclosed - Rigi1 Tubular Arrangement With larger surface vertical
- Non-segregated metal enclosed bus ducts.- Flexible ACSR . Material E91E-WP as per I.S. 5082-1969
- Segregated metal enclosed bus ducts .
Ambient Temp. 35°C over ambient.
Enc~::~~~::~:::d;:es b~:c~a~! :;nti~~~us type or discontinuous types. . Condition Still unconfined air without enclosures.
port insulators. The ~ssembly is supp:r~~~d co~tu~tors of aluminium or copper supported on sup- 50 Hz, A. C. Current Rating, Amperes
sheet steel or aluminium sheets. on a ricated rolled steel sections and is enclosed by (mm) Single Bar Two Bars Three Bars Four Bars
Non-segregated Bus Ducts. The cond (per phase) (Per Phase) (Per Phase) (Per Phase)
enclosures with metal insulator bar . b ~ctors of the ~hree-phases are in a common metal 25 X 6 350 700 950 1000
Isolated 1:hase Bus Systems. T{~e;s e wee~ them (Fig. 17.~0). .
enclosures (Fig. 17.21 a, b). onductors of each phase is enclosed m a separated metal 50 X 6 675 1300 1700 1925
75 X 6 950 1750 2300 2600
Isolated Phase Bus System of Di t.
encl~sures are made up of units ofst:~;a;~~ous Type. '.f~e Isolated Pha.se Bus System in which the 100 X 6 1225 2150 2800 3200
bourmg enclosures are insulated from each ereh areJomted to ffet desi~ed to~al length. The neigh- 125 X 6 1500 2500 3200 3700
Isolated Phase Bus System C . o er and are electrically discontmuous. 50x 10 825 1500 1950 2250
throughout their length. The thr;; e:c7i~~~ous Type. The e~closures are electrically continuous 75 X 10 1180 2050 2650 3000
enclosures are insulated from th t . l es are connected m star and earthed at each end The
(b) TEST ON BUS-B.ARS e ermma apparatus. . 100 X 10 1500 2475 3150 3550
125 X 10 1850 2925 3600 4200
. ~. Temperature Rise Test (Heat R ) R . ·
nse is noted. [Refer Sec. 10.22] un . ated current ts passed and final steady temperature 150 X 10 2100 3350 4000 4600
Tem~erature rise permitted : 350c/400c 200 X 10 3750 4100 4900 5700
Ambient Temperature 75 X 12 1350 2250 2800 3200
: 40°C Maximum 1750 2700 3350 3900
100 X 12
2 R : 35°C Average
125 X 12 2100 3100 3900 4500
. . ated short time current test Th. . . . .
cmt-Breakers'. [Ref. Sec. 11.6.] . is test is described m chapter 'Short-Circuit Testing of Cir- 150 X 12 2400 2500 4450 5100
3. Rated Momentary Current Test Th' . 200 X 12 3050 4500 5300 6100
peak value of the first major cycle on. h i: t.est yer1fies whether the busbars withstand the rated 5010 6000 6800
250 X 12 4 000
4. High Voltage Test. Power fre u s or circuit. [Refer : Making Current, Sec. 3.19.5]
.[Refer Sec. 12.6] q ency voltage te st; Impulse voltage withstand test, ifnecessary. Jomts should be with. oxidesinhibiting grease .
324 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTEC'l'IO.N
ELECTRICAL SUBSTATIONS, EQUIPMENT AND BUSBAR LAYOUTS 325
Derating Factors Derating Factor
(a) Temp. rise of 40°C, ambient 35°C : 0.88 e= Temperature at the instant of short circuit, i.e., ambient plus permissible temperature
(b) Temp. rise of 35°C, ambient 30°C : 0.76 rise.
(c) Enclosure : Outdoor, : 85 to 0.95 (v) Oscillations. The periodic variations in force results in oscillations in conductors and in-
Indoor, Well- sulators. The nature of such oscillations at the time of short-circuit depend on characteristic fre-
ventilated : 0.6 to 0.8 of the conductor system and operating frequency of circuit. Prolonged oscillations can cause
Indoor, poorly failure of structural parts by mechanical fatigue.
ventilated : 0.5 to 0.6 (vi) Bending Load on Insulators. As the conductors are supported on insulators. Insulators
(d) Rating factor for non-metallic experience bending forces, due to the forces on conductors. The force is given by equation below.
back matt paint : 1.2 The cantilever strength of insulators should be more than F.
2 (vii) Insulation Requirements of Busbars. Insulation is required between phases and be-
A cu:r~ent density of 750 A/in or 116 A/cm: can be considered as very safe choice in selectin
cross-section for unenclosed bus-bars of copper. g tween phase and earth. Therefore, bus-bars are supported on insulators and necessary clearances
Table 17 .4. A Appropriate cross-sections for various current ratings are maintained between phases, and between phase and earth. For indoor metal clad switchgear
Single Bare Conductors in open air• upto llkV, now, synthetic resin-bonded or cast parts are used for insulator supports. Form".lrly,
porcelain, varnished papers, resin-bonded parts, densified resin bonded wood parts were more
Continuous A. C. Currents Cross-sectional Area popular. The insulator supports for outdoor busbars are invariably, of glazed porcelain. Electrical
ratings Amp. (r.m.s.) r - - - - - - - = - - - - -2- - ; : ; - - - - - - - - - , - - - - - - - - -2- - - - - - -
Copper mm Aluminium mm clearances, line to ground (earth) and line to line, must be maintained. These clearances ai·e more
100 for outdoor busbar systems. Outdoor stations have a lattice steel structure for supporting buses,
20 25 isolators, jumpers, etc. Outdoor buses are generally copper/aluminium bars, rods, pipes or thin
150 34 40 walled tubing. Thin walled tubing is favoured because of higher stiffness. The clearances are more,
200 41 56 to avoid faults due to birds. Simple ACSR standed conductor pieces are kept inside the tubes to
225 47 prevent vibrations of tubular bus.
63
Table 17.5
250 53 71 Reference Values of Minimum Creepage Distances
300 68 for Porcelain Insulators for Outdoor use
122
350 79 Creepage Distance
145 Highest system Voltage
400 94 145 r.m.s Moderately poll!fted Heavily Polluted
Atmosphere Atmosphere••
450 115 165
500 125
kV mm mm
187
3.7 75 130
(i_v)_ Temperature Rise During Short Circuit Conditions. At temperatures about 160°C 7.2 130 230
alummrnm b~comes _soft and l?ses. its mechanical strength. This sets a limits on permissibl~
temperature nse durmg short-c1rcmt conditions. The calculations of temperature rise are compli- 12 230 320
?ted. Tables and gra~hs are gene~al~y available for difference bus-bars for the purpose of calcula- 24 430 560
wns O temperature ns:, For prehmmary calculations, the following expression can be used :
36 580 840
T=( ¾J(1 + o:0) . 10- 2
72 11:00 1700
T = Temperature rise/sec. during short circuit condition (C) 132 1850 2800
C =-: 0.54 for copper 1.17 for aluminium 145 2250 3400
I= R.M.S. value of short circuit current 245 3800 5600
A = Cross-sectional area, mm 2 420 6480 9660
o: = 'l'emperature coefficient ofresistivity at 20°c
0.00393 for copper (viii) Spacing of Support Insulators. The spacing of support insulators is determined on the
0.00403 for aluminium alloy (EIE-M) basis of the force on a span length of busbar under short circuit conditions.
0.00364 for aluminium alloy E91E-WP F == 2.04 i; x fr 10- 2
kgf
* !he figures are ?nly for single rectangular conductors for more conductors in parallel, the current does not i8 = peak momentary short circuit current (assymetrical), kA
mcrease proport10nately. For actual selection refer tables supplied by manufacturers. Refer : DIN 43670. The
recommended current density for copper busbars is 165 A/cm 2 and for aluminium conductor is 118 A/cm 2
L = span between insulator supports, cm
[VDE 4014/16]. r = spacing between neighbouring conductors in three phase bus system, cm.
.ECTRICAL SUBSTATIONS, EQUIPMENT AND BUSBAR LAYOUTS
327
'1.19, ELECTRODYNAMIC FORCES ON BUS-BARS DURING SHORT-CIRCUITS
Distance r is determined by clearance considerations and by shapes of conductors selected. By Current carrying conductors placed near·each other experience electro-mechanical force.
r
increasing L, the value of F is increased necessitating insulators of high cantilever strength. The
cantilever strength of insulators is first noted from the catalogue of insulators; on the basis of which
the span L is calculated.
(ix) Clearances between Phases and between Phase and Earth. The minimum clearances L
are specified in standards Table 17 .6 give reference values of clearances for various conditions.
(x) Creepage distance, The shortest distance along the contour along the external surface of Plane of
insulators, from earth to the conductor [Refer Table 17 .5]. The porcelain insulators are exclusively magnetic
used for outdoor bus supports. They may be pin type, post-type or suspension type. For voltages field
upto 36 kV, pin-type of single post type insulator are used. Above this level, multiple post-type
insulators (stack) are used for supporting air-insulated bus-bars above ground support, or the bus- (a) (b)
bars are supported on suspension string insulators. Insulator surface is contaminated by soot, dust,
~alt layer near sea-shores, deposits of chemicals in industrial areas, etc. The insulators should be
washed regularly as often as thrice in a year. In sea-shore areas, the station buses are over insu-
lated, e.g. 24 kV insulators may be used for 12 kV buses.
(xi) Ground Clearance, Distance between the highest earthed part of the equipment and the ·
ground. This should be minimum 2.75 metres (Ref. Fig. 12.l sec 12.1). This is for safety of personnel (c) Force of attraction when current in same direction. (b) Force of repulsion.
moving in the sub-station. Fig. 17.29.
Table 17.6. Indoor Bus-bars : Open or Enclosed Clearances The dynamic force occurs at the peak of first major loop, on short circuit. This force is given
for Voltages upto 33 kV
by the expression :
Rated Voltage, Minimum Clearance to Earth
Maximum Clearance
between Phases F = 2.04 i; b_r x 10- 2
kgf
rmskV
Open mm Enclosed mm Open mm Enclosed mm where F = force between conductors
0.415 19 16 26 19 i8 = peak value of current, kA
0.5 26 19 12 19 L = length of conductors, cm
3.3 51 51 51 51 r = separation between conductors, cm
11 77 77 127 127 [1 newton= 0.101972 kgf].
From this force, required cantilever strength of the support insulator or span is determined.
15 102 102 165 156
Perpendicular conductors tend to straighten-out due to electromagnetic forces.
22 240 140 242 242
Bus-bar Design
33 223 223 356 356
The early sub-station were generally with fiexible bus design. A flexible bus consists of flexible
Table 17.7. Clearances for Open Outdoor Bus-bars ACSR (Aluminium cable steel reinforced) or All-aluminium alloy stranded conductors supported by
strain insulators from each end. The flexible bus is held at higher level above the various sub-station
Maximum Clearance equipment. The connections between the flexible bus and the terminals of sub-station equipme'nt
Rated Voltage, Minimum Clearance to Earth between Phases
rms kV (rms) are by flexible conductors held in vertical or inclined plane.
mm mm Rigid bus-bars are easy to maintain. They are at lower height. Connections to sub-station equip-
6.6 140 178 ment are easy. Aluminium tubes are preferred for rigid bus.
11 178 229 A sub-station usually has a combination of Rigid Bus-bar and Flexible Bus-bars. ACSR con-
15 216 267 ductors are preferred for flexible bus.
Configuration of Clamps and Connectors. Typical configurations of clamps and connectors
22 279 330
used in sub-stations include the following:
23 381 431
1. Tee-Connector for connecting ACSR flexible conductor to ACSR tap conductor.
66 685 786
2. Tee-Connector for connecting with ACSR conductor to aluminium tubular bus.
110 1068 1219
3. Parallel-Groove Connectors for connecting two ACSR fl.exible conductors in parallrl.
132 1270 1473
4. Fixed type bus Post Clamps for supporting tubular bus on post insulators.
220 2082 2361
>ELECTRICAL SUBSTATIONS, EQUIPMENT AND BUSBAR LAYOUTS
329
Selection of support insulator. The insulators are selected by considering mechanical bend-
5. Sliding type Bus Post Clamp for supporting tubular conductors on post insulators.
ing load occurring at that instant of peak short circuit_ current. During ~hort circuit in the sy~tem,
6. Expansive type fiexible Bus Post Clamp for supporting and joining two busbars lengths 0 circuit current flows through the bus-bars. The msulator supportmg the busbars experience
to a post insulator. a bending force. The insulators should have enough cantileyer strength to withstand thB dynamic
7. Connector between ACSR conductor and equipment terminal. force occurring during short circuit.
8. Connector between tubular bus section and equipment terminal Example. The bus-bars are having phase-to-phase spacing of 24 cm. Their short circuit current
rating is 25 kArms· Determine the minimum force on conductors during short circuit conditions.
9. Spacers double-ACRS conductors and quadruple ACSR conductors.
10. Hardware for string insulator assembly. is =l,-ms ../2 X 1.8
Reference Data for Clamps and Connectors and Hardware Fittings = 2.55 Irms (Factor 1.8 is for assymetry).
Conductor tension 1000 kg conductor I sc = 25 kArms
Wind load 560 kg is = peak short circuit current
Forces due to short-circuit 1600 kg = 2.55 x 25 kA
Bus-bar Design
The bus-bars are designed to carry certain normal current continuously. The cross-section
i; = (2.55)2 X 252
= 6.5 x 6.25 = 4050 kA
conductors is des~gned on the basis of rated normal current and permissible temperature rise. Th
value of cross-section so obtained is verified for temperature rise under short time short-circuit cur F = 2.04 xi; x b_r 10- 5 kgf
rent.
The bus-bar conductors are supported on post insulators or strain insulators. The insulato = 2.04 Xi; 0,; 4 X 10- 4
experience electrodynamic forces during short circuit currents. These forces are maximum at th 2.04 X 40.50
instant of peak of first major current loop. These forces produce bending moment on separate in = = 346 kgf per metre;
0.24
sulators. The spacing of support insulators is decided on the basis of bending moment per metre,
Force on bus-bars per metre length = 346 kgf.
The factors to be considered for bus-bar design are as follows :
Cantilever load on insulator is given by F x H kg-metre
1. Material
where F = Force, kgf per span length
2. Cross-section of conductors.
H :c: Height of insulator, metre
3. Temperature rise during continuous normal current.
Assume insulator height = 0.13 metre
4. Temperature rise during short circuit current of 1 second or 3 seconds
Cantilever strength of insulator = S k
5. Design of insulator-creepage distance and clearance.
6. Distance between phase conductors. Let Sk = 500 kg-metre from catalogue of insulators
7. Force on insulators during peak short circuit current. F x H = cantilever load per metre run
8. Span of insulator supports. F x H x L = cantilever load per span length of insuldor
9. Enclosure design. Sk
FxHxL=------
Factor of safety
Example. Design cross-sect_ion of an enclosed aluminium conductor for normal current rating
where F = Force on bus-bars per metre run
of 1000 A, rms, 50 Hz and ambient temperature 30°C permissible temperature rise 35°C.
H = Height of insulator, metre
Ans. Derating Factor for Ambient Temp. = 0.76 L = Span of insulators
Derating Factor for Enclosure = 0.5 Sk = Cantilever strength of insulator, kg-m
Operating Factor for Matt-black paint = 1.2
Total Derating factor = 0.76 x 0.5 x 1.2 Factor of safety = 4
=0.46 Substituting in given example,
Current rating rnoo A continuous aluminium conductor is selected cross-section to correspond 500
346 x 0.13 xL =
1000 4
to 0.4 = 2175 A. 5 0
6 Span of insulator = ~ x 346 x 0.13 = 2.9 metres
From the table :
Let the span of insulators = 2.5 m.
Use one.150 x 10 mm Flat (2100 A)
Or one 125 x 12 mm Flat (2100 A)
330
17 2 331
· 0, IMPORTANT TECHNO-ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION FOR CONSTRUCTION
OF SUB-STATIONS/SWITCHYARDS 17,20,2. Cost Effectiveness
A large number of Sub-stations/Swit h •d t t h · .• }';:;; Each one of the activities enumerated above has to be properly weighed for cost effectiveness.
for transmission and distribution networl~s
diture In th' f t't' '
Y::e
~~i~gmee tt e tJ~1reml ~ntshof increasing demand
cons rue e mvo vmg uge amount ofexpen
{f,rhe cost effectiveness does not man avoiding expenses on need-based items of work or equipments.
no c . I~ era o compe I Io?-, the aspect of exercising maximum possible economy while maki - CThe reliability and availability of the sub-station has to be properly evaluated before arriving on
l:i!ost effectiveness in construction. Cost effectiveness surely means avoiding wasteful expenses on
paraC::~:;-:;i~~:;~ t:e :::;:ti~nal rejuire:ents, safety & _re~iability aspects and the technic:1 material, labour, storage, transport and capital interest by proper Planning & Resource Manage-
below : . ome o sue techno-econom1c issues have been briefly described
ment.
17.20.1. Activities in Construction of Sub-station The cost effectiveness will vary from site to site. For example, the cost of land in and around
·metropolitan towns will be extremely high, whereas the load center }"ill be close to each other.
load~~~~~ni~ ~~:u~;sJ:!~~: s::r;~ wit,h a sy~tem study. If there is a pocket oflow voltage or a new l':Besides, in this region, density of load will also be heavy and therefore _the design of sub-station in
justified. The size of the sub-stati~na~~~or Is already d~veloped, the construction of sub-station is ~Iectrical, mechanical and civil terms will be together a different proposition compared to the sub-
other environmental factors Th l t·e constructed IS based on power requirements as well as stations to be constructed in rural sector.
vicinity to the load to be cater~d a e d oca lion of_sub-s~ation_ with regard to system improvement, The cost effectiveness in procurem~nt may depend upon the market situation prevailing with
envisaged. n con iguration ofmcommg and outgoing line has to be properly particular reference to the supply and demand during the process of tenderization. The cost may
Acquisition of land is yet another act· ·t h· h d also depend upon the techno-commercial terms and conditions provided in the specifications.
depends much upon the selection of site. ~~/a:o~nt o~:i:7id; g~d ~ti;:?u~ of ebxercis~, as total cost The cost effectiveness of civil work will be very much an important factor. The labour and civil
of transmission network for the con . or .w1 m e su -stat10n and length 'Construction inputs (cement, wood, sanitary work, piping, sand, gravel, steel etc.) will be a decisive
land. The location of land has also ton~~ti~n todtfhe netwh sub-sltat10n dep~n_d~ upon the location of factor in the cost effectiveness of civil works.
. viewe rom e ang e of access1b1hty.
The design and layout is the next act· ·t D d' Electrical erection testing and commissioning activities will generally depend upon the voltage
the layout can be made for different level~v1 (' ltepen_ l~{;_
upo: the ~at~re of~iece_ofland available, rating of the equipment and cost of labour prevailing in the region.
lines. This exercise needs to be done on sc:levo Jg~ mh e su b-s~ab?n, m_commg lmes and outgoing
requirement in vogue. an a so as to em hne with the statutory electrical 17.20.3. Ways and Means of Economizing
(<i) Land acquisition. The cost of land will depend upon the vicinity or remoteness of the
The civil design will depend upo th ·1 · proposed sub-station with reference to metropolitan, big towns or cities. Since the system study
other parameters, which include loc:l f:c:i;s stata ~vail~ble at th~ site. selected. There may be
agenda. This particular activity will :1 l

temperature etc. The structural desi of antr ke high ~md velocity; high temperature or low
line with the latest standard practice inut;e

d ! and ~qmp1;0en.t support will be the next item on·
:i:~gn
an fabrication of s~ructure~. This has to be in
indicates the construction of sub-station in a particular location, the choice of type of switchgear
has to be based on the land cost.
When the sub-station is to be constructed in the metropolitan or in the densely populated urban
construction and the actual site requir t fi d as well a~ the ex?enence gamed from the past area, the cost of land matters much. To create a new load center is of prime importance and con-
. f emen or accommodatmg eqmpments in the available space nection of the same to the existing/new transmission network is a next important activity. Besides
The selec t 10n o parameters of el t · l · ·
PI, Isolator, earthing system has ha::~:~ eqmfments such as _transformer, breaker, CT, PT, LA, acquiring such land in densely populated area has a very high cost benefit ratio due to high density
quirement, protection and operational n de me ICulously done m accordance with the system re- of load around the sub-station and low cost of maintenance of lines (as new sub-station is meant
ee s.
to cater very heavy load in a radius of few of Kms.)
The procurement of equipments which ares 'fi d . .
drafting of specifications tenderizatio t· pet ied, IS one of the maJor activities as it involves Creating a sub-station and the load center away from metropolitan and densely populated
tract and receipt ofmate~ials This act' ;er~ my? ~e?- ers,. awarding of contract, execution of con- urban area is a matter of choice. Here, the cost. ofland is of prime importance along with the amount
Th t l "l k . 1v1 y is capita -mtens1ve and has to be carefully planned out of cutting and filling to be done in the soil as well as nature of soil. In this category, there may be
e ac ua c1v1 wor starts immediately after th l d . . . .
.is the first and foremost work to be done h. h . fi l~ and acqu1s1t10n. The cutting and filling work various techno-economic considerations as follows.
the land leveling work and other impo tnc:,

and ward tower etc. The work of cable tr w ic is o owe by ~rotection wall, fencing, gates, watch
.c~rrol ~oom, sw1tchyard structure foundation follows
drainage system is also a part of the c:v~rw~~~- wor . The roads, staff quarters, water supply and
The land may be cheaper, but may need cutting, filling and leveling, but soil quality may be
good.
The land may be levelled one, but susceptible to water logging, accessability may be difficult.
The erection of gantry structures and e · ·
work. This is followed by equipment er t' q~1pmthent suppo~t structures is yet another important The land may be absolutely good in every sense such as levelled one, no likelihood of inundation,
. . . ec 10n m e open sw1tchyard and in the control room good quality of soil etc., but this piece of land may be much away from the thoroughfares and
The comm1ss1omng of bays and co · · · f h · ·
t
ever, the receipt of transformer its sto;:;1ss1~mng t ~ s~b-station is yet another activity. How- towns/cities. This proposition will prove costly from the angle of manning the sub-station, taking
equipments to site, carrying out construction activities and later on maintaining sub-station. How-
job. The testing and commissi~ning of th :n etc rnn _o t e same on the plinth is an independent
Th fi I e rans ormer is a part of commissioning activities ever, this may prove to be better for making the lines in and out.
e ma stage of the sub-station activit . th . . . . .. .
ticulture, painting, landscaping, sing boards::~. e groommg of the sub-stat10n by prov1dmg hor- The land may be very cheap, but may involve hill cutting. This will be a costly proposition.
Statutory clearance for the desi
to 'time. gn d ·
an c~nstruction of sub-station has to be obtained from time In the densely populated areas under civil authorities, there may be a compulsion to locate a
S/S in the heart of the town. The cost of land and the ERV cabling has to be weighed against the
revenue return, system improvement and the customer satisfaction.
332 EOTRICAL SUBSTATIONS, EQUIPMENT AND BUSBAR LAYOUTS 333
t es of soil if short piling is resorted to instead of deep excavation and stepped brick
(b) Layout drawings. Making a layout is the next important job. Optimization of lay-out wi
;~son~y, economy with high reliability can be achieved.
lead to better utilization of the available space at least east. The number of bays to be accommodate
on H.V. side and L.V. side will depend upon the maximum rated capacity of the SIS in MVA. Sin ( · ') The water supply can be economically arranged by selecting proper locatio1: for the well,
ii sump and the tank. The depth of the bore can be fixed by critically eval 11atmg the water
the power transfer capability of each transmission line is almost fixed it is possible to calculate t
number of H.V. and L.V. base at the SIS plannings stage only. However following points are vi resource by means by hydrological tests.
while optimizing the layout. ( •· ') The optimization and cost effectiveness of the drainage system can be achieved by choos-
m ing optimum location of the septic tanks and disposal of waste-water ete.
Type and configuration of the equipments to be used for each voltage class.
(iv) The cost of construction of the cable trenches can be minimize_d by prepar~ng the cable
Available land piece and shape.
schedules well in advance. The cable trenches can be categonzed dependmg upon the
The switching scheme. Whether it is single bus, two bus or three bus system. In case of two maximum number of cables to be routed. The type of civil wor_k (P.C.C., R.C.C.,
bus whether it is a main and auxiliary or main I and main II, whether sectionalization is required,, stone/brick masonry etc.) can be decided according to_ t?e t7pe of s011/roc~ encountered
The affordable placement of transformer. Whether incoming lines and transformers are in the. at the site. The depth of the cable trench can be a decisive factor for selectmg the struc-
same horizontal axis or the transformers are placed between two voltage levels. If the transformers ture of the cable trench.
are placed between two voltage levels whether they are placed adjacent to each other or away front ( ) The foundations for gantry columns, equipment support structures, transforme~·s and
each other. v breakers can be economically constructed by critical evaluati?n of the forces actm~ on
the equipments and structures (which are ultima~ely transferred to the f?un~ati~n).
The position of incoming and out going lines of different voltage class is the factor, which will
Wherever possible, use of individual leg type footmgs fo~ columns can brmg m good
affect the lay-out. The positions oflines will depend upon the environment of the S/S. To be precise
economy. The under cut type of footings in the normal s01l and soft rock/fissured rock
whether the SIS is situated in urban, sub-urban, rural area or industrial belt.
can bring substantial economy with high reliability.
The control room sizing will depend upon the number of panels to be housed, which in turn . (vi) The architecture and design of control room building should be done _very precisely for
will depend upon the number ofvoltage levels and nature of the SIS. affording maximum flexibility as well as ease in control room operatio:1s at ~east cost.
(c) The earth mat design. The earth mat design is one of the important area which needs' The space requirement considering the number of panels to be housed (mcludmg fut'.-1re
optimization. The following needs to be taken care of. expansions), office, store, conference room, toilet/bath, cable trench an~ cable entn es,
1
(i) The resistivity of the earth is one of the important parameter of the earth mat design. battery room, carrier room, computer room etc. should be assessed well m advance. ~he
It should be ascertained whether it is possible to get lower resistivity by penetration in location of the control room should be so selected as to allow for future expant10n.
to the lower levels of the soil or whether it is possible to improve (reduce) the soil resis- Wherever office building and store rooms are to be built away fr~m the control room
tivity by artificial means. For economic design of earth mat precise values of earth.resis- their locations and design should be done with an ascent on maximum flo~r space at
tivity and short circuit current should be available, Tentative figures, usually lead to minimum resource/cost. In seismic zone, extra care should be taken to provide framed
higher costs. structures approved by the concerned authorities.
(ii) The short time current rating, fault level, touch and step potentials, are the other (vii) Number and type of quarters to be constructed should be strictly in accordance to the
parameters affecting the design. It should be found out how an'd where the most realistic staff set-up of the SIS. The location of the staff quarters should be such as to afford con-
parameters can be applied/worked out. struction of minimum length ofroads and convenient accessibility to the civ~c roads. T_he
designs of quarters should be in accordance with th~ sta~us ;1ise space reqmrement with
(iii) The ~ost of the earth mat also depends upon depth of burial of the earth mat and depth
to which the electrodes require driving. an ascent on good ventilation. If the S.S situated m seismic zone extra ca~·e should be
taken to provide framed structures for staff quarters as per statutory reqmre:ments.
(iv) Ifit is possible to artificially increase the conductivity of the earth fault current through
(viii) The other miscellaneous civil works such as recre~tion facilities, gar~ens et~. can be
earth mat and the electrode (use of bentonite etc.) to that extent the optimization can
be achieved. provided using minimum space and state of art horticulture and recreation eqmpments.
(v) The size of earth mat material and electrode material can be optimized by making trial (e) Switchyard structures. The structural designs of~an~ry and equipment suppo~t stru~c-
and error on the spacings. The step potential can be reduced by spreading metal or gravel tures should be based on realistic load requirements. The switchmg scheme should be as simple us
in the switching area. possible. The statutory clearances should be kept to the requirement. The following points need be
kept in view while optimizing the structure designs.
(d) Civil Engineering works. Civil engineering works are the main and time consuming ac-
tivity in the construction of SIS. Besides it is one of the most variable item of activity in terms of (i) 'l'he climatic conditions should not be considered exc~ssive to what ':arrants as per the
cost. The civil works include construction of boundary walls, water supply arrangement (making a local situation and or meteorological data, since the wmd pressure, ramfall, temperature,
bore, sump, overhead tank, piping etc.), drainage system (affluent, storm water etc.), cable trenches, altitude, H.F.L. etc. governs the structural design.
structure foundations, control room building, stores, office building, staff quarters, recreation (ii) The structures in the switchyard should be divided into various c~tegories l~k~ ?earns,
facilities, roads, culverts, fire protection, service room, A/C plant housing, generator room (where columns, equipment support etc. in accorda_nce with th~ c?nfiguration. The di:7is10n ~an
required) etc. There are many parameters as discussed below, which if taken care can help in cost also be in respect of their position in the sw1tchyard. This mcludes structures 1~ the hne
reduction :- bays, bus bays, transformer bays etc. ~~ain, the divi_sion can _b_e made dependmg. up_on
(i) The boundary wall construction using locally available material such as stone, fly-ash whether the structure is in the end pos1t10n or the middle pos1~1on. ~he st.:r:uctu_res wit~
bricks etc. can lead to economy and good strength. In case of black cotton and other poor fly over and T configuration shall be designed with the loads m vanous d1rect10ns and
334 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECT! ~LECTR!CAL SUBS'l'ATIONS, EQUIPMENT AND BUSBAR LAYOUTS 335
levels. With this type of exercise it will be possible to design structures in most econom be confined to the transmission line proper but should also cover the neighbourhoods. The scope of
cal manner. :nspection should cover all the elements of transmission line system to ensure safety as well as to
(iii) The equipment support structures can be designed keeping in view the exact equipme ~nhance the reliability of power supply. Maintenance operations comprise the detection and
dimensions, specified ground clearance and sectional clearance. The short circuit for •.. removal of faults or· abnormal conditions on the lines. Faults are detected by simple patrolling per-
wherever required (Breaker, CT, PT, LA) should be accounted while finalizing the formed by single patrolmen, or by detailed inspections carried out by a crew of several men. Scope
designs. ofinspection and different techniques presently being adopted in maintenance of transmission lines
(iv), Cost of foundations for structures can be reduced considering the most probable loa are briefly given below :-
on structures. The design of structures separately for each position in switchyard. A, Patrolling
(v) The 220kV/400kV switchyard also have equipments like fire protection system, Air-con
ditioning plants, D.G. sets etc. The power transformers need protection from fire. Th The objective of routine inspections is not merely repair work, but to ensure prevention of out-
are alternative systems such as Fire Tender, mulsifyre system, Nitrogen bubble etc. Th ages, safeguarding against accidents, and detection of dangerous conditions along the line, such as
mulsifyre system needs many accessories and regular maintenance. Fire. tender an inundation, soft soil, proximity of trees and building sites, conductor vibration, supporting struc-
nitrogen bubble are also effective systems. The transformer fire protection can also tures exposed to lightning, etc.
arranged through fire tender using special foam meant to extinguish the fire. D.G. se Patrolling is done on foot, horse-back, by motorcycle, automobile and in mountainous terrain
to be procured should be equivalent to the bare minimum emergency power required fi also by helicopters. The advantage of using a helicopter lies in the fact that a helicopter can fly low
s/s and control room, such as battery chargers, control room lighting, air-conditionin and slowly, giving the patrolman sufficient time to inspect the line from above, and that up to 300
and fire protection gadgets. km of lines can be inspected in a single day.
(vi) In some of the 400 and 220kV sub-stations, air-conditioning system is provided for mai Extra-high-voltage lines are routine-patrolled at least once a month, high-voltage lines at least
taining the temperature in the relay room. However it is observed that in some c once in two months, and low-voltage lines at least once every year. Crossings and especially exposed
even control room and offices have been made air-conditioned by using central air-co sections oflines in densely populated industrial districts are patrolled more frequently. Once a year
ditioning plant. This puts lot of financial strain on the sub-station in terms of constr a night patrol should be-carried out on extra-high-voltage lines to check up on corona formation in
tion and maintenance. It becomes mandatory to have a compressor room and cooling general and on joints in particular.
tower. Lot of water also is required to be arranged and water to be used needs to be of
good quality. Besides, in case of any fault in the cooling plant the relay room is badly In addition to such regular patrols, there are also special patrols of the countryside before har-
affected and in turn the operations are badly affected. If the relay rooms are designed vest time and after every major climatic disturbance, such as after heavy ice loadings, floods, cloud-
in a compact manner, a special air cooling system which can maintain a temperature of bursts, gales, violent thunderstorms, line outages,. etc. It is reported that high intensity winds form
the room from 22 to 24 degrees can save the situation. Even window air-conditioners: 80-100% of all the weather related failures.
can remedy the situation. · During routine patrolling all the observations made, faults identified and the corrective actions
17 .20.4. Construction activities (rectification carried out) taken subsequently is recorded in detail, since documented records are
The economics of the s/s also depends upon the pre-planning of the construction activities. Time valuable data for effective future maintenance.
bound construction programme with all pre-defined and approved drawi:q.gs goes a long way in cost B. Scope of Routine Inspection
cutting and reducing gestation period. Any delay in construction means loss of material, escalation
in prices, loss of interest on the capital invested as well as continued overloading of the existing As far as maintenance of transmission line is concerned, it is an established rule that inspection
sis. &hould not be confined to the transm~ssion line proper, but should also cover the surroundings.
The transformer which cannot be erected for want of plinth require; watch and ward and Attention has to be paid in particular, to soil around the supporting structures. Grass, bushes and
monitoring. Similarly other expensive equipments like Breakers, CTs/PTs/Isolators have metallic other plants around poles and towers are temovtd. The supporting structures like pole 'or tower
parts and are susceptible to theft. Planning of material procurement as per the PERT & CPM drawn proper is inspected to detect any decay of wood or corrosion of steel or concrete and possible damage
at the project clearance stage and reviewed from time to time. This may help in reducing the cost to the structure. The verticality of the supp~rts is also checked. A detailed examination is carried
incurred on storage, watch and interest on capital. There are large number of variables in the con- out on the connection of the grounding wire with the grounding electrode, the grounding wire
struction ofEHV sub-stations and if they are tackled individually and handled in totality substan- proper, bracings and anchor guys of the supporting structures. The pretension in the guys are
tial cost saving is possible. ' monitored and adjusted if required. Crossarms are inspected to make certain that they are not
loose or bent, insulator-pins are examined for bending, insulator strings are checked for their ver-
The cost saving can be without jeopardizing safety norms in any way. However judicious and tical position and possible damage. The overload ground wire attachment and sags of the conductors
critical review of each one of the input of construction including procurement policies, construction and overhead ground wire are also checked.
management and quality control can 1 bring about sizable saving which each one of the utility in
this country needs to evaluate. ' 1. Inspection of surroundings. The neighbourhood of an overhead transmission line is check-
Proper planning and optimization measures would definitely result in appreciable cost saving. ed to make sure that the original use of the grounds has not undergone changes due to construction
of earth-work, setting up of a dump pile, or due to floods, building of a play-ground, wire-fence, etc.
It is reported that high intensity raids forms 80 to 100% of all the weather related failures.
Utmost attention should be paid to forest stands or isolated trees below the line or alongside it,
17.20.5, Maintenance of over-head transmission lines road-and river crossings, railway crossings and power or communication-line crossing and popu-
Major breakdowns of transmission lines can be prevented or the damages can be minimized lated areas with protruding aerials & TV antennas.
by .yell df3fined routine preventive maintenance inspection and.timely repafr 1 Inspection should not
>Jl)LECTRICAL SUBSTATIONS, EQUIPMENT AND BUSBAR LAYOUTS 337
Location of defects are all clamps and joints in which two different metals are in contact, par-
2. Emergency patrol. In case of an outage, an emergency patrol is sent out with the object rcularly branching-off clamps. The same applies also to low-voltage lines. Joints and branching-off
of speedy detection of the fault and instant reporting. For this purpose, the patrolman is usually ,; , clamps are tested under load at least once every two years with the aid of a paraffin stick to make
equipped with a transceiver communication set. it2 ertain that these do not get heated under load, ar by means of a voltmeter connected, via a well-
The location of a fault on high-or extra-high-voltage lines due to short-circuit or broken con- ?nsulated condenser, to the prongs of a long insulated stick to the end of which the active parts of
1
ductor can be detected, within 0.5 km, by measurement from transformer substations. D.C. impul- 'the apparatus are attached.
ses are sent into the affected phase conductors- of a disconnected line at a rate of e.g., 150 c.p.s. Until recently the only way to measure sag was to climb a tower and take a sighting with a
The emission and reflection of the impulses from the fault is observed on a cathode-ray oscilloscope, theodolite to the next tower. Today handheld laser range-finders offer a very efficient way to directly
the distance of the fault is determined from the reproduced image. measure sags and ground clearances.
In hilly terrains, materials required for repairs/replacement, such as insulators, conductors,
3. Special Inspections. Special inspections are carried out to examine the surface finish of
clamps, etc. shall be stored in convenient, well-protected shelters, distributed along the line.
••. steel-towers or checking the corrosion of structures below the ground-line. The latter is generally
C. General Inspection · followed by coating the endangered sections with asphalt & checking the ground resistance of in-
General inspections include examination of the soil near foundations, decay of wooden support- dividual groundings, and of the line as a whole. Power utilities in U.K. have begun using polariza-
ing structures at the ground-line, possible, corrosion of steel supporting structures at the ground- tion resistance measurements to assess the corrosion risk to overhead tower foundations.
line and the state of the surface finish etc. In addition general inspections include climbing the The schedule of the various inspections, for a transmission time is given in Table 17.8,
supporting structures and checking the crossbeams, crossarms and braces, connection of overhead
ground wires to the grounding wires, individual pin-insulator-ties (at least with the aid of a mirror Table 17 .8 - Typical Schedule
attached to the end of a pole); During inspection attachment of conductors to clamps, conductor
joints, dead-ending clamps, etc., are also checked. Sl.No. Type of inspection Inspection schedule (in years)
EHV JN LV Crossings
Trimming of trees and bushes along the line and below it is also considered a part of the main-
tenance. The crew appointed to this work is equipped with proper tools and trained. Spreading of - - - - - -
undergrowth also needs to be prevented. 1. General Inspection 1 2 4 1
1. Inspection of Insulator Strings of EHV Lines. In the case of an extra-high-voltage line, 2. Surface finish of steel structures 3 3 3 3
inspection also includes the testing of insulator strings. This is done by checking the voltage dis- 3. Corrosion of steel structure below GL 5 5 5 5
tribution between insulator caps of a live line. Many methods have been developed to inspect the 4. Test on strain Insulators 1 - - 1
insulator strings.
5. Test on suspension Insulators 2 - - -
The highest voltage drop occurs across the insulator adjacent to the conductor. The magnitude 6. - 1 1 1
Insulation resistance measurement'
of the voltage drop decreases gradually down to the third or second insulator unit, counted from·
the cross-arm. Irregular voltage distribution along the string indicates the presence of a faulty in- 7. Ground resistance measurement• 2 5 4 1
sulator. The voltage drop between insulator caps is generally measured with an electrostatic 8. Overall grounding resistance of over head 1 1 1 1
voltmeter (e.g., the Ferranti Line tester) attached to a long insulated pole. ground wire system •
The patrolman is often equipped with a high-frequency defectoscope, enabling him to detect Note: Inspection marked with an asterisk must be carried out before a new or repaired trans-
defective high-voltage insulators by listening and measurement. The voltage-distribution is judged mission line is placed into operation.
from the sound of the discharge at the double prongs, interconnected via. a well-insulated con-
denser, and fixed at the end on an insulated stick, the so-called buzz-stick. 17.20.6. Maintenance & Repair
As during such a test an insulator having the lowest voltage drop does not buzz, such an in- In addition to the above listed inspection, the maintenance and repair jobs e.g. re-connection
sulator is called a silent insulator. A faulty insulator is thus detected from the location of the silent of broken conductors, readjustment of conductor and overhead ground wire sags, replacement of
insulator in string. For better results, these measurements should be performed when the relative insulators, repair of joints, clamps and grounding wires, tensioning of anchor-guys, addition of
humidity is not excessive generally below 70%. dampers in locations where vibration occurred, reduction of grounding resistance, etc. are also per-
During shut down, defective insulators are detected by measuring insulation resistance of informed. After the repair of every fault, the repair job must be thoroughly checked and, whenever
sulators using light weight and portable meggars. In addition, live line measurement of the voltage necessary, an insufficiently performed repair job must be properly completed, as a repair is often
and the electric field across the insulators is carried out to identify the punctured insulators. made in haste, or carried out only as a temporary repair job.
Ultrasonic Fault Detector to detect faulty insulators, insulators strings and other electrical equip- 1. Major Repairs of the Line. Major repairs of the line consist of replacement of conductors,
ments up to 800 kV under charged condition are now being employed. Various methods to find out increasing the spacing between conductors on towers, addition of overhead ground wires, relocating
the level of severity of pollution present on the insulators in a string are now being used. The meas- or adding individual towers, re-locating entire sections of transmission lines, increasing the size of
urement is done by using instruments like conductivity meter, leakage current monitor etc. the conductors or raising the voltage. In the case of over-dimensioned structures, the line capacity
2. Inspection of Conductors and Clamps. During inspections of long spans, at least once is increased by adding an additional conductor to each existing one, i.e., creating two-conductor
in a year, bolt-clamps on suspension insulator strings are loosened and a check is made to ascertain bundles.
that the conductors have not damaged due to vibration and that no strands have broken. At the 2. Training for Personnel. Maintenance and repair require experienced and well-trained
same time, conductors near dead-ending clamps are examined to ensure that they are not corroded crews, excellent technical equipment, fast, sufficiently spacious but light-weight vehicles especially
or otherwise damaged.
339
TRICAL SUBSTATIONS, EQUIPMENT AND BUSBAR LAYOUTS
338 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIO LEC · ·th
17, State the sequency of operation of circuit-breaker, isolator and earthing sw1 c .
equipped for the purpose with dirigible spotlights, a portable spotlight powered by a portable
storage battery, and a transceiver communication set. Maintenance and repairs are speeded up
when good telephone communication and mechanical ladders or insulated work baskets are avail-
In:
) Wh'l opening
~a8.
(b) While closing. , l t . 1
~10 kV/32 kV sub-station the following equipment is to be connected. Draw a diagram o:t e ec nca
able. Items: (1) Two overhead 110 kV lines, (2) 110 kV circui~-br~akers, 4 ~o.
(3) 110 kV/33 kV. Transformers, 2 No. (4) 33 kV ~ll'cm_t-breaker!,rs
3. Live-Line Maintenance. In Russia, U.S.A., Canada and Sweden, live-line maintenance has·
6 No. (5) Lightning arresters 110 kV, 2 No. ~6) L1ghtnmg arrest
been successfully practiced for a number of years. Live-line maintenance tools make it possible to 33 kV, 4 No. (or 6 No.) (7) 33 kV overhead Imes, 4. .
perform repairs on high- and extra-high-voltage lines without interruption to service. Live-line tools
Show isolators and earthing switches where necessary. Mark zones of protection.
are fastened to the ends of insulated poles, sticks or rods, of late made generally of plastic tubing
reinforced with glass-fibres. 19 What is the bus Trunking System.
0. What are the advantages of the bus-bar Trunking system. . . _.
The main types of live-line work on high-voltage lines are : replacement of fuses; connection 2 · · · · t f HV Transm1ss1on line.
21. What is the importance of Patrollmg m m~m. ena~ce O a
and disconnection of pole- or tower-mounted transformers, condensers or switches; replacement of
22. What is Live-Line Maintenance of 'l'ransm1ss10n Imes.
insulators, crossarms, braces, footings, poles and towers; addition of new lines; replacement of wood
poles or their mounting on footings. In Russia, such operations are performed on live lines upto
110 kV operating voltage. In other countries, live-line work on extra-high-voltage lines is limited
to replacing insulator strings and mounting vibration dampers. In Sweden, such work is carried
out even on 400 kV lines. All such work are generally performed only in dry weather.
Live low-voltage lines are repaired with the aid of rubber gloves and special protective work
suits. In all types of hot line work, the workers' heads should be protected by helmets made of
insulating material.
QUESTIONS
1. Draw a scheme of receiving station incorporating th.e single bus-bar and associated equipment.
2. Design a bus-bar system for an 11 kV indoor, enclosed switchgear, normal current 800 A. Short time
current 20 kA for 1 second. Permissible temperature rise 50°C. Material: Aluminium bars, Ambient tempera-
ture 35°C.
3. Describe the main switchgear arrangement in a generating station.
4. Explain with the help of neat sketches the following :
(a) Non-segregated bus-ducts (b) Segregated bus-ducts.
5. Explain the principle and construction of isolated phase bus-system.
6. Calculate maximum force between two parallel bus-bars per span length for following conditions :
(a) Peak instantaneous current : 50 kA, in both conductors.
(b) Spacing between bus-bars : 20 cm.
(c) Span between support insulators: 75 cm.
7. Calculate with the help of tables given in this chapter, the cross-section required for the bus-bar.
Given : 1. enclosed bus ; indoor, well ventilated room.
2. rated normal current 1900 A, r.m.s.
· 3.' rated short-time current 30 k A, 1 sec. Obtain the cross-section on basis of 1
and 2 above and then check the temperature rise (ambient 35°C) for 3.
8. Give detaiied of auxiliary system in a thermal power station with reference to auxiliary switchgears.
9. State the various equipment and auxiliaries in a substation.
l':'. Write detail note on the use of aluminium in switchgear.
11. Which tests are necessary on station bus-bars ?
12. Define : (a) Creepage (b) Clearance.
How can the porcelain insulators be cleaned ?
13. Explain the use of isolator and earthing switch.
14. Distinguish between the functions of isolator, circuit breaker earthing switch.
15. Describe construction of any triple pole isolator.
16. Why interlockings ar~ necessary between isolator, circuit breaker and earthing switch?
TRANSIENT OVERVOLTAGE 341
I < 100 )J.s I < 3000.U.s

V
-
7'1 ---
).J.s-
L!_
LIGHTNING
TEMPORARY SURGE SWITCHING
SURGE
P. F. OVERVOLTAGE
SECONDS -
Transient Overvoltage Surges, Surge Temporary P.F. Overvoltage Lightning Surges . .
Fig. 18 A-1. Three Representative Wave forms+ of P.F. Overvoltages and Surges occurnng m Network.
Arresters and Insulation Co-ordination
voltages of actual overvoltages in the system differ widely. Hence stresses on insulation. are a~so q~ite
Introduction - Principle of Insulation Co-ordination - Lightning Surges and Surge Arresters - d'fferent Power frequency overvoltages are of low overvoltage factor but longer duration. L1ghtnmg
Switching Surge - Insulation Co-ordination.
a~d Switching Surges are of higher over voltage factor and of les~er duration. The standard test
18,1. INTRODUCTION waveforms have been obtained from field studies from several locat10ns, ~ver several ye~~s. and are
used as representatives for laboratory tests of equipment for proving the withstand capabilities.
Each electrical equipment should have long service life of more than 25 years. The conductors
are supported on insulators/embedded in insulation system. The internal and external insulation
of every electrical equipment is exposed to continuous normal voltages and occasional abnormal
over voltages. The equipment insulation should be designed such that the equipment withstands
the highest power frequency system voltage, occasional temporary power-frequency overvoltages,
occasional lightning/switching surges reaching the equipment (after the interception by surge ar-
resters). The terms related with rated insulation levels are defined in the relevant IS/IEC Standard
Specifications. Each equipment has assigned Rated Insulation Level, the capability is proved by
Type tests/Routine tests for that equipment. (e.g. Table 16.1).
The insulation system is protected against abnormal p.f. overvoltages, lightning surges and
switching surges.
~t:lmin~ 11 = 1.2 p.s 11 = 250 jJ.s
- The insulation requirements are determined by considering the following : 12 = 50 ).ls 12: 2500 ils
- Highest power frequency System voltage (continuous) LIGHTNING SWITCH! ;-.ic;
IMPULSE IMPULSE
- Temporary Power-Frequency Overvoltages (a few mill-seconds to seconds) caused by load
throw-off, faults, resonance ek TEST WAVE TEST WAVE
-- Transient Overvoltages Surges (few hundred microseconds). caused by Lightning, Switching, P.F. Overvoltage Impulse Voltage Wave
Restrikes, Travelling waves etc. The Surge Arresters intercept the surges and protect the Fig. 18 A-2. Standard Test Waveforms for Laboratory Tests.
installation. (Word "Impulse" used for "test wave," "Surge" for "wave" in network)
- Withstand Levels of the equipment. The BIL is specified and other withstand levels are then
selected from relevant tables in standard specifications. Table 18,1, Example of Rated Insulation Characteristics of
an Outdoor Busbar
Basic Impulse Insulation Level (BIL) is reference levd expressed in peak (crest) voltage value
with standard 1.2/50 µs lightning impulse wave. Apparatus should be capable of withstanding test Nominal voltage• 132 kV rms, 50Hz
waves above BIL.
Highest system voltage•• 145 kV rms, 50 Hz
- Protective levels of Surge arresters and available Protective Margin against Lightn-
ing/Switching Surges. 1 Min. 50 Hz Withstand... 300 kVrms
Lightning Impulse Voltage Withstand 450 kV peak
t t . Mab.
P roec.1ve rcnn -[Withstand
- fE . Level] - [ Protective
A Level by]
o qmpment Surge rrester Switching Impulse Voltage Withstand+ 380 kV peak
Lightning Surge Protective Level 390 kVp
Co-ordination with other equipment connected to same voltage level.
Co-ordination between various voltage levels in the Network. Lightning Surge Protective Margin by S.A. 60kV
System Neutral Earthing. * Rated voltage · .
Fig. 18. A-1 illustrates the range of waveforms and durations of Power-frequency Overvoltage,
** Design voltage for continuous withstand .
*** Test voltage for 1 min. power frequency voltage withstand test
Lightning Surges and Switching Surges. The time durations, rate ofrise, peak values of these over- + Switching overvoltage factor K, not specified for 132 kV busbars
342 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION ANSIENT OVERVOLTAGE 343
Basic Protections against 0vervoltages uring 1960s and early 1970s, Switching Surge Phenomena were investigated, the Circuit-
The protection against Transient Voltage Surges is provided by Surge Arresters. The surge ar, D
eakers wi'th 1ow Switching Overvoltage Factors (K < 2) were developed. Surge arresters capable
resters, coordinated spark gaps, surge suppressors, overhead ground wires, neutral earthing, shunt diverting/absorbing switching surges were also developed.
capacitors etc. are located strategically to intercept the lightning surges or to reduce the peak and S can cause spark over and flashover at sharp corners, flash over between phase and
rate of rise of Surges. Protection against Temporary Power Frequency (50 Hz) Overvoltages is by oun~r!tweakest point, breakdown of gaseous/solid/liquid insulation, failure of transformers and
Inverse Definite-Minimum Time Overvoltage Relay (IDMT). Overvoltage relay is connected to tating machines. . . . . .
secondary ofVoltage Transformer. During p.f. overvoltage beyond permissible limit; the overvoltage Several defensive-device are installed in the Netu:ork to inte~cept Light':ing Strokes and ?1in_i-
relay acts and sends appropriate command to busbar/line C.B. and the circuit breaker opens. The iliise the peak/ rate of rise of surges reaching the equipment. Ultimate and important protect10n 1s
transformers and other equipment are protected against temporary power frequency overvoltages. '.<y ZnO Surge Arresters. ·
The Coefficient of Earthing co-relates the Insulation Levels with the Type of Neutral Earthing, Strategy of Insulation Co-ordination . .
the details are described in Ch. 18-B.
Following methods are applied to solve the problem of overvoltages and Insulat10n Co-ordma-
Protections against 0vervoltages and how fast they act ?
Temporary Ouervoltage (ms ~ Each Equipment has specified power frequency Withstand Level and Impulse Withstand
ors) I Lightning Surge (µs) I Switching Surge (µs) I Levels. • L l f
J, J, _ The Withstand Levels of Equipment/Machines are co-ordinated with the Protective eve, o
Overvoltage
nearest Surge Arrester. Protective Levels of Surge Arrester at each voltage level shall be
Surge Arrester Surge Arrester coordinated.
Relay & CB 1.2 µs _ Every equipment is well protected and overall economy and reliability is a~hieved. In the
< 70ms 100 µs
event of occurrence of severe voltage-surge the damage is to least costly equipment (Spark
Gap). .
The overvoltage protection against Voltage Surges is provided by Surge Arresters which act _ Duplicate surge protection is provided in Substations, one surge arrester per phase at m-
within microseconds. The surge is diverted to earth by the Surge Arrester.
come bus and another surge arrester at Transformer terminal, for each,phase.
Highest Power Frequency Voltages
_ Rotating machines are provided with R-C Surge suppressors at the terminals.
The AC Network has different nominal power-frequency voltage levels (e.g. 400 V, 3.3kV; 220 _ System Neutral is Earthed ·at every voltage level to reduce Coefficient of earthing and to
kV, 400 kV rms continuous, at 50Hz). During low loads, the power frequency voltage at receiving discharge the surges.
end of transmission line rises. In a well voltage-regulate system, the permissible maximum syste111 Insulation co-ordination covers the following aspects :
voltage allowed is called Highest System Voltage. Each nominal voltage level has certain cor-
responding Highest System Voltage (440 V, 3.6 kV; 245 kV, 420 kV rms continuous). Each equip- _ The causes and effects of Transient Overvoltages (Surges) and the Protection of Electrical
ment is designed and tested to withstand the corresponding Highest Power Frequency System Equipment Insulation.
Voltage of that voltage level continuously without internal or external insulation failure. - Standardisation of Nominal Voltage Levels, Highest Voltage Levels in the Network.
Protection against Temporary Power Frequency 0vervoltages - Choice of Power Frequency withstand values for equipment insulation.
- Choice of BIL and Switching Impulse Withstand Levels for Equipment Insulation.
There is a difference between the characteristics of Power-Frequency Overvoltage and Transit
Voltage Surges and the corresponding stresses on equipment and surge arresters. The temporary Basic Impulse Insulation Level (BIL) is the reference level expressed in kV peak (crest)
P.F. Overvoltages are of 50 Hz and oflesser peak, lesser rate ofrise and of longer duration (seconds voltage value with standard 1.2/50 µs Lightning impulse wave. Apparatus should be capable of
or even minutes). Every time a change in tap changing by one step-up may cause slight temporary withstanding test waves· above BIL.
overvoltage. In absence of proper voltage control (Ch. 45) the power frequency voltages go much - Choice of Switching Impulse withstand levels for equipment insulation. . .
beyond permissible highest system voltage values. Transformers are worst affected by temporary _ Temporary power frequency overvoltage protection by overvoltage relays and circuit
overvoltages above 1.1 pu. (due to high V/f and overfluxing.) Solid insulator supports are least af- breakers. .
fected. The protection against temporary P.F/Overvoltages is provided by Inverse Definite Mini- _ Co-ordination between the Withstand Levels of Equipment and the Protective Levels
mum Time IDMT Overvoltage Relays connected to secondary of Bus VT and Circuit Breakers. The provided by surge arresters and the Protective Margin at various voltage levels for each
relay and breaker action is within several tens of milliseconds to a few seconds. The Overvoltage equipment.
Relays connected to secondary of Voltage Transformer respond to the overvoltages and give tripping Power Frequency Overvolt~ges
command to circuit breakers. The Circuit Breakers open and the Equipment (e.g. Transformer or
Busbar) is protected against the temporary overvoltage. The Power Frequency (50 Hz) overvoltages are the 50 Hz Overv_olta_ges of':'alue more than the
Highest System voltage. For example in a 132 kV system, 145 kV is highest system voltage, and
Protection against Transient Surges
150 kV rms is power frequency overvoltage. Such voltages are called temporary overvoltages. .
Surges in the Powe~ System are of comparatively high peak, high rate of rise and last for a The power frequency voltage withs(and level of an equipm~nt denotes ~he capability of the e9-mp-
few tens I hundreds of_micr_o seconds and are therefore called transients. During 1950s, Lightning ment to withstand p.f. overvoltage for a specified short d~r~t10n (e.~. 1 mm). The system expe31,;~
~urges have resulted m failures. Several Transformers and Generators failed due to direct Lightn- occasional temporary power frequency over voltages ansmg durmg load-throw-o~ ;r~ng d d
mg stroke on ov~rhead lines near the substation/power station. By 1980s, the ZnO arresters were Operation, insufficient shunt compensation, resonance etc. Surge Arresters are no esigne an
perfe~ted . The failure rate due to Lightning and Switching has been minimised by proper insulation installed for protection against the P.F. Overvoltages. -
coordmat10n and Surge Arrester Protection.
344 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION TRANSIENT OVERVOLTAGE 345
Overvoltage Relays are connected to bus-bars via voltage transformers and provide the protec- _ Lightning Impulse Withstand Level (Up kV peak, 1.2/50 µs lightning impulse test wave)
tion against Temporary P.F. Overvoltages. The overvoltage relays respond to power frequency over- _ Switching Surge Withstand Level (Up kV peak, 250/2500 µs switching impulse* test wave)
voltage and trip the circuit breakers against temporary overvoltages above permissible limits (e.g. Definition of Insulation Level of the equipment. The combination of Rated Voltage and
150 kV for a 132 kV System) within a few tens of milliseconds or seconds (with inverse charac- Specified one Minute Power Frequency Withstand level, Lightning Impulse Wi_thstand Level,
teristic). The insulation of transformers/generators/motors etc. connected to busbars is protected. Switching Impulse withstand Level for the Equipment together are called Insulation Level of the
Lightning Surges equipment.
The equipment connected in the network are subjected to occasional Lightning Surges of high ({ . The grading between the Insulation Level of the equipment, Protective Level of Surge Arrester
peak value, sharp rate of rise and short duration. The protection against lightning surges is given and the insulation levels/protective levels of the other equipment and surge arresters at the same
by Lightning A.rresters (Surge Arresters). The equipment has certain assigned Lightning Impulse voltage level, the grading between various voltage levels in the Network is called Insulation Co-or-
Voltage Withstand Level, which is proved by conducting Lightning Impulse Voltage Test. The lightn- dination.
ing a surges are simulated in High Voltage Test Laboratories by a representative 1.2/50 µs Lightn-
ing Impulse Wave obtained from an Impulse Generator. Steps in Irtsulation Co-ord.ination
1. Decide Equipment Insulation Level.
Switching Surge
2. Decide Protective Level of Surge Arrestei•.
The Switching Voltage Surges occur during opening and closing unloaded ERV AC lines, break- 3. Co-ordination 1 and 2 for each equipment.
ing inductive loads, breaking capacitive loads etc. The switching surges are of comparatively longer
4. Co-ordination 3 for various equipment at the Voltage Level.
duration (2500 µs), lower rate ofrise and are represented by standard switching impulse test wave
5. Co-ordination 3 between at various Voltage Levels.
of 250/2500 µs. The peak value of switching surge is expressed in terms of Switching Overvoltage
Factor. Switching Impulse Withstand Level Test is applicable to equipment rated 275 kV and above. The withstand levels of the equipment are co-related with the rated voltage of the equipment and
The motor switching, reactor switching are special switching duties. (Ch. 18, Sec. 18.23 to 18.26), the test values for type test and routine test and with the protective levels provided by the protective
which generate switching surges. device (surge arrester, spark gap, surge absorbers, overvoltage relays, etc.) It is not economical/possible
The switching surges are simulated in High Voltage Test Laboratories by a representative to design each equipment to withstand full lightning surge/switching surge/temporary overvoltage oc-
250/2500 µs Switching Impulse Wave obtained from an Impulse Generator. curing in the network. Certain protective devices like Surge Arresters, Spark-gaps, Surge Absorbers,
The protective devices against Switching Surges are : Overvoltage Relays are provided. These protective devices have certain protective levels against
specified voltage waveforms.
- ZnO surge arresters with high energy absorbtion capability, installed near the apparatus.
Surge Arresters divert the switching surges/lightning surges above the protective level to earth
- RC Surge Suppressers, installed near the rotating machine terminals, circuit-breaker ter-
minals. within a few microseconds and protect the equipment against insulation failure. Spark gaps (coor-
dinating gaps flashover externally during a voltage surge and protect the equipment insulation.
Preventive Measures against Switching Surges are :
Table 18.2, Overvoltages and Protective Devices
- Use of Circuit-Breaker with Low Switching Overvoltage Factor K.
Temporary-Power-frequency overvoltages
- Use adequate phase-to-ground capacitance in the supply circuit to absorb the switching
overvoltage. - Lasts for a few seconds to a few minutes
Equipment Insulation. Each equipment has certain internal and certain external phase to - Magnitudes approximately over 1.1 pu, phase to ground, rms
ground insulation, an~ ph~se to. phase insulation, creepage distance, clearances, insulation grading
etc. The voltage gradmg rmgs improve the voltage stress profile and give high withstand values. - Protection by inverse-overvoltage relay and opening of breakers
These insulation requirements of AC electrical equipments are determined by the voltage stresses - Neutral earthing at each voltage level is necessary to avoid overvoltages in healthy phases single line to
occurring during : ground faults and arcing grounds. ·
- Continuous Highest Power Frequency System-Voltage
Switching Overvoltage Surges•
- Occasional Temporary power frequency overvoltage caused by load-throw-off, oscillations,
faults. - Occur during circuit breaker operation while breaking of inductive currents, restrikes in C.B. while
breaking capacitive currents, closing unloaded EHV AC lines, etc.
Occasional Transient Lightning Surges
- Represented by standard 250/2500 µs Switching Impulse Test wave. Each EHV Equipment should have
Occasional Transient Switching Surges particularly due to switching of inductive/capacitive withstand capability against Standard Switching Impulse of specified peak and test conditions.
loads or ERV lines.
- Magnitude of test voltage are taken from standard tables.
The dielectric stresses are imposed on internal and external, gaseous/solid and liquid insulation
systems insulation systems of each equipment. The dielectric stresses depend on the peak vale, - Circuit-breakers should be suitable for switching duty so that switching overvoltages are within specified
rate of rise, durations, of the voltage waveforms etc. · · limits (e.g. 2 pu peak).
According to standard specification, each substation equipment has certain specified withstand - Surge arresters and Surge Suppressors are used for protection.
levels of power frequency, lightning impulse and switching impulse voltage waveform. The
withstand level is proved by relevant type tests and routine tests. The specified voltage withstand - Neutral Earthing dissipates overvoltage to earth and helps the system insulation.
levels are:
- High Power Frequency Voltage Withstand Level for a short duration (U kV rms, 50 Hz for
1 minute). * The word Impulse is used for test waves produced in laboratory by means of an impulse generator. The word
surge is for the wave in power system.
346
ANSIENT OVERVOLTAGE
Lightning Overvoltage Surges
5. Protective Level of the Protective Device. The highest peak value ofvoltage that should
- Occur due to .lightning strokes or discharges on overhead lines, outdoor equipment and surges trav I t exceed at the terminals of the protective device when standard impulse voltage wave is applied
through conductors. e
the installation under specified conditions of test.
- Represented by 1.2/50 µs Impulse test wave 6. Withstand Level of Apparatus/Equipment. The value of Standard test wave (power fre-
- Magnitude of test voltages are taken from standard tables. uency/ or impulse) which the Equipment/Apparatus is assigned to withstand under specified test
- Protection by Overhead Shielding Wires, Surge Arresters onditions.
t t' M . [ Protecti~e Level ] [ Withstand level]
- Neutral Earthing dissipates the voltage surge to earth. 7. P ro ec IVe argm = of Surge Arrester - of the Apparatus
- Each s?bstation equipment has assigned value of Lightning Impulse Withstand Level.
Protective Level of SA. 8. Surge Arrester (Lightning Arrester). A protective device which discharges excess voltage
surges to earth and provides protection to the power system apparatus/equipment subjected to over-
'The word Surge is used for the transient voltage ;Naves occuring in the network.
voltage surge.
Basic Approach to Insulation Coordination In Power Systems Types : 1. Gapped SiC Arresters (Valve Type Arresters)
. The rated voltages, withstand levels of equipment insulation are coordinated with the protec- 2. Gapless ZnO Arresters (Metal Oxide Arresters).
tive l~vels of t~e surge ~rreste_rs such that protective levels are less than the withstand level with 9. Insulation Coordination. Grading of Withstand Levels of Apparatus/Equipment with the
certain_protectwe margin. This co~ordination between Insulation Levels of the equipment and Protective Levels of Surge Arresters and co-ordination at the entire voltage level and various other
protective levels of surge arresters is further coordinated for various equipments at the same volt- voltage levels.
age level and f~rther for equipment at various voltage levels. Such a grading of withstand values 10. Switching Overvoltage Factor K of the switching duty
a_nd the protective levels of surge arresters at various voltage levels is called Insulation Coordina- Actual U peak phase to ground voltage]
tion.
[ value during switching duty
IE~ (Interna~ion~l Electr~technical Commission) and IS (Indian Standards) Specification on K=---------------------
Peak rated Highest System Voltage phase to ground
Insulatrnn Co-ordination on High Voltage Equipment; High Voltage Testing specify the values of
1. Nominal Power Frequency System Voltages · K= Actual voltage phase to ground, peak .
Rated Highest System Voltage, phase to ground, peak
2. Highest Power Frequency System Voltages
11. Switching Overvoltage. The overvoltage surge produced in the system induc-
3. Required Lightning Impulse Voltage Levels
tance/capacitance by opening/closing·operation of circuit breaker.
4. Required Switching Impulse Voltage Levels 12. Temporary Power F'requency Overvoltages. The overvoltage of 50 Hz waveform
5. Protective Levels by Surge arresters produced by load throw-off, faults, resonance, poor voltage regulation by OLTC/Shunt Compensa-
6. Withstand Levels of the Eq~ipment against 2 3 4 tion etc.
' '
System Designers(Consultants select the Insulation Levels at each voltage level from the Stand- 13. Spark Gap, Co-ordinating Gap. An adjustable air gap with lower flashover value than
ards. T~ese are coordmated for the entire Network having various voltage levels. The Equipment the insulator and placed in parallel with the equipment insulator for protection against voltage
I~sulatrnn and Surge Arrest~r Protection Levels are graded (coordinated). The Equipment specifica- surge. [Spark gap was the basic protection before 1960s when Surge Arresters were not under
tions are based on the coordmated values. development. Spark Gap characteristics are not exact and can have variation of± 30% depending
upon weather conditions and shape of surge].
18.2. TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 14. Overhead Shielding Wire. A stranded and earthed galvanised steel conductor located
1. Insul~tion Level of an ~pparatus. A combination of withstand values both power fre- above the transmission line conductors/outdoor busbars/outdoor equipment etc. with sufficient
clearance. The Overhead Shielding conductor is connected to earth electrode via another earthing
t e capaab~ld'timpful~tehvotltadg_es
qhuency w~ich c~aracterise the insulation of that apparatus with regard to
i i y o wi s an mg dielectric stresses. connector at each galvanised steel structure/transmission tower.
th 2 · 8:ighes! Vol.tage 0 f.Equi~men~Apparatus. The highest phase to phase voltage for which 15. Underground Earthing Mat (Mesh). The horizontal underground mesh of welded steel
e equSipmten Veqlutipme(Unt is designed; it corresponds to the Highest Power Frequency Phase to rods and vertical earth electrodes which together gives low earth-resistance earthing system for
Ph ase ys em o age in rms). •
Substations/Power Stations/Towers/Installations.
3. Over Voltage. Any time dependant voltage (U) exceeding the value (Y2/.../3U ) instan- 16. BIL-Basif? Impulse Insulation Levels. Reference levels expressed in kV peak (crest) of
taneous, phase to ground or (Y2 Um) instantaneous phase to phase. m 1.2/50 µs standard lightning impulse wave. The apparatus withstand characteristics should be
U > ../2"113 Um. instantaneous, phase to ground above the BIL.
U > ../2" Um instantaneous, phase to phase. 17. Critical Flashover Voltage (CFO). Peak impulse voltage for a 50% probability of
flashover for a particular apparatus.
(U p )\ oPhaie ~oh~hhase pher unit overvoltage. The ratio of peak of phase to phase actual voltage
pea o 1g est p ase to phase voltage of the equipment 18. Impulse ratio for flash over or failure of insulation
Peak value of impulse voltage
Pu 0. vervo lt age= ✓ UP phase to phase. p u
2 Um phase to phase · · = Peak value of power frequency voltage wave
to cause the flash over or failure of insulation.
. !_l'RANSIEN'l' OVERVOLTAGE 349
343 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTEC'J'ION
,·\s.4, PROTECTIVE RATIO, PROTECTIVE MARGIN
18.3. CHOICE OF INSULATION LEVELS OF SUB-STATION EQUIPMENT
The protection of equipment against impulse voltages waves by means of Surge arresters is
The insulation of substation equipment should withstand the over-voltages occuring due to in- ,.. expressed in terms of Protective Margin.
ternal and external causes.
. R . Impulse Withstand Level of Equipment, kVp
The over-voltages are two categories : . Level of Surge Arrester, lcv p
Protective at10 = Protective
- Power frequency voltages
Separate protective ratio is specified for
- Impulse voltage surges due to lightning and switching.
(1) Lightning Impulse wave. (2) Switching Impulse wave.
The temporary power-frequency over-voltages occur due to regulation Ferranti, effect, load
throw, etc. Protective Ratios are usually above 1.2.
The performance of insulatim1 is verified by power frequency tests and impulse tests. p t t' M ·n -[Equipment withstand]_ [Protective level of]
ro ec ive argi - level Surge Arrest
The sur~~ a 7rester~ (lightning arresters) divert the transient overvoltages to earth and protect
the sub-stat10n msulat10n. - Protective Margin may be expressed in terms of per cent of Equipment Withstand level
T'."l achieve the desired insulation levels in the sub-station, following conditions should be satis- Protective levels are different for Lightning Impulse and Switching Impulse, e.g.
fied :
Lightning Impulse Voltage withstand level=
1. Clearances should be as per recommendations of standards. These clearances are based on 12
Switching Impulse withstand level ·
specified impulse withstand· levels.
2. Each equipment should have specified impulse withstand level. PART I. Lightning Over-voltages
3. Surge arresters should be of specified protective level.
4. Th~ pr~tective ra~io and protective margin should be correctly selected such that equipment 18.5. LIGHTNING
design is economical and flash over/damage does not cause major damage to costly and im- Benjamin Franklin (1706-90) performed his famous experiment (17 45) of flying kite in thunder
portant equipment. I ·
cloud. Before his discovery the lightning was considered to be "Act of God". Frankling proved that
Table 18.3. Insulation Levels of Sub-station Equipment the lightning stroke is due to the discharge of electricity. Franklin also invented lightning rods to
be fixed on tall buildings and earthed to protect them from lightning strokes. Hence Franklin is a
Impulse withstand test pioneer scientist in this field. The large spark accompanied by light produced by an abrupt, discon-
Normal Voltage Highest system dr.y with 1 minute Power
line to line U,,, voltage aine to standard full wave, frequency withstand tinuous discharge of electricity through the air, from the clouds generally under turbulent conditions
line) kV(m.s. U,,, + ve and negative under standard of 'atmosphere is called lightning.
polarities kV (crest) condition kV r.m.s.
Representative values of a lightning strnke :
kvr.m.s
Voltage 2 x 108 volts 200, MV (peak)
3.3 3.6 45 21 Current 4 x 44 amp.
6.6 7.2 60 Duration 10- 5 sec.
27
11 12 75 kW Fl x 109
., 35
15 17.5 95 kWh 22.
45
22 24 125 Energy= Ju· t dt = 22 kWh
55
33 36 170 Static induced charges, An overhead conductor accumulate statically induced charge when
75
47 52 a charged clouds come above the conductor. If the cloud is swept away from its place, the charges
250 105 on the conductor is released. The charge travels on either sides giving rise to two travelling waves.
66 72.5 325 The earth wire does not prevent such surges.
140
~
88 .,100 450 Another curious phenomenon is the unpredictable paths of lightning strokes. Normally they
_,, 182
110 123 try to reach the earth and are therefore intercepted by lightning rods, trees, tall structures etc.
550 230 Empire State Building of New York has been hit by several strokes. However some lightning strokes
132 145 650 do not observe any rules. It has been reported that some strokes have travelled horizontally in all
275
150 170 sorts of haphazard fashion.
750 325
220 245 B type stroke [Fig. 18.3 (b)] occurs due to sudden changes in charges of the cloud. If cloud 1
1050 460 suddenly discharges to cloud 2, there is a sudden change in the charge on cloud 3. A discharge
400 420 1550 between cloud 3 and earth is called B stroke. Such stroke does not hit lightning rod, or earth wire.
680
Therefore, no protection can be provided to the OH line against such strokes.
350 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION TRANSIENT OVERVOLTAGE
'ts.7. LIGHTNING STROKE ON OH LINES (OVERHEAD LINE)
351 l
These can be the following :
(1) Direct strokes on line conductor. (2) Direct stroke on Tower Top.
(3) Direct stroke on Ground wire. (4) Indirect stroke or B stroke on OH lines conductor.
Direct Strokes on OH conductors. These are most harmful. The voltage being of the order
million volts, the insulators flash-over, puncture and get shattered. The wave travels to
sides shattering line insulators, until the surge is dissipated sufficiently. The wave reaches
sub-station and produces stress on equipment insulators. Luckily, these strokes are prevented
striking the line conductor. All high voltage OH lines are protected by earth conductors. The
~"•""'"" switchyards are provided with overhead mesh of earth conductors. This mesh covers the
9 :r>!l:Q
complete switchyard.
Direct strokes on tower-top
Let, L = Inductance of tower. i = Current in tower.
'I , R = Effective resistance of tower. e = Voltage surge between tower-top and earth.
Fig, lSA-3. A stroke B stroke.
(a) A stroke occurs between charged cloud and earth. The
lightning conductor or earth wire attracts such stroke.
(b) B stroke occurs because of sudden change in charge
conditions in the clouds, Lightning conductor, or earth
e =L :! +Ri volts
wires do not attract such strokes. di
Let dt = 10 kA/µs.
Attractive effect of OH Ground Wire and Earth Rods (MASTS). Earth rods (also called
lightning rod) are placed on tall buildings. These are connected to the earth. The positive charges R =5 ohm. L = 10 µH
accumulate on the sharp points of the lightning rods, thereby the lightning strokes are attracted Then e = 200,000 V. This surge voltage appears between the tower-top and earth. The line con-
to them. The earth wires are placed above the OH transmission lines. At every tower this wire is ditions are virtually at earth potential because of neutral grounding. Hence this voltage appears
grounded. The positive charges accumulate on this wire. The negatively charged strokes are at- between line conductors and tower-top. If this surge voltage exceeds impulse flash-over level, a
tracted by the earth wire. In absence of the earth wire the lightning stroke would strike the line flash-over occurs between tower and line conductor. Hence R is kept low for each tower.
conductors causing a flashovers in transmission line. A direct stroke on earth wire in the mid-span can cause a flashover between line conductor
Earth wires do not provide 100% protection. Weak strokes are not attracted by earth wires. B and earth wire or line conductor and tower.
type strokes are also not attracted. However for the most dangerous "direct strokes" earth wire has Indirect strokes on line conductor can have the same effect as direct stroke on conductor. In-
proved to be a very good solution. direct strokes are more harmfull for distribution lines but are not significant for EHV lines. Other
Practical experience has shown that earth wires have a shielding angle. The conductors coming factors are low tower footing resistance insulation level oflines. For lines rated 110 kV and above,
in the shielded zone are protected against direct strokes. Shielding angle is between 30° to 40°. An· the line insulation is high and backflashovers are rare. For line between 11 kV, 33 kV the insulation
angle of 35° is supposed~o be satisfactory and economical for OH lines. of lines is relatively low and back-flashovers are likely to occur.
18.6. OVERHEAD SHIELDING SCREEN (Earthed) 18.8. PROTECTIVE DEVICES AGAINST LIGHTNING SURGES
The sub-station equipment are protected from direct lightning strokes by one of the following : Table 18.4
1. Overhead shielding screen (Earthed), Covering the outdoor sub-station and the overhead Device Where applied Remarks
lines approaching the sub-station. Rod gaps Across insulator string, hushing - Difficult to co-ordinate
2. Lightning Masts installed at strategic locations in the switchyard. The tower-top is earthed, insulators. Support insulator. - Flashover voltage varies by ± 30%
Mast is an independant structure. - Create dead shot circuit
Both the above methods are being used in India. - Cheap
Lightning masts are preferred for outdoor switchyards upto 33 kV. For 66 kV and above, the Overhead Ground - Above overhead lines Provide effective protection against direct
lightning masts become too tall and uneconomical. The overhead shielding wires are preferred be- Wires (earthed) - Above the sub-station area strokes on line conductors towers
cause they give adequate protection and the height of structures in the sub-station provided with sub-station equipment.
overhead shielding wires is comparatively less than that with the of lightning masts. Vertical Masts - In sub-stations -- Instead of providing overhead shielding
Overhead shielding screen (Earthed). The entire switchyard is provided with earthed overhead wires
shielding screen. The size of conductor is usually 7/9 SWG, galvanised steel round stranded conductor. Lightning - Above tall buildings Protect Buildings against direct strokes.
Transmission line conductors are protected by over head shielding conductor (earthed). The Spikes/Rods (earthed) Angle of Protection a= 30° to 40°
shielding angle (a) defined as follows. A vertical line is drawn from the earth wire. Angle a is plotted Lightning Arresters - On incoming lines in each - Diverts over-voltage to earth without
on each side of this vertical line, The envelope within angle 2o: is called zone of protection. (Surge Arresters) sub-station causing short-circuit
The shielding angles are as follows : - Near terminals of Transformers - Used at every voltage level in every
American practice : 30° and Gener_ators sub-station and for each line
British practice : 45° - Pole mounted on distribution lines. - Phase to ground
The clearance between phase conductor and overhead shielding wire should be more than min- Surge Absorbers - Near rotating machines or Resistance Capacitance Combination
imum phase to earth clearance. Switchgear absorbs the over voltage surge and reduces
-Across series reactor, valves. steepness of wave.
OH = Overhead, above the conductor/apparatus. Ground = Earth.
352
18.9. ROD GAPS OR SPARK GAP
The simplest protection of line insulators, equipment, in-
sulators and bushings is given by Rod Gaps or Coordinating Gaps.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTT
SIENTOVERVOLTAGE
·surge Arrester discharges current impulse surge to earth and dissipates energy in the form of
353 7
The conducting rods are provided between line terminal and ear- tAfter discha~ging the impulse wave to the earth, the resistor blocks in the surge arrester .offe~s
ry high resistance to the normal power frequency voltage and the arrester acts a~ open cll'c1;1it.
thed terminal of the insulator with an adjustable gap. The e arresters are not against temporary power frequency over voltages. They provide protect10n
medium of gap is air. The rods are approximately 12 mm dia or ainst surge voltage waves. ·
square. The gap is adjusted to breakdown at about 20% below At present the following types of surge arrester are used :
flash-over voltage of insulator. The distance between arc path and 1
1. Gapped Silicon-carbide Surge Arresters called valve type or ~onventional Gapped Ar-
insulator should be more than 1/3 of the gap length, i.e. 11 > l/3 I
I r~sters. These consist of silicon-carbide discs in series with spark gap umts.
(Fig. 18.4). Refer Table 18.4 for gap-settings. !L
· 2. Zinc-Oxide Gapless Arresters called ZnO Arresters or Metal-o~ide Arresters. T~e~e are
Precise protection is not possible by rod gaps. The break- [+- tr
I i,aµw~• and consist of zinc-oxide discs in series. ZnO arresters have super10r VII charactenstic and
down voltage varies with polarity, steepness and wave-shape, , energy absorption level. They are preferred for EHV and HVDC in.stallati.ons.
I
weather. The power frequency currents continue to flow even
Gap Type SiC Arrester
after the high voltage surge has vanished. This creates an earth
fault only to be interrupted by circuit breaker. Operation of rod Surge arrester is connected between phase and earth. It consists of si~icon-car~ide (SiC) resistor
gap, therefore, leads to discontinuity of supply. The advantage of lements in series with gap elements. The resistor elements offer non-lmear resistance such th.at
gap is low cost and easy adjustment on site. For more precise for normal frequency power system voltage the r'esistance is high. For discharge currents the resis-
operation, surge arresters are used. tance is low. The gap unit consist of air gaps of appropriate length. During normal voltages t~e
surge arrester does not conduct. When a surge-';ave travelling alo~g t~e line reaches the arrester,
Horn Gap. The gap between horns is less at the bottom and
the gap breaks down. The resistance offered bemg low the surge is d~verted to the earth. After a
large at the top. An arc is produced at the bottom during high
fewµ seconds the surge vanishes and normal power frequency voltage is set up across t.he arrest~r.
voltage surge. This arc commutes along the horn due to
The resistance offered by resistors to this voltage is very high. Therefore, arc current m gap umts
electromagnetic field action and length increases. The arc may
blow out. reduces and voltage across the gap is no more sufficient to mainta~n. th~ arc. Therefore, the. current
flowing to the earth is automatically interrupted and normal condition is restored. Thus, hig~ vol~-
Impulse Ratio. Impulse ratio of a protective device is the TO EARTH age surge is discharged to earth.. ~ence the insulation of equipment connected to the lme is
ratio of breakdown voltage on specified impulse wave to break- Fig. 18.4. Rod gap. protected.*
down voltage at power frequency.
Fig. 18.6 illustrates the operation of a surge arrester. When a lightning surge or switching .surge
travelling along the transmission line reached the terminal of the surge arrester, at a particular
REACTOR
Ll
-----, ~
:...-,~o-o~o-o-o01r..._-.-_____o_1-1_L_,rv._t:_ HIGH VOLT AGE
WAVE FROM
----.J SPARK OVER VOLTAGE p
TRANSMISSION
Lll'JE
.Sl/8STN
I
: PORTION A
\__ ~A,®·~~~~~~~. !p~,-... ........
/
l®
............
........
--
-------.-·-...... ;--;.--...... B
I PROCEEDS
FURTHER
•.., ----f-- I
I
I
I
I
RESIDLJAL VOLTAGE ,/
Fig. 18.5. Hom gap. ·I
Typical impulse ratios : W Surge travelling along

Sphere Gap OH line
1 P Peak of impulse wave
Rod Gap 1.6 to 3 A Voltage at which LA
Horn gap 2 to 3. RESISTER UNITS
sparks over
. LIGHTENING AFIRESTER
CONNECTED Bl:TWEEN B Average residual
18.10. SURGE ARRESTERS (LIGHTNING ARRESTERS) LINE & GROUND voltage.
Surge Arresters are usually connected between phase and ground (Fig. 17.1) in distribution GAP UNIT
system ; near the terminals of large medium voltage rotating machines and in HV, EHV, HVDC
sub-stations to protect the apparatus insulation from lightning surges and switching surges.
The resistor blocks in the surge arrester offer low resistance to high voltage surge and divert
the high voltage surge to ground. Thereby the insulation of protected installation is not subjected
to the full surge voltage. The surge arrester does not create short-circuit like rod gaps and retains Fig. 18A-6. Illustrates the operation of Surge Arrester.
the residual voltage across its terminals.
* Refer Sec. 17 .2 for Location of Surge Arresters.
355
SIENT OVERVOLTAGE
354 . SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECT!
.11. SURGE ARRESTER SPECIFICATIONS AND TERMS
voltage (mstantaneous value) A de e d · · 1. Surge arrester is a device designed to protect electrical equipment from transient high volt-
voltage is called impulse spark~ve:v~lt~n! upon steepness of~av:e front, the SA sparks over.
and insulation on sub-section side is t g i,-H~n~e the surge is diverted to earth through the S e, to limit the duration and amplitude of the follow current.
across LA does not drop to zero like _no ~u ~ec e to peak voltage P. After breakdown the volta 2. Non-linear resistor. The part of the arrester which offers a low resistance to the flow of
the gap remains at residual value B ;n ro hgaps_ because of the series resistors. The voltage acr . barge currents thus limiting the voltage across the arrester terminals and high resistance to
value during discharge. A portion olr a s ort time. Hence line to earth voltage remains at residu wer frequency voltage, thus limiting the magnitude of follow current.
front are reduced. wave proceeds further but the peak and steepness of wav
After short time of the order of some micros d h . .

cy voltages appear across the SA The 1 e1~n s,. t e wave is discharged and normal frequen
units and the arc extinguishers The S~rm~ vo tahge is_n?t enough to maintain the arc in the ga.'4.·
· · res ores e or1gmal condition (Fig. 18.8). t-
GAP UNIT
NORMAL POWER RESISTOR
FREQUENCY VOLTAGE UNIT
I 'THYRITE OR
f\1~TROSIL
p .,-- .. '
I ',..._
,' '-... A= IMPULSE SPARK
/*,_ _ _ _ _ ___;::.._-,-:O~VER VOLTAGE
7 -- .... PORCELAIN CONTAINER
RESISTANCE ELEMENTS
B
@
II -
GAP UNIT
I
1•RESTDUAL .--++..,._..,.., :, ,. FRAME FOR
I VOLTAGE CONNECTION.("" ··'.'CONTACT PLATE MOUNTING
I
I FOR EARTHING. .
TIME 1.N )). SEC

Fig. 18A-9. Distribution type surge arrester.
Fig. 18A-7. Voltage characteristic of surge arrester. Fig. lSA-B. SA restores normal condition as the 3. Rated voltage of the arrester. Maximum permissible RMS voltage between the line ter-
norm~! voltage is not enough to maintain the
arc m the gap unit. The resistance offered minal and earth terminal of the arrester as designated by the manufacturer.
to low curr_ents by resistor elements is high We have to note this term carefully. For all the other apparatus, the rated voltage is generally
Classification of S Ar - Gap is blown out by magnetic field. phase to phase. For Surge Arrester rated voltage is in terms of phase to ground. (Ref. Sec. 18.11).
urge resters 4. Follow current. The current which flows from connected power source through lightning
The classification is based on volt
(1) Station Type SA. This has htfe, trre~·tnd energy cap~bility. (Ref. Table 18.5). arrester following the passage of the discharge current.
level. · g es capa 1 ity for energy dissipation and lowest protective 5. Normal Discharge Current. Surge current which flows through the SA after the spark
over, expressed in crest value (peak value) for a specified wave. This term is used in classifying the
(2) Line Type Surge Arrester (Intermedi
large transformers, intermediate sub-stat' T~te type). These are generally used for protecting SA (station type, line type, distributor type).
upto 5000 A. . wns. ese are smaller than station transformers. Rating 6. Discharge Current. The surge current which flows through the arrester after the spark
(3) Distribution type and Rural S over.
for pole mounting in distribution circuit~rfo/c:~d~~ typdt; s11:rge_ arresters. These are intended 7. Power frequency spark-over voltage. r.m.s value of power frequency 50 Hz voltage ap-
A and 1500 A. (Refer Table 18.2). pr ec 10n of 1stnbut10n transformers. Rating: 2500
plied between the line and earth terminals of arrester and earth which causes sparkover of the
..
Table 18 5 CI ass1·r·ication of Surge Arrester
series gap.
Station type Line type Distribution type 8. Impulse spark-over voltage. Highest value of voltage attained during an impulse of given
Standard normal 10,000 5000 2500: 1500 polarity, of specified wave shape applied between the line terminal and earth terminal ofan arrester
discharge current before the flow of discharge current.
(amperes) peak I 9. Residual voltage (Discharge voltage). The voltage that appears between the line ter-
Voltage .rating kV r.m.s. 3.3
245 3.3 123 Upto 3.3
/ minals and earth, during the passage of the discharge current.
Application (Ref. Sec. Large power-Station Intermediate, Large Distribution system ; 10. Rated current. Maximu~ impulse current at which the peak discharge residual voltage
18.6) and Lart;re Sub-station Sub-station, Medium Rural Distribution
Power Station is determined.
Refer Definitio ns m Sec. 18.11.
356 357
SWITCHGEAR AND ,,PROTECTION
11. Coefficient of Earthing ,j The surge arrester pole is connectecL~tween phase and gr_ound. ';l'he r8:ted voltage should be
· more than the phase to ground voltage on unfauiteaphase durmg a smgle hne to ground fault on
_ Highest r.m.s. voltage of healthy phase to earth . anY other phase. (Ref. Sec. 18.11.)
- Ph ase to ph ase normal r.m.s. voltage x 100
.J · During a single phase to earth fault on one phase, the phase to ground voltage of other. two
(during earth fault on one phase). > healthy phases rises to (Um· Ce). The Rf!,ted Voltage of surge arrester (Ua) should be more than
' (Um• Ce) rms kV continuous across the terminals.
18.12. TESTS ON SURGE ARRESTERS Ua > Um X Ce kVrms
The stan~ard impulse test wa:ves are shown in Fig. 18.10 (a) and (b). Tests performed on SA Note: Ua is across the terminals of the Surge Arrester Pole. Surge Arrester should be capable
are the followmg : to perform its rated duties at rated rms voltage Ua across its terminals. The leakage currents
1. 1/50 impulse sparkover test. through the surge arrester pole during normal system voltag~ and after diverting the surge should
2. Wave front impulse sparkover test. be only a few mA.
3. Peak discharge residual voltage at low current. In a system without neutral-earth, the phase to earth voltage of phase A and phase B rises to
3 Um during a single phase to earth fault (F) on phase C. In an neutral earthed system the voltage
4. Peak discharge residual voltage at rated diverter current. of healthy phases rises to Ce· Um ..
5. Impulse current withstand test.
6. Switching-impulse voltage test.
7. Discharge capability of durability. SA-1- in unfaulted phase, during a single
GENERATOR phase to earth fault F.
8. Transmission line discharge test. OR TRANSFORME A - Solid or Effective Neutral Earthing :
9. Low current long-duration test. c, < 0.8
HEALTHY PHASE B - Non-Effective Neutral Earthing:
10. Power duty cycle test.
0.8 c. < 1
11. Pressure-relief test.
Um - Highest phase to phase power system
::- Voltage
N.E. HEALTHY PHASE
C, - Coefficient of Earthing
SA Um.Ce
100%
Fig. 18 A. 13. ·Explaining the voltage across the Surge Arrester

100%
18.14. COEFFICIENT OF EARTHING (Ce) is the ratio :
Highest phase to ground voltage of healthy phase x
50%.. -!- - - - - - - - - - - 100
50% I Phase to phase voltage Um rms .
I
I : I measured during a single phase to· ground fault.
I I I
I I I For Non-Effectively Earthed System Ce= 1.
I I I
I·
1. "
o-7"----~------ 20· ~·
50' .,,.
MICROSECONDS
MICROSECONDS
(a) 1/20 Impulse c·urrent wave (b) 1/50 Impulse wave (Voltage wave)
Fig. 18.10 V8 = Surge Voltage, kV•
V, = Residual Voltage of SA, kV•
18.13. RATED VOLTAGE OF SURGE ARRESTER
Z = Surge Impedance of transmission line, on m
. It is the maximum po~er frequency voltage between the terminals of the Surge Arrester at
which the Surge Arrester is ~a~able of pe:1'orming its rated duty. For a Surge Arrester to be con- DISCHARGE
LINE
.
10 = Discharge current through the SA, kA•
Instantaneous values from waveform
.
nected phase to earth, the mm1mum reqmred voltage is calculated as follows. CURRENT
SA la
Un= Nomimil system_ voltage r.m.s. phase to phase
Um= Highest system voltage, phase to phase •ra = Vs -Va
-z-
Ua = Rated voltage of the Surge Arrester, kV rms (phase to ground)
Ce = Coefficient of earthing,
Fig. 18.~4. Explaining Surge Current Calculation.
TRANSIENT OVERVOLTAGE 359
charge Current corresponding to surge voltage Vs= 300 kV instantaneous, residual voltage V, = 250
Ce For Effectively Earthed System kV instantaneous.
For effectively earthed system, (solid neutral earthed system) Coefficient of earthing Ce < 0.8. 6. Define: "Coefficient of Earthing." What is the significance of the coefficient of earthing in the selection
Therefore, the Surge arrester rated voltage is of voltage rating of Surge Arrester ? '
7. State the various protective installations for intercepting Lightning Surges. Sketch a typi_cal wave of
Ua > 0.8 Um rms Lightning Surge. Explain operation of a ZnO Surge Arrester.
Surge Voltage (V8 ). kV instantaneous is taken as 2.5 times Critical Flashover Voltage (CFOV) 8. Explain the basic difference between the construction, operation and characteristics of a SiC Gapped
of Line Insulation. Therefore Discharge Current Ia is given by : Surge Arrester and ZnO Surge Arrester.
9. State the following for a 400 kV High Voltage Equipment:
I = 2.5 CFOV of Line-Residual Voltage of Arrester
a Surge Impedance of Line Withstand Levels to be Specified :
2.5 CFOV-Vr - Name of proving test :
= - Names of Protective equipment.
z 10. What is Shielding Angle of an overhead ground wire ? What are the values as per American and
European Practices ?
SUMMARY 11. Explain the origin of Switching Overvoltage Surges. What are the time duration of a Switching Surges
Insulation Coordination: Coordination between Withstand Levels of Equipment, Protective ? Define Switching Overvolta~e Factor.
Levels of protective devices, with adequate protective margin such that overall economy is obtained During no-load closing of a 400 kV transmission line, the peak of switching over voltage in one phase
and least damage is caused to the electrical installation during overvoltage surges. was 880 kV peak. Calculate the switching over voltage factor. The highest system voltage is 420 kV
Table of Swnmary Type of Overvoltages ; Protections/Time, Withstand, Tests. rms.
12. Explain the function of (A) Preinsersion Resistors (B) Opening Resistors ; with a 400 kV Circuit
Breaker.
Temporary Power Frequency Lightning Surge (µs) Switching Surge (µs)
Overvoltage (ms or s) 13. Explain the causes ofovervoltages at Medium High Voltages(< 33 kV).and the principle of Surge Ab-
sorber Protection for a Rotating Machine.
,J, .), J.
Overvoltage Relay & CB Surge Arrester Surge Arrester
< 70 ms app. < 1.2 µs app. < 100 µs
,J, ,J, ,J,
Power Frequency Voltage Lightning Surge Switching Surge
Withstand Level kV rms Withstand Level kV peak Withstand Level kV peak
,J, J. J.
One minute P.F. Voltage Lightning Impulse Test Switching Impulse
Withstand Test Withstand Test Withstand Test
Peak Value= Crest in kV instantaneous.
Basic Impulse Insulation Level (BIL) is reference level of the expressed in peak (crest) volt-
age value with standard 1.2/50 µs. Lightning impulse wave. Apparatus should be capable of
withstanding test waves above BIL.
Other withstand levels get co-related with BIL as per applicable Standard Specifications
(IEC/IS).
QUESTIONS
1. State the difference between the Nominal System Voltage and Highest System Voltage. Give example.
2. Which are the Voltage Withstand Values assigned to a High Voltage Equipment? Which are the cor-
responding tests for proving these Withstand Capabilities.
3. Explain the Protective Characteristic of a Surge Arrester against the Withstand Characteristic of
Equipment on a Voltagetrime Curve.
4. Define the terms :
- Insulation Coordination
- Rated Voltage of Surge arr~ster \
5. A 132 kV Busbar needs a surge arrester protection. The system neutral is non-effectively earthed.
The surge impedance of the incoming line is 400 ohm. The highest system voltage is 145 kV rms ph.
to ph. Calculate: (A) Voltage Rating of the Surge arrester for the Busbar Surge Protection. (B) Dis-
361
NEUTRAL GROUNDING (NEUTRAL EARTHING) ,
_Reactance earthing. Connecting the neutral ppint to earth through a rea~tance.
3
4. Resistance earthing. Connecting the neutral point to earth through _a resistance.
_Non-effective earthing. When an in~entional resistance or reactance 1s connected between
5
utral point and earth. Coefficient of earthmg > 80%. . . .
ne 6. Solid earth or effective earthing, Co~mecting the neutral pomt to earth without mten-
1 t' nal resistance or reactance, coefficient earthlng < 80%.

10 7. Resonant earthing. Earthing through a reactance of s~ch a value that po;e:afr=~~::~:
current in the neutral or ~ou:d conneltion:: ;~t~i~ ec~~:
1
ti:~=~~~!~~:;:;:::!utre
:euiral point
Neutral Grounding (Neutral Eartliing) :i:::!:htei::t:h~~:.~a;a ~aecutta:r1~e-=a::£:l::;i;:gqu;7tr

Resonan ear mg 1s m 1; ,
i:~f;!:~~evc:i:;::; ;ee::=~~:i:oe;;i~~:;h
line to ground capacitance.
Introduction - Terms and Definitions - Ungrounded Systems - Disadvantages - Advantages of
Neutral Grounding - 'fypes of·Neutral Grounding - Solid Grounding ; Reactance Grounding, 8 Coefficient of Earthing, Refer Sec. 18.13
· •· ·1 d f It neutraliser. All the three terms have
Resonant Grounding, Resistance Grounding. Reactance in Neutral Connection -Arc Suppression Coil
(Peterson Coil, Earth-Fault Neutraliser), Coefficient of Earthing. Generator Neutral Grounding - 9. Peterse~ coi}h:r:djs.:!1£a~~=:•:a:t:;\;;:c::iry co:~tructe.d) connected between neutr~l and
Earthing Transformer-Ratings of Neutral Device - Summary. · the same meanmg. tb t line and earth due to capacitance
earth, the reactance is such ~hat po7er-:equen~fec:::~: c:r;:~~nin the earth connection. In other
18.15. INTRODUCTION TO NEUTRAL GROUNDING of healthy lines and edar_th is equat an tho1·1:gofs ~alled Peterson coil or arc suppression coil or earth
words, the reactor use m resonan ear
The three phase 50Hz AC power systems with neutral grounding at every voltage level are used fault neutralizer.
for generation, transmission, distribution and utilization. The neutral points (star points) of star-
connected 3 phase winding of power transformers, generators, motors, earthing transformers are
connected to low resistance ground. (earth electrode/earth mat). Such a connection is called Neutral
Grounding (Neutral Earthing). GENERATOR OR TRANSFORMER
Before 1950s the power systems were often without neutral grounding. Such systems were
called Ungrounded Systems. Such systems experience repeated arcing grounds.* In ungrounded sys-
I
tems, insulation failures occur in several equipment, during single phase to ground faults else-
·v here. The earth fault protection of ungrounded systems is difficult. Insulation failures may occur RESISTANCE
in several equipment and machines over entire voltage level during a single earth fault at remote
location. The ungrounded systems must necessarily have equipment insulation withstand level cor-
responding to next higher systeni voltage to avoid cascade insulation failures. The ungrounded
neutra:l system needs a costlier insulation system of next higher voltage level (e.g. 11 kV insulation G
for 6.6 kV Busbars and Motors, transformers, CTs, VTs, etc.). (b) Resistance grounded.
(a) Ungrounded neutral.
Ungrounded Systems have advantage of negligible earth fault current but disadvantage of ar-
cing grounds. Modern power systems are with grounded neutrals except some continuous process
systems and essential protection/auxiliary supply systems where single phase to ground faults
should not to trip entire bus supply.
Equipment Grounding is different from the Neutral Grounding. Equipment grounding is the
connection between non-current carrying metallic parts in electrical installation to earth. By ear-
thing the part, the voltage is within safe value even during earth fault. Equipment grounding is
for Safety and for discharging earth fault currents effectively (till protection operates on earth fault
and faulty part is disconnected). PET.EASON COIL OR
ARC SUPPRESSION COIL
OR EARTH FAULT
18.16. TERMS AND DEFINITIONS NEUTRALIZER
1. Earthing or grounding. Connecting to earth or ground.

2. Neutral earthing or system neutral earthing (grounding). Connecting to earth, the (d) Resonant grounding.
(c) Reactance i;rounding.
neutral point, i.e. the star pqint of generator, transformer, rotating machine, neutral point of a
Fig. 18B-1. Types ofneutml grounding.
grounding transformer.
lO. Ungrounded system. The system whose neutral points are not earthed.
The calculations of third harmonic and zero sequence earth fault currents is covered in Ch. 23.
* Intermittent, repeating phase to ground arc through air insulation on overhead line/exposed conductor due The system .is also called Isolated Neutral System.
to charging and discharging of phase to ground capacitance.
,I
362
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION . NEUTRAL GROUNDING (NEUTRAL EARTHING) 363 I
11. Earth Fault Factor. It is calculated at tl~e selected point of the system for a given system · capacitance resulting in repeated arcs
It is a ratio : ·
,.between line and ground is called Ar-
V1
Earth fault factor= V
•· cing Grounds. Arcing ground produce
severe voltage oscillations reaching
,-----.---------OR
2
·three to four times normal voltage.
when V1 = Highest rms phase-to-phase power frequency voltage of healthy phases during earth Secondly, a temporary fault grows into
fault on another phase.
a permanent fault due to arcing
V2 = rms phase to earth power frequency voltage at the same location with fault on the faulty
phase removed
'grounds. The problem of arcing ground
is solved by earthing the neutral
'---------,-----oY
Nature of the Problem through a coil called Petersen coil or
Consider a high voltage line connected to supply and without load. Even if no currents are Arc suppression coil or earthing reac-
drawn by the load, the conductors of the system continue to charge the system capacitance alter- tor. '-------;-----:,------oB
I
I
nately to positive and negative p9larity. The distributed capacitance between phases and earth The charging currents, IB, ly are __ .JI___ C
draw charging currents from the source. The charge is given by neutralised by h, the current flowing --~--- y
I
Q=CV through t~e neutral connections, i.e.
where Q = charge, coulombs il 1y
IR+ly+h=O I
C = capacitance, farads Ground

V = voltage, volts. Thereby the arc in the phase to
ground fault is extinguished.
~or high voltage systems, the capacitance and the charging currents are significant and the Fig. 18B-2. (b) Effect of Grounding.
2. In ungrounded systems, the ,
reactive power may be of the order of hundreds of kVAr. Therefore, the reactive kVAr influences
voltage of healthy phases above earth is jncreased by ../3' ti~es when a~ earth fault occurs on a
the ~otal kVA of the system. The reactive kVAr becomes very important and should be controlled.
Durmg ground faults, the reactive kVAr cause substantial flow of capacitance current flow with phase. This causes stress on the insulation of all the machmes and equ1pme_nt con1;1ected_ to t~e
ground-as a return path. Neutral grounding is a simple method of reducing such currents. system. The voltage rise of the phase above earth is sustained a_nd thereby msulation f~1~ure 1s
likely to occur in connected machines, though fault current in arcmg ground may be neghgible.
18.17. DISADVANTAGES OF UNG,ROUNDED SYSTEMS Consider a system (Fig. 18B-3) in which one phase is faulted to ground. The potential of the
phase becomes earth potential. Therefore, the voltage of healthy phases (R and Y above ground
Ih earlier years of the electrical power systems, the power systems were without neutral becomes equal to line voltage which is ../3' times the phase voltage.
grounding. The following difficulties are encountered in ungrounded systems. Therefore, un-
grounded systems are no more used.
1. Arcing grounds. The phenomena of JO---------------R
VOLTAGE OF HEAL THY LINES
arcing ground is commonly experienced
RAND Y WITH RESPECT TO
with ungrounded systems. A temporary UNGROUNDED EARTH IS INCREASED BY
fault caused by falling on a branch, lightn- SYSTEM ✓3 TIMES
OVER HEAD LINES
r---------------oR
ing surge, etc. creates an arc between phase
conductor and ground. The arc extinguishes
and restrikes in a repeated, regular man-
'--------------Y
ner. The phenomena is called "arcing '----------------,--B
ground". Arcing current is low due to high Ev
resistance of arc-path through air. But vol-
tages of other two phases overshoot
G
repeatedly.
Consider overhead line, R, Y, B con-
nected to the system at normal voltage.
Each line has an inherent distributed I I
I I
capacitance with respect to earth. Consider
_an earth fault on phase B. The distributed ....
I
I
. ...
I
I
y""------ y-----a
TT
·r· ·r·
I
capacitance discharges through the fault I
I
I (a) BEFORE FAULT (b) AFTER FAULT
I I
when the gap between F and ground breaks I I
down. The capacitance, again gets charged -===- .,;. -::- .,;. .,;.GROUND Fig. 18B-3. Effect of an earth fault on an ungi'ounded system.
and again discharged. Such repeated charg- Fig. 18B-2. (a) Phenomena of Arcing Gl'ounds,
ing and discharging of line to ground (The distributed capacitance gets changed and
then discharged through the earth fault).
0
• .NEUTRAL GROUNDING (NEUTRAL EARTHING) 365
Suppose a voltmeter is taken and the voltage of phases R, v;
B, is measured. During healthy 9. Greater safety to personnel and equipment due to operation of fuses or relays on earth fault
state the volta~es ofpha~es R, Y, B above earth will be equal to phase voltage. The voltages between. and limitation of voltages.
RY, YB, BR will be ""3 time phase voltage. When an earth fault occurs on phase B, the voltage of 10. Life of equipments, machines, installation is improved due to limitation of voltage. Hence
B with respect to earth becomes zero. The voltage of health phases R and Y with respect to gFOund overall economy.
are increased to ""3 times their normal value. The phase to phase voltage VRy, RyB, VER remains
unchanged. 18.19, TYPES OF GROUNDING
3. In ungr~unded systems, earth faults cannot be easily sensed and the earth fault relaying 1. Ungrounded system. It is used no more. The neutral is not connected to earth. Also called
becomes comphcated. ~n grounde~ sy~tem, earth fault current is enough operate earth fault relay. insulated neutral system.
Secondly, the current m neutral circmt can be used to operate earth fault relay (Refer Fig. 18.B-4) 2. Solid Grounding or Effective Grounding, The neutral is directly connected to ground
4. The overvoltages due to induced static charges are not discharged to earth in ungrounded .• without any intentional impedance between neutral and ground. The coefficient of earthing is less
systems. The voltages due to lightning surges q.o not find path to earth. than 80% for such systems. ·
3. Reactance Grounding. Reactance is connected between neutral and ground.
4. Resonant Grounding. An adjustable reactor of correctly selected value to compensate the
capacitive earth currents is connected between neutral and earth. The coil is called Petersen coil
or Arc suppression coil or Earth fault neutralizer.
Principles
(A) Ungrounded System (Fig. 18B.5). IF is 90° is ahead of VaN or VBN· I aY capacitive current
from Y to earth is 90° ahead of Vay and capacitive current lay from line R is 90° ahead of VaR•
Though the neutral is not grounded, earth fault is fed by the two capacitive currents !ya and laR
through earth connection. The earth fault current is very low,
r---------.-------R
R
EARTH FAULT
RELAY
...._-.----.. . . . ------Y ~
(at 90° with
VaR
IF
,/ \
OPERATING '-----1011 , / \
,' I
ON RESIDUAL ,..__ _ _ _......._,- - - - - - ! ; . . __ _ _....,._ _ B I
I
CURRENT I
I
Ia)::~:::
I
I
I
I
I
I
I Y"----------.;.w.-- 1011 (at90°
Fig, 18B.4. Neutral grounding is useful in earth fault relaying.
18.18. ADVANTAGES OF NEUTRAL GROUNDING
,.G...... _______"'="
.,._G
IF
G
(8)
l
with VaR)
BOTH AT
SAME POTENTIAL
DUE TO EARTH FAULT
1. Arcing grounds are .redu~ed or eliminated. The arcing ground current flowing through the (a) Ungrounded system.· (b) Simplified explaination.
neutral t? ground connections is made almost equal and opposite to the capacitive current from Fig. 18B-5. Ungrounded system, fault on phase B.
healthy_ Imes to ground. Thereby h +IR + ly = 0 and arcing grounds are eliminated. The system is
not subJected to overvoltage surge due to arcing grounds. . (B) Solid of Effective Earthing. The situation is dramatically changed if neutral is grounded
~- The volta~s _of healthy phases lines with respect to earth remain at normal value. They do (Fig. 18.B. 7). Referring to Fig. 18B.5 a fault occurs between line B and ground. IF the fault current
not mcrease to '1/3 time normal value as in the case of ungrounded system. lags behind VNB by 90° since the circuit is predominantly inductive (due to transformer/machines
3. The life of ins~lation is long ?ue to prevention of voltage surges caused by arcing grounds. and line inductances). The potential of neutral is held at earth potential due to grounding. That is
Thereby reduced mamtenance, repairs, breakdowns. Improved continuity. N and G will be at the same potential neglecting impedance of link NG. Capacitance current lay
4. Stable neutral point. leads voltage Vay by 90°, and laR leads VaR by 90°. Their vector, i.e. lay+ laR = la, the net
5. The earth fault relaying is relatively simple. Useful amount of earth fault current is available C!lpacitance current. From the geometry of the vectors, we can see that IF is in phase opposition
to operate earthrault relay. · with h, Hence IF due to arcing grounds is eliminated or reduced by 10 .
6. The over-voltages due to lightning are discharged to earth. Solid or Effective Earthing. By solid grounding, the earth fault current during arcing
7. By employing resistance or reactance in earth-connection, the earth fault current can be con- grounds is partially or completely eliminated by the capacitive ground current. Hence arcing ·
trolled. . ' grounds are substantially reduced. Secondly the potential of healthy phases above earth is held on
8. Improved service reliability due to limitation of arcing grounds and prevention of unneces- at approximately constant value. However earth fault current is high.
sary tripping of circuit-breakers. •
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION NEUTRAL GROUNDING (NEUTRAL EARTHING) 367
366
[It is observed that the zero sequence components I RO, I yo, I BO find the path through Zn, hence
the impedance Zn is multiplied by 3 [Refer Chapter 23]. Therefore, by inserting a resistance in the
circuit the fault current is limited.
For circuits below 3.3 kV, i.e. say 400 volts distribution networks, the external resistance in
neutral circuit is unnecessary because the voltage available between phase and earth is only 230
volts. The earth resistance of earth plate, earthing connections etc. is of the order of 1.5 ohms. The
'-----.---+----- y earth current is limited to 230/1.5, i.e. 153 Amperes even if the grounding resistance is not used.
For circuits above 33, kV solid grounding is used. The capacitive ground current are enough
to neutralize the reactive fault currents. Hence no resistance is necessary in neutral connection.
(D) Reactance Earthing. For circuits between 3.3 kV and 33 kV, the earth fault currents are
likely to be excessive, if solid grounding is used. Either resistance or reactance is connected in
neutral to ground connection. In Britain resistance grounding is a popular practice. In Europe, reac-
tance grounding is favoured. The reactance connected between neutral and earth provides a lagging
current which neutralizes the capacitive current (Fig. 18.B.8).
There is no rule as regards which grounding should be used-resistance or reactance. If resis-
tance is used fault current is limited and system reactance provides the necessary phase opposition
l IL (LAGS BEHING
between capacitive ground current and fault current.
. ~-,' The reactance grounding provides additional reactance. Thereby the capacitive currents are
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM /p 'vG.a BY90° CIRCUIT
BEING INDUCTIVE neutralized. Hence for circuits where high charging currents are involved such as transmission
Fig. 18B.6. Solid grounding. lines, underground cables etc, Reactance grounding is preferred. For network where capacitance is
(C) Resistance Earthing. For circuit between 3.3 kV and 3~ kV, the capacitive ground current relatively low, resistance grounding is preferred.
(IGY, I GB ) may not be large enough to demand reactance groundmg. Secondly the ground fault cur-
t l . t f
rent for solid grounding become excessive. Hence it is a practice to _connect_ the neu ra pom o 18.20. REACTANCE IN NEUTRAL CONNECTION
circuits of this voltage range (3.3 to 33 kV) through resistance. The resistance m the ground-neutral Ungrounded System. The charging current of phase to earth is, say, I. During earth fault
connection limits the fault current. From the theory of symmetrical components, we know that the voltage across line to earth is increased by '13 times. Hence charging currents become '13 I per
single line to ground fault current is : phase. The charging currents of phase R and Y are displaced by 120°. Hence their vector sum is
:./3 •../31, i.e., 31, where I is charging current
lp= 3E of line to ground of one phase.
Z1 +Z2+Zo R
_ Vph_~
Z 0 =Zgo +3Zn I - Xe - 1/coC ... (1)
where E = Voltage per phase r.m.s. le = 31 = 3Vph coC

z 1 = Positive sequence impedance Thevenin's equivalent. If the grounding is through a reactance
y
z~ = Negative sequence impedance Thevenin's equivalent. Xi= 21t f L. Where L is reactance in neutral
Zo =·Zero sequence impedance. [Ref. Fig. 23.1] connection
zg O = Thevenin's equivalent of
.
zero sequence circuits.
...(2) I
Zn = Impedance in neutral to ground connection. I
To obtain satisfactory cancellation of ar- :.~::t✓3I
R cing grounds, the inductance L should be re~ I
I f• ; l•CHAAGING CURRENT
I lated to the capacitance, and J OF ONE LINE TO EARTH
I I (
I h=lc
,t
I Vp1ilmL = 3Vph x coC
I y Fig. 18B.8. Current in arcing ground.
I L=-1_
I I.
I 3ro2c
I I
I I where L = inductance in neutral to ground connection in henry
8
or inductance of Petersen coil
or inductance of earth fault neutralizer
co= 21tf
C = capacitance per phase line to. ground, farads,
f = frequency (50 Hz)
Froµi this relation the inductance is calculated.
Fig. 18B.7 Resistance earthiny.
':NEUTRAL GROUNDING (NEUTRAL EARTHING) 369
/ 18,22, NEUTRAL POINT EARTHING OF TRANSFORMER L.V. CIRCUITS.
18.21. CONNECTION OF THE ARC SUPPRf_:SSION COIL*
y2
Arc suppression coil is provided with tap- Zn= n x kVAx 1000 ohms
pings. This permits selection of reactance of
the coil depending upon the length of the where Zn = impedance in neutral circuit in ohms
transmission line and the capacitance to be V =Ph.to Ph. voltage LV side, volts
neutralized. The arc suppression coil is con- kVA = rating of transformer
nected between neutral and ground. The
reactance of the coil can be calculated from n = neutral short circuit current in terms of full load line current.
expression. Example 18.1. Calculate the ohmic value of impedance to be connected in the neutral to ground
L = -- 1 - H enries
. circuit of a 2000 k VA transformer with earth fault relay set to 40%, with respect to 400 V side.
3ro2 C ( 400)
2
ro = 2rcf Solution. 7 -_
,:./n 0.4 x
2000
x 1000 --- 0.2 ohm.
C = capacitance line to ground per
phase, farad Example 18,2. Peterson Coil; Determine the value of reactance to be connected in the neutral
Fig. 18B.9. Reactance grounding current relations. connection to neutralize the capacitance current, of a cverhead line to ground capacitance of each
f= frequency, Hz line equal to 0.015 µF. Frequency= 50 Hz.
The coil is rated at continuous rated current equal to maximum earth fault current . H~wever, '
if a second earth fault develops or double phase to ground fault develops, mor~ cu_:rent 1s hkely to Solution. L=+Henries
flow in the coil. To avoid this condition, a circuit-breaker closes after a certam ~1me l~g and the 3ro C
earth fault current flows through the parallel circuit by-passing the arc suppress10n coil. L = inductance of coil connected in neutral to ground circuit (Henries)
CB is normally open. It closes after the relay R closes the trip circuit thereby the arc suppression Z = 2rcf, f = frequency Hz
coil is by passed (Fig. 18B-10). C = capacitance to earth of each phase, f
Here, we have to determine L,
L= 1 =--__1_ _ __
EARTH FAULT FlELAY 3 X (314)2 X 0.015 X 10- 6 98596 X 0.045 X 10- 6
lR =
1-06
4437
.
= 22.6 Hennes.
CT,.!------+----:-::-,
--'"I
~-1 Example 18.3, In a 50 Hz. overhead line the capacitance of one line to earth was 1.5 µF. It was
Y:..------+----t~---1·
decided to use an earth fault neutralizer. Calculate the reactance neutralize the capacitance of:
CB (a) 100% of the length of line. (b) 90% of the length of line.
,NORMALLY (c) 95% of the length of line.
1
OPEN
Solution. (a) C = 1.5 x 10- 6 F
ro= 2rcf = 2 x re 50 = 314
1111 ZL= l
ARC 3 X 1.5 X 314
SUPPRESSION D.C. 704
COIL -SUPPLY L = 304 =2.25 H.
FOR TRIP
CIRCUIT
To neutralize c&.pacitance of 100% of the line reactance required 2.15. H.
(b) C of 90% length of line = 1.5 x 0.9 = 1.35
0
1 1
L ---=--=
2
. · . =2,5H
3 X ro >< C 3 X (314)2 X 1.35 X 10- 6
or 1
L = 2.25 x _ = 2,5 H
09
Fig. lSB.10. Connections of arc suppression coil.
(C) . 1
L =2.25 x 0 _95 = 2.37 H.
* The three names : Arc suppression coil, Peterson coil, Ground fault neutralizer - have the same meaning. In
such grounding the reactance of the coil is matched with the capacitance between phase and earth. The Example 18.4. A 33 kV, 3 phase, 50 Hz, OH line 50 km long has a capacitance to earth line
grounding is called Resonant Grounding.
equal to 0.019 µF per km. Determine the inductance and kVA rating of the arc suppression coil.
370 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION NEUTRAL GROUNDING (NEUTRAL EARTHING) 371
EARTH Ai
1 The generator winding is star EARTH AT OISTR/.i(IT(JR
Solu~ion, L = -2-= l =6.75H EARTH AT TRANSMISSION VOLT/16£ VOlT.461:
3co C 3 X (314) 2 X 0.01 X 50 X 10- 6 connected and generator terminal LEVEL SUPPi. V .SIDE <J'f::i_ LEVEL
GENERATOR
are connected to step-up trans- VOLTAGE
:~
I --
COL= 2nfL = 314 X 6.75 = 2120. LEVEL
former low voltage delta con-
For ground fault, the current in neutral is given by nected winding. High voltage
_ Vph _ 33 X 1000 _ winding is star connected and
IN - coL - 'Y3 x 2120 - 8 ·99 A taken to bus bars for transmis- -~ i--- - - - - - 5 ~ ~
sion. Because of delta connection
The voltage across the neutral phase voltage.
kVA rating= Vph xIN= 8.99 x ~= 169.3 kVA
of low voltage side of trans-
formers, the generators operating i---t---,1 t-Q t=
/'I
in parallel are, isolated from each
L=6.75H} An other and also from high voltage
kVA rating = 169.3 s. bus so far as ground fault currents
are concerned. Therefore, gener- EARTHING
TRANSPOR/v1ER
18.23. NEUTRAL GROUNDING PRACTICE ator neutral of each unit is ear- EARTH AT
thed. RECEIVING
1. Generally one-neutral ground is provided at each voltage level. Between generator voltage BUS VOLTAGE.
level and distribution voltage level there are several voltage levels. One ground is provided at each The generator neutral Fig. 18B.ll. Earth at every voltage level at source> end.
voltage level (Fig. 18B.ll). grounding is through resistor or
2. The grounding is provided at source end and not at load end (Fig. 18B.ll). reactor or a voltage transformer (Refer Fig. 23.11). The grounding practice in unit system of gen-
erator connection is as follows :
3. Each major bus section is grounded.
Main generator neutral. Grounded through resistor or reactor or a VT.
4. Generator Neutral Grounding
Step up transformer. Neutral on star connected HV side is earthed through neutral ground-
There are several alternatives of generator neutral grounding methods depending upon : ing resistor.
- method of generator connection with bus bars, i.e., whether connected to bus bars or to unit Unit auxiliary transformer. It is delta connected on generator side and star connected as
transformers. auxiliary bus side. The star connected LV side neutral is _earthed directly. In this case also the
- method of ground fault protection delta connected LV of unit auxiliary transformer isolates the auxiliary system from generator as
- fault currents far as earth fault currents are concerned.
- insulation levels. 5. Grounding of Neutral of Power Transformer. For protection purpose, the neutral point
- number of generators in parallel, etc. of star side is usually earthed (Fig. 32.16).
Neutral Grounding for Classical Generator Connection 6. Grounding of Protective CTs, VTs. The star connected secondary sides of protective CTs
For Generators connected to busbars without unit transformers in-between : and VTs are earthed at one point [Fig. 32.16, Fig. 32.10 (b)]. This ensures stable neutral, proper
measurement of voltages and currents, kWh and kVA on secondary side measuring instruments
(Refer Sec. 17.6.la, Fig. 17.3). and controls.
- When several generators are operating in parallel only one generator neutral is grounded. The control circuits and battery circuits should also have a single earth point.
If more neutrals are grounded, the zero sequence components of circulating currents create
disturbance.
18.24. EARTHING TRANSFORMER
- In generating station there is provision to earth neutral of at least two generators. Though
only one is grounded at a time. The other generator neutral is grounded when the first gen- The neutral point (star point) is usually available at every voltage level from generator or trans-
erator is out of service. Under any circumstances one generator neutral must be ground.ed. former neutral. However if no such point is available due to delta connections or if neutral point
- When there are one or two power sources, no switching equipment is used in the grounding is desired on bus-bars, the most common method is using a zig-zag transformer. Such a transformer
circuit. · has no secondary. Each phase of primary has two equal parts. There are three limbs and each limb
- A neutral bus is provided in case there are several generators. The neutral bus is connected has two windings providing opposite flux during normal condition. The two stars (1) and (2) are
to earth directly or through. reactance. The neutral point of one generator is connected to connected together as shown in Fig. 18B-14. Since the fluxes oppose, the transformer takes very
neutral bus through circuit-breaker. small magnetising currents during normal condition. During earth faults on the circuit in primary
side, the zero sequence currents which have the same phase for three components IRo, Iyo, lzo flow
Neutral Grounding in Unit System of Generator Connection in the transformer winding through earth connection. The earth fault current finds little impedance.
Refer Sec. 17.6.2, Fig. 17.14 describing unit system, of generator connection in which each gen- The grounding transformers are of short time ratings (10 seconds to 1 minute). Therefore, their
erator, associated unit transformer, unit a auxiliary transformer form a 'unit'. ' size is small as compared to the power transformer of same ratings, almost one-tenth.
The earth fault protection of generator requires neutral grounding of each generator (Refer If grounding transformer is not available, a star-delta transformer can be used without loading
Sec. 33.6 a, Fig. 33.11). the delta side (Fig. 18B.12)
....,
NEUTRAL GROUNDING (NEUTRAL EARTHING) 373
- Facility for Earth fault protection.
- Reducing Coefficient of earthing to< 0.8.
- Flow of 3rd Harmonic current through the earth (Ref. Ch. 23 Fig. 23.1). Reactance Ground-
----,,---------BUS BARS ing is preferred for compensating capacitive earth fault currents. Resistance grounding is
preferred for reducing earth fault currents. Solid grounding is preferred for sensitive earth
fault protection.
CIRCUIT BREAKEil
QUESTIONS
1. State the difference between Equipment Earthing and Neutral Earthing.
2. What are the merits and demerits ofReactance Earthing compared to Solid Earthing ?
EARTHING
TRANSFORMER 3. Explain the phenomena of "Arcing Grounds" on overhead transmission lines. How does Neutral Ear-
thing oppose arcing ground currents ?
4. Though Neutral Earthing results in higher ground. fault currents, it is a universal practice to earth
power system neutrals. Explain the men.ts of Neutral Earthing. ·
5. Explain by means of a diagrams :
-:- GROUND
(a) The phase to earth voltage rise in unfaulted lines during a single phase to earth fault in a 3 phase
system without (a) neutral earthing (b). The situation with neutral earthing.
Fig. lSB.12. Use of star-delta transformer for grounding. Fig. 18-B.13. Connection of earthing transformer.
Current transformer not shown. 6. A 36 kV, 3 phase distribution line is to be provided with Surge Arresters at the receiving substation.
The transformer neutral is effectively earthed. Coefficient of earthing is 0.8. What would be the phase-
18.25. RATINGs·oF NEUTRAL DEVICES to ground voltage of Unfaulted phases dll_ring a single phase to ground fault on one of the phases ?
State the rated voltage of surge arrester. The Surge of 185 kV peak is discharged by the surge arrester
The ratings of equipment is neutral connection such as resistors, reactors, circuit-breaker etc.
is usually 10 seconds or extended time. with residual voltage of 130.kV, the surge impedance of line is 500 ohm. Calculate the Discharge
current through the surge arrester.
On unit system grounding 10 seconds rating is used. 7. A 132 kV, 3 phase 50 Hz overhead distribution line has phase to ground shunt capacitance of 0.0157
For feeders at generator voltage, 1 minute rating is used. µF per km. Determine the indµctance and kVA rating of arc supression coil to be connected between
For distribution schemes, extended time ratings are used. neutral and earth.
[Ans. 4.3 H and 4300 kVA, single coil]
8. An 50 Hz, 3 phase overhead line has phase ground shunt capacitance of 0.08 µF. Determine the in-
TO LINES
ductance required in neutral to ground .circuit to eliminate an arcing-ground at (a) the other end of
line (b) at 70% length of line from the neutral earthing end.
2..
Fig. 18B.14 . Winding of zig-zag transformer.
SUMMARY
The neutral points of three phase AC System are usually earthed at each voltage level for :
- Elimi_nating arcing grounds (frequent charging and discharging of phase to ground
capacitance through the temporary arcing fault).
- Holding phase to ground voltages of two unfaulted phases at nearly original level during
earth fault on third phase.
SUBSTATION EARTHING SYSTEM AND EQUIPMENT EARTHING 375
Table 18-C.1
Type of Earthing Points Earthed Purpose

Neutral Earthing - Transformer Neutral - Holding neutral at ground potential
- Generator Neutral - Prevent Arcing grounds on OH lines.
- Star point of load
- Neutral of circuit - Discharge of voltage surges
- Star point of CT/PT secondary - Path for out-of-balance currents,
- Simpler earth Fault Protection
Subs E'artliin,g Syste1n and Equipment

Earthing
- Metallic noncuITent-carrying
parts
- Holding the metallic parts at earth
potential even on earth fault
EquiJJJ i:nc l Eartlii.ng (body earthing)
- Safety
Reference Earthing - The floating point in the circuit - Holding the point and the conductor at
zero potential
Introduction - :!pquipment Earthi!1g- Parts to be. Earthed - Station Earthing System - Earth Mat
. Touch Potential - Step Potential - Earth Resistance Measurement by Low Current Method and Discharge Earthing Earthing-terminal of, - To discharge the surge voltages, capacitor
High Current Method - Earth Resistance Values_ Summary. charge, currents to earth
- Earthing Switch, and currents
18.26. EQlJ LPJ.1/fJiiNT EARTHING (GROUNDING) - Surge Arresters,

- Capacitor/Filter Bank,
The non cmnmt carrying metallic parts in every electrical installation are connected to the
:mdergrou nd ear th :ng m:3sh at earth potential for safety of personnel and for discharging fault cur- Note: Neutral Points and Equipment Earthing Parts ure connected to the common Underground Earth
ien11tsd. EThe _conncdi,ng 0 ~ non current carrying metallic parts to underground earthing system is mat via separate earthing conductors.
ca e quzp111e11i Earthing (grounding).
th Th~ equipment grou nd ing also helps in the earth fault protection. The earth fault current from· 18.27. FUNCTIONS OF SUBSTATION EARTHING SYSTEM
~ ~~ 1P~1~ 11
8
~.fl0\~~
th
rough the ~arthbg syste~ to the earth and is sensed by protection system
an cn cmt reakei .8 are opened. 'I he faulty equipment is then repaired and recommissioned The
1. Safety of Operation and Maintenance Personnel, The earthing system ensures safety
th against shocks to Operation and Maintenance Staff working in Substation. The earthed part are
ear ted ptali:tsremam at apf_proximately earth potential even during flow of fault current. The e~uip- safer than unearthed parts. Deaths by shocks can be avoided completely by proper equipment ear-
men ear 11 ng ensures sa ety to personnel.
thing. Before commissioning, the earthing system should be checked and certified. Before nrrying
. lh: core or the real earth has hot, liquid malma with low electrical resistivity. Earth is a god it any maintenance work, the equipment is isolated and earthed from both ends. Hence equipment
conl u~ orl lexce~:-· JI~ th ~dry _a nd rocky ~p~e.r layers near the surface. The surface-soil and internal earthing is also called as "Safety Earthing".
geo og1ca aye1 s me with different res1sbvities.
The earthed parts are held at near ground potential and safety is ensured.
The S t_ation Earthing f!Ystem should have low earth resistance ; low touch potential and low
:fca ~ ec ro. esM(od~{n
ep{~te~tiaJ. S) tatilodn Earthing System has hurried horizontal mesh of steel rods and ver-
spi es we ed to the mesh. Further, the vertical risers and the galvanised steel
2. Discharge of Electrical Charges to Earth. The earthing system provides return path for
discharging fault currents and discharge currents/voltages from the earthed points of lightning
st masts, lightning conductors, earthing switches, surge arrester, etc. These parts are connected to.
;~:!~mg nps/copper bars etc. are connected between the earthing mesh and the points to be ear- the underground earthing system by s9lid or flexible earthing conductors of adequate short-time
current carrying capability and low resistance.
The Earthing iR of two principal types : 3. Earthing of Ovei.•head Shielding Wires. The overhead shielding wires and earthed-flan-
ges of insulators and bushings are held at earth potential by connection with the earthing system.
1. Neutral Earthing. (Chapter 18-B) Thereby the protection zone against lightning strokes is obtained for the outdoor, exposed conduc-
2. Equipment Body Earthing tors and equipment.
4. Electro Magnetic Interference. The earthing system ensues freedom from Electromag-
The earthing system is also required for : netic interference in communication and data processing equipment in the substation. Earthing of
chassis of instruments, earthed screening of control room, computer room ensures freedom from
- Reference earthing
electro magnetic disturbances on operation of isolators, thyristors in main power circuits. The con-
- Discharge earthing trol rooms are provided with earthed screen in the walls and windows to ensure freedom from
- Overhead Shielding. electromagnetic disturbances.
r
376 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION SUBSTATION EARTHING SYSTEM AND EQUIPMENT EARTHING 377
18.28. CONNECTION OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT TO STATION-EARTHING
SYSTEM 9
Table 18-C.2. Connection of Electrical Equipment

to Station-Earthing System.
Appara~us Parts to be earthed 1. Metal Tank
Method of connection
6 2. Transformer Foundation
Support of bushing Device flange or base plate 1. Connect the earthing bolt of the device to 3. Building
insulators, lightning 4. Welded joints+
station earthing system. In the absence of
arrester, fuse, etc. 5. Tower
earthing bolt or in case of connection to 4
non-conducting structures, connect fastening 6. Fence
bolt to earth. 7. Earthing rods of m~sh +
Earth terminal of each pole of 3 2. When the device is mounted on a steel 8. Structures in substation
phase. Surge Arrester 9. Earthing spikes/electrodes+
structure, weld the structure, mounting the
device flange; each supporting structure of
apparatus to earthi.;ng mesh via separate
conductor.
Cabinets of control Frameworks of switchgear and Weld the framework of each separately mounted
and relay panels cabinets board and cabinet minimum at two points to the
earth conductor of earthing system.
High-voltage circuit Operating mechanism, frame Connect the earthing bus on the frame and
breakers provided with earth-bus operating mechanism of c.b. to earthing system.
Isolator +Below ground level.
Isolator base (frame), operating Weld the isolator base frame, connect it to the Fig. 18-C. 1 A. Substation Earthing System.
mechanism bedplate. bolt on operating mechanism base plate and
station earth.
Earthing Switch Lower pad/terminal For discharging capacitance after opening of
Isolator
3 1. Horizontal earthing rods+
Steel Doors, Fence, Each panel 2. Welded joint
Screens Connected by flexible conductor to earth mat
3. Vertical electrodes/spikes+
Lightning Masts Earthed member 4. Vertical risers
Connected by earthing strip to Earth Mat
Foundation frames, Earthed member
Support Structures Connected by earthing strip to Earth Mat
Overhead Shielding Earthed point

Conductors Connected by Flexible conductor along each
Tower or Structure to Earth Mat
Neutral Points Earthed point
Connected to earth mat by Strips/Cable/ Flexible
conductor.
+Below ground level. .
Surge Arrester Lower earth point of each pole · Fig. 18-C. 2. Three-dimensional view of the Earthmg System.
To be directly connected to the earth mat.
Potential Potential transformer tank, LV 1. Connect the transformer earthing bolt to
transformer 18.29. SUBSTATION EARTHING SYSTEM
neutral, LV winding phase lead (if earthing system.
stipulated by the designers) 2. Connect LV neutral of phase lead to case Before 1960s the design criterion of substation earthing system _wa~ "low earth r_esistance." (ER
Structure. with flexible copper conductor. < 0.5 ohms for High Voltage installations). During 1960s, the new mteria for the design and ev~lua-
Current transformer · Neutral points of secondary, Connect secondary winding to earthing bolt on tion of Substation Earthing System were evolved particularly for ERV AC and HVDC Substat10ns.
structure. The new criteria a're : · ·
transformer case with a flexible copper
conductor, the case being earthed in the same 1. Low Step Potential 2. Low Touch Potential 3. Low Earth Resistance.
way as support insulators.
The conven:tional "Low earth resistance criterion" and Low Current Earth Resistance Meas-
Power transformer Transformer tank, Neutral point. Connect the earthing bolt on transformer tank urement continues to be in practice for Substations and Power Station upto and including 220 kV.
to station earth. Connect the Neutral to
Earthing system. The parts of the Earthing System include the entire solid metallic co~ductor system between
varioui:; earthed points and the underground earth mat. The earthed pomts are held near-earth
potential by low resistance conductor connections with earthmat.
378 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECT! BSTATION EARTHING SYSTEM AND EQUIPMENT EARTHING 379
1
i
- An Underground Horizontal Earth Mesh (Mat/Grid)
·•I
The mesh is formed by placing mild steel bars placed in X and Y directions in mesh formation
in the soil at a depth of about 0.5 m below the surface of substation floor in the entire substation
area except the foundations. The crossings of the horizontal bars in X and Y directions are welded. I :)i::,:, ·;:'.\; J 1. Cover, cast iron
The earthing rods are also placed the border of the fence, surrounding building foundations, sur-. 2. Ground level (GL)
3. Cement
rounding the transformer foundations, inside fenced areas etc. The mesh ensures uniform and zero• 4. Cup (funnel) covered by sieve
5
potential distribution on horizonta1 surface of the floor of the substation hence low "step potential" 5. GI pipe 19 mm dia.
in the event of flow of earth fault current. 6. 38 mm dia. GI pipe
- Earthing Electrodes (earthing Spikes). Several identical earth electrode are driven vertically 7. Layers of salt, charcoal, coke
into the soil and are welded to the earthing rods of the underground Mesh. Larger number ,8, 12.7 mm pipe
of earth electrodes gives lower earth resistance.
j '9. Holes
(A) The number of Earth-Electrodes (Spikes) Ns for soil resistivity 500 ohm meter and earth
fault current Is is :
~-o,
Is Amperes 0
1 6
Ns= 250 :,
g£
-(
7;
o"0
i.e., approximately 250 Amp per spike, for soil resistivity of 500 ohm-meter. 0
o,
O,
(B) The number of Earth-Electrodes (Spikes) Ns for soil resistivity 5000 ohm meter is 7
N = ls Amperes
s 500
i.e., approximately 500 Amp per spike, for soil resistivity of< 5000 ohm-meter.
18 = Short Circuit level of the substation, A
e.g. 33 kV sub stations : 25000 to 31000 A
400 kV Substations : 40000 A (a) Pipe Earth Electrode. (b) Plate Earth Electrode.
Fig. 18-C.3. Typical Earth Electrodes.
- Earthing Risers. These are generally mild steel rods bent in vertical and horizontal shapes Table 18C-2. Description of an Earthing System
and welded to the earthing mesh at one end and brought directly upto equipment I structure
1. Earthing Mat
foundation.
- Earthing Connections. (Galvanised Steel Strips or Electrolytic Copper Flats or 40 mm dia, 2 to 3 m length per piece mild steel rods welded to get straight lengths and are placed in
horizontal X-Y formation with mesh spacing 2 m to 3 m at 0.6 m depth in soil. Joints between X and
Strips/Stranded Wires (Cables)/Flexibles. These are used for final connection Y rods are arc-welded.
(bolted/welded/clamped) between the Earthing Riser and the points to be earthed. For
Transformer Neutral/High Current Discharge paths copper strips/stranded wires are 2. Earthing Electrodes (Spikes)
preferred, Galvanised Iron Strips/stranded wires are more common for all other earthing 30 to 40 mm dia GI pipes, 3m long, are driven in soil vertically (Z direction) and welded to X-Y rods of
connections. The earthing strips are finally welded or bolted or clamped to the Earthed earth mesh via horizontal earthing rods. Surrounding Earth pits filled with salt, charcoal, chalk and
Point. irrigated periodically.
3. Riser
40 mm dia vertical rods welded to Earthing Mat brought upto the structures to be earthed.
18.30. EARTH ELECTRODES
- Alternatively, 75 x 10 mm or 45 x 8 mm GI Flats welded to the earth mat and taken up
Several vertical galvanised-steel pipes· are inserted in the earth and their heads are connected vertically for bolting/welding with the point to be earthed.
solidly to the Earthing Mat by means of horizontal earthing rods/earthing strips. 4. Earthing Strips or Flexible stranded wires
· Fig. 18-C.3 illustrates the typical Earth electrode. For low voltage, low current installations, 75 x 10 mm Galvanised Iron Flats/or Copper Flats Welded/Bolted to the nearest riser and Welded/Bolted
plate electrodes may be preferred. Use of salt, charcoal, chalk powder in the earth pits surrounding to the point to be earthed.
the electrodes and irrigation of the soil gives lower earth resistance. Flexible stranded ACSR cables are connected between the overhead
The size of conductor is based on temperature rise permissible to avoid fusing at the joints. shielding wires and tower footing. Tower footing is connected to the earthing system.
Welded joints covered by bituminous paint to prevent rusting.

}SUBSTATION EARTHING SYSTEM AND EQUIPMENT EARTHING 381
·•.. 18,31, INTEGRATED EARTHING SYSTEMS FOR TWO OR MORE .INSTALLATIONS
Earthin~ ~yste:°1 for Installations Within a Buildings. The Earthing System is planned
as a part of civil design and construction. The earthing rods are placed in mesh formation in the The Earthing Systems of two or more Substations/Generating Stations/Industrial/Commercial
floor and in the area surrounding the building Risers are placed in walls. Earth connections are lnstallations may connected by a few earthing rods as shown in ·
by galvanised iron strips or copper strips/ stranded wires provided between the individual' Fig, 18-C.5 between individual earthing meshes of these instal-
body/neutral point and the Risers. Earthing strips are placed in the floor and walls and are con- . • Jations. The Individual Earthing Systems are thereby connected
nected to that several places to the Earthing Mesh. in parallel ensuring very low earth resistance (ERc) of the in-
tegrated Earthing Systems
Sensitive Measuring Instruments, Communication Equipment, Computer Facility etc. need·
proper low resistance earthing system spread in the various rooms of the building. Electro-Magnetic 1 1 1 1
Disturbances are eliminated by proper Earthing. ERc = ERl + ER2 + ER3 + ......
ERc = Resistance of Combined Earthing Systems 1, 2, 3 ... Individual Station
The thin wire mesh earthed screen is provided in the glass windows, portable single phase Earthing Systems
devices are provided with 3-pin plugs : . ERI, ER2 = Resistance oflndividual Earthing Systems• URc = Underground Earthing
rod connections
The three pins are for: Phase, Neutral and Earth (green). Fig. 18-C.5. Concept of Integrated
18,32, STEP POTENTIAL AND TOUCH POTENTIAL Earthing System.
The earth wire/strip is provided with the wiring of all the rooms. The earthing is via the ear-
thing strips/earthing wire. A person touching a faulted structure should not get a shock
during flow of fault current through the structure.
~urrent leakage ~hrough w_et walls, floors and worn out old insulation; earth fault through pipe
or remforcement, mmor occas10nal sparking are some causes of electric shocks within residen- A person walking on substation floor should not get a shock during flow of fault current through
tial/commercial buildings. the earth mat. These conditions are ensured by low Touch Potential and low Step Potential.
Step Potential is the voltage between the feet of a person standing on the floor of the substation
Earthing System for Metallic Enclosure of Switchgear. Earthing Strip is provided with 0.5 m spacing between two feet (one step), during the flow of earth fault current ls through
the entire length or periphery of the Metallic Enclosure. The Earthing Bus in the metallic
enclosures is connected to the Station Earthing system at two or more points by Earthing ~v,, ........,. the earthing system.
tors. The individual neutral points, reference points and equipment bodies, doors etc. within Touch Potential. The voltage between the fingers of raised hand touching the faulted structure
Metallic enclosure are connected to the Earthing Bus. and the feet of the person standing on substation floor. The person should not get a shock even if
the earthed structure is carrying fault current. In other words the touch potential should be low.
Earthing .'":ith Withdrawable Earthing Truck. With Drawout type Switchgear, there
s~o~ld be provis10n f?r busbar earthing after isolation from supply feeders. Earthing trucks con- Refer the curve VIX in Fig. 18-C.6. The point Fis at potential V of faulted structure . The feet
sistmg of a breaker with shorted terminals on one side and mounted on withdrawable truck. Before ST 9f Man 1 are on ground. The potential difference between F and ST is the Touch Potential
doing maintenance/repair work on the switchgear, the busbars are earthed by means of earthing Wt) for Man 1. The potential between S and T of man 2 is Step potential Vt.
truck.
. E?rthing ~evices. ~efore doing any maintenance work, the overhead bus bars/other equip-
me1:1t m s~bstat10ns. are disco~nected, and then earthed by means of earthing device consisting of
an msulatmg rod with a earthmg hooks connected with insulated wires the other end of the wire
is connected to the earthing system. '
TOUCH POTENT! AL
SWITCHGEAR
Vt
PANELS
E/X CURVE V, =Step Potential between point
EARTHING BUS
S and P during flow of I~.
____,!'-- STEP V1 = Touch Potential
Vs POTE EF = Earth fault
V .T F = Raised finger
· WELDED
OR BOLTED S, T = Steps of a person
JOINT I, = Short-circuit current.
EARTHING STRIP
EARTH
MAT X
Fig. 18-C.4. Equipment Earthing Facility in Metal Clad-Switchgear.
Fig. 18-C.6. Step Potential (V,) and Touch Potential V1
18.33. EARTH-RESISTANCE OF EARTHING SYSTEM 18,34. EARTH RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT
"Earth Resistance ER" is the resistance of the earthing electrode/earthing mat to the real earth The measurement involves the Electrode under test, a current spik'e and a voltage spike. Cur-
and is expressed in ohms. ER is the ratio of VI I, where Vis measured voltage between the electrode rent is injected into earth through the electrode under test and returned from the current spike.
and the voltage spike and I is injected current during the earth resistance measurement through Voltage between the voltage spike and the electrode is measured.
the electrode. The desirable values of earth resistance measurement (average of 12 monthly read- Vde
ings) are : ER=-ohms
Ide
Table 18C.3.
where,
EHV AC Installations• < 0.01 ohm Vde = Voltage between voltage spike and earth electrode under test, volts
High Voltage Installations above 33 kV < 0.5 ohm Ide = Current injected through the Earth Electrode into earth and returned through the Cur-
rent spike, ohms
Medium Voltage Installation lkV to 33 kV < 0.5 ohms
The two different methods of Earth Resistance Measurement are :
Low Voltage Installations up to 1 kV <lto2ohm
1. Low Current Method (Conventional Method) used mostly for installations upto 400 kV.
Residential buildings <2 ohm
The test current is 10 mA to 100 mA.
'Measured by High Current Method.
2. High Current Method for 400 kV and 500 kV Substations. This method gives more realistic
For installations rated below 1000 V and earth fault current (ls) less than 500 A. the earth measurement for earth mats of more than 300 m diameter/length.
resistance shall be less than 125/ls The test current is 10 A to 100 A.
- For installations rated less than 2000 kVA and 1000 V, (Residential Loads), the earth resis- Description
tance should not exceed 2 ohms. 1. Low, Current Method (Conventional Method), Measurement is by means of standard
Earth resistance value obtained would depend on : Earth Resistance Tester, with standard accessories like Current Spike and Voltage Spike. (Fig. 18-
C.7) The test is conducted as per applicable Standard Specification. ·
- Whether th~ soil is dry or wet. During the rainy season lower values are obtained and during
summers, higher values are obtained. It is a good practice to irrigate the earth electrodes The Earth Resistance Tester has a built-in ohm meter and a hand driven DC Generator. The DC
regularly during summers and winters. generator supplies current (l)
via the Earth Electrode under EARTH RESISTANCE TESTER
- The resistivity of soil varies widely between 1 ohm m to 10000 ohm m (Table 18-C.3) depend-
ing on the type of soil. . test and the Current Spike D.C. GENERA TOR
OHM METER
(CS). The voltage (V) develops
- The design of station earthing system.
between the Earthing System
- Method of measurement.
under test and the Voltage
Table 18-C.4. Soil Resistivity V
Spike. The Ohm Meter in the
Earth Resistance Tester X-
Type of Soil Resistivity ohm m ~~
measures the ratio VI I. Several VOLTAGE / , CURRENT
Marshy 1-5 .
rea d mgs of V II= R are taken SYSTEM
EARTHING
UNDER ✓✓ ........... SPIKE SPIKE
Clay 3-150 for different positions of the TEST
Voltage Spike. The graph of dis- X
Clay and Gravel mixture 10 - 1250 tance X versus R is plotted. The
Chalk 60-500 flat portion of the curve or R is ...IL
Sand 90-1000 considered to be the Earth

Sand and gravel mixture 500-5000
Resistance of the Earth Point t
R
under measurement. The resis- V
Slate 100-500 tance value can be between a R =T
Crystaline Rock 500-10,000 fraction of ohm to a few hundred
ohms depending upon the soil
0 x-
Let ER be earth resistance for one electrode in ohm. resisting and depth of electrode. Fig. 18-C.7. Measurement of Earth Resistance by Low-Current method.
Resistivity of Soil (ohm m) = Earth-resistance ER in ohm Electrode design may be
0.003 suitably modified in case of hard rock.
e.g. With ER = 0.3 ohm, soil resistivity=~= 100 ohm metre [The voltage spike is placed at various points (X) and measurements of R are taken for each
0.003 point of X. The graph X versus R is plotted. The uniform value of 'R ' is called earth Resistance of
the Earthing System Under Test.]
With ER = 12 ohm, soil resistivity = ~ = 4000 ohm m
0.003
1...-,
I .
2. High Current Metho~ of Earth Resistance Measurement. The low current method does 18,35. EARTHED SCREENS
not reflect the true earth resistance for large earth mats designed for h' h h t · ·t t
· h c urren t M e th o d gives
H ig • more ig s or circm curren s. When equipment are not supported on earthed structures of 2.5 height (minimum), earthed
realistic value of earth resistance of screens are provided on ground for preventing persons entering unsafe safety zone.
10 M
Large Earthing Mats of 400 kV Sub-
stations and HVDC Substations in SUMMARY
which fault levels are more than 30 kA. DC GEN. I )IOA * Station Earthing System is an underground horizontal mesh of metallic rods with vertical ear-
Fig. 18-C.8 gives the schematic. SET 77 <100A r,, thing spikes to which various neutral points, equipment bodies to be earthed are solidly connected
In High Current method of Earth CURRENT ~ CS such that the resistance to earth is low.
MEASUREMENT Equipment bodies, fences, doors, support structure, are connected to station earthing system.
Resistance Test,
---:- The Current Spike (CS) shoP.ld The essential components of the earthing system are :·
'l/f. LI NE (DEAD)
be at least 3 mlong and should CONDUCTORS
- Underground earth mat arid earthing electrodes.
be located at least 10. km away USED FOR - Risers and Earthing Strips.
from the Earth Mat under test. TEST
The Touch Potential, the Step Potential, Earth Resistance should be low for s11fety of personnel
The location should be mar- against electric shocks.
shy/wet place. V8 = Voltage Spike, 3 m deep
CS = Current Spike, 3 m deep Equipment Earthing is for safety and Electrical Inspectors shall not permit charging of instal-
- The Voltage Spike (VS) should lation unless the earthing is properly done. The Earth Resistance is given by ER= VII, and is
Fig. 18-C.8. Earth Resistance Measurement
be at least 5 km away from the by High Current Method. rµeasured by : (1) Low Current Method (< 1 A) for medium and low voltage installations and (2)
Earth Mat under test. High Current Methods for 400 kV installations. Earthing System is common for equipment Earth-
- The Voltage Spike Should be separated from Current Spike by at least 500 m. The location ing and Neutral Point Earthing. Earth resistance shall be less than 0.5 ohm for medium/high volt-
should be marshy/wet place. age installations rated upto 200 kV and less than 0.01 ohms (as measured by high current method)
- Thhe angle between voltage conductor and current conductor (marked *) should be greater for 400 kV installations.
t an 90°, preferably 180°.
QUESTIONS
VTl~e lin~ Cond uctors outgoing from the substation are temporarily disconnected (dead) and used
1. Define: Neutral Earthing and Equipment Earthing.
:s ~ ~~ o;ductor a~1.current Conductor. Sufficient precautions should be taken to avoid shocks
· ue O in uce currents ive conductors, by discharging the charges and avoiding induced voltages. 2. Explain in brief, the four essential functions of Station Earthing System.
3. State which points in an electrical installation are connected to station earthing system.
- tThhe cuhrrtehnt Southrce can be a D.C. generator. (Welding Generator). The current flowing
roug e ear mat= le= V/r 4. State the modern criteria for the design of earthing system. How does it differ from the earlier criterion ?
5. Explain clearly the terms Touch Potential and Step Potential.
- The Measurement is by DC Voltmeter with a Shunt and an Ammeter.
6. Describe a typical Station Earthing System and state the values of Earth Resistance to be achieved.
Earth Resistance ER of Earth Mat = ;v,
C
ohm 7. Describe High Current Method of Earth Resistance Measurement. Explain how the Earth Resistance
can be minimised by integrated earthing system.
where, 8. Describe the Low Current Method of Earth Resistance Measurement.
Vv = D.C. Voltage between the Voltage Spike and the earth mat 9. Design an earthing system for a 33 kV outdoor substation having area within fence of 200 m x 100
m.
V = Voltage across shunt 'r' ohms.
1 The soil resistivity is 1000 ohm m. Short circuit level of the substation is 25 kA rms.
e = ~a~t~urre~t gowing ~hrough the Current Spike and the earth and returning through the Give a Sketch and final specifications of your design.
ma · urrent is measured by means of a shunt as shown in Fig. 18-C.8. (VIr) 10. Describe the Equipment Earthing Facility for a Metal Clad Switchgear and its Draw-out unit.
Table 18-C.5 Results ~f High Current Method of Earth Resistance

Measurement m a 400 kV/500 kV HVDC Substation
Current le = 36 A DC
I Voltage Vv = 0.103 V DC
I,
Earth Resistance ER= Vvllc = 0.00516, ohms
Size of Earth mat = 500 m x 30 m
Number of Earth electrodes = 167

SECTION II
FAULT CALCO TIONS
1,
t,•'
1
,ntroduction to Fault Calculations
Introduction - Procedure of Fault Calculation ~ Representation of Power Systems - Per Unit
Method - Advantages of Per Unit System --'- Selection of Bases - Single Phase Circuit -
Determination of Per Unit Resistance and Reactance - Summary.
"'19,l, INTRODUCTION
Section II of this book deals with steady state fault calculations. This section covers symmetrical
,.;.faults, unsymmetrical faults, method of symmetrical components and use of digital computer and
' network analyzer in fault calculations. Some simple problems have been solved for understanding
) of the procedure of fault calculations.
The circuit-breakers should be capable of breaking and making the currents as per their ratings
and should also have rated short-time capacity. Hence, for proper selection of circuit-breakers and
other switching devices/switchgear components, knowledge of current during normal and abnormal
conditions (at various respective locations) is necessary.
The design of machines, bus-bars, isolators, circuit-breakers, etc. is based on considerations of
normal and short-circuit currents.
The protective relaying schemes can be selected only after ascertaining the fault levels and
normal currents at various locations.
Fault studies are also necessary for system design, stability considerations, selection of layout,
etc.
The faults are claesified as
1. ·Three phase faults 2. Single phase to earth fault
3. Phase to phase fault 4. Double phase to earth fault
5. Simultaneous faults.
For steady state fault calculations, the steady state reactances are considered. The current and
voltage are in r.m.s. value.
In fault calculations, many assumptions are made for simplifying the calculations e.g. resistan-
ces are neglected.when their value is negligible as compared with the reactance. Capacitance is
neglected. Machine reactances are assumed to be constant. Saturation effects are neglected.
Generated voltages are assumed to be constant. Contribution of shunt capacitor banks is usually
neglected.
Two machine-models are assumed in some problems for understanding the procedure. The fault
current and fault levels are calculated for steady state. 1
Consider a point in the power system. Suppose the normal current flowing thro~gh the con-
ductor at the point is In amperes and the phase to phase voltage at the system is Vn- The normal
MVA supplied through the part is given by :
Normal MVAn = '13 Vn In ... (19.1)
where MVAn = Normal MVA
Vn = normal phase to phase voltage, kV rms.
In= normal current, kA rms.
390
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION INTRODUCTION TO FAULT CALCULATIONS 391
Now, consider a three phase fault occurring at the point under considerations, the fault current 19,3, REPRESENTATION OF POWER SYSTEMS
being Ir- The MVA in case of three phase fault would be equal to
.... A balanced three phase system can be conveniently solved on single-phase b_asis. It can be r~p-
Fault MVAr= i:f VIr •5•. t d by a single-phase system having one phase and a neutral. The first step m fault calculat10n
where MVAr= Fault MVA ·.ffesen e ally drawing a Single Line Diagram. In this diagram the components of the syste~ are
1
V = Phase to phase voltage, kV, rms ·•• s nolrlmdrawn
. ·•.· .•.·••·.•. usua Y in the form of their symbol. The neutral earthing is indicated. Fig. 19.1 shows smgle
Ir= Fault current, kA. rms, (90° lag) •. line diagram of a simple system.
The fault impedance being low, the power flowing into the fault depends on the system reac- GENERATOR
tance upto the fault point. Fault MVA is generally several times the normal MVA, and with lagging t
p.f.
Table 19.1
Typical Values of Fault Currents in Distribution and
Transmission Systems in India -tr
Nominal Voltage Steady State Fault Levels LOAD
(line to line) kV kA, r.m.s Fig. 19.1. Single line diagram of system.
11 10 to 40 The next step is to draw :
33 10 to 25 'Impedance or Reactance Diagram' or 'Positive Sequence Network'.
132 10 to 30 In impedance diagram each component is represented .by_its equivalent circuit. Fig. 19.2_rep-
220 15 to 40 resents impedance diagram of systems of Fig. 19.1. In maJonty of problems of fault calcu~at10ns,
400 resistance is neglected. Further, some more approximations can be made such as neglectmg the
20 to 40
capacitance and magnetizing current, etc. the ~otating m~chine~ are represented ~y e.m.f. source
With increase in generation and new interconnection, the fault levels at all po'ints go up. in series with a reactance. Static loads are omitted. The 1~duct.1on motors are ~m1tted for ste.ady
While determining the rating of circuit-breakers, bus-bars, CT's etc. the fault-level at the point state analysis. Thereby the impedance diagram reduces to s1mp_hfied ~eactance d1agra~. Contn_bu-
under consideration should be known. Fault MVA is of lagging p.f. with current lagging behind tion oflarge capacitor banks is considered. Effective Fault MVA 1s obtamed by subtractmg capacitor
voltage by 90°. Large capacitor banks provide leading MVA and reduce the fault level. (Ref. Sec. bank MVA from calculated Fault MVA.
20.14)
LOAD LOAD
Effective Fault MVA = [Calculate Fault MVA - MVA rating of capacitor Bank] e
The Fault-level at the various points in the power system can be calculated by the well estab-
lished procedures of Fault-calculations. These are for steady state. (Sec. 3.5)
Faults cause drop in voltage, unbalance and loss of stability. Hence another aim of fault cal-
culations is to provide data required for system studies under various fault conditions.
19.2. PROCEDURE OF FAULT CALCULATIONS "

6tNERAT0R,I
.
LOAD
A
6ENERATOR,1!
Fault calculations deal with determination of current and voltages for various fault conditions Fig. 19.2. Impedance diagram of Fig. 19.1.
at different locations of the power system. Such calculations provide the necessary data for selec-
Fig. 19.3 shows the reactance diagram of the system of Fig. 19.1. Reactance diagram is also
tions of circuit-breakers and design of protective scheme. Fault calculations normally begin with
called 'Positive Sequence Network'.
drawing single line or one line diagram of the given system. Next, suitable kV and kVA bases are
chosen for each voltage level. From these, the base quantities for current and impedance are cal-
culated for each voltage level. Thereafter reactance diagram or positive sequence network of the
system is drawn. These are the preliminary steps in fault calculations.
The faults are classified as symmetrical /faults and unsymmetrical faults. Symmetrical faults
include three phase faults. Such faults can be solved on per phase basis. The system is represented
REFERENCE BUS
by a single phase system considering phase and neutral. The unsymmetrical faults are solved by
using the method of symmetrical components. ·
Fig. 19.3. 'Reactance diagram' or 'Positive Sequence Network
For simple systems, calc11lations can be performed directly be means of calculator. But for of the system in Fig. 19.1.
modern complex systems, a.c. network analyzers or digital computers are used for faults calcula- 19.4. PER UNIT METHOD
tions.
Per unit system is adopted fQr fault calculations as it simplifies the analysis. Steady state rms The quantities voltage (V), current (I), kVA, i~pe?ance Z are ofte~ expressed as percentage or
values
i ,, are 'calculated. per unit of their selected bases. Such a method s1mphfies the calculat10ns. ·
393
392 / SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION INTRODUCTION TO FAULT CALCULATIONS
For example let us call, 200 volts equal to 1 per unit or 100 per cent. Then 200 volts is the base
i 19,7, SINGLE PHASE CIRCUITS : DETERMINATIONS OF BASE-IMPEDANCE
voltage. Now, other voltages are expressed as multiple the base voltage as follow : (or Resistance or Reactance)
_ Actual voltage Select Base kV and Base kVA
Per unit voltage
- Base voltage Actual kV given in kV
20 = Actual kV
e.g., 20 V = = 0.1 p.u. or 10 per cent P .u. kV Base kV
200
100 BasekVA ... (1)
100 V = = 0.5 p.u. or 50 per cent Base Current I= Base kV
200
(Amperes)
and likewise. . Base kV x 1000
Similarly, other quantities, I, Z etc. are expressed as per unit of their selected bases, e.g., if ... (2)
Base Impedance Z = B C tI
base current is 10 amperes, 100 amperes will be 10 p.u., 10 amperes will be 1.p.u. etc. (Ohms) ase urren
· After completing the calculations, the actual values of J, V, Z etc., are obtained by the reverse · Base kV ... (3)
method, i.e., =BasekVx BasekVA x 1000
Actual value= p.u. Value x Base value.
[Base kV] 2 x 1000 ... (4)
Example 19.1. Per Unit Method. For a single phase system, selected bases are as follows : = Base kVA
Base current 10 amperes. =BasekVA
Base power kW
Base voltage 200 volts. Z= Actual Z ... (5)
Calculate base impedance. P.u. Impedance Base Z
Express the following quantities in per unit form = Actual z x Base kVA .. . ... (6)
20 A, 0.2 A, 50 V, 1000 V, 2 n. (Base kV)2 x 1000
Solution. Base current = 10 A
Base voltage = 200 V 19.8. CHANGE OF BASE
Base impedance = Base Voltage= 200 = 20 ohms. From Eq. (6) we get important conversion:
Base current 10
P.u. Z referred to new base
20 [Current] 2
20 A: = 2 p.u.
10 Base kV old )
= P.u. z referred to old base x ( B ase kV new
0.2A = 0.02 p.u.
50 [Voltage}
50 V: = 0.25 p.u. x (Base kVA new) ... (7)
200
2
l
Base kVA old
2Q: =0.lp.u. [Resistance] Example 19.2. Convert 2 ohms into per unit. Base kV 11, Base kVA 1000.
20
19.5. ADVANTAGES OF PER UNIT SYSTEM Solution, Base Z = Bas;:s:k;iooo 1~~: x 1000 = 121
1. Calculations are simplified. Hence 121 Q = 1 p.u .
. 2. For circuits connect~d b~ transformers, per unit system is particularly suitable. By choosing 2
Then 2Q= = 0.0165 p.u.
smtable base kV's for the circmts the per unit reactance remains the same, referred to either sides 121
of the transformer. Therefore, the various circuits can be connected in the reactance diagram. Example 19.3.A 11 kV, 15,000 kVAgenerator has reactance of0.15 p.u. referred to its ratings
. 3. Machine reactances given in per unit, give a basis for comparison. The micro-machines are
as bases. The> new bases chosen for calculations are 110 kV and 30,000 kVA.
bu~lt to represent the. actual machin~s for the purpose of research. They have nearly the same per
umt reactance as. their parent machme. Thus per unit system gives a method of comparison. Calculate the new p. u. reactance.
Solution. Eq. (6) gives
19.6. SELECTION OF BASES
Old kV Base New kVA Base
(I) As a rule only tw_o ~ases should be selected first and from these two, the remaining bases
should be calculated. This 1s so, because kV, kVA, I and Z are interrelated. They must obey Ohm's
New p.u. z = Old p.u. z x (New kV Base J2x ( Old kVA Base )
law. If we choose Base kV and kVA, the other bases, i.e., Base I and Base Z are calculated from In this problem,
Base kV and Base kVA. As we will see later, it is convenient to select Base kV and Base kVA.
(II) For circuits connected by transformer, choose same kVA base for both the circuits. Choose 12
P.u.Xnew=0.15x ( 11 x (30,000}
lS,000
base kV's such that the ratio of Base kV's is same as the ratio of transformer. Such a selection 1101
gives same p.u. reactance of transformer referred to both the circuits [Refer example 19.4] = 0.15 X (0,1) (2) = 0.0003 p.u.
394 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION INTRODUCTION TO FAULT CALCULATIONS 395
Three phase Systems Solution. Select same base kVA for A, B, C. Say 10,000 kVA.
(i) Three-phase systems are solved on single phase basis, the base voltage represents phase to Select base kV's of the same ratio as the transformation ratio. If we take base kV for circuit
neutral voltage, and currents represents the phase currents. On this basis, the equations for base A as 11 kV. Base kV for circuit B is 22 kV Base, kV for circuit C is 3.3 kV.
impedance are as follows : Base kV2 x 1000
Base kV phase to neutral kV Base Impedance =
Base kVA
3-phase kVA 2
B ase lcVA = (11) x 1000 = 12 l 0 h
3 For circuit A : 10 000 · m
Base kVA 2
'
Base current= Base kV (22) x 1000 = 48 4 0 h
Circuit B: 10 000 · m
2
Base Impedance (ohms) Base kV 1000 2
'
= BasekVA x . Circuit C: (3.3) x 1000 = l 09 0 h
10 000 · m
(ii) Suppose we take a three phase base kVA and base kV as phase to phase kV, we obtain the '
following expressions : Load impedance = 300 n (resistive)
Base kVA 300
Base Current In circuit C : 1.09 = 276 p.u. .. .(i)
='V3xBasekV
2 Load impedance referred to circuit B
Ba~kV x 1000 2
Base impedance =~-------"----=
Base kVA/3
Base k V2 x 1000
Base kVA
= 300 x 3.3
(
J
22 = 13,350 ohms
We note that, the same expression of p.u. impedance is obtained for a single phase and three In p.u. this is equal to
phase systems. In power system problems the data are given in terms of 3-phase kVA, phase to 13,350 ·
phase kV. The machine reactances are given in percentage of p.u. quantities based on machine ~=276p.u. ...(ii)
kVA and machine phase to phase kV rating.
Load impedance referred to circuit A
Further the direct axis synchronous reactance is also known as positive sequence reactance of
the machine ..
19.9. CIRCUITS CONNECTED BY TRANSFORMER

= 133,50 (;; J = 3337.5 ohms.
In p.u. from which is equal to

Consider two circuits A and B connected by means of a transformer. While selecting the bases
for these two circuits choose same kVA base for both the circuits, but different kV bases. The. kV 3337.5
~ = 276 p.u. (ohms) .. .(iii)
bases for the two circuits should have the same ratio of transformation. With such a selection of
bases the p.u. reactance referred to either side with bases of that side remains same (Refer Example From (i), (ii), (iii), we note that the p.u. Impedance of load has same value in all the three
19.4). circuits, with the proper selection of bases. The reactance diagram shows the two transformers and
TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER
load represented as reactances the reactance diagram is given by Fig. 19.5.
1 II.
A
-------Iii~j~Ill-ff_ _...;__ CIi
.B _ _--iilg.,.._____ ---1□ RESl5TANC£
3000HM
The principle of selecting base kV and base kVA, mentioned above can also be applied to 3-phase
transformers, irrespective of their connections of various star-delta combinations.
Fig, 22'·4. Single line diagram. 19.10. REACTANCES OF CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

The manufacturer mentions the percentage or per unit reactance of the machine. It is under-
Jo•os jo,oa stood that the base quantities are machine ratings, Tables are available giving approximate values
----'ITT)1P'-,,.----~-----~
T, ~ 1 of per unit impedances of synchronous machines, transformers, induction motors.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _L_O_A_D_1f276+jo 19.11. INDUCTION MOTORS

Induction motors of large size have their own contribution to fault current which cannot be
Fig. 19.5. Reactance diagram of the system. (Ans.) neglected. The kVA rating of the motor is taken from rating plate.
Example 19.4. Three-single-phase circuit A, B, Care connected as shown in Fig. 19.4. Draw
reactance diagram of the system. Transformer I is rated 10,000 k VA and has a ratio 11 I 22 kV, 19.12. SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
leakage reactance of 5%. Transformer II has rating of 10,000 kVA, ratio 22/3.3 kV and leakage kVA rating is taken from rating plate.
reactance 8%, Load is 300 ohm resistance, Draw reactance diagram for the system.
INTRODUCTION TO FAULT CALCULATIONS 397
Example 19.5, Theuenin's Theorem. Deter- j0,05PU, J0•055P/J,
mine the fault current in the circuit [Fig. 19.6 (a)].
19.13. THEVENIN'S THEOREM Impedance of fault is negligible.
The current in a branch of a network having one or more voltage sources can be conveniently Solution. Since load current is zero the o.c.
determined by Thevenin's theorem. The current in the branch lb is given by the expression voltage across Fis 1 p.u. Hence V0 e == 1. The
Voe Thevenin's impedance is obtained between ter-
I b == minals of F by shunting the voltage sources.
Zth +Zb Fig. 19.6 (a). Ex. 19.5.
where V0 e is the voltage across the terminal, with the branch disconnected. Z ==j0.2 xj0.155
th
j0.2 +j0.155
Zth == Thevenin's equivalent impedance, i.e. The impedance of the network between the ter- jo,os j0-055
minals of the branch with the branch disconnected and the voltage sources replaced by
short circuits.
F
Zb == Impedance of the branch whose current is to be determined.
Thevenin's theorem will be used in the fault calculations.
Table 19.1
Reference Values for Reactance of Two Winding Power Transformers
Fig. 19.6 (b) ofEx. 19.5.
kV of hv, side
3.3 kV llkV 33kV 66kV 132kV 275kV 400kV
MVA rating Example 19,6. Draw reactance diagram of the system shown in Fig, 19. 7. The generator is 11
kV, 30,000 kVA with sub-transient reactances of 15%. The generator supplies power to two motors
Less than 1 MVA 4.75 4.75-6 4.75-6 6 through a transmission line having transformers at both the ends. Motors have rated input 10,000
5MVA "6-7
kVA, at 11 kV, 11 I 110 kV with leakage reactance of 10 per cent. Series reactance of transmission
6-7 7.5 line 80 ohms.
lOMVA 12-15 12-15 11 10.
15MVA 12-15 13 11 10
30MVA 12.5 11 10
60MVA 11 12.5
120 MV,l\. 15 m
210 MV,\\ 5
y
600 MV,l\. Fig. 19.7. Single line diagram of Ex. 19.6.
15
-
Note. The percentage reactance depends on kV rating ofh.v. side Solution.
Base kVA for the complete system 30,000 kVA
Table 19.2 Base kV's generator circuit 11 kV
Reference Values for Percentage Reactances of Alternators• Transmission line circuit ll0kV
Rating and type Motor circuit 11 kV
X" X' x. X2 XO SCR
11 kV Salient Pole, Without Damper Base impedance = Base k v2 x 1000
25 35 112 20 6 Base kVA
11.6 kV, 600 MW, Turbo 11 17 200 13 6 0.55 Base impedance of transmission line circuit
11.6 kV, 60 MW, Gas-Turbo 11 14 175 13 5.2 0.7 (110) 2
13.5 kV, 100 MW, Turbo
== x 1000 == 403.3 ohms.
20 29 205 22 10 0.58 30 000
18.5 kV, 300 MW, Turbo
'
P.u. reactance of transmission line
20 26 260 19 11 0.4
22.2 kV, 500 MW, Turbo 20
80
28 250 20 9 0.4 403.3 = 0.198 p.u.
*Where X" : S_ub transient reactancel P.u, reactance of transformer to new base kVA
X' : Transient reactance Positive Sequence Reactance
X 8 : Steady state reactance ·o 1 3 o,ooo ·o 0857 p.u.
==J ' X 35 000 ==] '
X 2 : Negative sequence reactance
P.u. reactance of motor to new base kVA
'
X 0 : Zero sequence reactance
. 30,000 .
ooc'R : h 0 rt ClfCUl
s· · 't rat'10 = Field
, current
, to get rated O' C' voltage ==] 0 .2 X 10 000 =] 0 . 6 p.u.
Field current to get rated s.c. current '
For steady state calculations, use the steady state reactance value X8 ..
The reactance diagram or posi- jo,oc156 jo,19s jo,0056 ZP ½[Zps + Zpt - Zstl
tive sequence network is drawn from
these p.u. values (Refer Fig. 19.8) ZP = ½[j 0.07 +j 0.09 - j 0.08] =} 0.04 p.u.
(Ans.)
Per Unit Impedance of Three
Zs=½ [Zps + Zst - Zptl
Winding Transformers. The three = [j 0.07 + j 0.08-j 0.09] =j 0.03 p.u.
windings of a three winding trans- Zt =½[Zpt + Zst-Zpsl
form er may have different kVA
ratings. Impedance of each winding = ½[j 0.09 + j 0.08-d 0.07] =} 0.05 p.u.
may be given in per unit based on the NEUTRAL BUS
rating of that winding. However, the Equivalent Circuit
Fig. 19.8. Reactance diagram of Example 19.6. Also called
per unit impedances in impedance positive sequence network. (Ans.) P------
diagram must be expressed on the
same base kVA. The impedance measured from short circuit test may be denoted as follows :
Zps = leakage impedance measured in primary with secondary short circuited and tertiary
open.
z t = leakage impedance in primary with tertiary short-circuited and secondary open. s---
it= leakage impedance measured in secondary with tertiary short-circuited and primary
open.
t ----------'
If the three impedances measured in ohms are referred to voltage of one of the windings, the Fig. 19.8 (a). Solution of Ex. 19.7.
impedances of each separate winding referred to that winding are as follows : Example 19.8. Define percentage reactance of an electrical machine and show that the short-
Zps =Zp +Zs circuit current is inversely proportional to percentage reactance.
Zpt =Zp +Zt Solution. Let E be the rated voltage and I be the rated current. If the electrical machine is
Zst =Zs +Zt the only impedance in the circuit the short-circuit current is given by EIX which is
E
Where zp, Zs and Zt are the impedances of primary, secondary and tertiary winding referred Ish= X
to primary circuits, solving the equations simultaneously, we get
The percentage reactance of the machine is defined as
ZP =½[Zps + Zpt - Zstl IX
%X Ex 100
Zs = ½[Zps + Zst - Zptl .
Therefore, _Ix 100
I sh- An
Zt = ½[Zpt + Zst - Zpsl %X s.
The three impedances are star connected to represent single-phase equivalent circuit. The three Example 19.9. Fault level at a 110 kV bus in a receiving substation neglecting new capacitor
outer points of star connection are connected to the parts of the impedance diagram which represent bank was 5000 MVA. A new 200 MVA, 110 kV capacitor bank was commissioned. Calculate new
in connections of primary, secondary and tertiary. fault level.
Example 19.7. A three phase rating of a three winding transformers are: Solution. New fault level= Effective fault level
Primary Star connected 66 kV, 10 MVA. :::: Fault MVA - Capacitor Bank MVA
Secondary - Star connected 11 kV, 7.5 MVA. = 5000 - 200 = 4800 MVA.
Tertiary - Delta connected 3.3 kV, 5 MVA.
The leakage impedances defined as mentioned earlier are : 19.14. SOME TERMS
Zps = 7% based on 10 MVA, 66 kV base 1. Fault Power. Also called Fautt level or Short-circuit level~(Symbol : Sa). It is the product :
Zpt = 9% based on 10 MVA, 66 kV base ✓3 x Fault ~urrent x System voltage.
Zst = 6% based on 7.5 MVA, 11 kV base. Fault power in MVA= ✓3 kV xkA
Find p. u. impedances of equivalent circuit for 10 MVA, 66k V base on primary circuit. where kV= line to line voltage
Solution. Bases primary 10 MVA, 66 kV. kA = fault current
Secondary 10 MVA, 11 kV. 3-phase fault is assumed. Contribution of Capacitor Banks is neglected.
Tertiary 10 MVA, 3.3 kV. 2. Initial Symmetrical Fault.Power
10 (Symbol Sa")
Zst = 0.06 X _ = 0.08 p.u. ✓2 x initial symmetrical fault current x Service voltage.
75
3. Peak Short Circuit Current,
18 . The highest instantaneous value of YAX/5 +
/MAG/NERY!
current after appearance of short-cir- Zo I
I
cuit.
With full asymmetry. :f
.
:I
.--------------------·--·-·--I
I
Peak value = 1.8 ✓2 x a.c. component. I

'
I
I
'
I
I i
4. Initial Symmetrical Short Cir- II
I
I'
I
I I
cuit Current, lk"· The r.m.s. value of I
I
I
I
symmetrical short circuit current at the I I

instant of short circuit, determined from
b ! 0 I
X AXIS
---- ----- ----------- - - - - - ---,..L _________ ,,...
sub-transient reactances XJ''. Fig. 19.9. Star-delta transformation. 0: I
X (REAL)
Vector Z =x + iy
5. Transient Short Circuit Current, lk'· RMS value of short-circuit current determined from Fig.19.10.
transient reactance XJ'.
Addition of vectors : Zi + Z2 =Z
6. Sustained Short Circuit Current, lk. Short-circuit current determined from steady-state
= (xi +1Yi) + (X2 +lY2)
reactance.
= (xi +x2) +JCYi + Y2)
[Refer Sec. 3.5]
/zl = ✓cx1 + x2) 2 + (yl + Y2) 2
19.15. STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION
Subtraction of Z1 and Z2
ZaZb + Z~c + ZcZa
Case I. Sta-,,.·to Delta Zab = - - - - = - - - - Z =Zi -Z2 = (xi -x2) + CYi -y2)
Zc
Multiplication of Z 1 and Z 2
Zi Z2 =(xi+ }Yi) (x2 +JY2)

= XiX2 + }xi Y2 +}X2Yi -yi Y2
= (XiX2 - YiY2) +j (XJY2 + X2Ji)
Case II. Delta to Star
ZiZ2= IZil IZ2/ /0, +02
19.17. SUMMARY
19.16. NOTATION j
(a) Procedure of fault calculation is as follows :
A vector Z can be written as
1. Draw single line diagram of the system in which the machines are represented by their sym-
Z=x+jy
bols. ·
where x = component of Z along real axis 2. Draw reactance diagram or positive sequence network.
3. For symmetrical faults, only positive sequence network is enough.
y = component of Z along imaginary axis
j = vector operator= fl 4. For unsymmetrical faults, method of symmetrical components is applied in which three se-
quence networks are drawn.
lzl = magnitude of Z (b) The per unit system is used for fault calculations. The per unit reactances of machines are
= ✓x2 +y2 given referred to their ratings as the bases.
0 = tan- i ..,t_ The kV,[, Z, kVA are expressed as per unit or per cent of their selected bases; only two bases,
X (usually kV and kVA) are selected first then the remaining two bases are.calculated.
(c) The p.u. Impedance is given by following expressions.
Base Z = Base
Base kV2 x 1000
kVA
z _ Ohmic Z Z x Base kVA
p. u. - Base Z = Base kV2 x 1000
Change of Base
p.u. Znew = p.u. zold

-
kVABaseNew) (kVbaseOldJ
2
Symmetrical Faults and
X ( kVA Base Old X kV base New
(d) For circuits connected by transformer choose same k VA base on both sides and differeP..t Current Limiting Reactors
kV bases on either sides. kV bases should have the ratio same as transformation ratio. The p.u.
Fault MVA and Fault Current - Summary. Solved Examples 20.1 to 20.22 of various types by
reactance remains same on either sides. different methods - Current Limiting Reactors.
(e) Thevenin's theorem and network reduction methods are useful in fault calculations.
In this chapter some examples on symmetrical faults have been solved. Per unit system and
QUESTIONS procedure mentioned in chapter 19 has been followed.
1. E})'.plain the Per Unit System. What are its advantages ? Significance of Fault MVA.
Derive expression for p.u. reactance from the chosen base kVA and base kV. High fault MVA at a point signifies high strength of power system at that point, low equivalent
2. The p.u. reactance of a 11 kV, 20,000 kVA, 3 ph. 50 Hz alternator is 0.20 p.u. What will be its p.u. reactance upto that point. Therefore, large loads can be connected at that point. Low fault level
reactance referred to the base kV 110 and base kVA 10,000? signifies weak system. Fault level indicates the strength of the power system.
3. A generator is connected to a transmission line through a transformer. The ratings are as follows :
Generator: 20,000 kVA, 11 kV, positive sequence reactance 15 p.u. 20.1. FAULT MVA AND FAULT CURRENT (STEADY STATE)
Transformer 10,000 kVA, 11/110 kV, leakage reactance 6 per cent. Transmission line total reactance
10 ohms. A fault occurs at the other end of the line. Draw reactance diagram taking suitable base kV
Calculate total p. u. reactance upto fault point, by network reduction of positive sequence net-
and 200,000 base kVA. work or reactance diagram. If same kVA base is taken for complete system
Transmission line total reactance 10 ohms. A fault occurs at the other end of the line. Draw reactance P.u. voltage at fault point
P.u. fault current
diagram taking suitable base kV and 200,000 base kVA. P.u. Xequivalent
4. A 20,000 kVA, 11 kA generator 3 ph. has a direct axis synchronous reactance of 20 per cent. A 3-phase P.u. fault level= ✓3 p.u. fault current x p.u. service voltage. Or in other way
short circuit near the terminals. Calculate the steady short circuit current. Generator is at rated volt-
age and on load. [Ans. 5250 A) F au lt MVA p Base
X MVA (MVA) ... reac t·1ve, 1aggmg.
·-
5. Two generators are operating in parallel and have sub-transient reactance X" = 10%. Generator I is ,u. equivalent
rated 2500 kVA, 3.3 kV, generator 2 is rated 500 kVA, 32 kV. Find p.u. reactances of each generator 3
Fault current Fault MVAx 10 (Am .) L- 900
on 15,000 kVA, 3 kV base. What is equivalent p.u. reactance of the two generators on 1500 kVA, 3 =✓3 x Base kV p
kV base?
Hence for three phase (symmetrical) fault, we get the expressions, neglecting loa,l current
6, Three reactance 0.5, 0.2 and 0.3 are connected in delta. Find the equivalent star reactances.
7. Three motors are connected to a common bus. The motors are rated 5000 h.p., 3.3 kV, 0.8 p.f.,
Base MVA
Fault MVA = -c=--------- ... reactive, lagging.
X" = 17%. They are supplied by a generator 20,000 kVA, 11 kV and of X" = 10% through a transformer xp.u. the venine's equivalent
11/3.3 kV, 18,000 kVA and having 5% leakage reactance. Draw the reactance diagram of the system. _ Fault MVA x 1000 (Am ) L- 900
Fault current - ✓s x Base kA p.
Take kVA = 1.10 x H.P. Take 20,000 kVA base.
8. Distinguish clearly between per unit method antl' percentage reactance method. Show that the per (Base kV at the fault point, assuming the fault occurs at normal voltage. Fault current is of
unit reactance referred to the circuits connected by transformer is same if same base kVA is taken lagging power factor).
for both circuits and the base kVs have ratio equal to transformation ratio.
9, State whether correct or wrong. Write corrected statements if necessary. 20.2. SOLVED EXAMPLES 20.1 TO 20.21
(i) Circuit-breakerp open during steady state fault condition.
Note. In this chapter some problems on symmetrical faults have been solved. Further, the term
(ii) The positive sequence reactance of generators is less than their negative sequence reactance. sub-transient, transient and steady state are described in Ch. 3 (Notation} is omitted).
(iii) During short-circuits, the current increases with time during first 10 cycles. Example 20.1. A 3-phase, 5000 kVA, 6.6 kV generator having 12% sub-transient reactance. A
(iv) Percentage reactance of power transformers is always less than one per cent. 3-phase short- circuit occurs at its terminals, calculate fault MVA and current.
(v) Short-circuit ratio of generators is less than 1. Solution. (Method I)
(vi) Power system stability depends upon fault clearing time.
Fault MVA = Base MVA x lOO
%Reactance
Generator% reactance is based on its own voltage and kVA ratings. Hence choose 5000 kVA SYMMETRICAL FAULTS AND CURRENT LIMITING REACTORS 405
as base. P.u. reactance of generator= 0.2 p.u. (given)
Fault MVA 5 New p.u. reactance of transformer
= 12 x 100 ... (subtransient) = 41.60 MVA. Ans.
- 0.05 X 5000
-- 3000 -- 0 .083 p. u .
VA
Fault current = ✓ 3v ... (subtransient) P.u. reactance of transmission line
= Fault MVA x 1000 = 41.66 x 100 = 3644 A/-90. · An _ Ohms x Base kVA= 30 x 5000 0.139 p.u.
✓3kV ✓3 x 6.6 s. - Base kV2 x 1000 (33) 2 x 1000
Method II. From base voltage and p.u. reactance, calculate p.u. fault current. Then calculate Total p.u. reactance up to fault
fault current in amperes. Then you can calculate fault MVA. =J0.2 + j 0.083 +)0.139 =)0.422 p.u.
Generator reactance (0.12 p.u.) is base on its kV and kVA ratings. 3
Fault MVA Base MVA = 5000 X 10- = 11 .9 Ans.
Base kV (phase) = ~: = 3.8 kV = xp.u. eq. 0.422
Hence 2 3
3.8 kV= 1 p.u. (voltage) _ Fault MVAx 10 = 11.9 x 10 = 208 Amp./- 90° Ans.
Fault current - ✓3 Base kV 3 x 33
Fault current p.u. _ p.u. voltage _ _ 1 __ / _ 900 ( t)
- p.u. reactance - j0.12 - 8 .32 p.u. ~--- curren Example 20.3. Four 11 kV, 25 MVA alternators having a subtran~ient reactance of 16% are
Rating kVA 5000 operating in parallel when a 3-phase fault occurs on the generator bus. Find the 3 phase fault MVA
Base current
= ✓3 x Rated kVA= ✓3 x 6.6 = 437 Amp. fed into the fault.
Fault Current Solution. Let,
= p.u. current x Base current
Base MVA = 25
= 8.32 X 437 = 3644 Amp. Ans,
Base kV = 11
Fault power = ✓3 x Fault current x Service voltage
Base MVA
= ✓3 x 3.64 x 6.6 MVA Fault MVA = X
p.u. eq.
=41.6MVA /-90°. Ans.
The equivalent p.u. reactance of four generators operating in parallel is :
Change of Voltage
6
Suppose in same problem, the generator voltage is 6.4 kV, when fault occurs and not rated ~ = 4% =) 0.04 p.u.
voltage, Method II should be adopted. The service voltage is then
25
~:! = 0.97 p.u.
Fault MVA
Other Method
=-=625MVA
0.04
p.u. Fault current 0.97 8 09 p.u. voltage.

= 0.12 = · p.u. Fault current
Fault current in ampere = p.u.Xeq.
= p.u. Current x Base current
= 8.. 09 x 437 = 3538 Amp.
Check. Current reduces proportionately.
j o\4 = 25 p.u. / - 90°
3
Base current = 25 X 10 = 1310 A
3538 6.4 ✓3 X 11
3640 = 0.97 = 6 _6 (checked) Short circuit current = 25 x 1310 = 32,750 A
Fault power at service voltage 6.4 kV . . . ✓3 x Vxl ✓3 x 32,750 x 11 _ MVA An
Short circmt MVA = = 3 - 625 s.
= ✓3 x Fault current x Service voltage 106 10
= ✓3 x 5.53 kA x 6.4 kV= 39.2 MVA Example 20.4. Two 11 kV, 3-phase, 3000 kVAgenerators ~a~ing_sub-transient reactance of 15%
Note. For service voltage other than rated voltage adopt method II, to calculate p.u. fault cur- operate in parallel. The generators supply power to a transmission line through a 6000 kVA trans-
rent from p.u. Service voltage/p.u. reactance. If given, load current is added to fault current. former of ratio 11122 kV and having a leakage reactance of 5%. Calculate fault current and fault
Example 20.2. A 3-phase, 11 kV 5000 kVA, generator has a steady state reactance Xd of 20%. MVA for three phase fault on (a) H. T. side (b) L. T. side of a transformer.
It is connec~ed ~v a 3000 k VA transformer having 5. 0% leakage reactance and ratio of 11 I 33 kV. jo,os
The 33 ~V_side_is connecte~ to a transmission line. A three-phase fault occurs at the other end of the 1$000KVA 5%
transmission line. The series reactance between the faulted point and the transformer is 30 ohms. G
Calculate the steady state fault current assuming no load prior to the fault. , lfKV 22KV
Solution. Let, ·
Base kVA for complete system= 5000 kVA
Base kV= 11 kV for generator side F,
i f.;; e,
Base kV = 33 kV for transmission line side.
(a) One line diagram. (b) Reactance diagram.
Fig. 20.1. Diagrams of example 20.4.
------------------------------
406 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION SYMMETRICAL FAULTS AND CURRENT LIMITING REACTORS 407
Solution. Solution. Base kVA for the complete system= 6000 kVA
Draw single line diagram [Fig. 20.1 (a)]. Base kV = 11 for generator sides
Let Base kVA = 6000 Base kV = 66 for transmission circuits.
Base kV = 11 kV for generator side. Per unit reactance to these bases :
Base kV = 22 kV for transmission side. 6000
(1) Generators 0.2 X = 0.4 p.u.
Now, p.u. reactance of generator, (subtransient) 3000
. 6000 . (2) Transformers = 0.05 p.u .
=] 0 .15 X 3000 =]0.3 p.u, Base reactance of transmission line circuit
Draw reactance diagram [Fig. 20.1 (b)]. 2
(66) X 100 = 4356 = 726 Q
Calculate Thevenin's equivalent reactance for the faults. 6000 6
(a) Fault on generator side : F 1 Per unit reactance of 20 km line
Equivalent of two reactance (j 0.3 each) in parallel 20 X 0.1
= = 0.00276 p.u.
_ j0.3 _. 726
- -J0.15 p.u. Per unit reactance of 80 km line = 0.01104 p.u.
2
3 From these values, the reactance diagram [Fig. 20.2 (b)] is drawn.
Fault MVA = Base MVA = 6000 x 10- = 40 MVA. Ans.
Xequivalent 0.15 Thevenin's equivalent reactance from F.
3 ' 3 Note that on short-circuiting the voltage sources, there are two parallel branches, the reactan-
Fault current = F au ltMVA X 10 = 40x10 = 2 100A/- 9 0 0 • An ces being.
✓3 X Base kV ✓3 x 11 s.
(b) Fault on transmission side: F 2 j0.4 + j0.05 + j0.0027 =J0.4527 p.u.
and j0.4 + j0.05 +j0.011 =J0.461 p.u.
Equivalent reactance =J0.15 + j0.05 =J .0,20 p.u.
The equivalent is given by
3
6 j0.4527 xj0.461 =- j0.209 _ .
Fault MVA = 00~-~to- = 30 )\'IVA. Ans.
J0.4527 + j0.461 0.9137 -J 0 ·229 p.u.
Fault current 30 X 103
= ✓ 3 x 22 = 786 A/ - 90° (lag). Ans. Fault current - Vr
-xp.u.
Example 20.5. (a) Two generators rated 11 kV, 3000 kVA, having 20% reactance are inter- 1 +jO _ .
connected by a 100 km long transmission line. The reactance ofline is 0.10 ohms per km. The trans- j0.229 - - J4.36 p.u.
formers near the ~enerators are rated 6000 kVAi 11 kV/66 kV and have 5% reactance. A 3 phase
Vr is the p.u. voltage at fault point.
fault occurs at a distance of 20 km from one end of the line when the system is on no load but at
rated voltage. Calculate fault MVA and fault current. Base current in transmission line circuit
Base kVA 6000
·✓3 Base kV= ✓3 x 66 = 52 ·5 amperes.
~
3000 KVA
20h ll/6~KVA /+2 0K.1 !OOKM7
Fault current = 4.36 x 52.5 = 229 amperes.
= ✓3 xkVxlrx 10- 3
\,____.,,C"~ i ' 66KV I~
6000Kr-v.-:;,i-z;r3-'--P..-uF.-=:.:...::....--,---~~
Fault MVA
= ✓3 X 66 X 229 X 10- 3 = 26.2 MVA.
5% 'l .r,.. Another method :
3
(a) Single line diagram of the system of Ex. 20.5. Fault MVA = Base MVA = 6000 x 10- = 26 •2 MVA• Ans.
X p.u. eq. 0.299
jo,05 jo,0027 Fault current = 26.2 X 103 = 229 A / - 900 An *
✓3 X 66 =, s,
Example 20.5. (b) Further to example 20.5 (a) calculate the fault current supplied by each trans-
former and each generator.
E Neglect load current.
(b) Reactance diagram or positive sequence network. * Note. As the fault current flows through system reactance, and resistance. being negligible, the fault current
(c) Thevenin's equivalent circuit. lags behind corresponding voltage by 90'. ·
Fig. 20.2. Figures ofExample 20.5.
-408
• SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIO)lr tMMETRICAL FAULTS AND CURRENT LIMITING REACTORS 409
Solut10n. The total fault current is su li d b t "
upon reactances in their branches, pp e y wo generators. Their contribution depends etrical delta connected fault of impedance 12 +J3
nms occurs between the lines near the H. T. ter-
inals of the transformer when the system is on
no load. Calculate the current supplied by alter-
<11,ator.
Solution. Base kVA== 6000 for complete sys-
tem, base kV= 11 and 66 kV for the two circuits
connected by transformer.
Fig. 20.3. Reactance diagram of Ex. 20.6.
P.u. reactance of generator JO.~O p.u.
Fig. Ex. 20.5 (a) P.u. reactance of transformer J0.09 p.u.
D' · · f Fig. Ex. 20.5 (b) Converting delta connected impedance to equivalent star connected impedance, we get
°
ivision current through parallel branches.
12 + j3 .
IrxXeq == Vr==l1 xX1 ==l2 xX2 Zeq. == == 4 + Jl ohms/phase
3
X - X1 xX2 2 2
eq- X1 +X2 B ase Z on H.T. side = Base kV x lOOO == (66 ) x lOOO = 66 11 = 726 Oh
Base kVA 6000 x m
I X1XX2 4+Jl .
rx X1 +X2 ==l1 XX1 ==12 XX2 P.u, Zeq. = = 0.00546 +J0.00138
726
Therefore,
Ea= 1 p,u, = 1 + JO
1 +JO
Ir== 0.00546 +J0.19138
0,00546 - j0.19138 _ . _
== _ - 0.149 -J5.225 p.u. - 5.23 p.u.
0 03663
Base I, HT side == Base ofkVA = 6000 == 52 5 Am ,
✓3 x Base kV ✓3 x 66 · p
These are general equations which give the d' . . .
having reactance X1 and X2, wiswn of total current Ir in two parallel branches Ir== 5.23 x 52.5 = 274 Amp.
In this example, Ir== 229 A 6000
Current from generator == 5.23 x ✓ x
3 11 == 1644 Amp. Ans.
/1 == 229 X 0.4 6 l Note. The respective base voltages are taken to calculate base currents on the two sides of
0.4527 + 0.461 transformer. We can also calculate as:
== 229 X 0.461 - 115 5 A Current from Generator = Ir x 66/11.
0.913 - ·
12 == 229 X 0.4527 - 113 5 A Example 20.7. Two generators are connected to their unit transformer as shown in the figure.
0.913 - • Ans. Generators and transformers are rated as follows :
Check Generator I 20 MVA, 11 kV, 0.2 p. u.
I I+ 12 == 115.5 + 113.5 == 229 A. Ans.
Current supplied by generator - Cu . Transformer 1 20 MVA, 11 I 110 kV, 0.08 p.u.
. 66 - rrent supplied by transformer x Transformation Ratio Generator 2 30 MVA, 0.2 p.u., 11 kV
lm==I1 x -
11 ~4527 Transformer 2 30 MVA, 11 I 110 kV
~ x
== 115,5 x 6 == 693 A. Ans.
Ia2 ==12 x-
66
11
1 1
0.1 p.u.
Reactance of transmission lines
0.516 p.u. (based on 110 kV, 30 MVA.
20MVA
0•2 P.IJ
201/,MVA
11/IOKV
~ A
~
tll<CH 0·5l6Pll
IIOKV BUS
bases). ~-t---(;-::3:-:;0':-::M:,..;VA+,+.f!O.;K:.,.,.V,-B"'"A.,..,5,....E...,..)--IB
== 113 x 6 == 678 A. Ans.
Note, Load current neglected. A 3-phase short-circuit occurs at the G1 T,
receiving end 110 kV bus-bar. 3PH
Ii == IrxX2 - IrxX1 Determine the current supplied by
X1 +X2 - X1 +X2 G2
,Q:i
the generators.
11+12 ==1 Fig. Ex. 20.5 (c) Solution. 0•5/6 Pll.
Example 20.6. A 3-phase 6000 kVA 11 kVA lt Base MVA = 30 0•2PU. 2 30MVA
tance. It is connected to a 6000 kVA 1//66 kV a ernator has 10% direct axis sub-transient reac- Base kV= 11, 110 ; respectively on I/KV 11/IIOKV
, ' transformer having 9% leakage reactance, A sym- 0•1 PU.
generator, transmission sides Fig, 20.4. Circuit diagram of Ex. 20.7.
P.u. reactance of Generator 1 to new base (4) Current to be interrupted by breaker A; breaker time is 5 cycles. Use multiplying factor 1.1
for d.c. component (Asymmetry).
= 0.2 X 30
20
= 0.3 p.u. Solution.*
P.u. reactance of transmission 1 to new base Base kVA= 25,000 for complete-system, p.u. reactance of motor
= 0.08 X 30
20
= 0.12 p.u. x d, =J·o •2 X 25,ooo =J·1 .o p.u .... suhtransient
.
5 000
P.u. reactance of G2 = 0.2 p.u. '
X d.I =J•o .3 x 25,000 =J•1 .5 p.u .... t ransien
• t
P.u. Reactance of T2 = 0.1 p.u. 5000
P.u. Reactance of transmission line = 0.516 p.u. Correspondingly the reactance diagram, one for sub-transient and other for transient state.
From these values the reactance diagram is drawn. Sub-transient state
j 0•5/6 jo,2sa Zth =}0.125
Vr= 1.0 p.u. 11KV
11166
25,000 KVA
jo,42 If - Yi
Base current is 6.6. kV circuit is

25,000
II - - 1.0 + JO - '8 0
Zth - }0.125 - -J . p.u.
H
jo,25a ✓ x _ = 2182 Amp.
(a) Circuit diagram.
3 66
E1=/tjo
Ja.175□ E If' in Amp = 2182 x 8 = 17,456 Amp. I - 90°
(a) (b)
Fig. 20.5. Reactance diagram of Ex. 20.7.
Thevenin's equivalent reactance between B, G is obtained by network reduction and is equal
toj0.433 p.u.
Short-circuit current Ea _ 1 + jO _
=X - ·o 433 - 2 ·3 p.u.
eq. p.u. J ·
p
*current from G1 3
= 2.3 X 0. 3 ~~.4 2 = 2.3 X
7
0~ 2 = 0.96 p.u.
Current from G2 = 2.3 x ~:~; = 1.34 p.u.
NEUTRAL BUS NEUTRAL BUS
IGl + Ia2 = 0.96 + 1.34 = 2.30 p.u. (check) (b) Reactance diagram with sub-transient reactances. (c) Reactance diagram with transient reactances
Current taken from G1 in Amp. Fig. 20.6. Diagrams of Ex. 20.8.
=0.96 x ✓~,~~~ =1510 A (lagging) Generator Contribution
Current from G2 in Amp. 3 -J'8 .0 X °·0.525 =-J·4 .0 p.u.

-- 1'34 x ✓30,000
X 11
2105 A (lagging)
(Since Base kVA = 30,000 and Base kV is 11.) Each motor contributes 25% of the remaining fault current.
Example 20.8. A 25000 kV, 11 kV generator with 15% subtransient reactance is connected Total motor contribution
through a transformer to a bus that supplies 4 identical motors as shown in Fig. 20.6. Each motor
has X[ = 30%, Xl = 30% .based on 5000 kVA, 6.6. kV. Three-phase rating of the transformer is = -}8 - (- 4J) = - }4 p.u.
25000 k VA, 11 I 6. 6 kV and leakage reactance is 10%. Bus voltage is 6. 6. kV when a three-phase fault :. Contribution of each motor - jl.O p.u.
occurs the terminals of one motor. Calculate the following : Short-circuit current passing through circuit-breaker A
(1) Sub-transient fault current.
(2) S11,b-transient current in breaker A. = Contribution of 3 motors + Contribution of generator
(3) Momentary current rating** of circuit breaker. =-}4.0+3 (-jl.0)=-7.0
IA" =-}7.0 x 2182 = 15,274 Amp. (r.m.s.)
* Current gets distributed amongst parallel generators according to proportion of reactances. See Ex. 20.5 (b).
** Momentary current rating is defined as r.m.s. value of the short-circuit current at the instant of first current * For solution of Subtransient current, take Subtransient reactances X" For solution of Transient Current, take
peak. The Amedcan Standards on circuit breakers specify the momentary current rating of breaker. Transient Reactances X' Refer Ch. 3.
SYMMETRICAL FAUL'rS AND CURRENT LIMITING REACTORS 413
p.u. Xeq. of source up to H.V. side, from Eq. (1),
Momentary current Base MVA 1
= 1.6 xlA" = 1.6 x 15274 = 24,440 A [Factor 1.6 for Doubling Effect*] = Fault MVA = 100 = 0.01 p.u. (on selected base)
Now come to the Transient State P.u. Reactance of Transformer for same base as its rating
Assume transient reactance of generator X' = 0.15 p.u. Per cent reactance = ~ =
, . o.375 x 0.25 . = 100 100 0 ·06 p.u.
Z th =J 0.375 + 0.25 =J 0 ' 15 p.u.
Total equivalent reactance
S. C. Current (Transient) = Eqt. reactance of source + Eqt. reactance of transformer
= 0.01 + 0.6 = 0.61 p.u.
Ea
I , = Zth' 1 '6 66
= }0)5 =-J . p.u. Fault level on 3.3. kV side
Generator Contribution Base MVA 1
==-------
1 0.375 Eqt. p.u. reactance - 0.61
j0.15 x Jo.625 = k 4 ,0 p.u. = 1.64 MVA. Ans. ... (a)
Motor Contribution (each) Fault current = 1.64 X 103 = 288 A. Ans.
1 1 0.25 . ✓3 X 3.3
4-xj0.15 x 0.625 =-J 0 ·67 p.u. Note. Ifwe assume source of zero reactance, fault MVA on L.V. side would be, from Eqn. (1)
Current to be interrupted 1
= 0. 6 = 1.67 MVA ... (b)
Generator contribution + Contribution of 3 motors
i.e. [4.0 + 3 x 0.67] = 6.01 p.u. which is on higher and safer side, as regards selection of circuit breaker, compared with value (a)
above.
Current to be interrupted
Hence fault level on L.T. side of a transformer can be approximately calculated by
The current 6.01 p.u. calculated above is symmetrical current and does not include d.c. com-
ponent. To take into account d.c. component multiply by 1.1 because breaker time is 5 cycles. Fault level on L.V. Side Transformer kVA
Breaking current (Asymmetrical) - p. u. reactance of transformer
The value thus obtained is on higher and safer side.
= 1.1 x 6.01 = 6.611 p.u. (r.m.s.)
and Breaking current (Symmetrical)= 6.01 p.u. (r.m.s.) Example 20.10. Calculate maximum possible fault level on Low-tension side of the transformer
500 kVA, 4.75 p.c. Reactance. State the assumption made.
In amperes:
Asy. Breaking current Solution. Assuming the source of zero equivalent reactance.
= 6.611 x21.82 = 14,500 A (r.m.s.) Maximum fault level on L.T. side of Transformer
Symm. Breaking current Transformer kVA
= ----=------=----=----
p. u. Reactance of transformer
= 6.01 X 21.82 = 13,000
Breaking capacity in k VA of breaker A (Required Minimum) :. Fault level on L.T. side = 500
. x 100 = 10,500 kVA.
4 75
= ✓3 x kVxlsh
= ✓3 x 6.6 x 14,500 = 166,000 kVA. Example 20.11. Two incoming lines with fault levels at their terminals equal to 75 MVA and
150 MVA, terminate on a common ·bus in a sub-station. A 1 MVA step-down transformer having 5
Example 20.9. A 3 ph, 50 Hz, 1 MVA, 66 I 3. 3 kV power transformer having percentage reactance per cent reactance is connected to this bus. No other lines need be considered. Calculate fault level
of 6 per cent is connected singly to a 66 kV bus having fault level of 100 MVA. Calculate fault leve_l on L. T. side of the transformer.
(short circuit level) on 3.3. kV side of the transformer.
Solution. Total fault level on the bus on H.T. side of transformer,
Solution. Fault level on 66 kV side = 100 MVA (given)
= 75 + 150 = 225 MVA
This means, for a 3 phase fault on h.v. side, the fault MVA would be 100. Applying the rule Let Base MVA = 225.
BaseMVA :. p.u. reactance of transformer w.r.t. new base
Fault MVA = ... (1)
p.u. Xeq. 225
= 0.05 X - - = 11.25 p.U.
We can determine the p.u. Xeq. of the source up to H.V. side. Any base MVA may be selected. 1
Let Base MVA = 1 MVA for both sides of transformer Equivalent reactance of source
Fault MVA on H.V. Side= 100 MVA (given) BaseMVA 225
=Fault MVA = 225 =l p.u.
* Ref. Sec. 3.4.
Total p.u. reactance upto L.T. Side x = factor to take into account the asymmetry, depends on RIX ratio of generator
= Eqt. p.u. reactance of source+ p.u. reactance of transformer ✓s = To convert r.m.s. to peak value. [Refer Example 20.13]
= 1 + 11.25 = 12.25 p.u. Example 20.13.
Generator: 3750 kVA
- - -Base- -MVA
- - - - 225
P.u. reactance (total) ll. 25 = 18.38 MVA.
Fault level Ans.
6600 V
Note. Had we neglected source reactance the answer would have been 23% X"
225 0.866 Q per phase R.
= 11 _25 = 20 MVA Calculate, (a) Initial symmetrical short-circuit current.
or sim 1 Transformer MVA = _1_ = 20 MVA. (b) Peak short-circuit current for a 3 phase terminal fault.
PY, p.u. reactance 0.05 Solution. (a) Initial sym. short-circuit current
Part-B. A 1 MVA capacitor bank was installed on the L.t. side of power transformer. Calculate l fl_ 1.1 V
effective fault MVA on LT side. k - ✓3 ✓R2 +x'2
Answer: 18.38-1 = 17.38 MVA Xfl = 23%
Examp]e 20.12. Two buses having fault level of 50 MVA and 100 MVA respectively are inter-
connected by a line of negligible impedance. Calculate fault level at any point on the line. 23 kV2
Solution. Let base MVA = 100
= 100 x kVA x 1000 ohms
Equivalent reactance of source behind the bus I = 23 x (6.6)2 x 10 = 2 67 0 h
= BaseMVA _ 100 _ u 3750 · ms
Fault level of bus I - 50 - 2 p. · R = 0.866 Q per phase
Similarly, the equivalent reactance of source behind bus II
✓~R~
2 -+-x'2~=Z = ✓(2.67) 2 + (0.866) 2 = 2.8 n
100
= 100 = 1 p.u. l ,, _ 1.1 X 6.6 X 1000
k - ✓3 X 2.8
These two sources are in parallel as regards Thevenin's equivalent reactance.
Hence total equivalent reactance Initial sym. short-circuit current
1 lk" = 1500 Amp. Ans.
L5 = 0.667 p.u.
(b) Peak short-circuit current Ix
Hence fault level on the line= E . B~se MVA = °
1 0 = 150 MVA.
qmva ent reactance 0. 6 6 7 l~ = ✓2xlk"
Note. Total fault level here is the sum of two fault levels as the reactance of line is neglected RIX= 02~6676 = 0.32
(i.e. 100 + 50 = 150 MVA.)
*Ratio RIX 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
20.3. PROCEDURE RECOMMENDED BY STANDARDS FOR SHORT-CIRCUIT *Factor X 2 1.75 1.55 1.4 1.3 1.22
CALCULATIONS IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS.
x = 1.38 (from table by interpolation)
Single source, symmetrical short-circuit ls =✓2 X 1.38 X 1500 =2930 Amp.
(1) Initial symmetrical short-circuit current, lk"
Example 20.14. Two alternators A and Bare connected in parallel. The details of the alternators
l fl_ 1.1 V are as follows :
... (20.1)
k - ✓3 ✓R2 +_x'2
Alternator A: 50,000 kVA, sub-transient reactance 25%
where lkfl = initial symmetrical short circuit current Alternator B: 25,000 kVA, sub-transient reactance 25%.
i.e. the r.m.s. value of symmetrical short..circuit current. These alternators are connected to delta star transformer T of rating 75,000 kVA, 11 kV Delta; 66
V = rated voltage line to line kV Star of 10% reactance.
R = resistance per phase, ohms A three-phase fault occurs on HT side of the transformer. Find the sub-transient currents in
X = reactance per phase, ohms (subtransient for this case) each generator and in the HT side of the transformer. The system is on no load before fault, with
voltage on HT side equal to 66 kV.
1.1 = factor to take into account the rise in generator voltage. [Refer example 20.14]
Solution. Let us adopt per unit system.
(2) peak short circuit current, ls
Select Base kVA 75,000
ls= x✓2Ik" ... (20.2) Base kV = 11 kV on L.T. side
where ls= Peak short-circuit current, i.e. highest instantaneous value of current after the Base kV = 66 kV on H.T. side.
short-circuit. Machine reactances will be converted to per unit reactances with new bases.
SYMMETRICAL FAULTS AND CURRENT LIMITING REACTORS 417
Example 20.15. A 7,500 k VA, 6. 6 kV generator connected through a 5 cycle breaker has reac-
Percentage reactance with new base tances
= [%Reactance with] x Base kVA new x ( Base kV old
old base Base k:VA old Base kV new
J2
Xl' = 9%, Xl = 15%, xd = 100%.
It is operating no-load at rated terminal voltage when a three phase short-circuit occurs beyond
Alternator A : the breaker. Find :
Per unit reactance A (1) Sustained short-circuit curnmt.
-- 0 .25 x 75,000 (llJ -

50 ,000 x 11
2
- 0 .375 per umt.
. p
7
}--xF
(2) Initial symmetrical r.m.s. current.
(3) Maximum possible d.c. component of short-circuit current.
Alternator B : (4) Making capacity required for circuit-breaker.
8
Per unit reactance (5) Breaking capacity required for circuit-breaker.
Ea
= 0.25 x ~~,~~~ = 0.75 per unit. (6) Interrupting MVA of circuit-breaker.
' J:o.,o Solution. (1) Sustained short-circuit current is the steady state current.
Transformer : per unit reactance = 0.10 p.u. (un- F Adopting per unit method:
changed). Ea
Sustained short-circuited current = I
The currents can be easily calculated from the solu-
tion of network of Fig. 20.7. Ea 1.0
I= Xd =1.0 = 1 p.u.
Ea= 1 + JO p.u. (voltage per phase)
Total reactance consists of a parallel branch in series where Ea= voltage per phase (
with a reactance, i.e., I= sustained short circuit current, Amp.
Fig. 20.7. Diagram of Ex. 20.14.
,;o, 375 xJ0. 75 ·o 10 - · o 5 ·o 10 - ·o 35 Xd = Synchronous reactance.
2
j0.375 + j0.75 + J . -] · + J ' - ] '
Rated current = Generator rated kVA = . 7500 = 656 A.
Note. To calculate sub-transient currents, take sub-transient reactance. To calculate transient currents, ✓3 x Rated kV ✓3 x 6.6
' take transient reactance. (1) Since the per unit reactances of generator are based on its ratings as bases, the rated current
The total sub-transient current refers to its per unit current.
Ea 1 . :. Per unit current 1.p.u. = 656 A
= j0.35 =j0.35 =-J2.860 p.u.
(1) Xd = 100%, 18 = Sustained short-circuit current= 1 p.u. = 656 A.
This current gets divided into two parallel branches in inverse proportion of their reactance. II
Thus (2) Initial symmetrical r.m.s. current =I"
II
I II - ·2 86 J0.75 Ea 1.00 1 I.I
A --J . X }0.75 +}0.375 = X[ = 0.09 p.u. = 0.09 p.u.
7 1
= - }2.86 X \ ; = - jl.91 p.u. = 656 x 0.0 9 = 7289 A= 7.28 kA r.m.s.
1 5
11
°·375
I B =-J·2 ,86 X 1.l =-JO.
25
· 955 p.u. (3) Maximum D.C. component
Em ✓2Ea ✓
The total sub-transient current on H.T. side = X[= Xl' = 2 x 7.28 = 10.3 k:A.
= -j 2.86 p.u. (4) Making capacity required
. BasekVA ·
= - 12 ' 86 x ✓3 Base kVA amp. = 2 x ✓2 x Initial Symmetrical Current
Where, factor 2 is for doubling factor and ✓2 is for converting r.m.s. to peak
- 1·2 86 x 15 ,000 1876 amp.
-- . ✓3 X 66 = 2✓2 x 7.28 = 20.6 kA peak.
Base kV is 66 on H.T. side. (5) Consider transient reactance for calculating the breaking current. Since breaker operates
. Alternat or A = - J·1 .91 x ✓75 ,ooo
·c urren t m 5 9 in transient state,
3 x 11 = 7 1 amp. Ea 1
Base kV is 11 on H.T. side. I'= Xl = 0.15 p.u.
Current in Alternator B = - j 0.955 x J;~~~ = 3,760 Amp. = 656

1
O.l = 4373 Amp.
X
5
[Ans, Sub-transient current: Generator A 7519 A Transient Current =4.37 kA.
Generator B 3,760 A = 1.4 xl'
Breaking Current
H. T. Side 1,875 A]
II
Where 1.4 is a factor for Asymmetry of the wave for a 5 cycle breaker (Assumed) of a circuit, E is the voltage, neglecting the X
= 1.4 x 4.37 = 6.12 kA resistance, the short circuit current lsc is given
(6) MVA capacity = ✓3 x kV x kA = ✓3 'x 6.6 x 6.12 = 69.96 kA. Asy. by EI X Therefore by increasing series reac-
tance, X of the system, the short circuit cur-
[Answers: rents can be decreased. The short circuit
(1) Sustained short circuit current =l = 656 A. currents depend upon the generating capacity,
(2) Initial Sym. S.C. Current I"= 7.28 kA. voltage at the fault point and the total reac-
tance between the generators and the fault
(3) Maximum d.c. comp. = 10.3. kA. point. The circuit breakers should have Fig. 20.8. By increasing reactance X, short circuit
(4) Making capacity required= 20.6 kA peak. current lsc can be reduc;ed.
enough breaking current capacity such that
(5) Transient short-circuit current= I'= 4.37 kA. the fault currents are less than the breaking
(6) Interrupting capacity required = 69.96 kA, Asy. current capacity. If fault currents are beyond the capacity of the circuit breaker the circuit breaker
Note. (Refer Ch. 3). may not interrupt the fault current. In a system where several generating stations are intercon~
necte~ by short feeders, the fault currents can be high, the circuit breakers of suitable breaking
I">l>l capacity may not be available. The fault current, then, should be limited by some means so that
ava~lable or existing ~ircuit-b_reakers can be used safely. Further, when the system is extended by
SUMMARY addmg mo~e g~neratmg sti:t10ns or more generator units, the fault current to be interrupted by
(1) For three-phase symmetrical fault the same circmt breaker will be greater than before. In such a case the circuit breaker should be
replaced by ano~her o~higher breaking current capacity or the fault current can be limited by means
Base MVA of reactors. By mcludmg a reactor or a few reactors at strategic locations the short circuit current
Fault MVA = E . l t X
◄ quiva en p.u. at several points can be reduced. Hence current limiting reactors are usef~l in limiting short-circuit
current so that the circuit breakers can interrupt them. However the voltage drops and losses
. Fault MVAx 103 Vp.u. caused by reactors should be small.
Fault current= ✓ 3 . kV t f: lt . t = X
x a au pmn eq. p.u. Summarising (1) Reactors limit the short-circuit currents.
(2) For symmetrical fault calculations, the Thevenin's equivalent reactance upto fault is calcu- (2) They are used in systems when extensions are made and the circuit-breaker breaking cur-
lated and then fault MVA is calculated by applying the expressions given above. rent capacities become inadequate. ·
(3) The problems are either for steady state, transient or sub-transient state. Correspondingly (3) They are employed in large systems, so as to limit the short circuit MVA to match with
the breaking current capacity of circuit breaker. '
the steady state or transient or sub-transient react.ances are used for calculations.
Reactors are also _us~d in short-circuit test plants. Are furnace installations. In furnace-plant,
(4) Fault current is of lagging power factor. reactors are used to hmit the arc current. These reactors are connected in the primary circuit of
(5) Capacitor banks provide leading fault MVAr. furnace transformer.
. It is reported that in France, the power system is designed such that the fault levels at various
SERIES REACTORS pom~s oft_he system are b~low certain limit. This is achieved by inserting series reactors at strategic
loca_t10ns m the system. Smee 1980's suitable SF6 and vacuum circuit breakers of high ratings are
20.4. REACTORS IN POWER SYSTEMS available for each voltage level and the need of series reactors is practically eliminated.
There are several types of reactors used in Power Systems. 20.6. DESIGN FEATURES OF CURRENT LIMITING REACTORS
These include :
The essential requirement of current limiting reactor is that the reactance should not reduce
- Current limiting reactors : $aturated. (Series reactors). due to saturation under short-circuit conditions. If fault current is more than about three times
- Reactors in neutral to earth connection called arc suppression coils/Peterson coil/ground r?ted full load current, an iron core reactor having essentially constant permeability would neces-
fault neutralizers. sitate a very large cross-section of core. Hence air core coils are sometimes used for current limiting
- Shunt reactors (Compensation Reactors). (Ref. Sec. 18.25) reactors. Air core reactors are of two type (1) Dry-type Air Core Reactors and (2) Oil immersed Air
- Reactors in harmonic filters. Core Reactor, magnetically shielded or without shielding.
- Smoothing reactors in HVDC systems. Dry type reactors are generally cooled by natural or forced air cooling. These are used orily
Current limiting reactors are inserted in series with the line, to limit the current flow in the upto 33 kV. For higher voltage oil immersed designs prevail. The air insulated (dry type) reactors
event of a short-circuit and thereby bring down the fault level. The current limiting reactors are occupy relatively larger space. They need a large clearance from adjacent constructional work. Be-
also called Series Reactors. cause of the absence of iron, the reactance of air-corded reactors is almost constant. With oil filled
The reactors between neutral and ground help in eliminating or suppressing arcing grounds. design, laminations of iron shields are provided around the outside conductors so as to avoid the
They are covered in the chapter 'Neutral Earthing'. (Ch. 18) entering of magnetic flux in the stirrounding iron parts. Due to iron shield a drop of about 10%
Shunt reactors are connected with transmission lines, for absorbing reactive power. occurs in the reactance, during short-circuits. Oil- immersed reactors can be used upto any voltage
level, for outdoor or indoor constructions. The advantages of oil-immersed reactors are :
20.5. PRINCIPLE OF CURRENT LIMITING REACTORS 1. High factor of safety against flashover.
A current limiting reactor is an inductive coil having a large inductive reactance (mL) and is 2. Smaller size.
used for limiting short-circuit currents to be interrupted by circuit-breakers. If Xis the reactance 3. High thermal capacity.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIOJI{ 421
420 syMMETRICAL FAULTS AND CURRENT LIMITING REACTORS
The oil-immersed type of reactor employs insulation and cooling arrangements similar to those
2. Continuous Rated Current. The r.m.s. value of current which· the r~a~tor ca~ carr~ c~n-
used in power transformers. If air core is used, laminated iron-shield is provided outside the coils,
tinuously, with temperature rise of current carrying parts and other parts, withm specified hmits.
If iron core is used, air gaps are introduced in the core to prevent saturation and to get desired
value magnetising current. [e.g. 800 A]'. .
Special care should be taken about the foundation, that it should withstand the electrodynamic 3. Rated Short-time Current. The symmetrical r.m.s. value of fault current which the reactor
forces during the short-circuit. In case of dry-reactors, there should be clearance between the reactor can carry for specified short time [e.g. 40 kA for 1 sec.]
and surrounding metal structures, reinforcement, fabrication work etc. 4. Rated Impedance, Impedance expressed in ohms per phase or in per unit specified for the
reactor.
20.7. DRY, AIR CORED SERIES REACTOR 5. Rated Over Current Factor. The ratio of rated short time current to continuous current,
In this type of reactor, the core is of air and tlie entire construction of the reactor, the core is e.g. 25.
free from ferromagnetic materials (iron, steel). There is absence of dielectric oil and cooling is 6. Rated Through-put kVA. ✓3 x Rated Voltage x Rated Current (for 3 phase reactors).
provided by air. The reactor consists of concrete supports of glass-reinforced synthetic resins on 7. Rated Voltage. The line to line service voltage for which the reactor is designed.
which the winding is rigidly placed. The whole construction is rugged. Due to absence of iron, the
reactance remains fairly constant during high short-circuit currents. Such reactors are not shielded, 8. Short Circuit Rating. The reactors should be capable o~withsta.nding ~he mechanical and
hence require special room free from reinforcement, closed metal circuits. The magnetic fluxes sur- thermal stresses during short circuit at its terminals for a specified penod of time.
rounding the reactor cause heating of structural works, metal bodies etc. the vicinity of the reactors.
.20.11, PHYSICAL ARRANGEMENT OF SERIES REACTORS
20.8. OIL IMMERSED NON-MAGNETICALLY SHIELDED REACTOR Fig. 20.9 illustrates various alternative methods of the physical arrangement of series reactors
Principle. Imagine a current carrying inductance coil without iron core. The magnetic flux of for 3-phase circuits.
such a coil will surround the coil. Now, suppose the coil is placed axially in a cylindrical aluminium
tube, and paths are provided for the current induced in the aluminium enclosures. The induced
currents in the enclosures will flow longitudinally in the enclosures and will provide magnetic flux.
By proper design of the enclosures, the fluxes due to enclosure currents can be made almost equal
to the fluxes due to the magnetic flux due to coil current. The magnetic flux due to the enclosure
current opposes the magnetic flux due to coil current: outside the enclosure thereby provides mag-
netic shield. ·
The non-magnetically shielded. oil immersed reactor looks like a power transformer. It has ·a
coil without iron core. The coil assembly is placed in tank filled with transformer oil. Features are ELEVATION
similar to power transformer. The aluminium enclosure of tube shape are placed in between the (a) With axis vertical and in a single row.
tank and the inductance coil. Paths are provided for circulating the induced currents. This method
of shielding is simpler in construction.
20.9, OIL IMMERSED SHIELDED REACTORS

Such a reactor is similar to power transformers in several aspects, but has no continuous iron
core. There is either no core or gapped core. Single disc-winding is placed on the central core of the
magnetic circuit. The core is with air-gaps. Strong ceramic discs are placed between adjucent disc
coils of the reactor. The entire winding is held under pressure to prevent vibrations and noise. The ELEVATION PLAN
coil assembly is oil immersed and is enclosed in a tank. Cooling is similar to that in power trans- (b) With axis horizontal, side by side. (c) With axis vertical, Triangular Formation.
formers. Fig. 20.9. Physical Arrangement of Reactor for 3-phase system.
Sub-assemblies oflaminated silicon-steel sheets are fixed rigidly at strategic locations between 20.12. SELECTION OF REACTORS
the inductive coil and the tank. The magnetic fields surrounding the coil are thereby get a path
and the fluxes outside the shields are minimised. While selecting a current limiting reactor, following aspects should be noted :
(1) Type. Dry or oil-immersed, iron-cored or Air-cooled, etc.
20.10. TERMS Al\1D DEFINITIONS (2) Phases. Single-phase or three-phase.
(3) Indoor or outdoor.
1. Series Reactor. It is an inductance coil connected in series with the system for one of the
following purposes : · (4) Reactance in ohms.
(5) Normal current rating, short-time current rating.
- Limiting current during fault condition. (6) Reactor through-put k:VA.
- Limiting current during synchronising, load sharing, fluctuating loads, etc. (7) Rated voltage.
(8) Circuit characteristics-Frequency, voltage etc.
423
METRICAL FAULTS AND CURRENT LIMITING REACTORS
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION SYM . . h . ·t
422 • · · witch ear Otherwise due to inadequate capacity, t e circm -
20.13. LOCATION OF SERIES REACTORS with1n the capacity of ex:s:t:i:e:r sho;t-ci;cuits, resulting in disasters. Su~h incidents _occurred
bre~kers may _not be ablt N (1980's) circuit-breakers of adequate ratmgs are available for
(a) Generator Reactors. In this scheme reactors are inserted between the generator and the during 1950s m our sys em. ow
generator bus [Fig. 20.10 (a)]. Modern turbo-generators have large reactance obtained by means every voltage level and series reactors are rarely used. . . .
of deep slots and other design features. The high (d) Smoothing reactors. These are installed in series _with rectifier sets on DC side to reduce
reactance is provided to safeguard the generators in · ple in DC current and minimise requirement of harmomc filters.
case of dead three-phase short-circuit as its ter- rip Example 20.16. (a) Find short-circuit current in a single-phase system sho;~ b:'J~vThe reac-
minals. Therefore, generator reactors are normally tance between the transformer and the fault point F is 2 ohms. The voltage at is . .
unnecessary in the modern installations. When new
generators are installed in an old power station, gen- Solution.
erator reactors may be added for the older gener- Note. It is a single phase system.
ators. The magnitude or such reactors is very (i) Take 2000 kVA as base kVA.
approximately about 0.05 per unit. In this method 2000 KVA /200 KVA
(ii) % Reactance of transformer z.n.
7% F
when fault occurs on one feeder or busbar, the volt-
age of the common bus bar drops down to a low value
(a) Generator reactor.
to the new base kVA 0--1~i_........____._~)(
to%
-
and stability is likely to be lost. - 72000 = 11.7
- 1200
X
Base kVA L' 10% l"7% 9'1% F
(iii) Base I - Base 1cV ~0 r ~N ~--~~--'1fl5lf'~--h~R-l:AC~NCc
single phase circuit E L- /:!/AGRAM
Fig. Ex. 20.16 (a)

= 2000 = 303 A
6.6
3
. . ase Voltage _ 6.6 x 10 = 21 8 n
(b) Feeder reactor. (c) Busbar reactor. (w) Base impe ase Current - 303 .
Example 20.16, (b) Solved by direct ohmic method.
Solution. Ohmic reactance of generator, from Eqn. (20.1)
_Fx %X = 6600 x 10 = 2.18 n.
- J X 100 303 X 100
Similarly ohmic reactance of transformer
· 2000
6600 X 7 X 1200
------=2,56.Q
(d) Bus bar reactors between sections of bus. 303 X 100
Fig, 20.10. Locations of Series Reactors.
Total reactance = 2.18 + 2.57 + 2 = 6.75 ohms
(b) Feeder Reactors. The reactors in this case are connected in series with the feeders. The ad- I = 6600 = 980 A.
vantage is that the voltage of the bus does not drop substantially in the event of a fault on the sh 6.75
feeder. Hence the other feeder are affected less. The disadvantage is that, there are so many feeders OR by % reactance method.
and, therefore, many reactors are necessary. Further there is a constant loss in the reactor as full
feeder current flows through it. % Reactance of generator 10%
(c) The Busbar Reactor. The constant loss in reactor is avoided by inserting the reactors is bus- % Reactance of transformer 11.7%, from (ii) above
bars [Fig. 20.10 (c)]. In this system only a small powers-flows through the reactors during normal % Reactance of line upto F
condition. During short-circuit on the feeder, only one generator feeds the fault directly, by-passing _ Ohmic Reactance x 100 = _ 2 _ x 100 = 9.2%
the reactors. While the other generators, feed the fault through the reactor. - Base Reactance 21.8
Sometimes busbars are sectionalized and the reactors are included only between sections of Total percentage reactance
the bus [Fig. 20.10 (d)J. = 10 + 11.7 + 9,2 = 30.9%
With increasing size of today's power system, there is a constant need of checking the fault Short-circuit current
levels at all the important power stations and sub-stations almost every year. The capacities of _ I 100 _ 303 X 100 = 980 Amp, Ans,
1sh - x %X - 30.9
circuit breakers and other switchgear should be verified. If necessary, new circuit breakers of higher
rating should be installed or current limiting reactors should be introduced to limit the fault level
Example 20.16. (c) Further to problem 20.1, 1 1 1 6RID
3000KVA 3000KVA
reactance of 5% is connected to the generator, in -==--+- 10% {0%
30 30 +r 40 SUPPLY
between the generator and transformer. Calculate 1 1
the new short-circuit current. The 5% reactance
is based on generator rati,{gs.
-----
120 - 30 +r
30 + r == 120
l9.000
TKVA
Solution, Add 5% reactance in series with r == 90%
the generator.
Total% reactance == 10 + 5 + 11.7 + 9.1 == 35.8%
Ix 100 100 ·
Fig. Ex. 20.16 (c)
The reactance of90%, based on the base 3000 k.VA, should
be connected in series with the generator to limit the short-cir-
cuit kVA to 10,000.
L X
Ish == %X == 303 x .B == 845 Amp, Ans,
35 Example 20.18. (a) Two generators of 3000 kVA and 10%
We note that by including a reactor, Ish has reduced. reactance and one grid supply are connected to a generator bus
Example 20.17, (a) Two-three-phase gener- 1000 KVA
as shown in the figure. The rating of the circuit-breakers on the iPHFAULT
HKVBUS
ators of ratings 1000 kVA and 1500 kVA and volt- 10%
feeder is 150 MVA. The capacities and reactances of the gener-
ators and the transformer are as shown in the figure. Calculate Fig. Ex. 20.18 (a)
age 3.3 kV have percentage reactances of 10 and I (Note. Transformer reactance is 5%)
20 respectively per cent with respect to their the reactance of the reactor X to limit the short circuit MVA on
ratings. These are connected to bus-bar. A three- feeders to 150.
phase short-circuit occurs on the bus. Find the JPH FAIJlT Neglect the equivalent reactance of the grid and assume the grid supply to be of infinite fault
short circuit current.
level.
Solution, Assume base kVA 3000
%Reactance of generator I to this base Solution. Step 1. Convert the % reactance to the common new base.
3000 Step 2. Calculate total reactance upto fault by series parallel combination.
== 10 X lOOO == 30% IS00KVA Step 3. Short Circuit MVA is limited to 150 MVA
20%
%Reactance of generator II to new base == Base MVA x lOO
Fig. Ex. 20.17 (a) %Xr
3000
== 20 X == 40% From which the unknown X can be determined. Let the base kVA == 9000.
1500
% Reactance of generators to the new base kVA
These two reactance are in parallel, total %X 9000
== 3000 X 10 == 30%
1
= l l =17.14 The two generators are in parallel the combined reactance is given by
30 + 40 1 1 1 1
== Base
_ __ k.VA x 100
____c:_c_.::_ 30 + 30 == Xe == 15
Short circuit kVA
%X Xe== 15%.
3000 This is parallel with the grid-transformer and the reactors X. The combined reactance of the
== 17.14 x 100 == 17.500 k.VA set up is given by :
Short-circuit current Short circuit k.VA 1 1 1
-==--+-
== ✓3 x kV Xr 5+X 15
_ 17,500 == 15 + (5 + X) _ 20 + X
Ish - ✓ 3 x 3 .3 == 3050 A. Ans.
15(5+X) -75+15X
. Example 20.17. (b) In the ~b~ve problem find the reactance of a reactor to be connected in series 75 + 15X
Xr ==
with generator of 1000 k VA to limit the short circuit k VA of bus-
bar to 10,000. E 20 + X % reactance.
Solution. [Continued from problem 20.17 (a)] Short-circuit MVA == Base MVA x 100
Short circuit k.VA == 10,000 ,~ Xr
Short-circuit MVA is limited to 150
== Bas;~VA x lOO
9
150 == 75 + X x 100
VAX== 3000 x 100 _ 30 % 15
0
10,000 - 0
20+X
· , This resultant percentage reactance is obtained by adding 9x2
3
the reactor in series with the 1000 k.VA generators. Suppose the == 75 + 15X
newly added reactor is of% reactance r,. then 20+X
Fig. Ex. 20.17 (b)
3 (75 + 15X) = 18 (20 +X) have the ratio same as the ratio of transformer. With this choice of bases the percent reactances
225 + 45X = 360 + 18X referred to either sides remains same.
135 = 27X Base kVA = 20,000 on either sides of transformer
X = 135 = 5 Base kV= 11 kV on generator side, 66 kV on feeder side.
27 .
Per cent reactance of transformer referred to new base kVA.
Reactance of 5% (based on
base kVA 9000) should be added FAULT AT New base kVA
GENERATOR BUS = % reactance on old base x Old base kVA
between the transformer and
generator bus. 20,000
Example 20.18. (b) The in- = 5 X 10 000 = l0%
coming grid supply in example TRANSFORMER' '
20.17 has a fault level of 4000 REFERENCE BUS
Fig. Ex. 20.18 (a) Equivalent Diagram.
IT ~388%-L
MVA instead of infinity. Calcu-
late fault level at generator bus
neglecting reactor X. 8=20% C=20% 0=20%
Solution. ( Consider from BUS BAR REACTOR
Ex 20.18 (a), with above chan-
ges) Fig. Ex. 20.18 (b) Equivalent Reactance. 25%
FaultMVA
= Base MVA x lO0 ... (1)
%Reactance F
The fa:3-lt lev~l of the incoming supply is given. Hence, the supply can be considered as a gen-
erator havmg equivalent reactance. The equivalent reactance can be calculated from the expression
(1) above.
10% X=10%
Equivalent % reactance of the grid supply
= Base MVA x lO0
FaultMVA
10%
Choosing same bases as in Ex. 20.17 (a) (i.e. 9 MVA).
Equivalent % reactance of the grid supply
9 900
= 4000 X lO0 = 4000 = 0, 225 %. Fig. Ex. 20.19 (b).
Equivalent diagrams : Other% reactances remain unchanged. Thevenin's equivalent of the circuit contains reactances
Equivalent reactance upto generator bus = 3.88%. of generators A, Bin parallel, generators C, Din parallel as shown in Fig. 20.19 (b).
Fault level = Base kVA x 100 . Thevenin's equivalent reactance between F and reference bus. It is obtained by reduction of
%Reactance the network by series-parallel simplification as follows :
9000
= 3 .88 x 100 = 231,000 kVA = 231 MVA Thevenin's equivalent reactance is 17.8%.
New fault level at generator bus= 231 MVA. Ans. Short circuit MVA = Base MVA x 100
Thev. % reactance
. E~ample 20.19: Explain briefly the advantages gain:ed by A B C D
20
insertion of reactors in the bus bars of a large generating station. = 17.8 x 100 = 112.5 MVA
A generating station has four identical three phase alternators
A, B, C, D, each of 20,000 kVA, 11 kV having 20% reactance. S.C. MVAx 1000
Short-circuit current
They are connected to a bus-bar which has a bus-bar reactor of = ✓3 x kV at fault point
25% reactance on the basis of20,000 kVA base, inserted between
B and C. A 66 kV feeder is taken off from the bus-bars through = 112.5 x 100 = 977 A
✓3 X 66
a 10,000 kVA transformer having 5% reactance. A short circuit 25%
occurs across all phases at the high voltage terminals of the L.V.S/DE
Ans. Short circuit MVA 112.5.
transformer, calculate the current fed into the fault. ~~OOOKVA
Solution. Select base kVA and base kV. Short circuit current = 977 A.
Note. Choose base kVA, base kV: choose same base kVA H.V.
66 ULT
Example 20.20. (a) Determine the ratio of the percentage reactance of the reactors to that of
on: both sides of transformer. Choose different kV bases on generators in a tie bar system if short circuit current is not to exceed two times the short circuit
either sides of transformer. The kV bases on both sides should current of single section.
Fig. Ex. 20.19 (a)
SYMMETRICAL FAULTS AND CURRENT LIMITING REACTORS 429
If a three phase short-circuit takes place on of the sectional busbars, the voltage of remaining
Solution. Let the percentage reactance of a generator beg and that of the reactor be R. When three busbar sections falls to 60% of normal value.
there is a short-circuit on a feeder, except one R, remaining reactors and generators are in parallel. Calculate the % reactance of reactors R. Also calculate ohmic value of reactor R.
Suppose there are n number of sections. The percentage reactance of reactors in parallel is Solution. Draw single line diagram.
g+R Ref. Fig. 20.20. Draw similar diagram with one more generator and reactor.
n-1
Consider fault F as indicated in the Figure.
This is in series with the reactor R connected to feeder on which fault occurs,
Let Base kV= 11
g+R +R=g+nR Base kVA = 20,000
n- 1 n- 1 FEEDER FEEDER
Let reactance per R per cent
This is in parallel with generator on whose Let percentage reactance of generator = g
F
feeder the fault occurs. The resulting reactance
Xis given by For fault F,
1 1 1 X X X The total equivalent reactance upto fault includes the following combination :
-=-+---
x g g+nR One of the generators feed the fault directly. Other three generators feed the fault via their
n-1 R respective reactors R's and then together through one reactor R.
Ref. Example 20.20 (a),
Giving X-g g + nR
- ng+nR IN PARALLEL Thus in this case n = 4
Short circuit current Fig. 20.20. Tie bar system. Percentage Reactance of three parallel branches :
= Full 101:1.d current x
100 g +R = 20 +R% = (6.67 + 0.33 R)%
% reactance n -1 3
Let Ish = Short circuit current This is in series with one R.
I= Normal full load current Total Equivalent Reactance
I =Ix 100 (ng+nR) ... (1) = 6.67 + 0.33 + R + R = (6.67 + 1.33 R)%
sh g (g + nR)
Voltage of three sections dropped to 60% of nominal value. Hence 100 - 60 = 40%. Voltage drop
Short circuit current of one section, n = 1 takes place in the reactances X of generators, (Ref. Fig. 20.20) and remaining 60% voltage drop
I takes place in reactors R.
11 =-x 100 ... (2)
g
g + Rl is total reactance in parallei branches
According to the example the short circuit current in (1) should b6 twice that given by (2), n-
Assumi.ng n is a, = __g__ + ,_B__,
1 n-1 n-1
-(ng+nR)
n The first term on right hand side gives equivalent reactance of three generators in parallel.
Is1i=lxlOO (g nR) The second term gives equivalent reactance of three reactors in parallel
g -+-
n n Thus for circuit containing three parallel branches and one series R,
Taking limit as n ➔ a in this example
lsh =Ix 100
g+R (~~~ +R )becomes
g+Rg)R g/_n~ as seen in Ex. 20.20 (a)
Is1i=I1 (~
This has two terms i.e.
lsh +g+R
11 R __g__l for generator reactance
n-
which is equal to 2.
- nR- tior series
. reactors
g+R =2 n- 1
R
Coming back to the example,
g=R. Ans. Voltage drop in generator reactance g is 40% of total voltage drop upto fault.
Example 20.20 (b ). Tie Bar Reactors. Hence 40% voltage drops in reactance
A generating station has four generators, each rated 11 kV, 20 MVA, 50 Hz with transient reac- g . 20 20. 6701.
tance of 20%. The main busbars are divided into four sections, each section is connected to a tie-bar n - 1 i.e. 4 - 1 = 3 = 6 · -io ... (I)
via a reactor R (Ref. Fig. 20.20).
100% voltage drop is in total reactance, i.e. in The generator rating is 500 MVA, 0.8 p.f.
_g+nR MVA == MW == 500 == 625
- n-R p.f. 0.8
== (6.67 + 1.33 R)o/o ... (II) Generator reactances referred to new base MVA are calculated as follows :
But (I) is 40% of (II) kVA Base New 1 • ___!2
p.u.XqNew==p.u.XgOldx kVABaseOld ,,___,_______'------.
40
Hence, 6.67 ==
100
(6.67 + 1.33 R)
600 VF
== p.u. Xg Old x F
6.67 == 2.668 + 0.532 R 625
Solving this for R, we get == p.u. Xg Old x 0.96
New p.u. Reactances of Generator E
R == 6.67 - 2.67 4.00 5n1
0.532 0.532 == 7 . 70 Xg" == 0.2 x 0.96 == 0.192 p.u.
Fig. Ex. 20.21 (b) Reactance Diagram.
Hence Reactance of Reactors is 7.5% based on 11 kV and 20,000 kVA Base (Ans.) Xg' == 0.28 x 0.96 == 0.269 p.u.
Ref. Eqn. 6 in sec. 19.6 for conversion. X 8 == 2.5 X 0.96 == 2.4 p.u.
Base kv 2 For calculating sub-transient current, use sub-transientreactance Xg".
Actual Reactance Ohms== p.u. Reactance x Base kVA x 1000
For calculating transient current, use transient reactance Xg'•
7.5 112 For calculating steady state current, use steady state direct axis-synchronous reactance X 8 •
== 100 X 20 000 X lOOO Xt == 0.15 p.u. in all cases.
7.5 X 121
'
== 2000 == 0.455 ohms. (Ans.) Draw Reactance Diagram (Fig. Ex. 20.21 b).
Derive Equivalent Reactance as seen from fault point by removing fault branch and short-cir-
Example 20.21. Fig. 20.21 illustrates a typical unit in thermal power station. The reactances cuiting the e.m.f. sources.
e"
of Generators and Transformal are as follows.
Representation of Infinite Source
Generator : Subtransient reactance X 11 == 20%
In this example the 220 kV bus has infinite fault level. It means, if a fault occurs on this bus,
Transient reactance X' == 28% there is no internal reactance to limit the fault power. Hence infinite bus can be represented by an
a TEE-OFF
Synchronous Direct Axis reactance X 8 == 250% e.m.f. source with zero internal reactance as shown in Fig. Ex. 20.21 (b).
_ _ _ _ _ _ JI
__.__ _ _ _ F
Transformer leakage reactance == 15% Equivalent Reactances
The generator is rated 25 kV, 500 MW, 0.8 pf FAULT
Refer Fig. Ex. 20.21 (c).
The transformer is rated 220 I 25 kV, 600 MVA. b 1 Xg xXt
Assume infinite fault level at 200 kV Bus and neglect fault Xeq == _1_ + _!_ - Xg +Xt
level of Auxiliary Bus. TRANSFORMER 600MVA 25 kl1220kV
Xr=15'1.
Xg Xt
For a three phase symmetrical fault on the T-off, calculate
the following of sub-transient, transient and steady state condi- Sub-transient Reactance
tion. X XgXt
11 _ 0.192 x 0.15 _ 0.0298 _ O 083
(1) Fault MVA _ __.__ ,NFINITE Bl/5
eq - Xg +Xt == 0.192 + 0.15 - 0.342 - •
11
p.u,
(2) Fault current in T-off Transient Reactance
Fig. Ex. 20.21 (a) Line Diagram.
(3) Fault current contributed by generator side. X'X
(4) Fault current contributed from transformer side. X , _ g t _ 0.269 x 0.15 _ 0 0965
eq - Xg' +Xt - 0.269 + 0.15 - • p.u.
Solution. Select base kVA and base kV.
Steady State Reactance
Let base k VA == 600 x 103 2.5 X 0.15 0.375 O
X eg == 2.5 + 0.15 == 2.65 == •143 p.u.
base kV == 25 kV
(The rating of Transformer). Total fault current IF flows through T-off branch,
Calculate new p.u. reactances.
The p.u. Reactance of transformer given in the example refers to its own bases.
I/'== x!" == 0.~83 == 12.05 p.u.
Hence p.u. Reactance of transformer referred to selected Bases in the same i.e.
xt == 0.15 IF'== ::q' == 0.0~65 == 10.35 p.u.
Xt remains unchanged for sub-transient, transient and steady state. E 1
IF== Xeq == j 0.14 == 7 p.u.
The fault current IF is composed of two components AC NETWORK
20,15. EFFECTIVE SHORT CIRCUIT RATIO (ESCR)
CA PACI TOR
11 and 12 [Refer Fig. Ex. 20.21 (e)]. F The concept of Effective Fault level (Effective Short Cir- BANK
xt cuit Level) and Effective Short Circuit Ratio (ESCR) is useful
l1=IFxX X in evaluating the strengthy of AC Power System to incor-
g + t
Xg porate HVDC System.
Xg
lz=lFxx
. g +
X
t
The AC MVAr supplied by capacitor banks in HVDC Sub- 1 J
stations is of the order of 60% of Convertor MVA load. These
[Refer Example 20.5 (b )] F capacitor banks contribute very significantly to the fault level
on AC busses behind the convertor transformers. In this J 3 = 1-2
I 1 = I F ,, X Xg"xt+ Xt = 12 .05
II
X
o.15 5 3
0.342 = .
Fig. Ex. 20.21 (c) Thevenin's Equivalent
regard SCR ESCR are considered at the p lanning state of 3 PHASE
reactance seen from Fault-branch.
HVDC Project for detemining suitability of SC System to ac- FAULT
comodate the HVDC System. Fig. Ex. 20.21. Calculation of Effective
I2 I - I II Xg - 12 05 0.192 - 6 7r:. Fault Level
- F x Xg" + Xt - . x 0.342 - . u,
Normal Short Circuit Ratio MVAe (3) = MVAn (1)-MVAc (2)
Check 11" +12 =ll'
11
Normal Fault Level of AC Bus MVAn S = Effective fault MVA 1 = Normal fault
= Rated Power of HVDC System MW MVA, 2 = MVAr of Capacitor Bank
Base MVAx 103 3
Base current = ✓ 3 x Base kV = 600 x 10 = 15 6 kA
✓3 x22.2 · Effective Short Circuit Ratio
Sub-transient currents are as follows : Effective Fault Level of AC Bus
Total sub-transient fault current in T-off. - Rated Power ofHVDC System
3 . The effective Short Circuit Ratio of AC System at the AC substation busses should be more
= 12.05 X 15.6 X 10 = 188 k Amp. Ans.
than 5 for planning the HVDC system connection, (Ref. Ch. 11).
Sub-transient current from Generator side
Example 20.22. Normal Short Circuit Level (Normal Fault level) at the 132 kV bus in a receiv-
= I 1" = 5.3 X 15.6 X 103 A= 82.9 k Amp. Ans. ing station (before connecting the 132 kV, 200 MVAr shunt capacitor bank), was 6800 MVA. During
Sub-transient current from Transformer side 1995 a new 132 kV, 200 MVAr Shunt Capacitor Bank was connected to the 132 kV bus without any
transformer between the bus and the capacitor bank. (a) Calculate the new Effective Short Circuit
= lz" = 6. 75 x 15.6 x 103 = 105.2 k Amp. Ans. Level at the 132 kV Bus.
Check I 1" + lz" = 82.9 + 105.2 = 188.1 k:A. (b) Calculate Normal Fort Current and Effective Fault Current.
Calculate transient current and steady state current by following similar procedure. Solution.
Normal Short Circuit Level at 132 kV Bus:
20.14. EFFECTIVE SHORT CIRCUIT LEVEL (ESCL) BY CONSIDERING kVAr MVAn = 6800 MVA (L.- 90° Lag)
CONTRIBUTION OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS Contribution of New Capacitor Bank :
In earlier Sections of Ch. 20, the Normal Short Circuit Level (Normal Fault Levels) have been MVA.c = 200 MVA (L+ 90° Lead)
calculated by neglecting the contribution oflarge capacitor banks. The Normal Fault Levels so cal-
culated are oflagging power factor currents with phase angle of90° lag behind the voltage phasors. Effective Short Circuit level at 132 kV Bus :
It is a universal practice to install High voltage shunt capacitor banks in receiving substations for MVAe = MVAn - MVAc
power factor improvement and voltage regulation. Very large AC Shunt Capacitor Banks are in- MVAe = MVAn - MVAc
stalled in HVDC Substations for harmonic filters and shunt compensation of convertor. Shunt
Capacitors reduce fault level by supplying current at leading power factor. = 6800 - 200 = 6600 L - 90°
During a three phase symmetrical busbar fault at a particular voltage level, the capacitor banks Normal Fault Current
connected to that busbar contribute fault MVA at leading power factor at phase angle 90° lead i.e.
opposite to the normal fault level supplied by the generators. If . n .:. MVAn _ 6800 MVA _ 29 74 kA L- 900
- ✓3K.V -rs x 132 kV- ' .
The Effective Short Circuit Level MVAe (Effective Fault Level) is calculated by taking into ac-
count the contribution of shunt capacitor banks. Refer Fig. 20.21. Effective Fault Current
The Effective Fault Level MVAe at point P in a 3 Phase AC System is : MVAe 6600 MVA o
Effective Fault]= [Normal Fault]_ [Fault Level Contributed ] If· e = -Ts"KV = {3 x 132 kV= 29.74 kA L.- 90 .
[ Level MVAe Level MVAn by Capacitor Bank MVAc
Example 20.23. The Normal Short Circuit Level at the 400 kV bus of Rihand Power Station
MVAe = MVAn-MVAc of Rihand Delhi HVDC System was 30,000 MVA. A 600 MVAr Shunt Capacitor Bank has been con-
nected to the 400 kV Bus for AC harmonic filter and shunt compensation for HVDC power level of
Note : While calculating Effective Fault Level. Calculate the normal fault level as per procedure 1500 MW. Calculate the Effective (Equivalent) Short Circuit level by considering the contribution of
of symmetrical fault calculations. Then deduct MVAr contribution of the capacitor bank to obtain the capacitor bank. Calculate the (a) Short Circuit Ratio (b) Effective short Circuit R_atio of the HVDC
the Effective Fault Level. DC System. Give your comment regarding acceptability of the ESCR. .
...
Solution. Normal Fault Level at 400 kV Bus MVAn = 30000 MVA (given) 4. Describe the principle of current limiting reactors.
Normal Short Circuit Level ofHVDC System 5. Write short notes on the following :
= MVAn _ 30000 _ An ) 1. Ratings of series reactors.
MW rating of HVDC System - 1500 - 20 . ( s. 2. Physical arrangement of three phase series reactors.
Effective fault level at 400 kV Bus 3. Difference between applications of series reactor and shunt reactor.
MVAe = MVAn-MVAc 6. Two sections A and B linked with a bus-bar reactor of 10% reactance at 5000 kVA base. The bus-bar
A is connected to two generators, llkV, 1000 kVA and 10% reactance each, Bus-bar Bis connected
= 30000 - 600 = 24000 MVA. Ans. to two 8000 kVA generators of 12% reactance each, A 3-phase dead short circuit occurs on bus bars
Effective Circuit Level of HVDC System of section B. Calculate fault MVA and steady state fault current. [Ans. 17 4 MVA, 9.1 kV]
= Effective Fault level MVAe = 24000 = 16 An 7. Two generators are connected in parallel to low voltage delta side of three-phase transformer, gener-
MW rating ofHVDC System 1500 s. ator I is rated 50,000 kVA, 13.8 kV. Generator II is rated 25,000 kVA, 13.8 kV. Each generator has
subtransient reactance of 25%. Transformer is rated 75,000 kVA, 13.8 kV delta (generator side), 69
Comment : ESCR is 16 and is acceptable. (Minimum ESCR = 5 required for locating HVDC kV star and has a reactance of 10%; Before fault occurred, the voltage on H.T. side is 66 kV. Trans-
Substation) Ans. former is without load and there are no circulating, currents. A 3-phase short circuit occurs on H.T.
Example : 20.24. Fault levels on secondary sides of power transformers. side of the transformer. Calculate the sub-transient current in each generator,
Ref. Fig. 20.22 (a) and (b). Rating of Transformer is S = 1 MVA; Reactance Xt = 5 per cent. [Ans. 5720 A, 2860 Al
Calculate Fault Levels for a 3-phase fault Fon secondary side for (a) Single transformer, (b) Two 8. Explain briefly the advantages of inserting series reactances in bus-bars. There are four identical 3-
transformers in parallel. Assume Infinite Grid on h V side. phase generators, A, B, C, Din a generating station each rated 20,000 kV and having 20% reactance,
There is a reactor of 25% reactance based on 11 kV, 20,000 kVA between B and C bus sections. A 66
~INFIN,ITE
"v kV feeder is taken from bus A and is connected via transformer rated 10,000 kVA, 5% reactance. A
three-phase short circuit occurs on 66 kV side of transformer. Calculate fault current.
~ GRID
,, [Ans. 975 amperes]
9. A 3-phase 6000 kVA, 6.6 kV alternator has a reactance of 10% and is connected through a 6000 kVA,
,--
6.6 kV/33 kV transformer of 9% leakage reactance to a transmission line having resistance 0.09 ohm
s s
and reactance of 0.36 ohm per km respectively. A 3-phase symmetrical delta connected fault occurs
between the three phases at a distance of 10 km from transformer. Alternator voltage is 7.2 kV. Find
Xi Xi
s '"\"" alternator current. Neglect the load current.
10. Show that a generating plant having N section bus bars each rated Q kVA and have x% reactance,
I connected on the tie bar system through bus bar reactances of p% has a total short circuit kVA on
J
~ I
. F 3PHASE
FAULT
F
3PHASE
one section given by
Q (N-1)
FAULT
~+ Q (pN +·x) x 100.
(a) (b) If the section rating is 50,000 kVA, x=20% andp=10%, find the short circuit kVA with (a) 3 sections
Fig. Ex. 20.22 (b) 9 section (c) show that with infinite sections the maximum fault kVA=750,000.
Solution. (a) Fault Level on LT side [Hint. Solved problem 20.20)
S 1 11. The estimated short circuit MVA at the bus bars ofa generating station is 10,000 MVA, and at another
=xt X 100 =5 X 100 = 20 MVA Ans. • station of 570 MVA. Generator voltage at each station is 11 kV. These stations are now linked by an
inter-connector having reactance of 0.4 (ohm) per phase. Estimate the fault MVA at each station.
(b) Fault Level on LT side = XS x 100 = 40 MVA Ans. 12. A generator connected through a 5 cycle circuit breaker (multiplying factor to obtain breaking
t/2 capacity=l.1) is connected to a transformer with a breaker in-between.
[Reactance of Xt of two transformers in parallel is Xt/2• Ref. Ex. 20.10 also.] The· generator has reactances
X[ = 9%, Xl = 15%, xd = 100%,
QUESTIONS and rating 7500 kVA, 6.9 kV. A 3-phase, short circuit occurs between the breaker and the transformer.
1. Describe the use of Series Reactors in power system. Find (a) Sustained short circuit current in the breaker
Fault level at the incoming bus in a sub-station fed from a single incoming line is 400 MVA. Calculate (b) Initial symmetrical r.m.s. current.
the % reactance to be inserted in the incoming line to limit the fault level at the bus to 350 MVA. (c) Maximum possible d.c. component at the short-circuit current.
Select Base MVA equal to 500 MVA (Ans. 18% p,u.] (d) Making current of the circuit-breaker.
2. Describe the following : (e) Current to be interrupted by the circuit-breaker (r.m.s.).
1. Magnetically shielded oil immersed reactors, ({) Breaker interrupting MVA.
2. Air-cooled dry type reactors. [Hint. Refer Chapter 3]
3. Non-magnetically shielded reactors.
3. Discus,s the need of current limiting reactors in power systems.
SYMMETRICAL FAULTS AND CURRENT LIMITING REACTORS
13. A 150 MVA, 6.6 kV, 3-phase generator has 15% reactance and current limiting reactor of 8%. Find
the ratio of electrodynamic forces of short circuit current to forces on full load currents (a) without 23, A generator is rated 6.6 kV, 3600 kVA and has Xd = 132%, X[ = 23%, X/ = 31 %.
reactor (b) with reactor. Calculate (1) Sustained S.C. current I; (2) Transient S.C. current I and (3) Sub-transient S.C. current.
[Hint. Electrodynamic force is proportional to t 2]. [Ans. 44:1, 19:1] When generator was at rated voltage and on :
(A) Full load, (B) No load. [Ans. B: 240; 1020 A; 1370 Al
14. Two generators operate in parallel and are connected to a 33 kV transmission line through a trans-
former. Calculate fault MVA if a 3-phase fault occurs. [Hint. Add Full load current and fault current to get total current].
(a) at the beginning of transmission line. A generator has following ratings :
(b) far end of the transmission line. 360o kVA, 6.6 kV, xd =132%; Xl'= 23%, Xl = 31%
The data given are as follows: Calculate (1) Sustained short-circuit current.
Generator I, 10,000 kVA, 11 kV, 10% reactance (2) Transient short-circuit current.
l
Generator II, 50,000 kVA, 11 kV, 7.5% reactance (3) Initial symmetrical short-circuit current.
.When generator is at rated voltage and (A) Full Load, (B) No Load.
Transformer 15,000 kVA; 11 k,V/33, 6% reactance
[Bl (1) = 240 A
Impedance of transmission line : (5 + j20) ohm. Ans. (2) = 1020 A
15. A delta connected fault, each branch of the delta having reactance of .1.2 ohm is applied to an alternator [ (3) = 1370A
on no load, and operating at rated terminal voltage. The generator has p.u. reactance of 0.2, and is [Hint, (A) Add full load current and fault current to get total current.
rated 10 kV, 10,000 kVA. Calculate the line currents during the fault and fault MVA.
16. Three 6.6 kV alternators of rating ·2000, 5000 and 8000 kVA and per unit reactances (positive se-
quence) of 0.08, 0.12 and 0.16 respectively are reactance of 0.125 ohms, 3 phase fault occurs at the
other end of the feeder. Calculate fault power. [Ans. 87.2 MVA]
17, Three star connected 11 kV alternators are operating in parallel. Each of them is connected the com-
mon bus through a reactor. The alternators are rated 11 kV, 10 MVA and have subtransient reactance
of0.06 p.u.
Two 10 MVA, 0.02 p.u. 11 kV/33 kV transformers are connected in parallel to this bus bar and supply
a transmission line of impedance 0.2 +j 0. 7 ohm per km.
At another substation 10 km-away from the generating station is 25 MVA 33 kV/11 kV transformer
of 0.06 p.u. reactance. Calculate the reactance of c~rrent limiting reactors if each alternator is not to
carry 2½ times full load current, when a symmetrical 3 phase short circuit occurs on 11 kV Bus bar
in the sub-station.
18. Three 11 kV alternators rated 10,000 kVA with resistance of0.02 p.u. and reactance of0.15 p.u. have
their bus-bars connected in 3-phase delta connected (mesh connection) reactors of each (0.015 + j0.39)
p.u. impedance per phase on 10,000 kVA rating. A 20,000 kVA transformer having (0.01 + j0.10) p.u.
impedance is connected to the bus bar of one machine and feeds 132 kv transmission line having resis-
tance of 9 ohms and reactance of 50 ohms per phase. A 3-phase short-circuit occurs at the load end
of the line. What must be the minimum rating of the circuit- breaker located at the point of fault?
Find currents which flow from each of the machines. [Ans. 73.7 MVA, 1725/1075 Al
19, A sub-station bus receives power from two incoming lines. The fault levels of the lines at the sub-sta-
tion end are 50 MVA and 150 MVA respectively when they are not connected to the sub-station. Cal-
culate the fault level at the sub-station bus when lines are connected to it. [Ans. 200 MVAl
20. Fault level at incoming-bus of a sub-station is 150 MVA. A single 50 MVA transformer of p.u. reactance
8% is connected between the incoming bus and outgoing bus.
Calculate the fault level at out-going bus by
(a) Neglecting the equivalent reactance from source size.
(b) Without neglecting the above. [Ans, 625; 122 MVA]
21. Calculate the maximum possible fault level (short circuit level) at the secondary side of a single con-
nected power transformer; 500 kVA, 5% reactance. [Ans, 10 MVA]
22. A generator is rated 500 kVA, has a reactance of 132%. Calculate 3-ph. fault current when generator
was on no load with terminal voltage of 6.5kV. (Note change in voltage).
A generator is rated: 500 kVA, 6.6 kV
Xd = 132% (steady state direct axis reactance)
A sustained 3-phase fault occurred when the generator was on no-load and at 6.5 kV voltage. Calculate
fault current. (Note change in voltage)
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 439
2. Negative Sequence Components. [Va 2, Vb 2, V 02 or Ia 2, Ib 2, Ic 21comprising three b~lanced
ctors of equal magnitude displaced mutually by 120° and having phase sequence opposite that
:~ the original system of vectors. (If the original system of vectors have a phase seque~ce
a_ b _ c ; then positive sequence components too have phase sequence a1 - b1 - c1 but negative
21 phase sequence components have phase (a2 - c2 - b2),

3. Zero Phase Sequence Components. lVao, Vbo, Vco or Iao, Ibo, Icol comprising three equal
vectors having zero phase displacement, i.e. having same phase.
Symbolically,
Subscript 1 for positive sequence entities.
Symmetrical Components Subscript 2 is for negative sequence entities.
and subscript O for zero sequence entities.
Introduction - Symmetrical Components of 3 Phase System - Operator 'a' - Some Trigonometrical
Relations - Zero Sequence Currents-Unbalanced Supply Voltage. Example 21.1 to 21.10. Va, Vb, Ve,) Original System of Unbalanced Vectors [Meaning:
They may not be equal in magnitude or/and do
21.1. INTRODUCTION l a, lb , I C not have same phase displacement.]
For unsymmetrical faults such a single phase to ground fault, phase to phase fault, double Vai, Vb1, Yc1} Positive Sequence Components
phase to ground fault, simple single phase representation is not valid. The method of'Symmetrical la1, lbi, /cl .
Components' is generally used. The method of symmetrical components is a very powerful approach
and has simplified the procedure of fault calculation in a miraculous way. Dr. C.L. Fortesque in-
Va2, Vb2, Yc2} Negative Sequence Components.
la2, lb2, Ic2 ·
troduced the method of symmetrica] components to the solution of polyphase networks in his paper
presented in the year 1918. The principle of symmetrical components is as follows. Suppose we Vao, Vbo, Yeo} Zero Sequence Components.
have to solve an unbalanced systems ofn vectors. It is then resolved into n balancec;l systems, each Iao, Ibo, lco
of which consists of n vectors. These balanced vectors are called symmetrical components of the The original unbalanced system of vectors can be resolved into t~e~r symmetrical components
original components. Let us concentrate on unbalanced three-phase systems. or the respective symmetrical components can be added to get the ongmal system of vectors.
<=>
21.2. SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS OF 3-PHASE SYSTEMS Thus Va= Vao +Val+ Va2 ... (I)
In unbalanced systems of three vectors [Ia, lb, le, or Va, Vb, Ve] can be resolved into three vb = Vbo + vbl + Vb2
balanced systems of vectors, the vectors of the balanced system are called symmetrical components Ve= Veo + Vel + Ve2
of the original system, which are : ·
<=>
1. Positive Sequence Components Va 1, Vbl, Vcl or Iai, Ibi, lei comprising three balanced sys- and la =lao +lal +la2 ... (II)
tems, of vectors, displaced mutually by 120° and having the same phase sequence as that of the lb =Ibo +lb1 +lb2
original system.
le =leo +Ie1 +Ic2
Fig. 21.1, illustrates the Eqn. (II).
21.3. OPERATOR 'a'

Letter 'a' is commonly used to designate the operator that causes a counter-clockwise rotation
.120° of 120° .
It has unit magnitude and angle 120°. The vector operator 'a' is defined as :
. 21t O=IL 120°
a=le+J3 ---,
'I
2 27t o.5 +J·o •866 :
= cos 1t +J· sm
• =-
3 3 1
a= 1 Ll20° = - 0.5 + j0.866

. 41t
a2 = le+J3 I REAL AXIS
lbz
=cos
47t . . 47t
+; sm
I I
3 3 I
I
= - 0.5 - j0.866 = 1L240° ___ .JI
a3 = 1e+i2n =1 L360°;:: 1 +JO a,2:tL240°

/Fig. 21.1. Symmetrical components.
Fig. 21.2. Operator 'a'.
111111111
440 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 441

21.4. SOME TRIGONOMETRIC RELATIONS From set equation I
. Opposite side :+jAXIS Va = Vao + Val + Va2 ... (III)
Sln 0= -- I
I
Hypotenuse 02 Vb= Vao + a2Va1 + aVa2
B
Base 81 2
cos e = -A
----- ------------- Ve= Vao + aVa 1 +a Va 2
Hypotenuse REALAXIS Written in matrix form,
sin 0 = tan 0 ~ Opposite side
cos 0
sin 30° = ½= 0.5
Base
-B
X
:-jAXIS
[ ~:] = [i :2 ~ lr~:~J ... (IV)
~i
Ve 1 a a2 Va2
Fig. 21.3. Trigonometric relations.
3
sin 60° = ~ =0.866
sin 120° =sin (180° - 60°) = sin 60° = 0.866
Let A =[i1 :2 a a2
sin 240° =sin (180° + 60°) =- sin 60° =- 0.866
cos 30° =2
✓3 Then K ~½[! ; ~2]
1
[fjj:;rtJ(!Hr~
= 0.866
cos 60° = 0.5
A 1, we get
cos 01 =-x Multiplying
... (V)
A
cos 02 =-x
1
. 8 B Vao = 3 <Va + Vb + Ve) ... (VI)
sm 1 =+ X
val = ½<Va + a vb + a2 Ve)
. 8 B
sm 2 =- X 1 y 2
Va2 = 3 ( a + a Vb + a Ve)
cos 120° =cos (180° - 60°) =- 0.5
From these equations, we can get symmetrical components of unbalanced system of vectors.
l l[ l
cos 240° = cos (180° + 60°) =- 0.5 Summarizing
Remember: a = 1 L'.'.120° = cos 120° +J sin 120°
=- 0.5 +J0.866 Va
vb =[11 1
a2 1
a2 Vao
Val
2 [ Ve
a = 1 L'.'.240° = cos 240° +J sin 240° 1 a a Va 2
=- 0.5 - 0.866
3
a = 1-JO Vaol = ½[11
Val 1
a ll[Val
a2 vb
Table of Operator 'a' [Va2 1 a2 a Ve
a= lL'.'.120° = - 0.5 +J0.866
2 Va = Vao + Val+ Va2 1a = lao + 1a1 + la2
a = lL'.'.240° = - 0.5 - J0.866
3 vb = Vao + a2Va1 + a va2 2
a = lL'.'.360° = 1 +JO . lb = Iao + a Ia1 + ala2
1 + a = 1L60° = 0.5 +J0,866 Ve= Vao + a Val+ a2Va2 le= Iao + ala1 + a2 Ia2
1 - a = ✓3L - 30° = 1.5 -j0.866
1 +a= 1 L - 60° = 0.5 +J0.866 1
Iao = 3 [Ia + lb + IC]
a - a =✓3 L30° = 1.5 +J0.866
3 2
2
a + a = 1 L 180° = - 1 - JO
2 .
/al = ½(/ 0 + alb + a 2Ic]
1 +a +a = 0 = 0 +JO.
From Balanced Vector to Symmetrical Components Ia2 = ½[Ia+ a 2Ib + ale]
Positive Sequence Negative Sequence Zero Sequence
Val va2 Vao
2
Vbl =a Va1 Vb 2 =aVa 2 Vbo = Vao
Vc1 =aVa 1 2
Vea= Vao
Vcz =a Va2
442 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 443
In the following text, the word phase currents implies currents in R, Y, B phases of a 3 phase Check: Va = Vao + val + Va2
supply line. · = (22 + J6.66) - (25.33 + J89.33) + (3.33 - J6.0)
= 0 + j99.99 = app.JlOO =Va= 100 L90°
21.5. ZERO SEQUENCE CURRENTS
Example 21.2. The given symmetrical components are Vao =22 + J16.66,
In three-phase systems, when there is a neutral return path for currents, Val=- 25.33 + J89.34 and Va2 = 3.33 :-J6.00; calculate Va, Vb, and Ve.
In =la +lb +le Solution. Va = Vao + Val + Va2
We get
Vb = Vco + a2Va1 + aVa2
Ia + lb +le= 3 [lao]
Ve= Vag + aVcl + a2Vc2
Iao =ln/3
In delta connected load, the line currents do not find return neutral path. Hence line currents Va= Vao +Val+ Va2
do not have zero sequence components. = (22 + J16.66) + (- 25.33 +J89.34) + (3.33 -J6.00)
In star connected system without neutral path or neutral grounding, In is zero. Hence zero =0 + JlOO
sequence currents are zero. Vb = Vao + a2Va1 + a Va2
Example 21.1. Calculate the symmetrical components of the following unbalanced line to
neutral voltages. = (22 + Jl6.16) + (- 0.5 - J0.866) (- 25.33 +J89.34)
Va= 100L90°; vb= ll6L0°: Ve= 71L224.8°. + (- 0.5 +J0.866) (3.33 -}6.00)
Solution. = 115.6 + JO = 115.6L0°
1 Ve = Vao + a Val + a2Va2
Vao = 3 [Va + Vb + Ve]
= (22 + Jl6.16) + (- 0.5 +J0.866) (- 25.33 +J89.34)
1 2
+ (- 0.5 - J0.866) (3.33 - }6.0)
Val = 3 lVa + a Vb + a Ve]
=-50-J50.
Va2 = 31 [Va + a 2Vb + a Ve] Example 21.3. Determine Ia, lb, le, from the symmetrical components :
Ia1 = 50L0°, Ia2 = 10L90°, las= 10Ll80°.
Vao = ½ [100 L90° + 116 L0° + 71 L'.224.8°) Solution. la =lao +Ia1 +Ia2
= ½ [O +JlO0 + 116 +JO+ (~ 50 - J50)) lb =lao + a2Ia1 + ala2
2
83 le = Iao + alal + a Ia2
= .! [66 + J50] = L37° Ia= lOL180° + 50L0° + 10L90°
3 3
Vao = 22 +Jl6.66 = 27. 77 L37° = 10 [- 1 +JO)+ 50[1 + JO] + 10[0 + jl]
= - 10 + J O + 50 +JO + 0 +jlO = 40 +jlO
val=½ [Va +avb +a2Vcl lb= l0Ll80° + 50L0 + 240° + 10L90 + 120°
=- 10 + 50 (- 0.5 -j0.866) + 10 (- 0.866 -j0.5)
Val = ½ [100L90° + 116L0° + 120° + 71 L224.8° + 240°) =-10- 25-8.66-j43 -j5
= - 43.66 - j48
= ½ [100 L90° + 116 Ll20° + 71 Ll04.8°] le = lao + ala1 + a 2Ia2 = - 30 +j34.84.
Example 21.4. A delta connected load is connected to three-phase supply. One line of supply is
= ½[(O +JlO0) + (- 58 + JlO0) + (- 18 +J68)] open. The current in other two lines is 20 A. Find the symmetrical components of the line currents.
Solution. Let a, b, c be the supply lines and c is open. Therefore, currents in the two liens are
=½ (- 76 +J268) =- 25.3$ + J89.33 =98Ll06° equal in magnitude.
1 la = 20L0°; lb= 20Ll80° ; 10 = 0
Va2 = 3 Wa + a 2vb + a Ve)
lao = ½[la + lb + le) = ½ [20L0° + 20L(l~0°) + OJ = 0
= ½ [100 L90° + 116 LO + 240 + 71L224.8° + 120)
lal = ½ [20L0° + 20L(l80° + 120) + O]
= ½ [100L90° + ll6L240° + 71L344.8°)
= ½[20 + j0 + 20 (0.5 + j0.866) + 0) = ½[30 -jl 7.32]
= ½[O + JlO0 + (- 58 - JlO0 + 68 - J18)] = 10 -j5.77 = 11.56 L - 30° Amp.
= ½ [10 - jl8) = 3.33 -J6 = 6.85L299.

la2 = ½[20L0° + 20L(l80° + 240°) + O]
= 10 +}5.77 = ll.56L30° Amp.
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 445
Determine Ia and Va
2 Given: Z 1 =J0.25, Z2 =j0.35, Z 0 =JO.I p.u., Ea= 1 +JO p.u.
lb1 =a la1 = ll.56L - 30 + 240° = ll.56L - 210°
lb2 =ala2 = ll.56L30° + 120° = 11.56Ll50° Solution.
Ibo =leo = 0. 1
Ea l +j 0
le1 =ala1 = ll.56L - 30° + 120° = ll.56L'.90° a1 = z 2z0 = . 0 25 J0.35 xJ0.10
2 Z1 + z 2 +Zo J . + J0.35 + J0.10
le2 =a Ia2 = ll.56L30° + 240° = ll.56L- 90°
leo =lao = 0. (Ref. Sec. 21.5) 1.0 1.0 ·3 05
= J0.25 +J0.0778 = }0.3278 =- J · p.u.
Check: Given: Va1 =Vaz= Vao =Ea -Ia1Z1
le =leo + lei + Ie2
=0 + ll.56L -
90° + ll.56L + 90° =0.
= 1 + JO - (~ J3.05) (j0.25) = 1 - 0. 763 =0.237 p.u.
Example 21.5. In a three-phase system, the voltage of phase of neutral had the following ~e- - Vao - 0.237 .
lao = ~ = JO.l =J2.37 p.u.
quence components during phase to phase fault condition. Calculate the voltages of the phases with
respect to neutral, voltages between phases. Given : - Vaz - 0.237 .
Val= 0.584 + JO p.u., Va2 = 0.584 + J.O p.u., Vao = 0 la2 = z;: = J0. 35 =J0.68 p.u.
Solution. Va = Val + Vaz + Vao la~ lal + la2 + Iao = - j3,05 + J0.68 + J2.37 = 0
= 0.584 + 0.584 + 0 = l.68L0° p.u. Va= Val+ V~2 + Vao = 3Va1 = 3 x 0.237 = 0.711 p.u.
Vb = a2Va1 + a Vaz + Vao Example 21.8. The positive sequence network
= (- 0.5 -J0.866) Val+ (- 0.5J + 0.866) Vaz+ 0 =- 0.584 p.u. of a system is shown in the figure given below,
Ve= Vb= - 0.584 p.u. Draw Thevenin's equivalent network and deter-
Vab = Va - vb= 1.168 + 0.584 = 1.752L0° p.u. mine the positive sequence component of fault cur-
rent, assuming zero fault impedance and voltage at
Vbe =Vb+ Ve= - 0.584 + 0.584 = 0 fault point 1. 0 p. u.
Vea=- 0.584- 1.168 = -1.752 Ll80° p.u.
Solution. Thevenin's equivalent impedance
Fault is between phases band c. Hence Vbe is zero. Vab = - Vea· Vr= Thevenin's O.C. voltage 1 p.u.
Example 21.6. In a single phase equivalent circuit the positive sequence components of current Fig. of Ex. 21.8.
is given by
Ea
lao = -==--~--
X1 +X2+Xo
Further lao is equal to Ia1 and laz• Calculate la. Given Ea= 1 + JO p. u., X 1 =J0.25,
X2 =J0.35, Xo =JO.JO.
Solution. Given lao = X !
1 +A2 + 0
X, (b)
Substituting the given values

_ l+JO 1 .
Iao- J0.25 + J0.35 + J0.10 = J0.70 =-Jl.4 3 p.u. ~i0·0>:5PO
It is given, Iao = Ia1 = laz
(e) (d)
la= lao + la1 + la2 = 3 [Iao1
= 3 X [- Jl.43] = - J4.29 p.u. Positive sequence current
Example 21.7. In a problem on fault calculations, following expressions were obtained. Vt l +JO
Ea =x-= ·o 075 = 13.35 p.u.
h(eq) J ·
Example 21.9. In a three-phase 4-wire system the phase currents in R, Y, B phases are
IR= 100L30°, ly= 60L300 A, IB = 30L180°. Calculate positive, negative and zero sequence com-
ponents of current in the phase R q,nd current in the return neutral current.
Solution, JR= lO0L'.30° = 100 [cos 30° +j sin 30°)
= 100 [0.866 +}0.5] = 86.6 +}50
~
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 447

446
QUESTIONS
Iy= 50 L300°
1. Given Va= 100 + jO, Vb= -2.7 +J32.3, V0 =- 37.3 +J2.3. Find the symmetrical components
= 50[cos 300° + j sin 300) = 50 (0.5 - j0.866) = 25 -}43.3
Vao, Vav Va2• [Ans. 20 - J18, 50 +J15, 30 - J5]
IE= 30Ll80° = 30(-1 +JO]= - 30
2. Given Va= lOOLO, Vb= 5OL225, V 0 = 111L2.6. Find the sequence components .
. In = Current in return neutral path
[Ans. 66.66 +J16.66, 60.l-J8.17,- 26.5-}8.3]
=IR +Iy+IB = 86.6 + j50 + 25 -}43.3 - 30 = 81.6 + }6.7 = 82 A 3. The current in three line conductors, a, b, care 40 +j60, -90, -80 +JlO Amp.
I Ro=½ [IR+ Iy+IB] =½ (81.6 -}6.7) =27.2 +}2.25 If the reactance per phase for positive, negative and zero sequence current is respectively 20, 20, 50
ohms, find the voltage drop in conductor 'a'. [Ans. - 900 + }400 V]
2 4. (a) Show that
IRl =½[IR+ aiy+ a IB]
2
a +a + 1 = 0
= ¾((86.5 + j50,0)] +(- 0,5 +j0.866) X (25 - }43.3) + (- 0,5 - }0.866) (- 30)) a-a =J✓3
2
= 42.2 + }39,8 a - 1 = 1.5 - j0.866,

2 . 1 + a2 1 - a 1 + a
IR2 =½[IR+ a Iy+ aIB] = 17.2 + j8 (b) Evaluate the followmg: - - - , - - , - - 2
1 -a 1 +a l+a
Check: IR =IRo +IRl +IR2 5. Given Ea, Eb, E 0 = 60 +JO, 45 - J75, - 51 +j120 respectively.
=27 .2 + 42.2 + 17 .2 + }2.25 +}39.8 + j8.0 = 86.6 + }50.05 Determine E aO• Eal> Ea2· [Ans. 28 +J15, 72.2 +Jll.5, - 40.2 -J26.5]
which agrees closely with IR. 6. Given Ia = 0 +JlOO, lb = 20 + JO, 10 = 0. Find lav Ia2• Iao·
Ans. In=82A Check : In= 3Io 7. Assume Ia= 100 Amp., lb= / 0 = - 50 Amp. What"are the sequence currents ?
I Ro= 27.2 +}2.25 A 8. The phase to phase voltage ofa 3-phase system are 100,150,200 volts. Find the magnitudes of positive
IRl = 42.2 + }39.8 A and negative sequence components.
9. A grounded neutral system has positive sequence voltage of Eal• show that if neutral ground be
IR2 = 17.2 + j8 A.
removed and one phase wire grounded the sequence voltage remains unchanged.
Example 21.10. Given current in neutral to ground connection 1.9 Amperes. Calculate zero se-
10. Three resistors of 5, 10, 20 ohms are connected in delta across the bases A, B, C respectively to a
quence component of current in phases. balanced supply to 100 volts. What are the sequence components of current in the resistors and the
In 9 supply line ? .1 ·
Solution. Ans.
Iao = Ibo = Ico =
3 = 3 = 3 Amperes. 11. Given Jal =jl.56 p.u.
Ia 2 =Jl.56 p.u.
21.6. PHASE DISPLACEMENT IN STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMERS Iao = 0
The angular difference between vectors representing the voltages induced between h.v. and l.v. Calculate Ia, lb, 10 • [Ans.Ia= 0, h =- 2.70 +JO p.u. 10 = 2.70 + JO p.u.]
terminals having same marking letter and the corresponding neutral points (real or imaginary),
expressed with reference to h.v. side is termed as phase displacement of transformer. ~ven und_er 12. Given Ial = Ia2 = Iao = 0.255 - J0.32 p.u.
normal condition, the phase to phase voltages and phase to neutral voltages of h.v. side are d~s- Calculate Ia, lb, 10 [Ans. Ia= 0.765 -J0.156; lb= 0; / 0 = O]
placed from corresponding voltages of l.v. side, in case of star-delta transformers. The phase d_1s-
13. In a problem on fault calculations.
placement of+ 30° comes in Group 4 and that of - 30° comes in Group 3 (IS : 20_26, 1962 repri?t
1972-Specifications for power transformers). Similarly the currents on the two sides are also dis- E
Jal =la2 =lao = Z Z Z p.u.
placed. While applying the method of symmetrical components, the inherent phase shirt should be 2+ 2+ 0
considered. A phase shift can be expected in p.s., n.s., z.s. components on either sides. E=l+JO
Generally in short-circuits calculations the phase displacement is neglected. The procedure is Calculate Ia, lb, 10
as follows : Given : Z 1 =}0.5, Z 2 = jO.5, Z 0 = 0.
Consider astar-deita transformer. The analysis of the positive sequence currents and posi- 14. Given Ia= 0 p.u., lb=- 2.70 + jO. p.u., le=- 0.70 +JO. p.u.
tive sequence voltages can be corrected if necessary for phase displacement by taking into account
Calculate Ia1, Ia2, Iao· [Ans. - Jl.560 p.u.,J 1.560 p.u.]
the inherent phase displacement. Similarly, the same reasoning applies to negative sequence cur-
rents and negative sequence voltages. Magnitude of phase shift is same for positive sequence com- 15. Explain the principle of symmetrical components. What is the difference between positive sequence
ponents and negative sequence components. However, the direction of phase shift in case of negative and negative sequence components? Derive the relation between Va, Vb, V 0 and Yao Val Va 2.
phase sequence components is reverse of that applicable to the positive sequence components (D~e 16. Given Yao, Val• Va2 derive an expression to obtain Va, Vb, V0 •
to reverse phase sequence). The phase shifts pf p.s. components and n.s. components are equal. m 17. Show that the current is neutral to ground connection is three times zero sequence component of cur-
magnitude but opposite in direction. The magnitude and direction of phase displacement depends rent, i.e. In= 3lao·
on transformer group and allocation of phase references. Phase displacement of zero-sequence quan- 18. A star connected three phase winding is with earthed neutral. During a fault, the current in neutral
tities need not be considered in star-delta transformer. Since the zero sequence currents do not to ground path was 9 Amp. Calculate the zero sequence component of current in the winding.
flow in lines on delta-connected side. ·
UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS ON AN UNLOADED GENERATOR
negative sequence current flows through negative sequence impedance (or reactance) and the vol-
tages drop in the negative sequence network is given by
449
l
Va2 =-Ia2 Z2 or -Jla2X2 !
JX2 = Negative sequence ofreactance generator.
2 (III) Zero Sequence Network. Zero sequence network of an alternator consists of the zero se-
quence impedance of alternator per phase, plus three times the impedance in neutral to ground
circuit, i.e.,
Z 0 = Zgo + 3Zn ; voltage drop= InZo
Unsymmetrical Faults on an It may be recalled* that the current in the neutral circuit is In= 3I0 . Hence the voltage drop is
Unloaded Generator equal to 3IaoZn, where Zn, is the reactance in neutral to ground circuit, We consider that only cur-
rent Iao flows through the neutral circuit. Hence Zn is multiplied by 3 to get the voltage drop
Sequence Impedances - Sequence Network of Alternator - L-G Faults on Alternator - L-L Fault 3Iao Zn- The zero sequence network of an alternator is shown in Fig. 22.3. If neutral is not grounded
on Alternator - 2 L-G Fault on Alternator - Solved Examples.
there is a gap in the zero sequence network and zero sequence component of current Ia is zero.
22.1. SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES Hence In is also zero.
The impedances offered by a rotating machine to positive sequence component of current, differ
from those offered to negative sequence components of currents. Consider a circuit component, the
voltage drop across it, for given sequence component of current will be equal to magnitude of that
sequence current into impedance offered to it. Thus we come across positive sequence impedance
or reactance, negative sequence impedance or reactance and zero sequence impedance or reactance,
The impedance offered by a circuit to positive sequence component current is called Positive
Sequence Impedance of that circuit. Likewise the negative sequence impedance and zero sequence
are defined, REFERENCE BUS
[A] (a) Neutral grounded. (b) Zero sequence network.

22.2. SEQUENCE NETWORKS OF ALTERNATOR
(I) The positive sequence network of 3 phase alternator (shown in Fig. 22.1) consists of an e.m.f.
source Ea in series with positive sequence impedance z1. Ea is the induced e.m.f. of one phase,
Z1 is replaced by jX1 if the resistance is neglected. X 1 is positive sequence reactance of generator:
Ea= Voltage behind the reactance

~r lao = 0, Vao = 0
(induced e.m.f. ) per phase

X 1 -= Positive sequence reactance V, i ( REFERENCE BUS
Direct axis reactance

[B] (a) Neutral ungrounded. (b) Zero sequence network.
V1 =Ea -Ia1X1 Fig. 22.3, Zero sequence network of alternator.
[Al With neutral grounded. [BJ Without neutral grounding.
REFERANCE
Fig. 22.1. Positive sequence network of an alternator.
It is same as direct axis reactance. It may be sub-transi.~n.t or transient or steady state reactance 22.3. VOLTAGE EQUATIONS
depending upon the problem to be solved. Typical values of reactance are We observe that the currents of a particular sequence produce voltage drop of like sequence.
given in Table 19.2. Referring to Figs. 22.1, 22.2, 22.3 we write the following equations :
The generator e.m.fs are balanced voltages and, therefore, considered to
be positive sequence e.m.fs. Generator does not induce negative or zero se- Val= Ea - Ia1Z1 or Ea -Jla1X1
quence e.m.f. The phase sequence of positive sequence voltages is the same iX2 Va2 =-Ia2Z2 or -jla2X2
as the phase sequence of induced e.m.f. or
Vao =-IaoZo -jlaoXo
X1 = positive sequence·reactance of generator
Z 0 =Zgo + 3Zn or X 0 =Xgo + 3Xn
Ea= e.m.f. induced in phase a.
(II) Negative Sequence Network of Generator. The negative sequence net- REFERENCE SUS
work of a generator consists simply of negative sequence reactance, jX2 (Fig. Fig, 22.2. Negative
* Refer Sec. 21.5 la 0 = li, 0 = lco = ! 11 3
22.2) as there are no negative sequence e.m.fs induced by the alternator. Only sequence network of a
generator. The word line refers to one conductor of 3 phase system.
450 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS ON AN UNLOADED GENERATOR 451
22.4. SINGLE LINE* TO GROUND FAULT ON AN UNLOADED THREE-PHASE Neutral of the generator is solidly grounded. Determine subtransient line currents and line-to-
ALTERNATOR AT RATED TERMINAL VOLTAGE line voltages, for
(a) Single line to ground fault.
Solution. Let a, b, c be the terminals of the unloaded generator whose star point N is grounded (b) Double line to ground fault.
through impedance Zn. A single line to ground fault occurs on terminal a. We have to determine (c) Line to line fault.
fault current and voltage of the lines. Generator is on no load and rated terminal voltage. Resistance is negligible.
Va = Voltage of terminal a with respect to N. Solution. (a) Let a, b, c be three terminals of the generator. Let fault occur between terminal
lb= 0 and le= 0. Since generator is on no load.
a and ground. Let the induced voltage of phase a line to neutral Ea be 1 p.u.
Va= 0. Neglecting drop in Zll' Ea= 1 + JO p.u. = ~~ kV, actual
[' ~m:l 1 a Xn '--' 0, Xo =Xgo + 0

[/"']
la1 =
la2
½1
1
a
a2
FA/JLT
G ""'""
Fig. 22.5 represents the fault condition. For L-G fault :
E2
1 Iao =la1 =la2 = X X X
~][ 1]
gO + 1 + 2
c
1
3 1
[ i a
a2 -----h 1 +,i0 _ l_+ jO _ .
= j0.25 + j0.35 + j0.1 - j0.70 - - 1 l. 43 p.u.
1
=3la. Ia= Iao + Ial + Ia2 = 3lao =- J 4.29 p.u.
"-------------<>C
Base current - Base kVA - 25,000 1310 Amp.
Hence for single line to ground fault on ter- Fig. 22.4. Circuit condition of L-G fault. - ✓3 Base kV- ✓3 x 11
minal a, we get Fault current Ia= - j4.29 x 1310 = 5630 A / - 90°
Iao = Ial = Ia2 =½Ia ... (a) Val =Ea -Jal Z1
Coming to voltage equations, c-
= 1 - Jl.43) uo.25) = 1 - o.357 = o.643 p.u.
Vaz= -Ia2 Z2 = (- jl.43) U0.35) = - 0.50 p.ti.
Val= Ea - la1Z1
Vao = -Iao Zo =- (-j 1.43) U0.l) =- 0.143 p.u.
Vaz =-la2Z2
Line to ground voltages
Vao =-IaoZo
Since
Va= Val+ Vao = 0.643 - 0.50 - 0.143 = 0 [check]
Ial = Ia2 =Iao
vb= a2 Val+ a Vaz+ Vao
Va= Va1 +Vaz+ Vao = Ea - la1 (Z1 + Z2 + Zo) =0
As Va=0, = 0.643 (- 0.5 -j0.866) + (- 0.5 + j0.866) (- 0.5) - 0.143 = 0.215 - j0.989 p.u.
Ve = a Val + a2Va2 + Vao
= 0.643 (- 0.5 + j0.866) - 0.5 (- 0.5 -j0.866) - 0.143 = 0.215 +j0.989
Ea
Hence la1=----- ... (b) Line to line voltages
Zo +Z1 +Z2 Z1
Vab = Va - Vb= 0.215 + j0.989 = 1.01L77°p.u.
Taking a look at equations (a) and (b), we feel that
there should be some easy way to remember these expres- Vbe = Vb - Ve= 0 -jl.978 = l.978L270° p.u.
sions. And t~ere is! This is a wonderful part of the method Vae = Ve - Va=+ 0.215 + }989 = 1.0lL'.102.3° p.u.
of symmetrical components. The apparently dull and com-
plicated complexities can be brought to a simple systematic j,a Line to line voltages in kV
2 2
form which makes the analysis interesting and easy. 2 Va 2
Since 1 p.u. voltage=~~ kV
. C?nnect the three sequence networks of the generator
m senes. Equal current flows through the three networks 11
and the above equations are satisfied. Fig. 22.5 shows the
2
j
1
Vab = 1.01 x ✓3 = 6.42L77° kV
connection of sequence network to represent Single Line to J a3 Va3
Ground fault. 11
Vbe = 1.978 x ✓ 3 = 12.55 L'.270° kV
The sequence currents can be easily calculated from Fig. 22.5. Connection of sequence networks to
this simple series circuit. represent single line to ground fault 11
Vea= 1.01 x ✓ = 6.42 / 102.3 kV
on phase a. 3
Example 22.1. A 25,000 kV, 11 kV, 3 phase alternator
Fault current la = 3630 /JlJ}_ A
has direct axis sub-transient reactance of 0.25 per unit, negative sequence reactance and zero se-
quences are respectively 0.35 and 0.1 p.u. Parts (B) and (C) will be solved later.
7
!
UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS ON AN UNLOADED GENERATOR 453
Example 22.2. A 3-phase 11 kV. 10,000 kVA alternator has Xo = 0.05 p.u., X" = 0.15 p.u.,
X2 = 0.15 p.u. It is on no load and rated terminal voltage. Find the ratio of the line currents for a ..---------a
__,,..Ia,= 0
Single Line to Ground Fault, to 3 phase fault. Neutral is solidly grounded.
Solution. Let Ea= 1 p.u.
Ea 1 1
(1) L-G Fault Ial = X +X +X = J0.05 +-J0___1_5_+_J_0_.1_5 - J0.35
1 2 0
Ia= 3Ial = J0~35 = - J8.57 p.u.

(2) Three-Phase Fault
Ea Ea
Ia= X1 = X' Fig. 22.6. 2 L-G fault. Fig. 22. 7. Connection of sequence networks of 2 L-G fault.
= j /15 =-)6.66 p.u. Further

8 57 This suggests that the three sequence networks of the generator may be connected in parallel
Ratio of line currents = 6.66
· = 1285
. as shown in Fig. 22.7.
Single line to ground fault current is 1.285 times three phase fault current. Ans, From the figure, for double line to ground fault, we get
Example 22.3, A 3-phase, 11 kV, 25,000 kVA alternator with Xgo = 0.05 p.u., X1 = 0.15 p.u. Ea
and X2 = 0.15 p.u. is grounded through a reactance of 0.3 ohms. Calculate the line current for a lal = 1 1
single line to ground fault. Z 1 + 1/ - + -
Z2 Zo
_ Base kV2 x 1000
Solution. Base Z - Base kVA Val =Ea -la1Z1
Let Base kV = 11 Val= Va/3
and Base kVA = 25,000 Vao = Val= Va2
121 X 1000 -Val
Base Z =
25 000
= 4.84 ohms I c2 = ---:z;- ... [Note the - ve sign)
'
P.u. Xd of neutral connection = 1: 4
= 0.062 p.u.
lao =~
- Val
X 0 =Xgo + 3Xn
From these symmetrical components the currents and voltages can be determined.
=j0.05 + 3 [0.062] =j0.05 + j0.15 + j0.186 =)0.236 p.u.
Example 22.4, (A) Part (b) of example 22.1.
X1 +X2 +X0 =J0.15 + J0.236 =j0.536 p.u.
Given : Generator 11 kV, 25,000 k VA
For single to ground fault, refer Fig. 22.5.
X1 =j0.25, X 2 =J0.35 p.u., Xgo =JO.I, Xn = 0
_ Ea _ 1 + jO _ .
Iao - X1 + X2 + X - j0.536 - - Jl. 86 p.u. Fault : Double line to ground, between terminals b, c and ground.
0
Ia= 3 X Iao = 3 X 1.86 = 5.58 p.u. Solution, Let Ea= 1 + jO p.u. =*kV
25 000 , Refer Fig. 22.7,
Ia in amperes = 5.58 x ✓ 3 'x 11 = 5.58 x 1310 = 7312 amperes,
Ea 1 +JO
Ia1 = Zo z 2 = .0 25 _J0.35 xj0.10
22.5. DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT ON AN UNLOADED GENERATOR X 1 + z 0 + z2 J . j0.35 + j0.10
Let fault involve terminals b, c and ground (Fig. 22.6)
Observing the fault condition, Vb= 0, Ve= 0 and Ia= 0 = j0.25 + ~0.0778 = Jo.3178 = - J3 ,0 5 p.u.
[~::]=½[~ a; :•][~"]
Val= Va2 = Vco ... for LL-G Fault.
=Ea -Ia1X1
= 1 + JO - (-}3.05) (j0.25) = 1- 0.763 = 0.237 p.u.
Hence - Vaz 0.237 .
la2 = JXz =- j0. 35 =J0.68 p.u.
-------- - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - " " " " " l

454
- Vao - 0.237 .
Iao = Xgo == - JO.lO ==J2.37
Ia == Ial + Ia2 + Iao == - J3.O5 + JO.68 + J2.37 == 0
1 + JO 1 + JO .
lb== Iao + a2Ia1 + ala2 =)0.25 + J0.187 == J0.437 == -J 2 •29 p.u.
==J2.37 + (- 0.5 -)0.866) (-)3.05) + (- 0.5 + JO.866) ( + )0.68) Val== Va2 == Vao == Ea - Ia1 X1
= - 3.229 +J3.55 == 4.81 L'.'.132.5 p.u. == (l -JO) - (-}2.29) (j0.25) == 1 - 0.572 == 0.428 p.u.
le== Iao + ala1 + a2Ia2 - Va2 - Va1 - 0.428 .
Ia2 == ~ == ~ == _ ==Jl.225 p.u.
==J2.37 + (- 0.5 + JO.866) (-J3.05) + (- 0.5 -JO.866) (j0.68) 10 35
==J2.37 + Jl.525 + 2.64 -JO.34 + 0.589 Vao == - 0.428 == ·1 072
I aO == - Xo JO.4
== 3.229 + J3.555 == 4.81 / 47.5° p.u. (Amp.) J .
In== 3Iao == 3 xj2,37 ==)7.11 p.u.- Ia == Ia1 + Ia2 + Iao
or In =lb+ Ie == -'--}2.29 + Jl.225 + Jl.072 "'0 (check)
== - 3.229 + J3.555 + 3.229 + )3.555 == J7.ll p.u. (Check) lb == Iao + a 2Ia + ala2 == - 3.04 + j0.6045
Phase voltages Va== Val +Va2 + Vao == 3Val le== Iao +ala+ a 2Ia2 == + 3.04 +}0.6045
== 3 X 0.237 == 0.711 p.u. In ==lb +Jc +la ==-3.04 + JO.6O45 + 3.04 + J0.6045 =Jl.2090 p.u.
Vb== Ve== 0
Base current was 1310 A.
Line to line voltages
Hence current in Neutral-to-ground Reactor== 1.209 x 1310 == 1570 Amp. Ans.
Vab == Va - Vb== 0.711 p.u.
Note. Reason for Reactance Grounding. Ex. 22.4 (A) Neutral-to-Ground Current without
neutral reactor was 9320 A. Ex. 22.4 (B) Neutral-to-Ground Current with neutral reactor was 1570
Vea== Ve - Va== - 0.711 p.u. A. Reactance in Neutral to-Ground circuit reduces fault current. Hence modern practice is in favour
of reactance grounding. [Ref. Sec. 33.6]
Base voltage 1 p.u. ==~!kV since Ea== l +JO= 11/1.73 == 6.35 kV Example 22.5.A 3-phase, 10 MVA star connected alternator having solid neutral earthing sup-
11 plies a feeder. The per unit reactances are as follows :
X ✓
Vab == 0.711
3 == 4.52 L'.'.O° kV Ans. Generator : X 1 =jO.16, X 2 == JO. 08, X 0 == JO. 06
Feeder X1 ==)0.1, X 2 ==jO.1, Xo ==jO.3.
Vea== - 0.711 x ~! == 4.52 L'.'.180° kV
Determine fault current and line to neutral voltages at the generator terminals for a double line
== Base kVA == 25,000 == 1310 Am . to ground fault at the other end of the feeder. Generator rated uoltage is 11 hV
Base Current
✓3 Base kV ✓3 x 11 p Solution.
Ilb I == 4.81 X 1310 == 6300 A/ 132.5° Total X 1 ==}0.26, X 2 ==JO.18, X 0 ==JO.36.
J le J == 4.81 X 1310 == 6300 A/ 4 7.5° Let Ea== l + JO p.u. be reference. Fault occurs between b, c and ground, Figs. 22.6 and 22.7.
Ia== 0 Ans. _ 1 +jO _ .
Ia1 - . . ,, - - ;2.63 p.u.
In== lb +le== 7.11 x 1310 = 9320 A '0 26 J 0 , 18 XJ 0 ,.:, 6
Example 22.4 (B) Neutral Reactor · J . + jO.18 + jO.36
In Ex. 22.4 (A), the Neutal to Ground Circuit has reactance of 0.1 p.u. instead of zero. [Add or Va1 == Ea - Ia1 Z1 == l - (-}2.63) (j0.26) == 1 - 0.684 = 0.316
X 11 == 0.1 p.u. in Fig. 22.6}. - Va2 - 0.316 .
Calculate Fault Current following through the Neutral Reactor Ia2 == ~ = jO.l 8 ==;l.75 p.u.
Solution. Ref. Fig. 22.7.
Now Xo==Xgo+3Xn I a0 = - jO.36
o.316 ·o 875
=J . p.u.
where Xo == Total Eq. Zero Seq. Reactance
Check : Ia 2 + Iao + Ial =jl. 75 + j0.875 - )2.63 == )2.625 -)2.63
Xgo == Zero Seq. Reactance of Generator
is approximate == 0
Xn == Reactance in Neutral to Ground Circuit.
Ia== 0 (Check) since fault is on b, c.
X1 and X 2 remains unchanged.
lb== a 2la1 + ala2 + lao == - 3.8 +)1.32 == 4.02L'.'.160° p.u.
In this example, Xgo ==}O.l p.u.; X 11 =}0.1 p.u.
X 0 ==}0.1 + 3 xjO.1 ==JO.4 p.u. le== ala2 + a 2la2 + Iao == 3,8 +)0.32 == 4.02 L'.'.20° p.u.
106 No zero sequence network for L-L fault need be considered.

Base current lO x = 5.25 x 10 2 A= 225 A 1 2
✓ 3 X 11 X 103 Ial = [la +alb +a le]
3
h = 4.02 X 524 = 2110L'.160° 1 2
le= 4.02 x 524 = 2110L'.20° A laz =3 [Ia + a lb + alb]
Fault current = lb +le Since Ia= 0 and lb =-le, we get
= - 3.8 +Jl.32 - 3.8 + Jl.32 Ia1 = 31 (a - a2) I b
=J2.64 p.u. =J2.64 x 524 = 1385 AL'.9O° . 1
or Ia= lb+ le= 3la = J0.875 X 3 =J2.625 p.u. Ia2= (a 2 -a)lb
3
This current flows through ground. lal = -laz•
Voltage at the terminal of generator
To get these conditions the sequence networks of the generator are connected in parallel as
Val= E1 - la1 Z1 = (1 + jO) - (-j2.63) (j0.16) = 0.58L'.0° p.u. shown in Fig. 22.2 (b).
Vaz= - Ia2Z2 = -Jl.75 xJ0.08 = 0.14 L'.O° p.u. Given the sequence impedances, we proceed as follows :
Vao = 0 - IaoZo = - J0.875 xJ0.06 = 0.0525L'.0° p.u. E
Va= Vao + Va1 + Vz = 0.77 p.u. L'.O° = 4.9 L'.O° kV lal = Z1 +aZ2
Vb= a 2Va1 + a Vaz+ Vao = - 0.306 -j0.383 p.u. = 3.12L'.232° kV Ial =-laz
Iao = 0.
Ve= a Val+ a 2Vaz + Vao = 0.306 +j0.382 p.u. = 3.12 L'.128° kV.
Thus Iao Iai, Ia 3 are known from which Ia, lb, le can be determined.
22.6, LINE TO LINE FAULT ON UNLOADED ALTERNATOR (GENERATOR) Val= Ea - la1Z1 = Vaz
Let a, b, c be the three terminals of a generator whose neutral is grounded through an im-
Vao = 0,
From Vaz, Vai, Vaz the voltages can be determined.
pedance Zn. A fault occurs between lines b and c (Fig. 22.8). We have to determine the current and
voltages for the fault condition, neglecting load current. Example 22,6. Part (c) of example 20.1.
Given: 11 kV; 25,000 kVA generator
-------· r--
X1 =JO.25, X 2 =JO.35, X 0 =JO.I p.u.
Line to the fault on terminal b, c. va, Z2 fa 2 ~,"'ia2
Solution.
Let Ea= 1 p.u. = 1 +JO=~! kV
.____ ________ L_
Fig. 22.9 of Ex. 22.6.
. Eo 1 + JO .
la1 =- laz = Xi + Xz =J0.25 +JO.35 = - Jl.667 p.u.
Iao = 0. Line to line fault does not involved ground. Hence In= 0. Hence Ia= 0
Iao = 0
'---------~--c
(a) Condition of fault
Ia= Iao + laz + laz = P- Jl.667 + jl.667 = 0
(b) Connection of sequence network.
Fig. 22.8. LIL Fault. I b = I a0 + a z.ial + aI·.
az;··
Taking a look at the circuit conditions (Fig. 22.8) we can directly say the following: = 0 + (- 0.5 -)0.866) (- jl.667) + (- 0.5 +)0.866) (jl.667) = - 2.892 p.u.
Ia= 0 le =-lb= 2.892 p.u.

In= 0. Since the fault does not involve earth. Base current = Base kVA = 25,000 = 1310 A
✓3 Base kV ✓3 x 11
Vb=Vc
In<=; 2.892 x 1310 = - 3786 A
lb= -le means le =-h '
le ir.+ 3786 A
Fault does not involve ground. Putting th.ese conclusions in the equations we proceed as follows : Voltages Val= Vaz= - la2 X2 = - (j 0.35) ( + jl.667) = 0.584 p.u.
In Also Val= Ea - la1 X1 = (1 + JO) - (- jl.667) (j0.25) = 1 - 0.416 = 0.584 p.u.
lao =-c= 0
3
Vao=O
lao = - laoZo = 0. Va= Vao +Val+ Vaz= 0.584 + 0.584 = l.168L'.0° p.u.
vb = Vao + azval + a Vaz (b) Let resistance r p.u. be added to neutral connection
3Ea 3Ea 3
= 0 + (- 0.5 - j0.866) (0.584) + (- 0.5 + j0.866) (0.584) - 0.584 p.u. I ----- =
Vb= Ve= - 0.584 p.u. r= X 1 +X2 +X0 - X 1 +X2 +Xgo + 3r [3r + jl.O]
Ir= 1 since current is to be limited to 1
Vab = Va - vb= 1.168 + 0.584 = 1.752 L0° p.u.
3
Vbe = Vb - Ve= - 0.584 + 0.584 = 0 l = [3r + jl]
Vea= Ve - Va=- 0.584- 1.168 = 1.752 Ll80° p.u. I 3r +11 I = s
Voltage in kV
✓1 2 + 9r 2 = 3
Vab = 1.752 X ~~ = 11.15 L0° kV 9r2 = 9 -1 = 8
rz _ 8
Ans. 9
✓8 2.85
Vea= 11.15L180° kV r=
3 ~
3 - = 0.95 p.u.
Fault current lb= 3786 Amp. =le Hence resistance to be added in
neutral to ground circuit to achieve the
Example 22.7. A 3-phase generator has X 1 = 0.15 p.u., X 2 = 0.15 p.u. is with solidly grounded same purpose is 95 per cent. j0•21
neutral. Calculate the ratio of the line currents for line-to-line fault to three phase fault. Example 22.9. Three alternators
Solution. have identical constants given by Xl =
Let e.m.f. =.Ea= 1 + JO p.u. 21%, X2 = 12%, Xo = 10% are operating
in parallel.
(I) Line-to-line fault on phases b, c. Neutral of only one is grounded
solidly. Other machines have un- Positive sequence network and its equivalent.
I _ Ea _ 1 + jO __l__
al - X 1 + X 2 - j0.15 + }0.15 -}0.3 grounded neutral.
2 (1) Find short circuit current for line
Fault current =Ia= a Ia1 + alaz = (a 2 - a) Ial to ground fault. j0•/2 )0·04
.(2) Determine the ratio in which the
= - 1.732 Ial = 1.732 Go\-)=}5.78 p.u. alternators contribute to the fault men-
3-phase fault current tioned above
(3) How does a 3-phase short circuit Negative sequence Network and its equivalent.
Ea 1 current compare with line to ground
Ia= Xi= j0.lS =- 6.66 p.u. fault current ?
5. 78 = Line to line fault = 0. 868 • Ans. Solution. Draw Thevenin's
Ratio
6.66 3 phase fault equivalents of three networks. Note that JtN jo,,
the zero sequence networks of un-
Example 22.8. A generator has the following sequence reactances : X 1 = 60%, X2 =25% and
grounded generators are open. Hence
Xo= 15%. zero sequence component is contributed
(a) Calculate percentage reactance that should be added in the generator neutral such thatthe only by generator 1. Zero sequence Network and its equivalent.
Fig. ofEx. 22.9.
current for single line to ground fault does not exceed the rated current.
(a) For single line to ground fault,
(b) Calculate value of resistance to be connected to neutral to achieve the same purpose:
connect the equivalent networks in series
Solution.
(a) Ea= 1 p.u. Let Xa be p.u. reactance added in the neutral connection. I - 3Ea - 3x1 = _3_ = 14.3 p.u. Ans.
X 1 +X2 +X0 - j0.07 + j0,04 + j0.l }0.21
a-
Fault current for single line to ground fault
(b) Contributions of Generators. Only generator 1 whose neutral is grounded contributes
_3( 1 + jO )- 3 = 3 to zero sequence component.
- X1 +Xz +Xo - 0.6 + 0.25 + 0.15 + 3Xn 1.00 + 3Xn
To limit fault current to rated current, i.e. 1 p.u., we must get Total Iao =
1 3
!·
= 4.77 p.u.
3
= 1;· =4.77 p.u.
3
1 = 1 + 3Xn. Hence 3Xn = 2 Total Ia1
Xn =32 =0.66 p.u. =66.6%. Total laz = l~.4 = 4.77 p.u.

460 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION Summary
Contributions 1. The generator positive sequence network consists of an e.m.f. source in series with reactance,
which is transient/sub-transient or steady state reactance.
Iao completely by generator 1 = 4.77 p.u.
2. The negative sequence network has only negative sequence reactance.
Ia 1 equally by 3 generators each= 1.59 p.u.
3. The zero sequence network consists of Xgo + 3Xn, where Xn is the reactance in neutral con-
Iaz equally by 3 generators each= 1.59 p.u.
nection.
Contribution of generator I These three networks connected as follows :
= Iao + Ia1 + laz = 4. 77 + 1.59 + 1.59 = 7 .86 p.u. (i) Single line to ground fault : Iao = Ia1 = laz· Connect networks in series.
Contribution of generators II and III (ii) Line to line fault : Iao = 0, Vao = 0, Ia1 = - laz•
= Ial + laz = 1.59 + 1.59 = 3.18 Positive sequence network in parallel to negative sequence network.
Ratio of share = 7.86: 3.18: 3.18 (iii) 2 LG fault : Connect the three networks in parallel
10 : 4.05 : 4.05 Val= Vaz= Vao•
Generators 1, 2, 3 will share the short circtiff currents in proportion 10 : 4.05 : 4.05.
(c) 3-phase fault current QUESTIONS
1. Define positive sequence impedance, negative sequence impedance, zero sequence impedance. Derive
Ea 1 . expressions for fault currents on an unloaded generator for single line to ground fault, line to line
= Xleq =j0.07 =-114.3 p.u. fault and 3 phase fault.
Line to ground fault current 2. A single line to ground fault occurs on a cable connected to a 10,000 kVA, 3 phase, alternator with
solidly earthed neutral. The positive negative and zero impedances of the generator are
?,Ea 3x l . 0.5 + }4. 7 ohms, 0.2 + j0.6,j0.43 ohms
=x1 + X 2 + X O =--:---o
-J .2
1 =-114.3 p.u.
respectively. The corresponding line values of cable are
Hence the two currents are equal. 0.36 + j0.25, 0.36 +j0.25, 2.9 +j0.95 ohms
respectively. Line voltage 6.6 kV, calculate
Example 22.10. Compare the fault currents of a generator with three-phase fault current.
(i) fault current,
Solution, Let a, b, c be the terminals. (ii) voltages of sound lines to earth point.
3. Three 6600 V, 10,000 kVA, 3 phase alternators are connected in a parallel each has X 1 = 0.15 p.u.,
Ea= 1 p.u.
X 2 = 0.75 p.u., X 0 = 0.30 p.u. an earth fault occurs on one bus bar. Calculate fault current if
For fault on terminal a to ground. (a) all the alternators have solid neutral earthing :
Single line to ground fault. (b) if one alternator neutral is solidly earthed;
(c) if all the neutrals are isolated .
... (I)
4. Derive the expressions for the ratios given below for a generator on no load.
( ) Line to ground fault current (b) Line to line fault current
3-phase fault ... (II) a Line to line fault current 3-phase fault current
[Hint. Refer Ex. 22.10]
Line to line fault between B, C. 5. A 20,000 kVA, 13.8 kV generator has the following reactances:
Ea Direct axis sub-transient reactance = 0.25 p.u.
Ia1 = X1 +Xz Negative sequence reactance = 0.35 p.u.
E Zero sequence reactance = 0.1 p.u.
laz = X1 +aXz Neutral is solidly earthed.
Fault occurs when the generator is on no load and rated terminal voltage. Calculate the fault currents
2 Ea Ea and line to line voltage for the following :
Ia= (a - a) X X = 1.732 X X ... (III)
1+ 2 1+ 2 (a) Line to ground fault (b) Line to line fault (c) 2L-G fault.
1.732 [Ans. (a) 3585 A; 8.05 kV; 15.73 kV; 8.05 kV
(b) 2420 A ; 13.95 kV, 0 kV, 13.95 kV
(c) 4025 A; 4025 A, 5.66 kV, 0 kV, 5.66 kV]
Ratio offault currents 6. A generator has positive sequence reactance of 0.25 p.u. Calculate the p.u. reactance to be connected
L-G fault _ _ill__ 3X1 in series to limit the fault current for 3 phase fault to rated current.
3 phase fault (II) X1 + Xz + Xo 7, A 3-phase generator has the following reactance :
L-L fault _(III)_ 1.732 X1 X 1 ·= 0.20 p.u., X2 = 0.20 p.u., X 0 = 0.1 p.u,
3 phase fault - (II) - X1 +X2
reactance connected to neutral 0.3 p.u. calculate p.u. fault current for a
(a) Single line to ground fault
(b) Three-phase fault.
8, Calculate the single line to ground fault current for the generator if the neutral is solidly grounded.
Given X 1 == 0.58 p.u., X 3 = 0.25 p.u., X 0 = 0.1 p.u.
9, Two generators rated 11 kV, 100 kVAhavingX1 = 0.15,X3 = 0.12,X0 = 0.1 p.u. are operating in paral-
lel a single line to ground fault occurs on the bus bar. Calculate the fault current if
(a) Both generator neutrals are solidly earthed ;
(b) only one generator neutral is solidly earthed; Faults on Power Systems
(c) both neutrals are isolated. (Hint. Refer Ex. 22.9)
Sequence Networks - Connections of Transformers - Connections of Sequence Networks - Single
10, For a generator the ratio of fault current for line to line fault and three phase faults is 0.866. The Line to Ground Fault - Line to Line Fault - Double Line to Ground Fault on Power Systems -
positive sequence reactance is 0.15 p.u. Calculate negative sequence reactance. Solved Examples.
(Hint. Refer Ex. 22.10)
11. A fault occurs on an unloaded generator. The zero sequence component of fault current for a single 23.1. Sequence Networks
line to ground fault has to magnitudes of 100 Amperes. Calculate the current in the neutral to ground
connection. The positive sequence network was considered in analysing symmetrical faults. In positive se-
12. A 3 phase 132 kV system can be represented by a solidly earthed source, feeding a 132/33 kV star quence network only positive sequence voltages, positive sequence impedance and positive sequence
delta transformer whose star point is solidly earthed. An earth fault occurs on one of the 132 kV ter- current are effective. Positive sequence network is same as impedance or reactance diagram. The
minals when 33 kV side is not connected to load, determine the fault current to earth and current in negative sequence network is one in which the negative sequence voltages, negative sequence cur-
transformer delta winding. The sequence reactances based on 100 MVA base are as follows : rents and negative sequence reactances exist. Negative sequence networks are very much like posi-
Source : P.S. Reactance 20% tive sequence networks but differ in the following aspects :
N.S. Reactance 15%
(1) Normally there are no negative sequence e.m.f. sources.
Zero seq. Reactance 10%
Transformer : 15% reactance [Ans, 3200 A, 985 A] (2) Negative sequence impedances of rotating machine is generally different from their positive
sequence impedances.
The phase displacement of transformer banks for negative sequence is of opposite sign to that
of positive sequence.
The zero sequence network differs greatly from the positive sequence, negative sequence networks
in the following aspects :
(1) Z.S. Reactance of transmission lines is higher than that for positive sequence.
(2) Equivalent circuits for transformers are different.
(3) The neutral grounding should be considered in zero sequence network.
Zero sequence networks. As the zero sequence currents in three phases (Iao, Ibo, Ico) are
equal and of same phase, three systems operate like single phase as regards zero sequence c1,1rrents.
Zero sequence currents flow only if return path is available through which circuit is completed.
Case I. Star Connections
Star connection without neutral wire or neutral ground. Zero sequence currents have
no return path and, therefore, the zero sequence network is open. Beyond the neutral point the
zero sequence currents find infinite impedance hence no zero sequence current flows [Fig. 23.1 (a)].
Case II. Star connection with solid grounding of neutral
The zero sequence current flows through the ground connection. Hence in the zero sequence
network the point N is connected directly to the reference bus [Fig. 23.1 (b )] .
Case III. Star connection with impedance grounding. The neutral current In = 3Iao flows
through the impedance Zn connected between the neutral and ground. In the zero sequence network
impedance 3Zn is connected between N and reference, current flowing being, Iao·
Case IV. Delta Connection
In delta connection the return neutral path is absent. Hence the zero sequence currents have
no road to go ahead, they find the road to be suddenly stopped with infinite impedance ahead. How-
'
464 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION I<'AULTS ON POWER SYSTEMS
465 l
zero sequence equi-
Symbol, Connection valent circuit
REFERENCE
(a) Ungrounded star.

I
l
I
I
IZo
~N
,Y;--13
iY y
""" &i ~ :1 Zo
REFERENCE BUS
B
REFERENCE
y~
if Yi tfl ~~Bl i
A
~
Zo
REFERENCE BUS
JJ
------~ (b) Solidly grounded neutral.

L-j,;~13
iY
',;a'
'
t> ~ cS :1 Zo
REFERENCE BUS
Q
er ~
p ~ N Q
Lti--13 ........rJ)'/)'---1 -
(c) Grounding through impedance Z 11 •

Zo y [>
RE{ERENCE BUS
Fig. 23.. 1. Zero sequence equivalent circuits.
~ Jt:
ever zero sequence currents may circulate in closed delta, if any zero sequence voltages are induced
in the delta (Fig. 23.2).
REFERENCE
½!--21
LL ·~
I
Fig. 23.3. Zero-Sequence Equivalent Circuits for Transformers.
quence network. Next, the three equivalent networks are connected in the same manner as con-
nection of networks of single generator, i.e.
(1) Three Thevenin's equivalent networks are connected in series for single line to ground fault.
Fig. 23.2. Zero sequence circuit of delta. (2) The positive sequence equivalent and negative sequen~e equivalent are connected in parallel
Three phase transformer banks. The philosophy followed above for star and delta connec- for line to line fault.
tion is valued for corresponding transformer connection. The zero sequence networks for different (3) The three equivalent networks are connected in parallel for double line to ground fault.
transformer connections are given in Fig. 23.3. The sequence components of currents and voltage are calculated in the same way as those of
Example 23.1. Fig, 23.4 represents a simple power system. Draw the positive sequence network, generator (Ref. Ch. 22).
negative sequence network and zero sequence network. Example 23.2. A synchronous generator (G) is connected synchronous motor (M). Both machine
Connections of sequence networks. In chapter 22, we studied the unsymmetrical faults on are rated at 1250 k VA, 600 V, with reactance X" = X2 = 10%, Xo =4%.
an unloaded generator. The method consisted of connecting the sequence networks according to the Neutrals of both the machines_ are solidly grounded; draw the sequence networks. Neglect reac-
type of fault. The procedure is extended to power systems. The three sequence networks are drawn.
The fault point is indicated on the networks. The Thevenins's equivalents are drawn for each se- tance of busbars.
.,
466 · SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION FAULTS ON POWER SYSTEMS 467
(d) Z.S.N.
Tr.L. T,.
Tl/EVEN/NS
jo,o; EQIJIVALENr jo,02
(POSITl~E S. NETWORK) THEVf'IV/NS
f'{}UIVAL.eNT
REFERENCE BUS
(e) Thevenin's equivalent of P.S.N. (/) Thevenin's equivalent of N.S.N. (g) Thevenin's equivalent of Z.S.N.
Fig. 23.5. For Ex. 23.2.
A fault F occurs near the terminals of the motor. Draw the Thevenin's equivalents of the sequence
networks. Neglect load current.
NEGATIVE S. NETWORK
Solution.
Base k.VA = 1250 k.VA
Base Voltage = 600 V
--A Thevenin's equivalent reactance is obtained as follows :

'fhe e.m.f. sources are replaced by short-circuit links. The reactance of the network looked from
fault points is calculated which is Thevenin's equivalent reactance. For example in P.S.N., as seen
ZERO S. NETWORK
from F, there are two reactances of j 0.l p. u. each. These are in parallel. Hence Thevenin's
equivalent reactance isj0.05 (e).
Fig. 23.4. Sequence network of Ex. 23.1. Example 23.3. A single line to ground fault occurs at 'F', of Example 23.2. Calculate fault cur-
rent.
G M Solution. For single line to ground fault connect the three
Vj=IP/1
equivalent networks in series, for fault on phase a.
F
la2=--~--
Vr jo,05
(a) Single line diagram. X1 +X2 +Xo
l+j0 __ l __ .
REFERENCE BUS
= j0.5 + j0.5 + j0.02 - jl.02 - - 1 0 ·98 p.u. Amp. /1a,
la1 = la2 = lao jo,os
lj Ia :::c 3la1 = 3 X 0.98 p.u. Amp.= 2.94 p.u. Amp.
Base current in Amp.
Base kVA 1250 )0•02
F = ✓3 x Base kV=-- ✓3 x 0.6 = 1200 Amp.
(b) P.S.N.
:. The fault current Fig. 23.6 for Ex. 23.3.
REFERENCE BUS
= 1200 x 2.94 =3525 Amp. (r.m.s.)
Example 23.4. A double line to ground fault occurs at point F of the system given in Example
23.2. Calculate fault current. \ i
Solution. For double line to ground fault the Thevenin's equivalent networks of the three se-
quence networks are to be connected in parallel. ·
- ,11111
I

FAULTS ON POWER SYSTEMS 469
0-1i~r-~n-0
=--~---
X2Xo
X 1 + x2 +Xo
V:
. 05 J0.05 xJo.02
0
J . + J0.05 + j0.02 Fig. 23.7 for Ex. 23.4.
r....
<3 1- J:
Fig. 23.9 for Ex. 23.6.
[>
_ V _ Vt_ l _.
- J0.05 + J0.0143 - J0.0643 - j0.0643 - - J 15 ·55 p.u. 600-4160V, with leakage reactance 5%. Reactances of transmission line are X1 =X2 = 15%, Xo =
50% on 1250 kVA and 4.16 kV (Base Values).
Val= Vr- lal Xi
Solution. Positive Sequence Network. Thevenin's equivalent impedance looked from the
= 1 + JO - (-)15.55) U0.05) = 1- 0.775 = 0.225 p.u. fault, shunting the e.m.f. sources.
Val - 0.225 ~J0.15 xj0.30 = - 0.045 .
Ia2 = x = J0.0 5 = + 4.5 p.u. Z th - )0.15 + )0.3 j0.45 =J0 .10 p.u.
2
- Val - 0.22 . The load current is neglected. Hence the voltage at fault point is same as Eal i.e., 1 p.u. Hence
lao = x;- = j0.0 2 =Jll.00 p.u. Thevenin's equivalent of positive sequence networks is as follows :
lal = -)15.5 REFeRENCE
Ia2 = +)4.5
lao = + jll.00
la = lao + la1 + la2 = 0 (Check)
Fault current lb for double line to ground fault is :
2
lb= Iao + a Ia2 + alal
j0•/5
= + jll.00 + (- 0.5 - J0.866) U4,5) + (- 0.5 + J0.866) (- )15.5)
= + jlLOO + [-)2.25 + 3.9] + [ + j7.75 + 13.6]
= 17.5 +)16.5 = 22.7 p.u.
lb= 22.7 X 1200 = 27,200 Amp. jo,ro+ jo,05 F j 0·15 +j 0•05+j O•t
: Example 23.5. A line to line fault occurs on the system is Example 23.2. Calculate the fault current.
· Solution. For line to line fault, the zero sequence network is out of question, ignore it. The
posf tive sequence networks Thevenin's equivalent and negative sequence networks Thevenin's Fig. 23.10 for Ex. 23.6.
equivalent are connected in parallel.
REF. BUS REFERENCE 8/JS
Vr
Ia1 = X +X lj
1 2
j 0·05
1 +jO l .
= j0.05 +J0.05 = JO.l = - JlO p.u. Amp.
la2 = - la1 = + )10 A
Fig. 23.8 for Ex. 23.5.
la = 0 + jlO - jlO = 0
Fig. 23.11 Fig. 23.12
Iao= 0
Negative Sequence Network. The e.m.f. sources in PSN are absent in NSF. The PS reac-
lb= Iao + a2Ia1 + ala2 tances are replaced by NS reactance. Thevenin's equivalent is obtained by calculating equivalent
= 0 + (- 0.5 -J0.866) (-)10) + (- 0.5 +j0.866) ( +)10) reactance between fault points, after shunting the voltage sources.
= + )5 -j8.66-j5 -}8.66 = -}17.32 p.u. _j0.15 xj0.30 _ - 0.045 _ .
2 Z th - )0.15 + )0.30 - )0.45 -J 0 ,1
le= alal + a Ia2 =Jl 7.32
Fault current le= 17.32 p.u. = 17.32 x 1200 = 20,800 Amp. Zero Sequence Network
Example 23.6. A single line to ground fault occurs at point P of the system shown in Fig. 23.9. z _J0.05 xj0.55 _ .0.0275 _ .0 0459 u
Find the sub-transient fault current neglecting pre-fault current. Both machines are synchronous th - )0.05 + )0.55 -J 0.6 -J . p ..
and rated 1250 k VA, 1600 volts with reactances X" =X 2 = 10%\ Each transformer is rated 1250 k VA, For the single line to ground fault connect the three equivalent networks in series.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION FAULTS ON POWER SYSTEMS
471
470
REFERENCE BUS
(2) Line to line fault at motor terminal.
Ratings are as follow :
REFERENCE Generator 11 kV, 1500 kVA.
F Motor 11 kV, 1500 kVA.
J Per unit reactances of motor are same as that of generator.
Generator neutral is solidly grounded. Reactance of tie bar is neg-
ligible.
Fig. 23.13. N.S.N. Fig. 23.14. Z.S._N. Solution. Case I. Single line to ground fault (L-G). Con-
nect the- three equivalents of sequence networks in series as in
E Fig. 23.17.
Ia1 == X1 +X2 +Xo
Ia== 1 +JO p.u.
Ia1 == Ia2 == Iao
Ia== 3Ial
_ 1 + jO == . l == -j4.06 p.u.
- jO.l + jO.l + j0.0459 J0.2459 = 3Ea _ 3 (1 + jO)
Ia== 3Ial == -j3 x 4.06 == -j12.18 p.u. X1 +X2 +Xo -jO.l + jO.l +j0.1
_ Base kVA == 1250 == jO•I 3 . 1500

= j0,3 = - JlO p.u. = 10 x ✓3 x l1 = 787 Amp.
Base current - ✓3 x Base kV ✓3 x 0.6 1200
:. Fault current== 12.8 x 1200 == 15360 A. Ans. . . Case II. L-L Fault. Connect the positive and negative se-
quence reactance equivalent parallel. Fig. 23.17. Connection for L-G fault.
Example 23.7. Fig. 13.16 shows a simple system m wh~h;
star connected generator having reactances X1 == 0.20 p.u., Xz - 0. jo,0459 lal = -Iaz
p.u., Xo == 0.1 p.u. is connected tQ delta connected motor. Calculate
Ea _ 1 +JO_.
the fault current for the following cases, neglecting load current. =X X 2 - J·02 -J 5 p.u.
Fig. 23.15. 1+ ,
(1) Single line to ground fault at the motor terminal.
Iao=O
Ia= Iao + Ia1 + Ia2 = 0
t> Ia = Iao + a2 Ial + aia2
(a) Single line-diagram. 2
== (a - a) Ia1 = (l.732) 5 =8.660 p.u.
1500
= 8.66 X ✓3 X l1 Amp.
= 8.66 X 78. 7 == 683 Amp.
F
Example 23,8. A 3-phase 37.5 MVA, 33 kV alternator having X1 =j0.18 p.u., X2 =j0.12 p.u.
and Xo =j0.10 p.u. based on its ratings is connected to a 33 kV' overhead transmission line having
the following reactances: X1 == 6.6 ohms, X 2 =6.3 ohms and Xo =12.6 ohms per conductor. A single
line to ground fault occurs at the remote end of the transmission line. The alternator star point is
(b) Positive sequence network. Thevenin's equivalent. solidly earthed. Calculate the fault current and phase voltages.
Solution. Select base kVA and base kV.
Let Base MVA (3 phase)== 37.5 MVA
Base kV (line to line)= 33 kV.
Base impedance == (Base kV)2 x 1000 = (33)2 x 1000 = 29.0 ohms
Thevenin's equivalent. Base kVA 37.5 x 1000
(c) Negative sequence network.
P. u. reactances of transmission line are
X1 = ~~·.~ =)0.2165 p.u.
3
29.0 =J·o ·211 p.u.
X 2 = JB.
12 6
X 0 = i29.0
· =J·o ·434 p.u.
(d) Zero sequence network. Thevenm · 1en t ·
· 's eqmva
Fig. 23.16 for Ex. 23.7.
FAULTS ON POWER SYSTEMS
473
58+)o[ohm]
P.u. reactances of generator are :
X 1 =J0.18 p.u.
6~11,,
X 2 =J0.12 p.u.
X 0 =J0.10 p.u.
Per unit reactances between generator and fault, is the sum
of the generator p.u. reactances and transmission line p.u. reac- 11.8/66 kV Star point
11.8 kV
tances. 75MVA 75MVA Earthed through
Total p.u. reactances are, therefore, X 1 =j 17.5% X 1 =j 10% 58+j0, ohm
X 1 =J0.18 + J0.2170 =J0.397 p.u. X 2 =j 13.5%
X 2 =j0.12 +J0.2170 =J0.337 p.u. Fig. 23.20. of Ex. 23.9.

X 0 =J0.10 +J0.434 =J0.534 p.u.
. Solution. Let base MVA 100
For single line to ground fault connect the three sequence p.u. reactances to this base are
networks in series (Fig. 23.19).
la1 =la2 =lao
Fig. 23.19. Connection of sequence
networks of Ex. 23.8.
Xg 1 =J0.175 x
5
l°
1
=J0.234 p.u.
( of Generator)
- Ea - Ea
- X1 +X2 +Xgo - X 1 +X2 +Xgo + 3Xn
Xg2 =J0,135 x \
0
5
° =J0.180 p.u.
Here Xn, i.e. the reactance between neutral point and ground is zero, since the earthing (ground- X 1 =J0,10 x
1
5
J° =J 0.133 p.u.] (of transformer)
ing) is solid one. Zero sequence impedance of the neutral earthing resistor is given by
1 +JO 1 + JO . Zno = 3Zn = 58 x 3 = 17 4 + JO ohm
Hence Ial =J0.3970 + J0,3370 + J0.534 = Jl.268 = - J0. 79 0 p.u. 3 6
_ Base MVA x 10 = 100 x 10 = 875 A
la = la1 + la2 + lao = 3la1 = 3 x (- )iO. 790 = - J2.370 p. u. Base current - ✓3 x Base kV ✓3 x 66,000
Base MVA 37.5 66 000
Base current =- ✓3 Base MV = ✓3 x 0.033 = 656 Amp. Base voltage phase to neutral = 4 = 38,100 V
3
Hence fault current Ia
Base impedance on 100 MVA, 66 kV base
= - J2.370 x 656 = - J1557 Amp.
= 33 ,lOO = 43 5 ohm
Sequence voltages line to neutral at the terms of the alternator. 875 .
Val =Ea -Ia1X1
or Base impedance = (66)2 x 1000 = 43.5 ohm
= (1 + JO) - (-JO. 791) (i0.18) = 0.858 + JO p.u. 100,000
Vaz = - lazX2 = - la1 X2 174+}0 .
P.u. Zgo = _ = 3,99 + JO p.u.
= - (-J0.791) (j0.12) = - 0.0948 + JO p.u. 43 5
Vao= -IaoXo= -Ia1Xo Pre-fault voltage at F = 70 kV. Note the change in voltage
= - (-J0.791) (j0.1) = - 0.0791 ~ JO p.u. 70
= = 1.060 p.u.
60
Va = Val + Vaz + Vao
Note: Ea= 1.060 + JO p.u.
= 0.6841 LOP p.u. = 0.684 x 33/✓3 = 13 kV
X1 =J0.367 p.u.
2
Vb= a Val+ a Vaz+ Vao = 0.945 L - 119° p.u. = 0.945 x ~! = 18 kV L.- 119° X2 =J0.313 p.u,
· 33 Z 0 = 3.99 + J0.133 p.u.
Since Ea= T3 = 1 p.u, (phase) 2
Case I. Three phase fault [Note use of a , a]
Vo= a Va +a2,Va2 + Vao = 0.945 / + 119° p.u. = 18 L+ 119° kV. Ea 1.06
Example 23.9. A generator transformer unit shown in Fig. 23.20 is on no load and the voltage Ia1 =la= X1 =J0.367
on H. T. side is 70 kV when a fault occurs at F. Calculate fault currents if the fault is Ia= -J2.89 p.u.
(1) 3 phase fault ;
(2) Line to line fault ; lb =a 2Ial = - 2.50 + Jl.445 p.u.
(3) Single line to earth fault. [Note : Change in Voltage] le= alal = 2.50 + Jl.445 p.u.
-,
474 475
SWITCHGEAR At~D PROTECTION :FAULTS ON POWER SYSTEMS
Multiplying Ia, lb, le by base current 875 A i':A 5000 kVA, 13.8 kV generator is star-connected and grounded through a reactance of2.5%. The reac-
' tances of generator are X" == X 2 = 10% and X 0 = 2.5%. The generator supplies a delta connected motor
Ia == 2526 L- 90° A
rated 2500 kVA, 13.8 kV with reactances X" = X2 == 20%, X 0 = 10%. A single line to ground fault occurs
lb == 2526 / + 150° A near the motor, find the initial symmetrical fault current. Neglect load current.
IC == 2526 / + 30° A 3. A 11 kV, 15 MVA generator having X 1 = 20%, X 2 = 20%, X 0 = 10% is connected to transformer rated
Case II. Line to line fault on lines b, c. 11/33 kV 15 MVA having X 1 = 5%. The transformer is delta connected on L.T. side and star connected
on H.T. side. Neutral of generator and transformer is solidly earthed ; calculate fault currents for
Ea == 1.060 + JO
Jal==
- Jl.560 p.u. (a) Single line to ground fault on H.T. side L.T. side.
X1 +X2 J0.680
Ia2 == -Jal ==Jl.560 p.u. (b) Double line to ground fault on H.T. side, L.T. side.
Iao == 0 (c) 3-phase fault on H.T. side, L.T. side.

4. A generator transformer unit shown in Fig. 23.22 is supplying to a h.t. line. A fault occurs in the line
1a == 1ao + Ial + Ia2 == 0 (check)
at point F. Calculate the fault current for
2 22/66KV
lb== a Ia1 + ala2 + Iao == - 2.7 + JO p.u. (a) 3 phase fault
10 MVA, Xt =IO'I.
1c == ala1 + a 2Ia2 +Iao == + 2.7 + JO p.u. == 2.7 x 874 A== 2360 A (b) L-G fault
. (c) L-L fault. J.------f[>U'f11I-------
Case III. Smgle line to ground fault on line a. . F
(d) 2 L-G fault.
1a1 == la2 == lao 5. Three generators are operating in parallel. 22KV 600hms
/0,0IJOKVA
==
...,.
=a _ 1.060 +JO
X1 +X2 +Zo - 3.98 + Jo.o 52 p.u. == 0.255-J0.052 p.u.
G 1 : 15 MVA, 12 kV,X1 ==X2 = 20%
Xo=l0%
x,=20%
X2=20% l
G 2 : 15 mVA, 11 kV,X1 ==X2 == 20% Fig. 23.22.
Ia== 3Iao == 0.765 -J0.156 p.u. Xo=l0%
lb== a2Ia1 + ala2 + Ia2 == 0 G 3 : 10 MVA, llkV,X1 ==X2 =20%
X 0 = 10%.
le== alal + a2Ia2 + lao == 0
Neutral of G grounded solidly. Neutral of G 3 is grounded through a reactance of 5% based on gener-
Ia in amperes == 874 X la p.u. == 683 / -11.30°. 1
ator_ ratings. A fault occurs on generator bus. Calculate fault current for
(a) L-G fault. (b) 2 L-G fault. (c) L-L fault.
Summary 6. A star connected synchronous motor is connected directly to a generator by means of bus bar of neg-
For faults on power system th fi 11 . . ligible reactances.
(1) Draw single I' d' s, e o owmg procedure is adopted :
me iagram of power system Reactances of generator and motor are as follows :
(2) Choose same kVA base for com lete s . .
Convert the reactances to p.u. reacta~ces. ystem. Choose different kV bases for each voltage level. X 1 = 0.2 p.u., X 2 = 0.2 p.u., X 0 = 0.1 p.u.
(3) Draw positive sequence network . bt . . . ' . Both rated at 11 kV, 1500 kVA.
and zero sequence networks. ' o am its Thevenm s equivalent. Repeat it for negative Generator star connect<Jd with solid neutral earth.
. (4) For L-G fault connect the Thevenin's . . . . Motor Delta connected.
m the case of fault on generator. equivalents of the three circuits m series, proceed as Calculate fault current for terminal L-L fault, L-G fault. [Ans. 787 A, 683 Al
(5) Connect the positive sequence d .
fault. an negative sequence equivalent in parallel for line to line
(6) Connect the three equivalent net k .
The sequence components are calcu~~r ds m/;rallel for double line ground fault.
calculated. a e an rom them, the fault current and voltages are
QUESTIONS
1. A double line to ground fault occurs on I' b
shown below. Find subtransient cu t _mesh and c at the point p in the circuit whose diagram is
. rren
mach mes are rated at 1250 kV.A 600 V 'th m P ase a of the machin e. 1· N eg1ect prefault current. Both
r eac t ances X" = X 2 = 10% ; Xo ' == 4% each
w1 T,
three phase transformer is rated 1250 kV ~ ~! ~
600 V delta/4160 V star with leakage reactan~
ces 5%. The reactance of transmission line is
Vi fr--------..3! Lr:\
f! 0
X1 = 15%, X2 = 15%, Xo =50% based on 1250 'f, <] 'iLi
~VA, 4.16 kV= bases. Point pat centre of
hw.
· .l,
•
',!,- ~ t> 'f,.,.
-~
Fig. 23.21 ofQ. 1.
.USE OF A.C. NETWORK ANALYSER AND DIGITAL COMPUTER 477
An AC. network analyzer consists ofa number of independent single phase units such as gen~
erator units, variable resistors, reactors and capacitors, auto-transformers etc. The units can be
arranged, adjusted and connected to have a circ.uit which represents the system under study. Sen-
;itive measuring instruments ammeters, voltmeters, wattmeters, varmeters are provided for
making electrical measurements at any point of system. For symmetrical fault calculations a single
phase network is employed. For unsymmetrical fault the method of symmetrical components is used
which three sequence networks are involved. The nominal voltage or base voltage for a typical
network analyzer is 50 volts and base current 50 milliamperes. Thereby base power is 2.5 watts
and base impedance is 1000 ohms. All adjusting dials and instruments are marked in per unit of
these base quantities. The 400 Hz supply is obtained from a motor generator set, or frequency con-
Use of AC... Network Anal_yser and Digital verters.
Computer in Fault Calculations Note, Figures in bracket give number of units in a particular network analyzer.
Generator Units (16). These represent the e.m.f. sources of actual power system. These are
Introduction Problems on Network Anal zer- D · · · provided with independent phase shifter and voltage regulator. Each generator unit is equipped
of s~ort circuit study on network analyzer:'_ Di . escnpt1on of A.C. N et:,-'or~ Analyzer - Procedure
engmeering problem - Short circuit stud' gid~a.ltClomputer - Orgamzat10n processes for solving with voltmeter, varmeter. The output is single phase.
ies on 1gi a computers
Line impedance Units (76), These consist of variable resistors and reactor connected in series
24.1. INTRODUCTION and are used for representing transmission lines.
Fault calculation of simple systems can b . d . Load Impedance Units (50). These are adjustable resistors and reactors which are connected
are large and complex as they consist f e ca~rie ou~ with a calculator, Modern power systems either in series or parallel to represent loads. The load impedance units have higher impedance
Fault calculations of such systems by d~re!;neratm~ stat10;11s, transmission lines, load centres etc. rating than the line units.
AC. Network Analyzer is in fact a sm!ll

of component such as generators tra f,
:c~:
Analyser, also called AC. Calculatin B me.ans i_s laborious and time consuming. AC. Network,
IS. be{°g used for _power system studies since 1929,
' smg e ph~se _rephca of the power system. It consists
Auto Transformer Units (32). Represent transformer.
Capacitor Units (48), Represent capacitances of cables, overhead transmission lines,
correspond to the components of the a°; o~mers, load umts impedance units, capacitors etc. which capacitors, synchronous condensers.
are connected such that it representsc t~a power system. The components of the network analyzed Synchronous Impedance Units (16). Consist of adjustable resistors and reactors connected
fault is applied at different points of th e po~er systems under study. For fault calculations, the . in series intended to represent synchronous impedances of machines.
The corresponding readings in actual va~ ana yzer a~d the fault currents and voltages are noted,
sides fault calculations the AC Net ~es a~e obt~med on multiplication by the scale factor. Be- Mutual Transformer Units (8). These are 1:1 ratio transformers which represent mutual
reactance between parallel transmission lines which are not connected at the ends.
economic operation stu,dies et~. ·But ~:: u:en~/~er Is used for stab~lity st~dies, load flow studies,
power system alone. Digital computers are now ~twork Analyzer_ Is restricted to the problem in Master Instrument System. Consists of measuring instruments, metering selector panel,
problems. No new Network Analyzers . t llbemg used for solvmg almost all the power system selector switches, etc.
. devices
pu t mg • which can be used fo are . ms a ed. any more · Digital compu t ers are versatile
• com-
1 (C) Procedure of fault calculation (Brief).
mercial and ~anagement problemsr ;h:mgha variet.y of technological, engineering, scientific, com-
- To represent the power system by positive, negative and zero sequence network, chosen to
analyzer and digital computer for fa~lt ::l~u::~:s~ves only an introduction the use of network
common base MVA
HVDC simulator is used for simulat' . . . . - To represent the network by network analyzer by choosing appropriate units mentioned in
sociated AC Networks. mg various abnormal cond1t10ns m HVDC system and as-
Sec. 23.3 (B) and connecting them such that the system is represented.
- The voltages and loads are adjusted to represent load condition.
24.2. A.C. NETWORK ANALYZER (A.C. CALCULATING BOARD) - The fault is applied by plugging in the fault plug at desired point.
(A) Problems that can be solved on an A ,C . ne t work ana1yzer - The values of voltages and currents at various locations are measured.
1. Load studies · - The multiplying factors are used to obtain the values corresponding to the represented sys-
3 s • . : 2. Stability studies.
• pecial circmt problems. tem.
W • 4 • Shor t c1rcmt
. . .
stud1es.
e will .study the short circuit problems br1'efly . Th ese inc
. lu de : Three phase Faults. The network analyzer is arranged to represent the system under study.
(a) Maximum short circuit current at d'ffi . The voltages and loads are adjusted to obtain load balance for desired loading condition. Faults are
of the circuit-breakers. 1 erent location for determining the short circuit duties applied by plugging the fault plug at a desired point of the system. The measurement of fault cur-
rent is done by pressing the keys on the instrument panels.
(b) Bus voltage during short circuits.
(c) Maximum and minimum fault t Unsymmetrical Faults. The sequence networks (Refer Ch. 22) are arranged on the network
(d) Effi t . curren s and voltages for determining the relay settings. analyzer. Very often the positive and negative sequence networks are further simplified with the
. (B) D ec ~f v~r10us types of neutral grounding on behaviour of power systems, etc. assumption that they are identical. The study involving line to line faults do not require zero se-
escr1pt10n. Most AC. network anal ze quence network. ·
some, operating on 60 Hz or 10 000 Hz H' h y fr operate on 400 Hz or 480 Hz, though there are
. , · · ig er requency permits smaller size of reactors.
.
478 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION OF A.C. NETWORK ANALYSER AND DIGITAL COMPUTER 479
24.3. DIGITAL COMPUTERS 4. Programme Design. The important aspects of programme design are :
(a) Sequence of logical steps by which particular problem is solved.
Digital computer may be defined as device which compute by arithmetic pro~esses. Th? basic (b) Allocation of memory.
processes employed are addition and subtraction. These processes are also used m successive ap-
proximation or interaction to achieve function values, integration, solution of algebraic equations (c) Access of data.
and linear and non-linear differential equations. Fundamental principles of the digital computer (d) Assignment of inputs.
were set forth by the English Mathematician Charles Babbage in 1940. After the period 1944 .· . The objectives are primarily to develop a procedure which eliminates unnecessary repetitive
several computers are built. High speed electronic computer such as IBM 7090, [International Busi- 'calculations and remains within the capability of computer. The programme design is usually
ness Machines Corporation) has the following execution speeds (including time required to take a prepared in the form of a diagram called Flow Chart.
number from or to put a number into core storage). · 5. Programming. A digital computer is supplied a series of instructions consisting of operation
Addition 4.36µ sec. codes and addresses which it is able to interpret and execute. In addition to the arithmetic input
Multiplication 25.3µ sec. output instructions, logical instruction are available which are used in direct sequence of calcula-
tions. The programme can be developed by using computer instructions in actual and symbolic form
Division 31.0µ sec. ol' can by written in generalized programme language.
Digital computer is versatile computing device being increasingly used by power system en- 6. Programme Verification. There are chances of errors while developing a complete
gineers. ptogramme. Therefore, a systematic and series must be performed to ensure correctness of problem
fotmulation, method of solution and operation of programme.
24.4. ORGANIZATION OF A DIGITAL COMPUTERS*
Fig. 24.1 illustrates the components ofa digital computer, which are commonly known as input, 24.6. (I) SHORT CIRCUIT STUDIES ON DIGITAL COMPUTER
control, memory, arithmetic and output. The operator supplies· instructions (programme) to the A typical short circuit programme which is designed to calcu-
input unit of the computer in the form of punched cards or type written instructions. The instruc- late fault currents needs positive sequence and zero sequence im-
tions are stored in 'memory'. The stored programme includes both 'instruction' words and 'data'
words. The 'instruction' states the operation, to be performed such as multiplication, division, ad- pedance matrices. The input data describing the system is specified
dition, printing or so. Each work of the instruction consists of two parts. Type of operation men- using the names of the power stations, names of sub-stations, data
tioned above and secondly 'address' i.e. the storage location in the memory for the data to be used, of system components, voltage levels, reactances etc. The first READ SYSTE/1 DATA
The instructions are in the binary form programme assigns sequential bus number and then rearranges
when they'reach the control. The con- the network data to facilitate formation of positive sequence and AS IGN BUS NUMB£ S
trol separates the operation code and MEMORY zero sequence impedance matrices. During this phase, extensive AND SORT & CI./ECK
NETWORK DATA
the addresses according to their posi- data checks are performed. Next, the positive sequence bus im-
tion in the instruction word. The con- pedance matrix is formed. This matrix is temporarily stored on an
trol unit issues orders (electrical auxiliary storage device to provide space in memory for the next ANYDATA'~
pulses) to withdraw the data num- programme segment. Then zero sequence impedance matrix is ERiWRS f./ - ~
bers from the memory and place CONTROL
them in appropriate perform formed and positive sequence matrix is retrieved for use in fault NO
registers. The control then activates calculations. Since these matrices are symmetrical, only the
FORM POSITIVE SE(llJENCE
the necessary circuits to operation diagonal elements and the upper of diagonal element need to be IMPeDANCE MATRIX
the specified arithmetic operations. formed and stored. The sequences steps are shown in Fig. 24.2. The
When the operation is completed, the short-circuit MVA's are calculated for each bus and tabulated with
next instruction word is taken up by OUTPUT corresponding station name. The following results are obtained : FORM ZERO SE&UENCE
the control from the memory and the 1. Total 3-phase and line to ground fault current.
IMPEDANCE MATRIX
specified operation is performed . . '"'._ _ _.,
again. The operations are performed Fig. 24.1. Components ofD1g1tal Computer. 2. Contribution for the above from each line to connected to the
fault bus.
at a high speed until the instructions are carried out. The answer are printed or typed. RETRIVE POSITIVE S£0.UENCE
3. Currents when the lines connected to fault bus are opened 'MPE0.4NCE 81/S MATRIX
one by one.
24.5. PROCESS OF SOLVING ENGINEERING PROBLEMS ON DIGITAL COMPUTERS
4. Zero sequence driving point reactances for faulted bus.
The process involves several steps, which include the following: (II) Nodal Interactive Method CALCULATE 3 PHASE
1. Problems definition. The problem to be solved is defined, its objectives are determined. AND LINE TO GROUND
Data required for input are acquired. In this method, interaction of entire network are required for FAULTS
each fault condition. The basis of the node interactive method of
2. Mathematical formulation. The problem is developed into mathematicfll equations.
briefly explained below :
3. Selection of solution technique. The formulation of most of the engineering problems PRINT ANSWERS
involves mathematical expressions, such as non-linear differential equations, trigonometric func- The node equations are formulated by applying Kirchoffs cur-
tions which cannot be directly evaluated by the computer since the computer can perform only four rent law. The node equations put in a systematic form provide an
basic arithmetic operation namely addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Numerical excellent method for computer solution. Consider a circuit Fig. 24.3.
techniques are employed for solution of the problem. With certain simplification, this circuit is represented by Fig. 24.4.
Series reactances have been combined. Capacitors are added at Fig. 24.2. Simplified flow chart for
* Ref. Ch. 46 for Microprocessors and Ref. Sec. 46.2 for Terms and Definitions. each high voltage bus of original system. The e.m.f. source with a short-circuit programme.
480 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION USE OF A.C. NETWORK ANALYSER AND DIGITAL COMPUTER 481
b For solution on computer, one equation is written for each of buses at which the voltage is
C unknown. Load current is neglected and all internal voltages are assumed to be equal. If the voltage
of faulty bus is zero, voltages are computed by load studies or assumed equal to Vr, the equations
can be written as
0-f ykk vk +
m=M
L Ykm V m =0
m=l
With lk = 0, and m '# k
A set of simultaneous equations is formed as equations are written for all the nodes where
voltage is unknown. The equations are then solved by interactive process. Initial values are as-
sumed for all unknown voltages. A correction value is found for the voltage at the first node based
on unknown and assumed voltages at other nodes. This corrected value is used for subsequent
Fig. 24.3. System for one line diagram.
buses. The computer repeats the computation until the correction at each bus is less than the re-
quired precision mark.
Another approach is by forming impedance-matrix. The matrix operations are formed on the
impedances of branches that form loops of the network. After this a short-circuit matrix is obtained.
The output information is obtained by means of arithmetic operations.
QUESTIONS
1. Describe a typical A.C. Network analyzer. How is it used for fault calculations ?
2. Describe the producer of fault calculations on an A.C. Network analyzer.
3. Describe the set-up of digital compute/.
Fig. 24.4. Circuit for node equation. 4. Explain the procedure of fault calculation on digital computer.
their series impedance are replaced by their equivalent current sources and shunt impedances,
Nodes are designated by numbers 1, 2, 3, 4. Applying Kirchhoffs current laws to the current at
node 1, current entering into the node from the source is equal to current going away from·the
nodes, i.e.
For node 2,
rearranging,
V1 (Yr+ Yg +Ya+ Ye)- V 2Ya - V 4Ye =11
, - V1Ya + V2 (Ya+ Yb - Ye) - V3Yb - V4Ye = 0
Similar equations are obtained for nodes 3' and 4. The equations are put in the following stand-
ard form:
11 = Yu V1 + Y12 V2 + Y13 V3 + f14V4
12 = Y21 V1 + Y22V2 + Y23V3 + Y24 V4
13 = Y31 V1 + Y32 V2 + Y33 V3 + Y34 V4
14 = Y41V1 + Y42V2 + Y43V3 + Y44V4
where Yu, Y22 , Y33 , Y44 are called Self Admittances at the respective nodes which are sum of ad-
mittances terminating on the node. The other admittances such as Y12 , etc. are obtained by adding
the admittances connected directly between the nodes 1, 2 and are given a negative sign.
Thus Y12 = - Yr , Y23 = - Yr , likewise. The equations given above are put in the form
m=M
lk= Lykm vm * Ref. Sec. 46.2 for Terms and Definitions related with Digital Computers and Microprocessors.
m=l Ref. Sec. 47.13 for 'HVDC Simulator' used for analysing HVDC Transmission System and associated AC
where M is the number of independent nodes (number of busses). Systems.
SECTION III
POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION
Introduction to Protective Relaying
About Protective Relaying- Faults : Causes and Effects - Protective zones - Primary and Back-up
Protection - Back-up Protection methods - Desirable qualities of Protective Relaying- Selectivity
and Discrimination - Relay time and fault clearing time - Sensitivity - Stability - Reliability -
Adequateness - Terms and Definitions in Protective Relaying - Historical Review - Role of
Engineer - About further text - Summary - Questions.
25.1. ABOUT PROTECTIVE RELAYING

Protective relaying is necessary with almost every electrical plant, and no part of the power
system is left unprotected. The choice of protection depends upon several aspects such as type and
xating of the protected equipment, its importance, location, probable abnormal conditions, cost, etc.
Between generators and the final load points, there are several electrical equipment and machines
of various ratings. Each needs certain adequate protection.
The protective relaying senses the abnormal conditions in a part of the power system and gives
an alarm or isolates that part from the healthy system.
The relays are compact, self-contained devices which respond to abnormal condition, The relays
distinguish between normal and abnormal condition. Whenever an abnormal condition develops,
the relays close its contacts. Thereby the trip circuit of the circuit-breaker is closed. Current from
the battery supply flows in the trip-coil of the circuit-breaker and the circµit breaker opens and
the faulty part is disconnected from the supply. The entire process, 'occurrence of fault-operation
of relay-opening of circuit-breaker - removal of faulty part from the system', -- is automatic and
fast. Circuit-breakers are switching devices which can interrupt normal currents and fault currents.
Besides relays and circuit-breakers there are several other important components in the protective
relaying scheme, these include : protective current transformers and voltage transformers, protec-
tive relays, time-delay relays, auxiliary relays, secondary circuits/trip circuits, auxiliaries and ac-
cessories, etc. Each component is important. Protective relaying is a teamwork of these components.
The functions of protective relaying include the following :
- To sound an alarm or to close the trip circuit of circuit-breaker so as to disconnect a com-
ponent during an abnormal condition in the component, which include over-load, under-
voltage, temperature rise, unbalanced load, reverse power, under-frequency, short circuits,
etc.
- To disconnect the abnormally operating part so as to prevent the subsequent faults, e.g.
over-load protection of a ma.chine protects the machine and prevents insulation failure.
- To disconnect the faulty part quickly so as to minimize the damage to the faulty part, e.g.
If a machine is disconnected immediately after a winding fault, only a few coils may need
replacement. If the fault is sustained, entire winding may get damaged and the machine
may be beyond repairs.
- To localise the effect of fault by disconnecting the faulty part, from the healthy part, causing
least disturbance to the healthy system.
- To disconnect the faulty part quickly so as to improve the system stability, service continuity
and system performance. Transient stability can be improved by means of improved protec-
tive relaying.
486
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION INTRODUCTION TO PROTECTIVE RELAYING 487
Faults cannot be avoided completely. They can be minimized. Protective relaying plays as im- Equipment Cause of fault % of Total Faults
portance role in minimizing the faults, and also in minimizing the damage in the event of faults.
5. CT,PT 1. Over-voltages 15 20
2. Insulation failures
25.2. FAULTS, CAUSES AND EFFECTS*
3. Breaking of conductors
A fault in its electrical equipment is defined as a defect in its electrical circuit due to which 4. Wrong connections.
the flow of current is diverted from the intended path. Faults are causes by breaking of conductors 6. Switchgear 1. Insulation failure 10-12
or failure of insulation. Fault impedance is generally low, and fault currents are generally high. 2. Mechanical defect
During the faults, the voltages of the three phases become unbalanced and the supply to the neigh-
3. Leakage of air/oil/gas
.bouring circuits is affected. Fault currents being excessive, they can damage not only the faulty
equip:µient, but also the installation through which the fault current is fed. For example, if a fault 4. Jnadequate rating
occurs'ih a motor, the motor winding is likely to get damaged. Further, if the motor is not discon- 5. Lack of maintenance.
nected quickly enough the excessive fault currents can cause damage to the starting equipment, -
supply connections, etc.
25,3. IMPORTANCE OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING
Faults in certain important equipment can affect the stability of the power system. For example,
a fault in the bus-zone of a power station can cause tripping of all the generator units in power Inadequate protection can lead to a major fault that could have been avoided; e.g. t~e t~e:{11~1
station and can affect the stability of the interconnected system. over-load protection of motor prevents the over-loading of motor and thereby the msulat10n ai _urn
There are several causes of faults occurring in a particular electrical plant. Faults can be min- is avoided. A damaged equipment needs time for repairs and replacement. By adequate protect10n,
imized by improved system design, improved quality of components, better and adequate protective the damage can be eliminated or minimized. .
relaying, better operation and maintenance, etc. However, the faults cannot be entirely eliminated. A fault in the equipment in the supply system leads to disconnection of supply to a l~rge_p?rt10n
Fault statistics are systematic records regarding number and causes of faults occurring a particular of the system. If the faulty part is quickly disconnected, the damai'e caused by ~he fault is ;:nn~um
system. Table 25.1 gives data about such records. These records are useful guides to manufacturers
and electricity boards for taking corrective measures. and the faulty part can be repaired quickly and the service can be re.stored wi~h?ut fur~ er e ~y.
Better service continuity has its own merits. Thus the protective relaymg helps m improving service
Faults can be minimized to some extent by taking the following measures :
continuity and its importance is self-evident.
1. Improvement in the quality of machines, equipment, installation, etc. by improvement in
design, manufacturing techniques, materials, quality control, adequate testing, research and
development. 25.4. PROTECTIVE ZONES
2. Improvement in system design, correct lay-out, choice of equipment. The protective relaying of a power system is planned along with the system design. The cir-
3. Adequate and reliable protection systems ; control. cuit-breakers are located at appropriate point such that ~ny com po net ff t~e J?OWe~ syS t e17 c::~
4. Regular and detailed maintenance by trained personnel. be disconnected for usual operation and maintenance reqmrements, an a so urmg a norma
5. Trained personnel for operation and management of electrical plant. ditions such as short circuits. . . •• lt
· Table 25.1. Faults in a System in a Year Depending upon the rating of the machine, its location, relative importance, probability of~a~ s
Equipment and abnormal conditions, etc., each power system component (generator, transfo~mer, tranxmisst~
Cause offa ult % of Total Faults lines bus-bar cables, capacitors, individual loads, etc.) is covered bl a protective zone. par. 0
1. Overhead lines 1. Lightning strokes
30-40 the system pr~tected by a certain protective scheme is called protective zone o\zt~ne of 1,rote_ctii°i
2. Storms, earthquakes, icing The entire power-system is covered by several protective zones and no part o e sys em is e
3. Birds, trees, kites aeroplanes, snakes, etc. unprotected.
4. Internal over-voltages. Fig. 25.1 (a) illustrates the meaning of protective zones. Each z~ne cove:s one of two power
2. Underground cables 1. system components. Neighbouring zones overlap so that no 'dead spot are left m the protected sys-
Damage during digging
8-10
2. Insulation failure due to temperature rise tem (Ref. Fig. 25.1 b ).
3. Failure of joints
3. Alternators (Generator) 1. Stator faults
6-8
2. Rotor faults
3. Abnormal conditions
4. Faults in associated equipment
5. Faults in protective system I
4. Transformers 1. l,----7---------1I- l L f1 - - - - - - - - - -----
Insulation failure (Re. Sec. 12.4) 10-12
2. Faults in tap-changer 11 I I I -------------
3. Faults in bushing 1
1,I I .. , 1 ~
T ___ j - -- - - - - - - -c.:: __:-_7 - - -
L-::.-_-_-'-=:... ___ -- ______,
4. Faults in protection circuit
5. Inadequate protection ...Boundary of protective zones decided by location of CT's
6. x-Circuit-breaker plus Isolators . 1-Generator p.zone
Overloading, Over voltage. 2-Generator transformer unit protective zone 3-Bus bar p.zone
4-Tr. line p.zone.
* Ref. Sec. 1.3 and 12.4 for types and causes of faults. Fig. 25.1. (a). Explaining protective zones.
JNTRODUCTION TO PROTECTIVE RELAYING
The boundary of a protective zone is determined by the location of current transformers. Hence fails, there must be an additionr-i.l protection, otherwise the fault may remain uncleared, resulting
current transformers are located such that the circuit-breakers are covered in the protective zones' in a disaster.
(Ref. Fig. 17.24 Sec. 17.11, Fig. 17.2). .
-==- ~. When main protection is made inoperative for the purpose of maintenance, testing, etc. the
Back-up protection acts like main protection. As a measure of economy, Back-up protection is given
against short-circuit protection and generally not for other abnormal conditions. The extent to
which back-up protection is provided, depends upon economic and technical considerations. The
cost of back-up protection is justified on the basis of probability of failure of individual component
in protection system, cost of the protected equipment, importance of protected equipment, location
of protected equipment, etc.
G Generator G The methods of back-up protection can be classified as follows :
T Main transformer of unit 1. Relay Back-up. Same breaker is used by both main and back-up protection, but the protec-
TL Transformer Lines tive systems are different. Separate trip coils may be provided for the same-breaker.
1,1' Subscript for generator-transformer 2. Breaker Back-up. Different breakers are provided for main and back-up protection, both
unit protection system covering circuit- the breakers being in the same station (Ref. Sec. 43.11).
breakers X, X ' respectively
3. Remote back-up. The main and Back-up protections provided at different stations and are
2 Subscript for Main Bus Protecting
System covering circuit-breaker completely independent.
X,X' and also Y, Y' 4. Centrally Co-ordinated Back-up. The system having central control can be provided with
3.3' Subscript for transmission line centrally controlled back-up. Central control continuously supervises the load flow and frequency
protection systems Covering circuit- 2 in the system. The information about load flow and frequency is assessed continuously. If one of
breakers Y, Y' the components in any part of the system fails, (e.g. a fault on a transformer, in some station) the
load flow in the system is affected. The central coordinating station receives information about the
abnormal condition through high frequency carrier signals. The stored programme in the digital
computer determines the correct switching operation, as regards severity of fault, system stability,
3 etc. Main protection is at various stations and Back up protection for all stations is at central control
centre. The centrally coordinated back-up is a team-work of protective relaying equipment, high
frequency carrier current equipment and digital computer (Ref. Sec. 43.14).
The system frequency and active power balance are closely related. Load-frequency control of
the Grid is monitored by load control centres.
1.'L TL'
Fig. 25.1. (b) Explaining overlappi11:g of neighbouring protective zones in a generation station. 25.6. BACK UP PROTECTION BY TIME GRADING PRINCIPLE
m a generation station.
Thi_s principle has been used all over the world during last several decades [Fig. 25.2]. The
Th~ zones can be precisely _identified _in unit systems, such as circulating current differential ~urreri't is measured at various points along the current path, e.g., at source, intermediate locations,
protectwn of transformers,. Umt system 1s one in which the protection responds to faults in the consumer end. The tripping time at these locations are graded in such a way that the circuit-
protE:Jct~d zone alone, and it does not respond to through faults (faults beyond the protected zone). breaker/fuse nearest the faulty part operate first, giving primary protection. The circuit-
Non-umt systems, such as over-current protection, do not have exact zone boundary. breaker/fuse at the previous station operates only as back-up. Referring to Fig. 25.2, the tripping
Each zone has certain protective scheme and each protective scheme has several protective time at station C, B and A are graded such that for a fault beyond C breaker at C operates as a
systems. primary protection. Meanwhile, the relays at A and B also may start operating but they are
provided with enough time lag so that the circuit-breaker at B operates only if the circuit-breaker
25,5. PRIMARY AND BACK-UP PROTECTION at C does not. (Ref. Sec. 30.2).
_Primary pro_tection (Main pr_otection) is the essential protection provided for protecting an
~qmvale~t/machme. As a_pr;caut10n~ry measure, an addition protection is generally provided and 0,65EC,
~s called B~ck-up ~rotect10n, The primary protection is the first to act and the Back-up Protection
~s the n~xt m the hne of defence-meaning, if primary protection fails, the back-up protection comes
mto action a1:d removes the faulty part from the healthy system. Back-up protection is provided
for the followmg reasons :
-:- If ~ue to s?me reaso_n, the M~in protection fails, the Back-up protection serves the purpose of
protectwn. Mam p~o.tectwn can fail due to failure of cine of the components in the protective system
B
such as relay, auxiliary relay CT, PT, trip circuit, circuit-breaker, etc. If the primary protection
C
Fig. 25.2. Back up relaying by time-grading.
490 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION INTRODUCTION TO PROTECTIVE RELAYING
491
25.6.1. Back-up Protection by Duplication Principle The protective .s~stem should operate only during abnormal conditions and should not operate
The principle is very popular in U.S.A. In this form of protection, the important protective under rorm3:l ~ondit10n. In other words, the protective relaying system should discriminate betwe n
devices (protective transformers, protection systems, relays, circuit-breakers, auxiliaries, etc.) are n?rma co~dit10n and abnormal condition. It should select and disconnect only faulty part 'th et
duplicated. Both primary and back-up protections are provided at the same station and are ar- disconnectmg the remaining healthy part. wi ou
ranged to operate at the same speed, i.e. as fast as possible. Such protection is costly and the cost Pro~ective rel~)ring should be inoperative and stable during faults and abnormal conditions
is justified for protection ofEHV transmission lines, bus bars, large generators, large transformers, b.eyond its protective zone. It should not operate for faults abnormal conditions beyond ·t . t
etc. If the cost of separate circuit-breakers is not justified, same circuit-breaker with two inde-
pendent trip coils can be employed, one for each protection. Sometimes the Main and Back-up
~lVf~one. fefrri;g to Fir 25.~, if a fau!t o~curs on transmi~sion line, the protective, relayiin; ~~~:1~
iso a e on. Y t. e aulty lme without tnppmg the neighbouring line or the transformer. For fault
protection are based on different principle of operation, e.g. differential and over-current, so that F1, only c1rcmt-breaker CB 1 should open. For fault F 2 , both CB 2 and CBs should open.
if the main protection fails to sense the fault, the back-up protection does not fail to do so.
In protection of generator-transformer unit, differential protection is provided for generator
alone plus a second-differential protection is applied to generator-transformer unit, C.B. is common,
The merits of Duplication Back-up principle are :
- Fast and almost simultaneous fault clearing, improved stability.
- Complete reliability can be assured
However, the duplication should be economically justified.
25.6.2, Monitoring Gz
Monitoring means checking the performance. Monitoring is used as an alternative to duplicate
protection. It is a continuous process of monitoring instrument transformers, relays circuit-breaker ~ x .x-~---x
trip circuit and other components of primary protection. The monitoring devices continuously switch
'in' and 'out' and determine whether the component is in working order and operational readiness. . . Fig. 25.3. Explaining selectivity and sensitivity.
Circuit-breakers are not actually tripped but are provided a test circuit to facilitate the monitoring. f In U1;:nt-pr~tective systems the selectivity is almost absolute, Such protective syst 'd
The monitoring is achieved by means of high frequency signals. to aults i~ their protected zone alone, They doe not respond to faults elsewhere Non- e~: respon
Monitoring is also used in protection transmission lines by means of power line carrier
telemetering. (Ref. Sec. 44.6) ;:al~:o~t:,~~f~~a~ie s;~:c~~~=~ ~t~~ct;eo~~~~i:sgg~;s~:~!:tJ:: ~:!:~ec;ir;;n~o~:~~r:,~tir:~:Jit:ha~
se ectivity is not exact. , sys ems, e
In large networks load frequency is monitored constantly. Generation is matched with load to
maintain constant frequency (50 Hz± 1%). larg!~ ~~~;~i!i:; ;~!atnf is not s~lective, and operates f~r faults. beyond its protective zones, a
The reactive power compensation required and bus-voltages are monitored constantly to ensure ys em gets disconnected unnecessanty causmg embarrassment t . 1·
an d consumers. ' · o supp ier
voltage stability.
25.7.2. Re~ay ~im~ and Fault Clearing Time (Ref, Sec, 2.11)
25.7. DESIRABLE QUALITIES OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING (in cfr:~:: ~;:~:;)~1me is the time between the instant of fault and instant of final are interruption
Protective relaying should have certain qualities. Some of these quantities cannot be expressed
in form of a mathematical expressions, however, they are important. The qualities of protective Fault clearing time is the sum of relay-time and circuit breaker-time.
relaying are named as Remember the time events
- Selectivity, discrimination. - Speed, time. Fault Clearing Time = [Relay Time] + [Breaker Time]
- Sensitivity, power consumption. Stability. . t t
- Reliability.
- Adequateness.
- System security
Fault Instant]
~o
r
Closing of relay]
+ contacts to Final
Closmg of Arc-extinction
The qualities should be carefully considered while selecting protection schemes for power sys-
tem protection. Cost is also equally important. A better protective system costs more.
25.7.1. Selectivity and Discrimination
r relay contacts in C.B.
. ofrei!; ;i~~~~t;;i~~s !~~st~r: ~etw~e~ the i~~a1:t of occurrence of fault and the instant of closure
Selectivity is a quality of being selective. A protective system should be 'selective' in protect- " pick-up value and the instant o}:~s;r:~;~ela; ~:~\:~~then the operating quantity reaches the
ing-meaning, the protective relaying should select the faulty part of the system and should isolate,
as far as possible, only faulty part from the remaining healthy system. Discrimination is 'the act The circuit breaker time is the total of time t k b · ·
discriminating' or 'distinguishing the difference between'. 'Discriminating quality of protective breaker contacts and the arching time, It is also c~ll:~ trt~f~:::rtmechamsm to open to circuit
Th f It l · t' . c ime.
relaying enables it to distinguish between' the following : e a~ c earmg Ime IS significant due to the following reasons :
Normal Condition-Abnormal condition. dura~·. Rapfid0fOa7ult cleadrin~ minimizes the damage. During short circuit tests on bus bars with fault
Abnormal Condition within the protective zone-Abnormal condition elsewhere. With fa It d
u
t' 7f . ..
10n o . secon with 60 kA r m s value of t d '
curren 'no amage was observed after the tests
ura 10n o seconds, however, the bus bars were completely destroyed. ·
INTRODUCTION TO PROTECTIVE RELAYING 493
4B2 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
25.7.4. Stability
2. Rapid fault clearing improves power system stability. For the reason, the slow relays and Stability is defined as the quality of protective system by the virtue of which, the protective
slow circuit breakers should not be preferred for protection, where stability is important. This ap- system remains inoperative and stable under certain specified condition such as system disturbance
plies to protection ofEHV transmission lines, protection oflarge machines like important generator, through faults, transients, etc.
large transformer, large-motors, etc., and protection in important generating stations and receiving
stations. Consider protection of transformer. For faults beyond the protected zone, the protection of
transformer should remain stable. To achieve such stability, the relay CT's, protective scheme
Though fast fault clearing is desirable, time lag is purposely provided in majority of protection
design and type of disturbance are important. To improve stability certain modifications are neces-
systems for the following purposes :
sary in relays design and the relay scheme. For example biased differential protection for protection
- To permit discrimination between main and back-up protection. of power transformer is more stable than plain differential protection. Further, to make the trans-
- To prevent the operation ofrelay during transients, starting currents, permissibly load fluc- former protection insensitive to inrush of currents during switching-in, provision like Harmonic
tuations, etc. Restraint are provided. In many cases, time delay, mechanical and electrical bias, filter circuits
The relay-time of fast relays is of the order of a few cycles and that of inverse time relays can etc. are provided t~ make the relays stable during certain disturbances.
be adjusted between about 6 seconds to 60 seconds. The circuit-breaker time of slow circuit- 25.7.5. Reliability
breakers is of the order of 5 cycles and that of fast circuit-breakers is of the order of 2 cycles to 3
cycles. Reliability means trustworthiness. The protective relaying should not fail to operate in the
event of faults in the protected zone. Secondly, there should not be any fault in the components of
Static Relays of 1/2 cycle or one cycle are now available. protective system. Protective system should not operate unnecessarily. Reliability of protective sys-
25.7.3. Sensitivity tems is assessed from statistical data. 'Reliability' cannot be easily specified in terms of a mathe-
Sensitivity of a protective scheme refers to the smallest value of actuating quantity at which matical expression with certainty. Statistical survey and records give idea about reliability of
the protection starts operating in relation with the minimum value of fault current in the protected protective systems. With increasing size of systems, use of EHV lines, interconnections and use of
zone. large generators and transformers, the importance ofreliability of protective systems has increased. ,,
\,I
Referring to Fig. 25.3, consider the protection system of the transmission line L. The protection ·The protective system is a teamwork of several components. A failure or defect in any one of "
system should be so sensitive that it should respond to a fault say F 2 for minimum fault current. them can result in failure of protection system. Hence the basic requirement of reliable protection t '
9
If!
,:.:J
is reliability of each component including.circuit-breaker, relays, CT's, PT's secondary cables, trip ,t I(\
Minimum fault current can flow when : ,,1:1
circuit, battery system accessories, etc. Next the design of protection system, installation, main- ,l~~ ""
i1"
Only one generator (Say G1) is connected in the system, other generator (G 2) being discon- tenances, etc., are also very important. These aspects are mentioned in Fig. 25.4. It is clear that ;JIJ
,.
'l:l
11c
nected.
- The fault is at the receiving end of the transmission line.
the reliability of protective systems depends on diverse aspects and a good reliability is a task to
be shared by the protective gear manufacturers, electricity boards and associates.
I'"
,,.,,,
'm ,.,~
·;HJ
-1~
''" CJ
Im
- The fault is an arcing fault, the arc path being through air, the arc resistance is high and tc '"· ;;;,i
fault current low. RELIABILITY

lJlJ
11~
:~
lJ:>
The protection should be sensitive enough to act during a fault-UUQ.l:lr such conditions. Sen-
OF .,
In~
l/
PROTECTIVE 1
I•
sitivity can be defined in terms of sensitivity factor Ks equal to ratio of minimum short-circuit cur- SYSTEMS lo ~I
rent and minimum operating current, i.e. ~=1. t

Id
Ks=r
ls
0
BUAL/TY
OF
CHOICE 8
DESIGN OF MAINTENANCE
INTERNAL
ANO
!; '
COMPONENr PROTECTION EXTERNAL
where Ks= Sensitivity factor SYSTEMS 5TR£55E5
ls= Minimum short-circuit current in the zone
I 0 = Minimum operating current of protection
1
SYSTEM
The operation current should not be kept too small for following reasons : CO-OPERATION DE516NER
I
- The protection should not operate on maximum loads.
- The protection should not operate under through fault conditions, or faults some where else
in the system.
MANUFACTURES USER
Hence the sensitivity should be chosen with due considerations to the following : OF PROTECTIVE ( E/..ECTRICITY .._
(CO-OPERATION)
- Minimum fault current in protected zone EQUIPMENT 8(}ARD5,
INDUSTRIES)
- Operating values required for primary and back-up protection. For example, Fig. 25.3 ; the
protective scheme for busbar protection should be such that, it does not responcl to fault Fig. 25.4. Reliability of protective systems is influenced by several aspects.
F2 as a.primary protection. Fault F 2 should be cleared by CB 3 • However the bus-bar protec-
tion at A should provide a back-up for the protection of line L.
494
9. Relay Time. Time interval between occurrence of fault and closure of Relay contact (Ref.
25.7.6. Adequateness
Ch. 2).
There can be many abnormal conditions and providing protection against every abnormal con-
dition is economically impossible. However, the protection provided for any machine, should be ade- 10. Breaker Time. Time interval between closure of trip circuit and final arc interruption.
quate. The adequateness of protection is judged by considering the following aspects : Relay time plus breaker time is equal to fault clearing time. (Ref. Sec. 25. 7.2)
- Rating of the protected machine. 11. Stability of Power System. Stability denotes a condition during which all the
Synchronous machines in the system are in synchronism, i.e. in step with each other. [Ref. Ch. 44]
- Location of the protected machine.
- Probability of abnormal condition due to internal and external causes. 12. Earth Fault. A fault which involves earth (ground); e.g., single line to ground fault, double
line to ground fault, arcing grounds.
- Cost of the machine, important.
- Continuity of supply as affected by failure of machine. 13. Phase fault. A fault which does not involve earth; e.g, Line to line fault.
for low voltage machine/equipment, at the remote end of the system, an elaborate and costly protec- 14. Instantaneous Relay. A fast relay having relay time of less than 0.2 second and having
tive system is not necessary. For· example, distribution transformers below, say 500 kVA are no intentional time lag.
protected simply by drop-out fuses. Motors below 100 kW are protected by thermal over-load relays 15. IDMT Relay. Inverse definite minimum time relay, is a relay having an inverse charac-
and HRC fuses. In these cases, the cost of CT's and protective relays, circuit-breakers, etc. is not teristic of current vs. time, upto certain increased value of current after which the time is definite.
generally justified. Whereas for a large machine, say generator, a very complex protective scheme 16. Electro-mechanical Relay. Conventional relay in which the measurement is performed
is necessary. The adequateness of protection should be assessed while planning the protection by moveable parts.
scheme. Each installation generally needs particular attention, as the protective relaying needs are 17. Static Relays. Relays in which relay measurement or comparison is performed by station-
influenced by local conditions. ary (static) circuit.
18. Biased Relay. A relay whose characteristic is modified by additional mechanical or
25.8. SOME TERMS IN PROTECTIVE RELAYING electromagnetic procession such as a bias-coil, magnet, etc.
The meaning and definitions of some terms concerned with protective relaying are given here, 19. Power Consumption of a Relay. The value of power consumed expressed in VA (for a.c.)
for the sake of familiarity. or watts (for d.c.) under certain specified conditions.
1. Relay. Relay is a device by means of which an electric circuit (trip circuit of alarm circuit), 20. Pick-up . .The operation of relay is called relay Pick-up. Pick-up value or level is the value
is controlled, (closed), by change in the other circuit. Relays are automatic. There are several types of operating quantity which is on threshold (border) above which the relay operates and closes its
and application of relays. Relays are essential components of protective systems. contacts. Consider an over-current delay. During an injection test, suppose, the current is gradually
2. Protective Relay. A protective relay is an electrical relay used for protective of electrical increased. At a certain value of current, the relay contacts are on the verge of moving such that
devices. It is a device which closes its contacts, when operating quantity reaches certain predeter- increase in current causes contacts movement. This value of current is known as pick-up value.
mined magnitude/phase. Closing of relay contacts initiates an alarm circ'uit or trip circuit. Normally the relay setting corresponds to pick-up value.
3. Measuring Relay. A measuring relay operates at a predetermined value of operating quan- 21. Reset, drop-out. The value of current/voltage etc. below which the relay resets and comes
tity by performing the necessary measurement. A relay in which, the operation is independent of back to original position.
measurement is called all-or-nothing relay. All-or-nothing relays, auxiliary relays, etc, are used to
supplement the measuring relay. 22. Over-current Relay. A relay which responds to increase in current.
4. Trip Circuit. The circuit comprising trip coil, relay contacts, auxiliary switch, seal in coil, 23. Earth-fault Relay. A relay which sense earth fault.
battery supply, etc; which controls the circuit-breaker for opening operation. 24. Distance Protection. A protection scheme used for protection of transmission lines in
5. Current Transformers (CT). These are used for measurement purpose and protective which the relay measurement is based on measuring VII ratio at relaying point which· gives a
relaying purpose. Accordingly, they are called measuring CT and protective CT. The current ratio measure of distance between relay location and fault location.
of a CT is usually high. The secondary current ratings are of the order of 5 A, lA, and 0.1 A, the
latter being used for static relays. Primary current ratings vary from 10 to 3000 A or more. Ratio 25. Differential Protection. A protective system which responds to vector difference
error and phase angle are important aspects of CT's. The CT's play an important role in protective (phase/magnitude) between two or more similar electrical quantities.
relaying. The Volt-Ampere rating of current transformers is low (5-150 VA) as compared with 26. Protective Scheme. A set of protective systems covering a particular protective zone, e.g.
that of power transformers (a few kVA to several MVA). Transmission line protective scheme may comprise overcurrent protection system, earth fault
6. Voltage Transformers or Potential Transformer (V.T.). The voltage transformers step- protection system.
down the primary voltage to a secondary voltage oflower value. The standard rated secondary volt-
27. Protective System. A combination of components which together, performs the protective
age is 110 V, 240, 440 V. The Volt-Ampere capacity of Potential Transformer is small relative to
that of power transformers. The VT's are used for measurement and protection. They are accord- relaying. The components include CT's pilot wires, measuring relays, seconding circuits, trip circuit.
ingly called as measuring instrument potential transformers and protective potential transformers. 28. SCDA. Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. Computer based system which performs
7. Auxiliary Switch. A multipoint switch,which operates in conjunction with circuit-breaker measurement, data acquisition, data transmission, operating and control functions. (Ref. Sec. 50.4)
and connects/disconnects certain protective, indicating and control circuits in each position, (open 29. Auto-reclosure. The process of automatic reclosing of circuit breaker after its opening.
and close). It is placed in the switc_h cubicles of circuit-breakers and isolators. (Ref. Sec. 44.12).
8. Fault Clearing Time. Time elapsed between the instant of occurrence of fault and instant
30. Power Line Carrier (PLC). High frequency signals sent through the power line conduc-
of final arc extinction in circuit breaker. It is expressed in milliseconds (ma) or cycles I cycle in 50
tors (for purpose of communication, monitoring and protection).
Hz systemis equivalent to 1/50 second, i.e. 0.02 second.
INTRODUCTION TO PROTECTIVE RELAYING 497
The connection of the secondaries of protective current transformers and voltage transformers
31. Carrier Current Protection. Protection of transmission line by means of power line car- depend upon the design of protective system. In large installation, several sets of CT's and VT's
rier signals. are necessary for various protection systems.
32. Unit Protection. Protection system in which the protective zone can be clearly identified Protective current transformers and voltage transformers should behave satisfactorily during
by means of CT boundaries. Such protection does not respond to through fault. It responds to only transient abnormal conditions. Hence their accuracy under transient condition is very important.
internal faults. (e.g. Differential protection of Power Transformer).
33. Reach. (of Distance Protection of Lines), The limiting distance 'covered by the protec- 25.11. ACTUATING QUANTITIES
tion, the faults beyond which are not within the reach of the protection and should be covered by
The discrimination between normal and abnormal condition can be judged by measuring ac-
other relay. tuating quantity. The electrical relays respond to current/voltage, derived from secondaries of Cl's
34. Over-reach. (of Distance Protection). Operation of (distance) relay for a fault beyond or VT's connected to the protected equipment. During abnormal condition the actuating quantity
its set protected distance (say 130%). varies according to the type of fault. For every type and location of abnormal condition, there is a
35. Under reach (of distance protection). Failure of distance relay to operate within the distinct variation in some of the quantities. Hence the actuatirig quantity for the relays can be one
set protected distance (say 90%). or more of the following parameter of voltage/current derived from CTNT.
36. C&rrier Transfer (Inter tripping), Carrier signal sent from one end to other end of trans- - Magnitude - Frequency
mission line so as to trip the circuit-breaker at the other end. - Rate of change - Wave Shape.
37. Carrier Blocking. Carrier signal sent to other end of transmission line so as to reduce - Phase Angle - Duration (Time)
the relay time at that end by shunting the step timer. - Direction - Ratio
In recently developed system, the functions of measurement, protection, control and data ac-
25.9. DISTINCTION BETWEEN RELAY UNIT, PROTECTIVE SCHEME AND quisition are integrated. Supervisory control and Data Acquisition Systems (SCADA) are used in
PROTECTIVE SYSTEM modern interconnected power system. (Ch. 50).
A protected equipment (say, a Generator) comes in a particular protected zone. It is protected
by a 'Protection scheme'. The protection scheme has a set of protective systems, e.g. a large gener- 25.12. ELECTRO-MECHANICAL RELAYS AND STATIC RELAYS
ator may have a protection scheme comprises overcurrent protection, differential protection, earth
The conventional electro-mechanical relays have movable sub-assemblies. The operation of
fault protection, and so many others. Hence, protection scheme comprises set of protective systems
such relays is based upon the following effects of electric current :
and the protection schemes is named according to the protected equipment e.g.
- generator protection (scheme) - transformer protection (scheme) - electromagnetic attraction - electromagnetic induction
2
(The word 'scheme' is generally omitted). - thermal effect, heat generated by i rt.
The term Protective System, or simply 'protection' is named according to the principle of opera- Some electromechanical relays responds to gas pressure generated due to heat of arc. (Buchholz
tion or abnormal condition. Protective transformers and relays connected in a particular fashion Relay).
for giving protection against certain abnormal condition/conditions. The protective systems are Static relays do not have any iµovable parts in their measuring system. The measurement is
named as follows : carried out by stationary electronic circuit. Static relays have several merits and are being increas-
Names based on abnormal condition : ing used for various application. Recently 'Programmable Relays' have been introduced. (Ref. Sec.
- Over-current protection (system) - Earth fault protection (system) 43.13).
- Reverse-power protection (system) - Under-voltage protection (system)
- Under-frequency protection (system), etc. 25.13. POWER LINE CARRIER CHANNEL (PLC)
Names based on principle of operation. High frequency signals are transmitted through the transmission line conductor for the purpose
- Differential protection (system) - Distance protection (system) of communication, protection, signalling and monitoring.
- Power line carrier protection (system) Carrier current equipment are installed at the sending end and receiving end of transmission
(The word system may be omitted). · line sections.
Relay Unit or 'Relay' is a self-contained unit comprising one or more coils, fixed and movable The power line.carrier equipment can be used for the following:
sub-assemblies, or static circuits, provision for plug-setting, time-setting, etc. Relay unit is an im- - to send tripping signals to the other end of transmission line so as to open the circuit-breaker
portant component of the protective system. It is generally named according to its type of construc- at that end (Inter-tripping).
tion/principle of operation. It is either electromagnetic or static. - to send signal to the remote end so as to accelerate the relays at the other end of the trans-
mission line (carrier acceleration).
25.10. PROTECTIVE CURRENT TRANSFORMERS AND VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS to send blocking signal to the other end of transmission line so as to prevent tripping of
Protective relays are generally connected in the secondary circuit of current transformers and circuit-breaker at that end (carrier blocking).
voltage transformers (Potential Transformer). The primaries of these transformers are connected carrier current protection of transmission line based on differential principle.
in the main power circuit.
498
Carrier current signalling is used along with digital computers for network monitoring, central QUESTIONS
load control, central back-up protection. 1. Describe the faults clearing with reference to the following :
- Components in protective system.
25.14. PROGRAMMABLE RELAY - Sequence of operations between occurrence of fault and final arc extinction in circuit-breaker.
- Fault clearing time.
C~nventional electromagnetic and static relays are hard wired relays. Their wiring is fixed. 2. Discuss the cause of faults and need of protective systems.
Only their setting can be manually changed. In recent years, programmable relays are introduced.
3. Fig. Q. 3 shows a portion of power system. Draw main and back-up protective zone. Showing the over-
They have a microprocessor in their circuit. The characteristics and behaviour of the relay can be
lappings of neighbouring protective
programmed. The programme can take care of on line computation. Such relays are useful for zones; for short-circuit protection.
centrally co-ordinated back-protection (Ref. Sec. 46.12). 4. Discuss the role of back-up protec-
tion. What are the various methods
25.15. SYSTEM SECURITY of giving Back-up protection ? (Ref.
Ch. 43)
Failures cannot be totally avoided. In a large interconnected system, one or two major faults
(contingencies) may cause cascade ·tripping of circuit-breakers resulting in black-out over a large 5. Discuss the back-up protection
achieved in graded time over-current
part of the system. Such occurrences can be avoided by installation of computerized SCADA and
protection of radial transmission
EMS systems in addition to the protective relaying systems. (Ref. Ch. 50). lines.
System Security is defined as the ability of the system to operate in normal state even with 6. What are the merits of rapid fault
occurrence of certain specified contingencies. (Ref. Sec 50.9). clearing in case of
1. Distribution systems ?
25.16. ROLE OF ENGINEERS 2. Transmission systems ?
Why rapid fault clearing is not pos- Fig. Q.3.
The tasks of engineers include the following : sible in graded time over-current
- Planning of protection. protections system ?
Design of protective systems, systems studies. 7. ?iscuss the factor influencing 'Reliability' of protective system. Suggest, how the reliability can be
improved.
Choice of protection, protective equipment.
8, Define and explain the following :
installation, setting, commissioning
- Sensitivity of relay.
- maintenance. - Relay time, Fault-clearing time.
-- maintaining a check on failures, assessing causes and remedies. - Stability of protective system.
The engineers working in other fields such as machine designers, project engineers, manufac- 9. Discuss the present trends in power system protection with reference to static relay and digital com-
turers of electrical equipment, contractors, railway engineers etc. need knowledge regarding puters. (Ref. Ch. 46).
failures of equipment, their causes and remedies, and protective gear applications. Failures may 10. Explain the term 'Fault clearing time'. How can the stability of a power system be improved for given
be prevented by proper choice of equipment and good protective systems. circuit configuration ? '
11. State the types of faults in power system. Discuss causes the effects of faults. (Ref. Sec. 1.3, and 12.4).
Summary 12. Describe essential qualities of protective systems with reference to protection of generator. Illustrate
the protective zones in a generating station layout.
Faults are caused by insulation failure or breaking of conductors. Besides faults, there are other
abnormal conditions. Protective systems prevent faults by disconnecting an equipment in the event
of abnormal condition. Further, if faults develop, the protective system disconnects faulty parts. Note:
Protectiv.e system is a team ofrelays, circuit breaker, CT's PT's and other components. 'Sensitivity, 1. Ch. 25 Introduction to protective relaying applies to conventional and static protection systems. Ch.
time selectivity stability, adequateness, reliability, are the desirable qualities of protective systems. 26 refers to electromagnetic and electromechanical relay units only. Ch. 27 to 36 deal with abnormal
Selectivity or Discrimination is the property by virtue of which the protective relaying system dis- conditions and protect~ve systems which apply to both conventional and static relays. Ch. 38. to Ch.
tinguishes between normal condition and abnormal condition, faults in the protection zone and fault ~3 deal with static relays and protection schemes. Both electromagnetic and static relays are equally
elsewhere. 'Sensitivity' of a p1·otection refers to the minimum operating current in relation with important.
minimum fault current in the protected zone. 'Sensitivity' of a protection refers to the minimum 2. Integrated Protection and Control System and Modular Configuration ol Static Relays.
operating current in relation with minimum fault current in the protection zone .. In traditional electromagnetic relays and earlier generations of static relays, a separate relay unit is
'Relay time' is the time between occurrence of fault and closure of relays contacts. 'Stability' is used for each protective function. .
the property of the protective relaying system by virtue of which, the protective relay remains un- In the second generation of static relays, several protective functions are provided in a single modular
operated during system disturbances and through fault conditions 'Reliability' is trustworthiness. static protection relay system. e.g. Motor Protection Relay provides overcurrent, earth fault, under-
voltage, stalling protection etc. in a single unit.
To achieve reliability, the quality of each component, maintenance and every aspect of protective
In the third generation of static protection systems, modular microprocessor based integrated con-
relaying is important. Reliability is improved by co-operation between manufacturers and electricity
figuration is used. The functions of Measurement, Protection, Control, Data Acquisition and trans-
boards. Static Relays do not have movable parts in their measurement circuit. mission are provided a single system. Choice of functions is based on requirements.
ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS 501
1. Circuit breaker
2.Relay
3. Trip coil of c.b.
4. Trip circuit
5. Battery
6
6. Relay contacts
7. Potential transformer
8. Current transformer
Electromagnetic Relays 3
4 a Auxiliary switch contacts
x Protected element/circuit
Introduction - Definitions - Principle Types of Relays - Attracted Armature Type - Balanced la
Beam Relay - Induction Disc - Induction cup - Permanent Magnet Moving Coil - Thermal - Gas
Operated - Operating Characteristics - Seal- in - Feature - Design Features -Auxiliary Switch
X
- Sealing, Holding, Relay Unit, Protective Systems, Protective Schemes - Pick-up and Drop off -
Rectifier Systems - Directional element - All-or-nothing Relays -- Plug setting - Time Setting - Fig. 26.l. Simplified diagram of circuit breaker control of opening operation.
Summary - Questions.
26.3. AUXILIARY SWITCH, SEALING, AND AUXILIARY RELAYS
26.1. INTRODUCTION Fig. 26.1 is a simplified figure. In actual practice, the measuring relay is assisted by seal-in
relay, time-delay relay tripping relay, auxiliary switch, etc. and the resulting contact circuit is quite
'Relay is a device by means of which an electric circuit can be controlled (opened or closed) by complex. Further, there are sequential operations within the set of relays. The control circuit is
the change in the same circuit or other circuit.' An electro-mechnical relay, has one or more coils, further modified for schemes such as 'Autoreclosure', 'intertripping' 'anti-pumping' trip-free'
movable elements, contact system, etc. The operation of such relay depends on whether the operat- Schemes. In this section, the functional details are briefly discussed.
ing torque/force is greater than the restraining torque/force i.e.
26.3.1. Auxiliary Switch
The relay operates, if the net Force F in Eq. (1) below is positive; or net Tin Eq. (2) below is
positive. Auxiliary switch is an important device in the trip circuit of the circuit breaker. It is a multi-
F=F0 -F,. ... (1) point switch (4 point, 6 point, 12 point, 24 point) which is mechanically interlocked with the operat-
ing mechanism of the circuit breaker such that when the circuit breaker opens, the auxiliary switch
E == Net Force also opens, thereby disconnecting trip circuit, certain indicating circuits and control circuits. The
F 0 == Operating Force terminal blocks are provided in the control cabinet. The various control wiring is done via the ter-
F,. = Restraining force minal blocks.
or T=T0 -T,. ... (2) The current in trip circuit is interrupted by Auxiliary Switch and not by the protective relay
T == Net torque contacts. The relay contacts are light and delicate so that the weight of moving parts is low and
consumption of relay is low. Hence relay contacts are not designed to interrupt the current in trip
T 0 == Operating torque
circuit. The trip coil consumption is of the order 7.5 watts for small oil circuit breakers to about 25
T,. :cc Restraining torque watts for large oil circuit breakers, the voltage ratings being of the order of 30, 125, 250 V.D.C.
Relay operates when Operating force > Restraining force This voltage for trip current is supplied from battery system. While opening of trip circuit, (an in-
In electromechanical relays, the operating torque is produced by electromagnetic attrac-
ductive circuit), an inductive circuit is being opened and this needs a robust switching device.
tion/electromagnetic induction/thermal effects of electric current. The restraining torque is given Auxiliary switch is designed for such a duty. Auxiliary switch is placed in the switch cubicle or
by springs. The various terms such a Measuring Relay, All or-nothing relay, trip circuit, time lag control-cabinet of the circuit-breaker.
relay, instantaneous relay, etc. are covered in section 25.8. They will be studied in this chapter. Besides the trip circuit connections, the indication circuits (to indicate whe.ther the c.b. is 'open'
The contact circuit of electromechanical relays are· quite complex. Simplified diagrams have or close). circuit of interlocking (between breakers, isolators and other devices) and some control
been given in this section for explaining the prindple. circuits are also connected/disconnected by auxiliary switch.
26.3.2. 'Sealing', 'Holding', 'Repeat Operation'
26.2. BASIC CONNECTIONS OF TRIP.CIRCUIT
As mentioned earlier, the relay contacts are designed for light weight and they are therefore
Fig. 26.1, given below, illustrates the basic connections of the circuit breaker control for the delicate. The protective relay only closes its contacts and it is relieved of other duties such as time
opening operation. It is rather an over-simplified diagram; for the sake of understanding the prin- lag, tripping, (earring current for longer time, breaking trip circuit), etc. These duties are performed
ciple. by 'auxiliary relays'. There are various schemes of sealing or holding. Repeat operations are per-
Referring to Fig. 26.1, the protected circuit Xis shown by dashed line. When a fault occurs in formed by repeat contactors/auxiliary relays. The name 'repeat' means, these relays repeat the
the protected circuit, the relay (2) connected to the CT and PT actuates and closes its contacts (6). operations of protective relay. The repeat contractors close as the protective relay closes and they
Current flows from the battery (5) in the trip circuit (4). As the trip coil of the circuit breaker perform the function of sealing, holding. Fig. 26.2 gives a scheme in which the operations follow
(3) is energized, the circuit breaker operating mechanism is actuated and it operates for the opening· the following sequence. (Refer Fig. 26.2).
operation Auxiliary switch a is an important item in the circuit. To begin with the circuit breaker (not shown in the figure) is closed. Therefore auxiliary switch
(ASW) is closed, (as shown in the figure). If a fault occurs, protective relay operates and closes its
--------------503--l
502 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS

PR Protective Relay 26.4.1. Magnitude Measurement
PRC Contacts of Protective Relay
SC Sealing contacts The relays under this category respond to magnitude of actuating quantity such as current
S Sealing Coil (in series with trip circuit.) derived from group of CT's.
Jt' Flag indicator. Some other relays are energized by magnitude of voltage derived for group of VT's.
ASW Auxiliary Switch Contacts (operation in
conjunction with breaker) Some relays are energized by voltage and respond to parameter such as frequency, waveform,
T Trip Coil of CB rate of rise. Such relays also can be included in this category.
B-B Supply from battery, 110 V.D.C. The actuating quantity fed into the relay is derived from secondaries of CT's or VTs or both.
Fig. 26.2. Series Sealing Circuit, for closed position ofC.B. and Auxiliary switch. Hence the performance of the protective system depends upon the resultant output of the secondary
current/voltages fed into the relay.
contacts (PRC). Thereby current flows from battery system (BB) through sealing coil (S), ASW con-
tacts and trip coil (T). Circuit breaker trips. Meanwhile, the contacts (SC) operated by sealing relay The relays can be single actuating quantity type or multi-actuating quantity type.
(S) close and thus the contacts (PRC) of protective relay are relieved of further duty. Flag (F) 26.4.2. Product Measurement
operates either mechanically or electrically to indicate relay operation. The double actuating quantity type induction relay have two coils and are actuated by voltage
The auxiliary switch contacts open after a few cycles, as the circuit-breaker opens. The current and current. Thereby two fluxes are produced and the torque produced by their interaction is given
in the trip circuit is interrupted by auxiliary switch. by,
There are various methods of sealing such as series sealing (described above), shunt sealing, T=kVI cos 
etc. Fig. 26.3 illustrates the 'shunt Reinforcement' scheme. k being a constant. Thus, the relay can be arranged to respond to the product of two quantities.
RC = Relay contacts 26.4.3. Ratio Measurement
____,-r-,7 A,U,
PR
AR
= Protective Relay
= Auxiliary Relay
The relay can be arranged to operate for a particular setting of the ratio say Vil.
One coil of the relay is actuated by voltage V and gives a force F1 = k1 V.
~7:: ~-F--'"'--r-----,1
nc.,__~--~-~ AU
ASW
= Contacts of AR
= Auxiliary switch (shown closed) The other coil is energized by current I and gives a forces F 2 = k 1I when the relay is on the
operator in conjunction with
breaker verge of operation, F 1 and F 2 are equal,
-t B AR 13_ T = Trip coil k1 V= k2I
F = Flat
B-B = Battery voltage 110 V.D.C.
Hence
V- -k1- k
-
Fig, 26.3. Shunt Reinforcement Scheme for closed position ofC.B. and auxiliary switch. I - k2 -
In this scheme, to start with, the auxiliary switch ASW is closed as the breaker (not shown) is 26.4.4. Vector Difference (or Vector Sum)
closed. As the fault occurs, protective relay (PR) closes its contacts RC and current flows through The relay element can be connected in the secondary circuit of the CT's in sucli a way that the
(ASW) and trip coil (T). Meanwhile the auxiliary relay (AR) is energised and its contacts (AU) close, vector difference of secondary currents passes through the relay coil. Such arrangement gives a
thereby, the relay contacts (RC) are relieved of further duty. The trip circuit is opened by ASW as resultant current. ·
the breaker opens.
The auxiliary relays mentioned above are generally attracted armature type inst.antaneous 1=(11+12+/3)
relays.
The relay operates when I increases above certain value.
The 'Flag' also called 'indicator' or 'target' indicates on the relay that the relay has operated.
In some relays, the movement of element of the relay pushes a small shutter to expose the indicator.
In some relays the shutter is opened by electrically operated device. The resetting of indicators is 26.5. TYPE OF RELAYS UNITS
usually ma11ual. The operator notes th~ indication and then resets the indicator. On a relay panel, (a) Attracted Armature type (Electromagnetic) Relay
there are generally several r~lay~. Indicators indicate, which relay has operated. Thereby the at- (b) Balanced Beam (Electromagnetic) Relay
tendant knows the cause of circuit-breaker tripping.
(c) Induction Disc (Electromagnetic) Relay
The contact systems of static r~lay are quite different.
(d) Induction Cup (Electromagnetic) Relay
26.4. MEASUREMENT IN RELAYS (e) Moving Coil and Moving iron (Electromagnetic) Relay
(f) Gas operated (Buchholz) Relay (Gas pressure)
The discrimination in_volves.measurement of actuating quantities (voltage and current) which (g) Rectifier Relays (Rectifier plus moving coil unit)
are present at the relaymg pomt. (Ref. Sec. 25.11) by protective relays. The measurement in (h) Static Relay (static electronic circuit for measurement)
majority of protective relays can be grounded as follows : The electro-magnetic relay operates when operating torque/force exceeds the restraining
- Magnitude measurement such as over current, overvoltage, undercurrent. torque/force.
~ Product measurement such as power (VI cos <jl)
- Ratio measurement such as impedance (Vil). 26.6. PICK-UP
7" Comparison between similar electrical quantities such as vector difference between currents When the relay operates, w~ say, the relay has picked-up. It simply means that the relay with
1,1. normally open contacts, has closed its contacts.
504 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION ELEC'l'ROMAGNETIC RELAYS 505
The pick-up value or pick-up level is the minimum value of operating quantity at which the 5. Ratio Rest to Pick-up can be as high as 90-95% for ~.c. relays and 60 to ,90% for d.c. relays,
relay is one the verge of operation, e.g., consider an over current relay. The current injected in the means of special design features. But in general the d1ffe~ence between picked-up and ~eset
relay coil is very gradually increased. At a current value of2.51 amperes, the relay has not operated is high because once, the relay has picked up the air gap 1s shortened and smaller magmtude
at a value of 2.52 amperes, the relay begins to operate. Then, 2.52 amperes is the pick-up value.' coil current can hold it in picked up position.
In some attracted armature type relays, moving iron and moving coil relays, the pick-up value (Refer definitions, section 26.8)
can be changed by changing the spring-tension. 6. These relays do not have directional feature unless they are provided with additional
_In i~duction disc relays, the pick-ul: value corresponds to pl~g-setting (described later). If plug polarized coil. .
settmg 1s 2.5 A, the relay sta~-ts operatmg at 2.5 A. If plug settmg is 3.5 A, relay starts operating 7. As they are fast and operate on d.c. and a.c., they are affected by transients. The transients
at 3:5 A and so on. However, ~n such relays the pick-up value is not exact, within about 5% of plug contain d.c. component in addition to a.c: wave. Th~refore, t~ough the steady state value may be
settmg. The relay may not pick-up exactly at the plug setting value due to errors introduced by less than relay's pick-up the relay may pick-up dunng transient state.
dust, friction, adjustment errors; and because operating torque is minimum at pick-up value,
8. VA burden depends on construction, setting etc. For a typical relay it is of the order of 0.2
26.7, RESET OR DROP-OFF to 0.6 VA for current range 0.1 to 0.4 A.
9. Modern attraction armature relays are compact, robust, reliable,
Now, we are talking about the relay which has already operated, and the actuating current is 10. Operating Principle, The electromagnetic force exer~e~ on the °:oving element is pro~or-
still flowing in the relay coil. As the operating quantity is gradually reduced, at some maximum
tional to square of the flux in air gap. If saturation is neglected it 1s proport10nal to square of ope1 at-
value, the relay value, the relay contacts which have closed, start opening. This condition is called
Reset or Drop off. ing current. We get
The value of operating quantity at which the relay (normally open) contacts which were closed F=K1I 2 -K2 TO
TRIP CIRCUIT
due to relay operation, start opening and coming to original state (open). where F = net force
K 1 = a constant
26.8. DROP OFF/PICK-UP RATIO
I
II
I~ current in operating coil
11 The ratio of 'drop-off value to pick-up value' is important in self-reset type electromagnetic K 2 = restraining force including friction.
I
(f:
relays. It is also called 'Holding Ratio'. Since 'pick-up' value is more than 'drop off value, the holding When relay is on the verge of operation, F is zero
ratio is always less than 1.
2
The drop out to cut off ratio is of the order of 0.6 to 0.99 for most electromagnetic relays. K 11 =K2
'1f
ARMATURE
26.9. ATTRACTED ARMATURE RELAY (ELECTROMAGNETIC ATTRACTION) Hence I= a constant. ELECTROMAGNET
COIL
These are simplest type of relays. These relays have coil or an electromagnet energized by coil. 11. Types of Constructions, There is a
The coil is energized by the operating quantity which may be proportional to circuit current or volt- variety. Fig. 26.6 illustrates a few types of struc- (a) Hinged armature type relay.
age. A plunger or rotating iron vane is subjected to the action of magnetic field produced by the tures of attraction armature type of relay.
operating quantity. It is basically a single actuating quantity relay. ·
1. Attracted armature relays respond to both a.c. and d.c. because torque is proportion to 1 , TRIP CIRCUIT
2
t
2. The attracted armature relays are fast
relays. They have fast operation and fast reset be-
cause of small length of travel and light moving
parts. 7(1
U)
3. They are described as instantaneous. But 0 60
their operating time does vary with current. Slow
z
0 N s
w 50
0 ACTIVATING
CURRENT
operating and resetting times can be obtained by (fJ
.., 40
:J A.C.ORD.C,
delaying in build up of or decay of flux in the mag- ~
netic circuit by fitting copper ring around the mag- w
::;
30
i=
net, and by means of bellows, dash pots, escapements (!) 20
z 0
etc. Operating time as slow as 0.1 sec. and resetting ~ 10
er:
time as slow as 0.5 sec. can be obtained by such w
Cl
means. 0 0
200 400 600 800 1000
4. On the other hand, very high operating CURRENT (PERCENT SETTING)
speeds are possible. One modern relay has 0;5 mil-

Fig, 26,5, Time current characteristic of a typical (b) Plunger type electromagnetic attraction relay, (c) Polarised moving iron type
lisecond of operating time. The current/time char- attracted armature relay.
__ acteristic' is hyperbolic (Fig. 26.5). Fig. 26.6. Attracted armature relay_,
506 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS 507
Applications of Attracted Armature type Electromechanical Relay torque is called operating current. The other one
Attracted armature relays have many applications in protection of a.c. and d.c. equipment. They
are however instantaneous relays and are sensitive to staring currents, load fluctuations and cur-
js called restraining current. If one of the_ coils is
actuated by voltage say V1 other by current I 2
V ~l
OPERATING
CHARACTERISTIC
(DARK) /<
IDEAL CHARACTERISTIC
rent surges. a: [/ POSITIVE TORQU
then the equation is I: =K is constant. This 5 REGION
Attracted armature relays can be designed to respond to over under current, over/under voltage, (!) ~- NEGATIVE
z
for both arc and d.c. applications. They are used as measuring relays or auxiliary relays. Their principle is used in impedance relays. TORQUE REGION
~
a: EFFE
most usual applications are : 1. Balanced beam relay is difficult to be w
0.
0
- Overs-current protection, the time lag is obtained by using instantaneous attracted-arma- designed over a wide range current because the
ture relays in conjunction with a definite time lag relay or inverse time lag relays. _force is proportional to I 2 . /
/
(RESTRAINING CURRENT)
-- Definite-time lag over-current and earth fault protection, the attracted armature relay is 0/
2. The relay of this type is fast and instan-
used in conjunction with definite-time-lag relay for over-current/earth fault protection. taneous. In modern relays, electromagnets are Fig. 26.8. Operating characteristics of
- Differential protection, the instantaneous attracted armature type relay is used for differen- provided in place of air-cored coils. Such relays balancea beam relay.
tial protection. can have time of the order of 1 cycle.
- Auxiliary Relays. Attracted armature relays are used as auxiliary all-or-nothing relays, in 3. High ratio of resetting quantity of operating quantity can be obtained.
the contact systems of protective relaying.
4. This relay is largely superseded by permanent magnet moving coil relay having better ac-
curacy and lower VA burden.
26.10.BALANCED BEAM RELAY (ELECTROMAGNETIC ATTRACTION PRINCIPLE)
5. VA burden of balanced beam relay depends on application. In current balance type the VA
. This type of balanced beam relay (Fig. 26. 7) consisted of a horizontal beam pivoted centrally, burden is of the order of 0.2, 0.4, 0,6 VA for 0.1 to 0.6 A range.
with one armature attached to either side. There were two coils, one on each side. The beam
remained in horizontal position till operating force became more than restraining force. The action 26.11. INDUCTION DISC RELAY (ELECTROMAGNETIC)
being similar to 'see saw' in children park in which a planl.5. is balanced on a support at the middle.
Children ride at the ends so that when one end goes up, the other comes down. In a balanced beam In this type of relay a metal disc is allowed to rotate between two electromagnets. The
relay, coils act like those playing children, The current in one coil gives operating force the current electromagnets are energized by alternating currents. The fields produced by the two magnets are
in other coil gives restraining force. The beam is given slight mechanical bias by means of spring displaced in space and phase. The torque is developed by the interaction of the flux of one of the
or weigh adjustment such that under normal condition the contacts are open. When operating magnets and the eddy currents induced in the disc by the other.
torque increases, the beam tilts and the contacts close. In current balance both coils are energized There are two popular constructions :
by current derived from C.T's. In impedance (balance) relay the coils are energized by V and I. - Shaded pole induction disc relay (Fig. 26.9)
- Watthour meter type induction disc relay (Fig. 26.12).
SHAD/Nlfi......._ ,1,
RING "'-.. '/1
l PLUN6ER
RESTRAINING
COIL
ft OPERA7'IN6
COIL
Fig. 26.7. Balance beam relay of early days.

Operating principle. Neglecting spring effect, the net torque is given by 26.9. Shaded Pole Construction.
T=KiJi2-K2Iz2 Referring to Fig. 26.9, the shading ring is a copper band or a coil. Effect of shading ring is to
where T = net torque produce flux in the shaded portion of the magnet (<h) which is displaced in phase and space from
I 1 = current in operating coil the flux in the remaining portion (<j> 2 ). The flux <j> 1 induces e.m.f. E 1 is the disc at 90° to <1>i, The
I 2 = current in restraining coil e.m.f. E1 produces currents I1 lagging behind E 1 by small angle. The interaction between
K1, K2 = constants. 11 and Q 2 produces· torque, which is proportional to <j> 2 I 1 cos a, where I 1 cos a is component of I 1 in
phase with <j> 2 . Greater the angle e, greater is the torque.
At the verge of operation, net torque is zero, therefore,
The torque equation of single quantity induction relay may be expressed as
K1Ii2 =K2Iz2 I
T=KiJ2 -K2
I1
=·\/Ki =constant.
A ~
I T = Net torque
2
I = Current in relay coil
The operating characteristic is shown in Fig. 26.8 which is an approximate straight line, slightly K1, K2 = Constants.
curved for low currents due to effect of spring. The current which gives operating torque or positive
Ji)LECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS 509
--
the relative position of contacts by adjusting the length of travel of moving contacts.
6. The effect of d.c. offset may be neglected with inverse time single quantity induction relay,
because they are generally slow. The d.c. offset may effect fast relays.
7. Ratio of reset of pick-up is high because operation does not involve any change in air gap.
$ 1 = Flux in shaded portion of magnet
The ratio is above 95%.
$2 = Flux in unshaded portion of magnet
E 1 = e.m.f. induced in the disc due to <1>,. 8. Operating time. Inverse time characteristic is obtained by disc relays (Fig. 26.12). It is 10
11 = Current in the. disc induced by E 1. to 60 sec.
Torque oc q>2 11 cos o:. 'l'orque Equation of an Induction Disc Relay
o: =angle between <!> 2 and l 1. Let <j> 1 = sin rot
<j> 2 = sin (rot+ 0)
1,
Fig. 26.10. Vector diagram of fluxes and current, for shaded pole induction disc relay.
Similar results are obtained by Watthour meter type induction disc relay (Fig. 26.12). The con-
struction of this relay is similar to the watthour meter commonly used ever,ywhere. It consists of
an E-shaped electromagnet and a U-shaped electromagnet with a disc free to rotate in between.
7
The E-shaped magnet produces flux <1>1 and the U-shaped magnet produces flux say <j> 2 • The phase
.JO
angle 0 between the fluxes is adjusted by a reactance in parallel with the secondary winding. 9 ,\..
Torque is produced by interaction between flux and the eddy currents in the disc (produced by 8
,\.. '\.
7
flux <!>1 and <!>2), The relay coil is tapped at several points. The current setting is selected by inserting
a knob to take desired number of turns of the coil in the circuit.
6
5 '''"
r-..'\.'-.;:: r-..."'-..
1. The operation of induction relay can be controlled by opening secondary coil, as opening of
this coil makes relay inoperative. 4 ~"-"" ~ ~ I'..
\~ ~ ~ ~--.... r-.....r--.... .........
"'
~"''
INPUT
3
~
TIME
'flz ~ r--.... r--... r,...
''
..... I'-,
r-,...
PLUG SETTING MUL TIPLIEA
TO GET 0ES!REO '-i-,..
NO. OF TURNS IN
0
~ 2
r--.... .... r--... .... I'-~ l·O SETTING
0·9
THE COIL
r--.... " r--... r-,... r--.i-,..
~ "'
r-..r-,..
~
~
w 0·8
::.
;: :'-... r--.... r-,...
0·7
~
~
j RELAY
COIL
~
z
;:
~ 1·0
~ ....
~
"" .....
r--.r--.
,,
0·6
0·5
----
~
t 09
o 08 I\.. ....... --..... 0•4
-..........
0·7
"' f"-...
r--....,. 0·3
06
"'
05
0·4
"' r--..,_ .....
r--. r--....
0·2
03
'r--
Fig. 26.11. Inverse characteristic. Fig. 26.12. Watthour meter type induction disc relay. ~ O·l
2. The time/current characteristics of induction disc relay
O·2
is inverse characteristic (Figs. 26.11 and 26.14). The time
reduces as current increases.
3. The VA burden depends on rating. It is of the order of
2.5 VA.
i
4. Modern induction disc relays are robust and reliable. 2 3 ' 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20
5. The current setting can be changed by taking the suitable CURRENT (MULTIPLES OF PLUG SETTING)
Fig. 26.13. Torque production in an
number of turns. The .time setting can be obtained by changing induction relay. Fig. 26.14. Inverse characteristics of induction disc relays on log scales.
ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS 511
be the two fluxes at a phase difference of 0 and which produce eddy currents i$ 1 and i$2 in the disc;
d$1 f
~ -------- ',I
i$1 = dt oc $ cos cot I
I
I
II
d$2 I I
i$ 2 = & oc cos (rot + 0) I I
F = (F 2 - F 1) oc $2 i$1 - ~l i$2
where Fis net force due to interaction between $2 and $1. F 1 is force due to interaction between I
$1 and $2 . ~¢,
I
I
F oc $1 $ 2 [sin (cot+ 0) cos cot - sin wt cos (cot+ 0)] I I
I I
oc $1$2 sin 0. 4<11
L,. _ _ _ , )
I
26.11.1. Plug Setting and Time Setting in Induction Disc Relays I
In these relays, there is a facility for selecting the plug setting and time setting such that the
same relay can be used for a wide range of current, time and characteristics.
__ ;
:
/'
ROTATING
CUP
Time multiplier setting is generally in the form of an adjustable back-stop which decides the Ei.l:CTROMAGNET
arc-length through which the disc travels, by reducing the length of travel, the time is reduced. Fig. 26.15. Induction cup structure. Fig. 26.16. Two pole induction relay.
The time multiplier setting is marked from about 0.1 to 1, with major divisions marked in between.
If relay takes a certain time, say S seconds with time multiplier setting 1, the same relay will take 2. The relay can be responsive to voltage or current, Similar structures are used in either cases.
time equal to T x S seconds for time multiplier setting T, other conditions remaining the same. 3. The double actuating quantity relay can be responsive to both voltage and current.
The arrangement is such that for various plug settings, the ampere-turns (amperes of plug set- 4. The operating time characteristic depends on the type of structure. The relays have inverse
ting x turns of coil corresponding to the plug setting) are constant for various plug settings. Thereby, time characteristic.
the relay characteristics remains the same for various plug settings, for a given time setting. Ac- A modern induction cup relay may have. an operating time of the order of 0.010 second.
tually, the relay should start operating at current equal to plug setting. However, due to friction,
dust etc. the operations may not take place at exact plug setting value. 26.13. PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL RELAY
The relay characteristic is plotted with multiples of plug setting as an abscissa (log scale) and
In this relay the coil is free to rotate in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet. The actuating
time in seconds (log scale) as ordinate. Suppose, current injected in relay coil is 10 Amp and plug.
current flows through the coil. The torque is produced by the interaction between the filed of the
setting is 2.5 Amp., then plug setting multiplier will be 10/2.5 = 4.
permanent magnet and the field of the coil.
Fig. 26.14 illustrates typical characteristics of induction disc relays, on log scales.
1. The relay responds to d.c. only. However it is used in a.c. systems in conjunction with a
26.11.2. Effect of Time-setting rectifier.
By reducing the time multiplier, the characteristic is shifted to lower side, indicating that
2. The characteristic is varied by adjusting the control
operating time is reduced (Fig. 26.14).
spring. The time setting is obtained by adjusting the position of
Plug Setting bride is provided with induction disc relays and it provides a wide range of current the contact.
settings. The plug setting refers to the magnitude of current at which the relay starts to operate. 3. The operating torque is proportional to current in the coil.
The plug setting bridge comprises connections tapped from relay coil. By inserting the plug, in a The force on the coil side is given by
particular gap in the bridge, a certain number of turns of the relay coil are brought into circuit. FocNHIL
)"here F =Force COIL
26.12. INDUCTION CUP RELAY (ELECTROMAGNETIC) H = Magnetic field vector in the gap
This relay has two, four or more electromagnets, in stator. These are energized by the relay I= Current in the coil
PERMANENT
coils. A stationary iron core is placed as shown in Fig. 26.15. The rotor consists of a hollow metallic L = Length of the coil. MAGNET
cylindrical cup. The rotor is free to rotate in the gap between the stationary iron and the electromag- Fig. 26.17. Permanent magnent
and torque is given by 1' = 2rF
nets. In this type of relay, the eddy currents are produced in the metallic cup. These currents in- moving relay.
teract with the flux produced by the other electromagnet and torque is produced. The theory is where r = Radius of coil
similar to that of the disc type induction relay.
4. The time/current characteristic of such relays is shown in Fig. 26.18. It is an inverse char-
In Fig. 26.15 structure employing four poles is shown. It has an iron core at the centre and a
metal cup between the core and electromagnet. acteristic.
Fig. 26.15 shows a two pole structure. The two fluxes $1 and $2 are at right angles and produce 5. The relay of this kind has uniform torque for the varioui;; positions of the coil. Hence it can
eddy current in the cup. Thereby torque is produced. be accurately set. Theoretically the reset value is equal to operating value.
1. Modern induction cup relays have 4 or more poles. A .control spring and moving contacts are 6. Another popular type of moving coil construction is shown in Fig. 26.19. The coil is supported
carried on an arm attached to the spindle of the cup. axially and moves horizontally when current is passed.
ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS
513
26.14.2. Relays for Two Quantities
0·7 In the relays for two measured quantities (Fig. 26.20.2) the two rectifier bridges are intercon-
~ nected on the D.C. side in opposition and the moving-coil system is inserted between the two con-
~ nections.
~
~ I
o I
-...:.
I
AXIALLY I
~
I
{:r]"'--4-,i-
i::: 0•2 i-----,._~SUPPORTT D = Moving-coil system
~
i::: O•/ --------------~--;;:::_-,,,,,,,..,___ t----J I A= Relay out
S N TRIP M, M 1 , M 2 = Measured quantities
~ I
~
0'--------''----'-----cc1-----L---
I
I t I E, Ei, E 2 = Input networks
____(,... 1) -~
~
L
200 400 600 800 G, G 1 , G2 "' Rectifiers
CURRENT(PERCENTAGE SETTING)
_,._.. ' I A
Fig. 25.18. Current-time characteristics of a typical Fig. 25.19. Moving coil relay with
moving coil permanent magnet relay. axial moving <;oil. I
I
This relay is faster than the r?tating coil type because of the small travel, light parts. Time of
th_e ?rder of 3_0 m se~. can ?e obtamed. VA burden is small. Sensitivity can be made as low as 0.1
milliwatt. Axial movmg cml relays are delicate and should be handled with care.
~~I _____
I .
,
II
I
I
I
I Ei
l
26.14. RECTIFIER RELAY SYSTEMS Fig. 26.20.2. Rectifier relay for two quantities.
(Courtesy: Brown Boveri Ltd., Switzerland.) The measurement is thus based on the comparison of the two quantities in a bridge circuit
T~~ moving coil relays are be~ng increasingly used with rectifier relays. In such relays, the according to the electrical balance principle. Since rectification eliminates the influence of frequency
quantities to be measured are rectified and then fed to the moving coil unit. and phase angle, this comparison amounts to arithmetical subtraction of one current from the other.
The principle and applications of such relays will now be briefly outlined (Fig. 26.20). The contacts of the moving-coil system either move in the tripping direction or stay in the block-
In the ~ystems whi?h measu_re rectifi_ed qu'.1ntities, henceforth referred to as rectifier relays, ing position, depending on which current is greater.
the measurmg element 1s a p~larized movmg-co1l relay. This ready integrates the arithmetic mean. By choosing suitable input networks, not only can the measured quantities be compared with
va~ue of th_e measure~ quantity. On accou~t of the time taken by integration, it is not possible to one another, their product or quotient can also be determined.
gam the h1&'h measurm_g speed of el~ctromc relays. However, the rectifier relays are faster than
the mechanical relays smce the movmg coil has a very small mass.
26.15. THERMAL RELAYSj BIMETAL RELAYS, THERMOCOUPLES
26.14.1. Relays for One Quantity [Fig. 26.20:1]
1'hermal Relays. These relays operate the thermal effect of electric current. Generally, they
As Fig. 26.20 .shows the design _of a relay for one quantity is quite simple. It comprises an input
network, t~e rectifier and the movmg-coil measuring system. do not measure the temperature directly.
In the ~nput netwo~k the _me~sured quantity supplied by the main instrument transformer is Thermal relays sense the current by the temperature rise produced by the current. Thermal
relays can also respond to unbalanced three phase currents, which cause rise in temperature due '•
con':'~rted mto a form m_wh1ch it c:in be processed. The network has setting resistors and an IJ
aux1l~ary transformer which, apart from converting the measured quantity also serves as an in- to their negative sequence component. 11
sulatmg transformer. '
The simplest thermal relay used in motor starters, overload protection devices employ a
i
I E G bimetallic st.rip mounted above a resistance wire wound heater coil. The passage of current through
I 0 '
the coil causes the bi-metallic strip to deflect and thereby close the relay contacts. A system oflevers
7-~"-+----1 I d> A
is arranged to obtain the closure .compensation for ambient temperature arranged is usually
provid<Jd by another bimetal strip, shielded from heater coil and arranged to oppose the bending
of main bi-metallic strip.
I
I i . J
The bimetal strip consists of two metal strips having different coefficient of (thermal) expan-
sions joined together. As the combined strip is heated, one strip expands more than the other. One
Fig. 26.20.1. Rectifier relay for one quantity. support is fixed and uneven expansion causes bending of the strip. This effect can be used to obtain
.The qu~ntity is re_ctified in a full wave bridge (full-wave rectifier with centre tap). It may be closure of relay co.otacts.
equipped with smoothmg elements. Temperature Indicators and contr·ollers employing thermocouples are becoming extremely
.The re~tified .quantity is then fed to the moving-coil measuring system, which is usually popular in various temperature indicating and controlling devices for higher (above 60°U) tempera-
eqm~ped ~1th series and parallel ~es~stor for adjustment of the pick-up value. The contact of the· ture range. 'l'hey are finding thei1· way in protective relaying too. A thermocouple consists of a junc-
movmg-cml system actuates the tr1ppmg relay and signalling device. tion of two selected materials, the junction is connected in electric circuit. 'l'he difference in
514 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS 515
temperature between the hot junction and cold junction induces e.m.f. This e.m.f. is measured by TO LINE C.T.
a sensitive moving coil element.
Resistance temperature measuring devices employ the principle that the resistance of conduc-
tors increases with the temperature. The change in resistance is used for measuring the tempera-
ture. In large generators resistance temperature detectors are provided to measure temperature of
stator winding.
·In case of 3-phase motor, triple-pole bimetal relays are used. The bending ofbimetal strip causes
the movement of a common lever, which in turn operates the trip contact or trip lever in case of
over load. The bimetal strip is heated directly by the current flowing in through it or by spacing
ALUMINIUM SECTOR
heating coil. In case of bigger motors they are connected via current transformers.
Eutectic Alloy Relays operate on a different principle. In such relays a special alloy "Eutectic
Alloy" is used. It is filled in a tube. When heated to a certain temperature, the alloy melts. A heater
SHADING RESISTANCE
coil, which is in series with motor circuit encircles the above mentioned tube filled with Eutectic RING
Alloy. When the current supplied to motor increases, the alloy melts and thereby the ratchet is
released, thereby the contacts open by spring mechanism. Under normal conditions the Eutectic
Alloy is solid and the control circuit is not closed. As soon as the Eutectic relay operates the coil is
disconnected and- the alloy cools and solidifies. Control circuit can be reset manually.
Winding thermostat usually comprises a tube containing a bimetal operated snap switch. The
thermostat can be embedded in a motor winding. The snap switch can have normally open (NO) Directional Element: Electro-magnetic System.
Fig. 26.21 (b). Directional relay induction disc type.
or normally closed (NC) contacts, and is to trip motor contactor or circuit breaker. Further details
are given in the chapter "protection of Motors". (Acknowledgements to: Mr. V.S. Bhatia, Siemens (direction) of power applied at their terminals. 'Directional relays" are used in protective system
Paper : Over-load protection of motors, Courtesy : Siemens India Ltd.). as elements which judge the direction of power flow. .
Both Direction Power Relays and Directional Over-current, Directional Earth fault rel~ys come
26.16. DIRECTIONAL RELAYS under the group "Directional Relays". inductional disc t:ype-watthou~ mete_r type constru~tional_ can
26.16.1. Principle of Measurements be modified to obtained directional feature. When directional f?~tu~e is des1~ed, the relay 1s provided
with two actuating coils called 'Current Coil' and 'Voltage Coil. Fig. 26.211ll11:strates t?e construc-
Active-power flowing through a part of an electric circuit is given by tion of an a.c. directional relay. Applications of directional relays have been discussed m Sec. 27.5.
P=VI cos <j> Induction cup relays having 4, 6, 8 pole construct.ion are also used as directional relays. T~rn
where <j> is a phase angle between I and V current coils of the relays are connected to the secondary of CT's (1 A, 5 A or 0.5 A). Volta~e c01~s
of directional relay are connected to the secondary of PT's. (110V). The me~ho~ of connec~10ns 1s
'I'he reactive power is given by VI sin <j>
important. Depending upon the phase angle between current and voltage m tne relay coils, the
Referring to Fig. 26.21 (a). connection is called go 60° 30° connection. The values of angles refer to the phase angle b~twe~n
0
current of the current c~il a~d voltage of the voltage coil. Fig. 26.22 explains the phase relationship
For 270° < <j> < + 90°, cos <j> is positive,
o ~ of a 90° connected directional relay.
0
hence real power P is positive.

For <j> = goo and 180°, real power Pis zero. ~ ~ a! fla
-s ~I ~ffi
For + 90° < <j> < + 270° real power P is ~ w~~a. a
negative. Therefore the power flow can be
sensed by s~nsing the magnitude and sign of
'-J s a - Phase directional relay /0 , Vbc at goo
REGION OF .::l,.t/ REGION OF POSITIVE b - Phase directional relay le, V,1 at goo
VI cos <j>. The voltage coil of the directional NEGATIVE Cos,0 ✓ Cos 0
C - Phase directional relay l,, vab at goo
relay is supplied from secondary of voltage-
transformer. The current coil is supplied from ¢ :::180° \," V
the secondary of current transformer. [Ref. REFERENCE
Fig. 26.21 (b )] .
C-..-----==-- b
The directional relay senses the power ltb
and responds if the power is positive. (For fur- Fig. 26.22. 90° connection of directional relay : phase relationship.
ther details Ref. Sec. 26.16.4). Maximum torque angle of directional relay is the angle be~ween current in the curre~t coil and
26.16.2. Directional Relays voltage applied to voltage coil to obtain maximum torque. Maximum torque angle has typical values
0 ·,,
? ::j such as 0°, 30°, lead 45" .£\t~. _

Directional protection responds to flow of
power in a definite direction with reference to
the location of CT's and PT's Directional
N
II
-0. '-
'i 26.16.3. Principle of Operation of Directional Element
Th
e mov1
·ng system of induction disc type dir_ectional relay comprises an aluminium sector and
• Th h · · ··
relays respond to the magnitude and sign Fig, 26.21. (a). Vector diagram of Power. a contact which are fixed to a vertical spindle fitted with hardened stee1 pivots. e . mr, sprmg,
which is attached to the spindle at one end and to the main frame at the other, is equipped with
a torsion setting device and serves two purposes ; (a) as control spring and (b) as the electrical
connection from the moving contact to the main frame.
Technical Data of a Frequency Relay
- Rated voltage 100/110 V, ± 20%
517 l
- Scale 46 - 54 Hz
Under healthy system conditions or, under fault conditions where the current flow is in the - Accuracy of set value ± 0.4%
normal directional, eddy currents induced in the sector produce a torque the direction of which - Setting range for time lag O.J. - 0.3 sec.
restrains relay operation. Should current reversal occur, then the direction of the torque reverse 0.1-- 0.5 sec.
causing the moving system to rotate and thus close the contacts, the latter being so connected that 0.25 -1 sec.
they complete the I.D.M.T. element operating coil circuit. 1 - 5 sec.
The maximum torque exerted on the movement occurs when the voltage and current in the -- Consumption 12 VA
coils are in phas.e: However, a.s the system power factor may be considerably removed from unity
under fault cond1t10ns, dependmg on both the nature of the fault and system conditions, the element 26,19. UNDER-VOLTAGE RELAYS
can be supplied. with a phase-angle suited to the particular application, i.e. the relay is arranged Under voltage protection is provided for A.C. Circuits, bus-bars, motors, rectifiers, transformers
to develop maximum torque at the probable phase-angle introduced by fault conditions. This is etc. such protection is given by means of Under-voltage relays. Under-voltage relays are necessary
achieved by employing a suitable shading ring, the requisite value ofresistance and the appropriate for voltage control and reactive power control of network buses and load buses. Undervoltage relays
connection.
can have instantaneous characteristic or inverse characteristic depending upon the construction
and design. Inverse time undervoltage relays have inverse characteristic, their operating time
26.17. POLARIZED MOVING IRON RELAYS reduces with reduction in voltage. Induction disc type construction is used for Inverse undervoltage
These are mov~ng iro~1 .relays with an additional polarising feature. Polarising quantity is one relay. The relay coil is energized by voltage to be measured either directly or via a voltage trans-
that produces flux m add1t10n to the main flux. A moving iron relay can be polarised by providing former.
a permanent magnet in its magnetic circuit. Fig. 26.24 shows a polarized relay. The construction of instantaneous under-voltage relays is similar to usual induction relay or
Polarization increases the sensitivity of the relay, the other features of the relay as combina- attached armature relay. But the directions of torque/forces on the movable element of relay are
tions of speed, sensitivity, characteristics etc. can be modified by means of polarization. different. For normal voltage, the restraining torque/force reduces and the relay operates due to
operating torque/force given by the spring.
26.18. FREQUENCY RELAYS' Typical setting-range of an Inverse Undervoltage Relays :
- 50 to 90%, Adjustable in equal steps of 10%.
The frequency of induc~d e.m.f. of synchronous generators is maintained constant by constant
speed. In case_ of overspeedmg due to loss of load, underspeeding due to increase in load etc. the - For 240 V or 400
frequency varies from normal value. Frequency relays are used in generator protection and for - Disc resets completely at 10% or lest of voltage setting.
Load-frequency control. (Ref. Sec. 45. 7) - Inverse characteristic.
- Consumption 5 VA at setting voltage.
Frequency relays are either electromagnetic or
static. They can be under-frequency relays or over-fre- ~ c{lcoNTACTS
26.20. D.C. RELAYS
quency relays. Pf!RMANE'NT
MAGNET
Frequency relays are generally connected to the Induction disc type and Induction cup type constructions are not suitable for d.c. Moving iron
secondary of voltage transformer. The frequency relay
type, permanent magnet moving coil type, thermal type constructions are employed fo: d.c. relays.
Permanent magnet moving coil relays have relatively high accuracy. Low consumption and are,
m?nitors the frequency continuously. It has two pairs of therefore, widely used for d.c. circuits. Static relays are being increasingly preferred for d.c. use.
coils, constituting Ferraris Measuring System. The two (Ref. Sec. 26.13).
pairs of coil$ are connected in parallel to the supply volt- Applications ofD.C. Relays. D.C. rela)'.s are used in d.c. t!·?lley-bus systems,. mo~or control,
age through impedances. The impedances vary with fre-' electroplating works, chemical and metallurgical processes, aux1hary and control c!l'cmts.
quency of suppl?, The impedances are tuned such that D.C. current relays are developed for controlling direct current, i.e. either ris~ in current,. or
no torque is exerted on the cup-rotor at rated frequency. fall in current or reverse current. D.C. relays are also developed for current regulatmg, summation
The torque exerted on the cup-rotor be clockwise or an- or differential operations.
ticlockwise depending upon the frequency is higher or D.C. voltage relays are generally suitable for control of d.c. voltage i.e. either rise in voltage or
lower than the rated frequency. fall in voltage or reversal of voltage, special designs are available for regulating the voltage. .
The frequency setting can be varied by vai·ying the D.C. relays are used for a.c. applications in conjunction with rectifiers. These are called Rectifier
, Relays.
pos~tion of sliding resistor. 'rhe pick-up sensitivity can be Fig. 26.23. Polarized. Relay.
vaned by adjusting the restraining spring.
26.21. ALL-OR-NOTHING RELAYS
. The :·ela~ can o~erat~ on u.nder-frequency or over-frequency. The under voltage relay is general- In 'All-or-nothing relays', the pick-up value is not critical. The relay does not perform precise
lay provided m conJunction with under frequency relay.
measurement but it does not operate and changes its state (open contacts, close contacts). All-or-
"' Ref. Sec. 45.8 for static frequency relay, load-frequency control. nothing relay~ include tripping relays, repeat contactors, time-lag relays, trip circuit supervision
~
r:.

relays, auxiliary relays, indicator relays, etc. Such relays assist the measuring relays and they take t the case for the purpose of testing keeping the connections undistributed. The terminals of cur-
over the various duties such as time lag, tripping indication etc. from the protective relay. Thereby, ;;nt transformers are automatically short circuited. Such relays-can be tested by inserting test
the protective relay can be designed for less burden and more sensitivity. plugs bet.ween finger contacts between the case and the carriage.
Repeat contactors are important components ofrelay contact systems. They repeat the opera-
tion of the measuring relay and relieve the latter of the duties such carrying current for a longer
period. Th11s the contacts of the measuring relay are relieved of other tasks and they can be made QUESTIONS
of light w~1ght, delicate resulting in higher sensitivity of relay and less burden.
1. Define the following terms : Pick-up, reset.
Alarhi relays initiate alarm. In many abnormal conditions such as overload, the tripping of 2. With a neat sketch, describe the difference between definite characteristic and inverse characteristic
essential service motors or equipment may not be desirable. In such cases alarm is provided. So of relays. .
that the operator is alerted and can take corrective action. Alarm : visual (lamps) and audible (bell), 3. Describe the various types of constructions of attracted armature type relay. Why can they operate
Tripping relays are fast, instantaneous relays and are generally attracted armature type. with a.c. and d.c.? State its salient features.
They are either hand or electrically reset type, Their operating time is of the order of 10 ms, Trip- 4. Describe the construction of an induction disc relay. State its principle of operation.
ping relays have a few pairs of robust contacts, Tripping relays are used for high speed tripping What are the advantages to induction relays. How is the cunent setting and time setting obtained?
duties where a number of simultaneous switching operations are desired, 5. State the advantages and disadvantages of a moving coil permanent magnet relay. Can it be used for
Flag indicator relays are used for obtained indications of the operation of a remote protective a.c. circuit~ ? How?
device. The operation of a relay indicates operation of the corresponding measuring relay and cir- 6. State the application of thermal relays. Describe the principle of operations. Give a schematic diagram
cuit-breaker. of automatic temperature control of a furnace.
7. Explain the principle of Directional Element. Where is it applicable?
26.22. PLUG SETTING (Ref. Sec. 26.11.1. and 26.11.2) 8. What are Rectifi(c)r Relays? Explain the components.
It should be possible to use the same relay for a certain range of current/voltage. Hence a plug 9. Explain the principle, types and applications of thermal relay.
setting bridge is provided with electromagnetic relays. The plug setting refers to the reference value
of operating quantity at which the relay starts operating. If by inserting the plug, setting of 2.5 is
selected, the relay will start operating when the current in relay coil (secondary current of (CT) is
about 2.5 A or more. Fig. 26.12 illustrates the principle of plug setting. Plug setting determines
the number of turns tapped from the relay coil. The current-time characteristic for various plug
setting, is generally same, provided time setting remains unchanged. Such performance is achieved
by matching the plug-setting aµd corresponding number of turns tapped from the coil such that
the Ampere-turns remains same for various plug-settings.
26.23. TIME SETTING (Refer Fig. 26.14)

In induction disc relays, the starting position of the moving contact is adjusted by means of
back-stop. The time taken by relay to close is decided by the length of arc through which the moving
contact travels, before touching the fixed contacts.
By increasing the length of travel of moving contacts, the relay time is increased. By reducing
the length of travel, the relay time is minimised. 1'he time setting dial is marked from 1 to 0.1.
26.24. TEST FACILITY

It should be possible to test the relay by injection test without actually tripping the circuit
breaker, i.e. without closing the trip circuit, or without disturbing the panel wiring. In flush
mounted, withdrawable relays, the relay is mounted on a carriage which can be completely pulled
TO RELAY TO RELAY
FINGER INSULATING
CONTACTS PLUG
TO CONTROL TO CONTROL
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT
TEST CIRCUIT
(a) Normal position of finger contacts. (b) During testing ofrelay.
Fig. 26.24. Arrangement for testing the relay without disturbing circuit.
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION AND EARTH FAULT PROTECTION 521
27.2. APPLICATIONS OF OVER-CURRENT PROTECTION
Over-current protection has a wide :range of applications. It can be applied where there is an
abrupt difference between fault current within the protected section and that outside the protected
section and these magnitudes are almost constant. The over-current protection is provided for the
7 following:
Motor Protection. Over-current protection is the basic type of protection used against over-
loads and short-circuits in stator windings of motors. Inverse time and instantaneous phase and
· ground over-current relays can be employed for moto;·s above 1000 kW. For small/medium size
Overcurrent Protection and motors where cost of CT's and protective relays is not economically justified, thermal relays and
HRC fuses are employed, thermal relays used for overload protection and HR.C fuses for short-cir-
Earth Fault Protection cuit protection.
Transformer Protection, Transformers are provided with over-current protection against
Introduction -Applications - Relay Units - Characteristics - Methods of CT Connections -- Earth faults, only, when the cost of differential relaying cannot be justified. However, over-current relays
Protection - Directional Earth Fault Protection - Summary are provided in addition to differential relays to take care of through faults. Temperature indicators
and alarms are always provided for large transformers.
27.1. INTRODUCTION
Small transformers below 500 kVA installed in distribution system are generally protected by
As the fault impedance is less than load impedance, the fault current is more than load current. drop-out fuses, as the cost of relays plus circuit-breakers is not generally justified.
If a short circuit occurs the circuit impedance is reduced to a low value and therefore a fault is Line Protection. The lines (feeders) can be protected by :
accompanied by large current. Overcurrent relays sense fault currents and also over-load currents.
1. Instantaneous over-current relays.
Overcurrent protection is that protection in which the relay picks up when the magnitude of cur-
rent exceeds the pickup level. The basic element in overcurrent protection is an overcurrent relay. 2. Inverse time over-current relays.
The overcurrent relays are connected to the system, normally by means of CT's. Overcurrent 3. Directional over-current relays.
relaying has following types :
Lines can be protected by impedance, or carrier current protection also.
- High speed overcurrent protection.
- Definite time overcurrent protection. Protection of Utility Equipment. The furnaces, industrial installations, commercial, in-
dustrial and domestic equipment are all provided with over-current protection.
- Inverse minimum time overcurrent protection.
- Directional overcurrent protection (of above types).
27.3. RELAYS USED IN OVER-CURRENT PROTECTION
. Over-curr~nt protection. includes ~he protection from overloads. This is most widely used protec-
tion. <?verloadmg of a machine ~r eqmpment (generally) means the machine is taking more current The choice of relay for over-current protection depends upon the time/current characteristic
th_an. 1s rated current. ~ence ~1t~ overloading, there is an associated temperature rise. The per-
missible temperature rise has hm1t based on insulation class and material problems. Over-current
and other features desired. The following relays are used.
1. For instantaneous over-current protection.
ll
ii
protection of overloads is generally provided by thermal relays.
Over-curren~ pr_otection includes ~hm:t-circuit protection. Short circuits can be phase faults,
earth faults or wmdmg faults. Short-c1rcmt currents are generally several times (5 to 20) full load
Attracted armature type, moving iron type, permanent magnet moving coil type, static.
2. For inverse time characteristic.
I
current.
Electromagnetic induction type, permanent magnet moving coil type, static.
Hence fast fault clearance is always desirable on short-circuits.
3. Directional over-current protection.
When a machine is protected by differential protection, the over-current is provided in addition
as a back-up and in some cases to protect the machine from sustained through fault. Double actuating quantity induction relay with directional feature.
Several protective devices are used for over-curre~t protection. These include 4. Static over-current relays. (Ref. Ch. 40)
- Fuses
5. HRC fuses, drop out fuses, etc. are used in low voltage medium voltage and high voltage
- Miniature circuit-breakers, moulded-case circuit-breakers. distribution systems, generally up to 11 kV.
- Circuit-breakers fitted with overloaded coils or tripped by over-current relays.
6. Thermal relays are used widely for over-current protection.
- Series connected trip coils operating switching devices.
- Over-current relays in conjunction with current transformers.
27.4. CHARACTERISTICS OF RELAY UNITS FOR OVER-CURRENT PROTECTION
The primary requirements of over-current protection are :
There is a wide variety of relay-units. These are classified according to their type and charac-
- The protection should not operate for starting currents, permissible overcurrents, current teristics. The major characteristic include :
surges. To achieve this, the time delay is provided (in case of inverse relays). If time delay
"cannot be permitted, high-set instantaneom; relaying is used. - Definite characteristic - Inverse characteristic
- The protection should be co-ordinated with neighbouring over-current protections so as to - Extremely Inverse - Very Inverse
discriminate. - Inverse
522 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION OVERCURRENT PROTECTION AND EARTH FAULT PROTECTION
523
In definite characteristic, the time of operation is almost definite i.e., Referring to Fig. 27.2 the three current transformers and relay coils connected in star and the
1°t=K star point is earthed. When short circuit occurs in the protected zone the secondary current of CT's
increases. The current flows through coiler and the relay picks-up. The relay close, thereby the trip
where I= Current in relay coil circuit is closed and the circuit breaker-operates.
t = Relay lime
The over-current protection scheme with three over-current relays (Fig. 27.2) responds to phase
K = Constant.
faults and earth faults including single-phase to earth fault. Therefore such schemes are used with
In inverse characteristic, time is inversely proportional to current i.e. solidly earthed systems where phase to phase and phase to earth faults are likely to occur.
I 1tK In Fig. 27.2 the polarities of CT's are indicated by dots. For proper functioning of over-curi:ent
In more inverse characteristic. and earth fault protection, the choice of CT's and polarity connections should be correct.
Int.7:"K Fig. 27.3 illustrates the modified circuit with additional auxiliary relay and a definite time
relay. Definite time relay can be set to get desired delay. Auxiliary relay is used to close trip circuit.
where n can be between 2 to 8. The choice depends on discrimination desired.
Instantaneous relay are those which have no intentional time lag and which operate in less R------~ AUXILIARY
~WITCH
AUXILIARY
REL/,IY
Y---1--......- - -
than 0.1 second, usually less than 0.08 second. As such they are not instantaneous m real se~se. B ~-+--+----<1--
The relays which are not instantaneous are called 'Time Delay Relay'. Such elays are provided
7
with delaying means such as drag magnet, dash pots, bellows, escape mechamsms, back-stop ar-
11 -coNTACTS
rangement, etc.
The operating time of a re_lay for a ~articular
setting and magnitude actuatmg quantity can be
known from the characteristics supplied by the ~
i
ri
I
i
CB
TRIP
COIL
J DEFINITE-
-TIME RELAY
manufacturer. The typical characteristics are ~

shown in Fig. 26.14.
I\
An inverse curve is one in which the operating
I\
time· becomes less as the magnitude of the actuat-
I\ OVERCJJRRENT
ing quantity is increased. ~owever _for ~igher mag-
nitudes of actuating quantity the time 1s constant.
Definite time curve is one in which operating time
I '--.. . ,_-. ------- __-
_______ ;;::__;:,...,
RELAY
RELA'l COIL
is little affected by magnitude of actuating current.
However even definite time relay has a charac- QLIANTITY--
teristic which is slightly inverse. Fig. 27.1. Typical curves ofoperating time vs magnitude
The characteristic with definite minimum of actuating quantity.
time and of inverse type is also called Inverse
Definite Minimum Time (IDMT); characteristics (Ref. Fig. 26.14 also). R ·y~ B
Methods of Ct Connections in Over-current Protection of 3-Phase Circuits. Fig. 27.3. Circuit of Fig. 27.2 with addition of a common
time-delay relay and an auxiliary relay.
27.4.1. Connection Scheme with Three Over-current Relays
Over-current protection can be achieved by means of thr.ee over-c~rre~t r~lays (Fig. 27.2) or 27.5. EAR.TH-FAULT PROTEC'fION
by two over-current relays (Fig. 27.3). Ref. Sec. 26.2 for principle of Tnp Circmt. (Called Ground protection in USA)
When the fault current flows through earth return path, the fault is called Earth Fault. Other
faults which do not involve earth are called phase faults. Since earth faults are relatively frequent,
earth fault protection is necessary in most cases. When separate earth fault protection is not
R y B economical, the phase relays sense the earth fault currents. However such protection lacks sen-
RELAY
sitivity. Hence separate earth fault protection is generally provided. Earth fault protection senses
CONTACTS earth fault current.· Following are the method of earth fault protection.
TRIP
CB COIL OVERCURRENT
RELAYS 27.6. CONNECTIONS OF CT'S FOR EAR.TH-FAULT PROTECTION
lyt 1st + RELAY COIL
27.6.1. Residually connected Earth-fault Relay
-I,.
-.ry Referring to Fig. 27.7.
Ts --.h
In absence of earth-fault the vector sum of three line currents is zero.
Hence the vector sum of three secondary currents is also zero.
- - -
Fig. 27.2. Over-current protection with three over-current relays. las +lbs+ Ics = 0
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION oVERCURRENT PROTECTION AND EARTH FAUL'!' PROTECTION 525
524
connection of that voltage level. The fault current
The sum (las + 4s + lcs) is called residual cur- finds the return path through the earth and then
rent (!Rs) flows through the neutral-to-earth connection.
GENERATOR OR
The earth-fault relay is connected such that TRANSFORMER
The magnitude of earth fault current is depend-
the residual current flows through it (Ref. Figs. ent on type of earthing (resistance, reactance or
27.7 and 27.9). solid) and location offault. In this type of protec-
tion, the zone of protection cannot be accurately
In the absence of earth-fault, defined. The protected area is not restricted to
the transformer/generator winding alone. The
.._-~------------..,....le
In== 1 -t-l b +le;
+ ibs + Ls = 0
jresidual = las 0
relay senses the earth faults beyond the trans-
Therefore, the residually connected earth- former/generator winding. Hence such protection RELAY.
fa ult relay does not operate. However, in is called unrestricted earth-fault protection.
presence of _eart~ fa~lt the conditions is dis- Fig. 27.8. Earth-fault protection by earth-fault-relay
RESIDUAL The earth-fault protection by relay in neutral
turbed and (las + lbs + lc 8 ) is no more zero. Hence CURRENT connecte<l in neutral-to-earth circuit.
=- RELAY
to earth circuit depends upon the type of neutral
residual !residual flows through the earth-fault - . . . . earthing. In case of large generators, voltage
'd· 1 t · b h
re1ay. Ifthe res1 ua curren 1s a ove t e pie -up• k Fig. 27.7. Earth-fault Relay connected m Residual Cll'cu1t.
transformer is connected between neutral and earth. The earth-fault relay is connected to Secon-
value, the earth-fault relay operates. dary of VT. (Fig. 33.11)
In the scheme discussed here the earth-fault at any location near or away from the location of
CT's can cause the residual current flow. Hence the protection zone is not definite. Such protection 27.7. COMBINED EAR'fH-FAULT AND PHASE-FAUL'r PROTECTION
is called unrestricted earth-fault protection. For selectivity directional earth fault protection is It is convenient to incorporate phase-fault relays and earth-fault relay in a combined phase-
necessary. (Ref, Sec. 27.12). fault and earth-fault protection. (Fig. 27.9). The increase in current of phase causes corresponding
Connection Description Remarks increase in respective secondary currents. The secondary current flows through respective relay-
(1) One OC with one CT for For balanced overloads only. units. Very often only two phase relays are provided instead of three, because in cause of phase
--
(2)
¢ oc
overload protection
Two OC relays with two

CT's for line to line fault
CT's must be in same phase
in every station.
faults current in any at least two phases must increase. Hence two relay-units are enough. The
earth-fault relay is residually connected as explained earlier. [Ref. Fig. 35.4 (b) in Sec, 35.8)
~I ~
protection and overload
-·- 9
oc
protection. EARTH FAULT
RELAY
~f4
(3) Three OC relays with Earth fault protection for EF
-0~ three CT's for line to line current > 2 x pick-up phase
I fault protection current.
-
(4)
~ f as Three OC and one EF

relay for line to earth fault
protection and line. to line
fault protection
EF setting less than phase
fault setting.
*ft
--
-
(5)
~ ~ EF
Two 0C and one EF relays
for line to line earth fault
protection
EF setting less than full load.
(Ref. Fig. 27.10)
Fig. 27.9. Earth-fault protection combined with
phase-fault protect.ion. [Ref. Fig. 35.4 (b)]
(6)
ffl 1 One EF relay with core
balance CT
EF set.ting less than full load.
(Ref. Fig. 27.11) 27.8. EAR'fH-FAULT PROTECTION WITH CORE BALANCE CURRENT
TRANS!l"ORMERS. (ZERO SEQUENCE CT)
OC = Overcurrent ; EF = Earth fault. In this type of protection Fig. 27.10 (a) a single ring shaped core of magnetic material, encircles
Fig. 27.4. Methods of connections of 0C and EF Relays. the conductors of all the three phases. A secondary coil is connected to a relay unit. The cross-section
27.6.2. Earth-fault Relay connected in Neutral to Earth Circuit (Fig. 27.8). of ring-core is ample, so that saturation is not a problem. During no-earth-fault condition, the com-
Another method of connecting. an earth-fault relay is illustrated in Fig. 27 .8. The relay is con- ponents of fluxes due to the fields of three conductors are balanced and the secondary current is
nected to secondary of a CT whose primary is connected in neutral to earth connection. Such protec- negligible. During earth faults, such a balance is disturbed and current is inducted in the secondary.
tion can be provided at various voltage levels by connecting earth-fault relay in the neutral-to-earth Core-balance protection can be conveniently used for protection oflow-voltage and medium voltage
oVERCURRENT PROTECTION AND EARTH FAULT PRO'l'ECTION 527
526 Hence the zero-sequence component of I 0 produces the resultant <!>~- in the core. Hence core
systems. The burden of relay and exciting current Ia
balance current transformer is also called as zero sequence current transformer (ZSCT).
are deciding factors. Very large cross-section of
Application for Core Balance CT's with Cable Termination Joints
core are necessary for sensitivity less than 1 A.
Thus form of protection is likely to be more popular The termination of a three core cable into three separate lines or bus-bars is through cable
with static relays due to the less burden of the lat- EAi?TH .terminal box. Ref. Fig. 27.10 (b), the Core Balance Protection is used along with the cable box and
ter. Instantaneous relay unit is generally used FAULT should be installed before making the cable joint.
with core balance schemes. RELAY
The induced current flowing through cable sheath of normal healthy cable need particular at-
Theory of Core Balance CT. Let Ia, lb and tention with respect to the core balance protection.
J be the three line currents and i!ia, <l>b and
<l>e be The sheath currents (I8 h) flow through the sheath to the cover cable-box and then to earth
c~rresponding components of magnetic flux in the through the earthing connection between cable-box. For eliminating the error due to sheath current
core. Assuming linearity, we get resultant mag- (18h) the earthing lead between the cable-box and the earth should be taken through the core of the
[[ flows when there is an earth-fault and la+ lb+ le* OJ
netic flux <p,. as,
8
Fig. 27.10 (a). Principle of core-balance CT for earth core balance protection. Thereby the error due to sheath currents is eliminated. The cable box
fault protection. should be insulated from earth. (Ref. Sec. 31.11 also).
ip,.=k (la +lb +le)
1 • t nt ;i; - k I Referring to theory of symmetrical components (Ref. Ch. 21, Sec. 21.5) 27.9. FRAME-LEAKAGE PROTECTION
wh ere ,i 1s cons a '+'r - a· •
la+ lb+ le= 3le = ln The metal-clad switchgear can be provided with frame leakage protection. The switchgear is
lightiy insulated from the earth. The metal-frame-work or enclosure of the switchgear is earthed
here I is zero sequence current and I 11 is current in neutral to ground circuit.
W
' 0
with a primary of a CT in between (Fig. 27.11).
During normal condition, when earth fault is absent,
UNITS OF METAL-CUD
la +lb +le= 0 5WITCH6EAR
Hence ip,. = 0 and relay does not operate
During earth fault the earth fault current flows through return neutral path. For example for EARTHING BUS
I EARTH FA/Jl T
single line ground fault, r>---r--i---t-:~►:-.
5W/T(H6EAR 15
LIGHTLY !N5ULAT£D
FROM EARTH o:r.
R y B
II
Fig. 27.11. Principle of frame-leakage protection of metal-clad-switchgear.

1. Cable terminal box
2. Sheath of 3·core cable connection to (1) . The concrete foundation of the switchgear and the cable-boxes and other conduits are'slightly
3. Insulator support for 1 msulated from earth, the resistance to earth being about 12 ohms. In the event of an earth fault
4. Earthing connection passing through 5
5. Core balance CT within the switchgear, the earth-fault current finds the path through the neutral connection. While
doing so, it is sensed by the earth fault relay.
Circulating current differential protection also responds to earth-faults within its
protected zone.
Summary
Earth-fault protection can be achieved by following methods :
OVER CURRENT
RELAY - Residually connected relay
( FOi{ EA/?fll - Relay connected in neutral-to-ground circuit
,___ _ ___, FAULT
i:1-11--"'=-" f'ROT£CTION) - Core-balance~scheme
- Frame leakage arranged for detecting earth faults on lines. (Ref. Ch. 30).
- Circulating current diffe:rential protection. (Ref. Ch. 28).
fsh
Fig. 27.10 (b). Mounting of Core Balance CT with Cable Terminal Bux.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION OVERCURRENT PROTECTION AND EARTH FAULT PROTECTION 529
528
The cho~ce of relay connection is basically to select the phase across which the voltage coil is
27.10. DlREC'fIONAL OVER-CURREN'l' PRO'l'ECTION connected with _respect to current ~oil. Number of different connections can be used. The suitability
The over-current protection can be given directional foature by adding directional element (Ref. of e~ch_ c?nnect10n sho';1-l_d be exammed by considering the limiting conditions of voltage and current
Sec. 26.16.2) in the protection system. Directional over-current protection responds to overcurrents for hmitmg fault condit10ns, source and line impedances etc.
for a particular direction flow. If power flow is in the opposite direction, the directional over-current
protection remains un-operative. 27,11, DIRECTIONAL EARTH-FAULT PROTECTION
Directional over-current protection comprises over-current relay and power directional relay in
In the ~irectional over-current protection the current coil of relay is actuated from secondary
a single relay casing. The powers directional relay does not measure the power but is arranged to
current of hne CT. Whereas the current coil of directional earth fault relay is actuated by residual
respond to the direction of power flow. (Ref. Fig. 26.21 b). current.
Directional operation of relay is used where the selectivity can be achieved by directional relay-
. In directional over-current relay, the voltage coil is actuated by secondary ofline VT. In direc-
ing. The directional relay recognizes the direction in which fault occu~·s, r~lative to the location of tional earth fault relay, the voltage coil is actuated by the residual voltage.
the relay. It is set such that it actuates for faults occurring in one d1rect10n only. It does not act
for faults occurring in the other diI'ection. Consider a feeder XY (Fig. 27.12) passing through sub- Directiona~ earth fa:Ult relays sense the direction in which earth fault occurs with respect to
section A The circuit breaker in feeder AY is provided with a directional relay 'R' which will trip the relay locat10n; and it operates for fault in a particular direction. The directional earth fault
the breaker CB , if fault power flow in direction A, alone, Therefore for faults in feeder AX, the relay (single phase unit) has two coils. The polarising quantity is obtained either from residual
circuit breaker bB does not trip unnecessarily. However for faults in feeder Ay the circuit-breaker current (iRS =la+ lb+ le) or residual voltage (VRs =Vae + Vbc + Vee, where Vae Vbe Vee are phase vol-
CBy trips because ~ts protective relaying in set with a directional feature to act
in direction Ay, tages.)
Re~erring to Fig. 27.14 the directional earth-fault relay has two coils. One to the coils is con-
nected i? residual current circuits (Ref. Fig. 27.8). This coil gets current earth-faults. The other coil
gets residual voltage,
STATION
VRs == Vae + Vbe + Vee
CBA A CBy
where Vae, "be and Yee are secondary voltages of the potential transformer. (Three phase five limb
x--C~J-•~--+-----AYt--1
p~tential transformer or three separate single phase potential transformers connected as shown in
- - DIRECTION OF Fig. 27.14). The coil connected in potential-transformer secondary circuit gives a polarising field.
TRIPPING
The residual current IRES i.e. the out of balance current is given to the current coil and the
residual voltage VRES is given to the voltage coil of the relay. The torque is proportional to
T == hrns, VRES cos (- a)
Fig. 27 .12. Principle of directional Fig. 27.13. Reverse powers protection against motoring = angle between IRES, VRES
protection. action of a generator.
a== Angle of maximum torque.
Another interesting example of directional protection is that of reverse power protection of
generator (F'ig. 27.13). If the prime mover fails, the generator continues to run as a motor and takes
power from bus-bars. (Ref. Ch. 28).
Directional powei· protection operates in accordance with the direction of power flow. (Ref. Sec,
26.15).
-
DIRECTION FOR TRIPPING
Reverse power protection operates when the power direction is reverned in relation to the nor-
mal power flow. Reverse power relay is different in construction than directional over-current relay.
In dfrectional over-current relay, the directional current does not measure the magnitude of
power. It senses only direction of power flow. However, in Reverse Power Relays, the directional
~_.._ ____, j/11, . RT.
element measures magnitude and direction of power flow. II
Relay connections of Single Phase Directional Over-current Relay : R SIDUALLY
CONNCT£0
The current coils in the directional over-current relay (Ref. Fig. 26.21 b) are normally connected 5eCONOAR/£S
to a secondary of line CT. The voltage coil of directional element is connected to a line V'r, having DIRECTIONAL £,F, RELAY
phase to phase output (of 110 V). There are four common methods of connecting the relay depending
upon phase angle between cutrent in the current coil and voltage applied to the voltage coil. Fig. 27.14. Connections of a directional earth-fault relay.
Relay Connection. (e.g. 90", 60°, 30° etc) refer to the angle by which the current applied to Summary
the relay is displaced from the voltage applied to the relay. (Ref. Fig. 26.22). Over-current protection responds to increase above the pick-up value overcurrents are caused
The maxhnuro torque angle refers to the angle between the current applied to the relay and by overloads and short-circuits. The overcurrent relays are connected the secondary of current
the voltage applied to the relay to produce maximum torque.
- - -------------------------
transformer. The characteristic of over-current relays include inverse time character_istic, definite
time characteristic.
Earth fault protection responds to single line to ground faults and double line to ground faults.
The current coil of earth-fault relay is connected either in neutral to ground circuit or in residually
connected secondary CT circuit.
Core balance CTs are used for earth-fault protection.
Frame leakage protection can be used for metalclad switchgear.
Directional over-current relay and directional Earth fault relay responds to fault in which
power flow is in the set direction from the CT and PT locations. Such directional relays are used
when power can flow from both directions to the fault point.
Differential Protection
Differential protection - Applications - Circulating Current Differential Protection - Differential
QUESTIONS protection of 3 Ph. circuits - Biased Differential Relay - Balanced Voltage Differential Protection
1. State the various applications of over-current relaying. Distinguish between "inverse characteristics" -Summary.
and "definite characteristic".
2. With the help of neat sketches explain the principle of following: 28.1. DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
(a) Directional Over-current protection.
"A differential relay responds to vector difference between two or more similar electrical quan-
(b) Earth fault protection by residual connection.
3. Describe Directional earth fault protection.
tities".
4. Discuss the following methods of earth fault protection : Frorh this definition the following ·aspects are known :
- Core balance CT - Residually connected E.F. relay 1. The differential relay has at least two actuating quantities say Ii, 12 .
- Relay connected in neutral-to-ground circuit - Frame leakage protection. 2. The two or more actuating quantities should be similar i.e. current/current.
5. Describe the principle of a directional over-current relay. How does it help in discrimination in protec•
tion of 3. The relay responds to the vector difference between the two i.e. to I 1 - I 2 , which includes
- parallel feeder - ring mains. magnitude and/or phase angle difference.
6. Explain the back-up relaying with graded time lag over-current relays. Differential protection is generally unit protection. The protected zone is exactly determined
7. Explain the time-setting and plug-setting in an induction type ov:ercurrent relay. by location of CT's or VTs. The vector difference is achieved by suitable connections of current trans-
former or voltage transformer secondaries.
28.2. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION

,.
Most differential relays are current differential relays in which vector difference between the /
current entering the winding and current leaving the winding is used for sensing and relay opera-
tion.
Differential protection principle is used in the following applications
- Protection of Generator, Protection of Generator-Transformer Unit.
- Protection of Transformer.
- Protection of Feeder (Transmission Line) by Pilot wire differential protection.
- Protection of transmission Line by Phase Comparison Carrier Current Protection.
- Protection of large motors.
- Bus-zone protection.
28.3. PRINCIPLE OF CIRCULATING CURRENT DIFFERENTIAL (MERZ-PRIZE)

PROTECTION
Fig. 28.1 (a) illustrates the principle of differential protection of generator and transformer.
Xis the windfn.g of the protected machine. When there is no internal fault, the current entering in
Xis equal in phase and magnitude to current leaving X. The CT;s are of such a ratio that during
the normal conditions or for external faults (Through Faults) the secondary currents of CT's are
equal. These currents say l 1 and l 2 circulate in the pilot wires. The polarity connections are such
that the currents Ji and / 2 are in the same direction in pilot wires, during normal conditions or
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
r - -- - - _{:~D_T_E:~~- :o_N_E. 7 operation of differential relay though there is no fault in the transformer. To avoid this difficulty
Ia=lt FOR NORMAL I I, lz I Harmonic Restraint is provided for the differential relay. This relay filters the harmonic component
PROTECTED W!NDIN6 CONDITION ANO I ~ ~~.--.--.,-._ ___..,_ I
from the in-rush current and feeds it to the restraining coil. The magnetizing current contains a
X I2---THR0U6H FAULT
large content of several Harmonics. This harmonic content is used for obtaining restraining torque
I during switching in of transformer.
5. Tap-changing. The tap-changing causes change in transformation ratio of a transformer.
Thereby the CT ratios do not match with the new-tap settings, resulting in current in pilot wires
RELAY even during healthy condition. This aspect is taken care of by baised differential relay.
COil
For Through Fault Fig. 28.1 (b). Internal Fault: Ii -lz cf. 0.
28.5. DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION OF 3-PHASE CIRCUITS
Fig. 28.1 (a). Principle of circulating current relay of Referring to Fig. 28.2 during the normal conditions· the three secondary currents of CT's are
generators, transformers. balanced and no current flows through the relay coil. During fault in the protected zone, the balance
external faults. Relay operating coil is connected at the middle of pilot wires. Relay unit is of over- is disturbed and differential current flows through the relay operating coil. The differential current
current type. is above the pick-up value, the relay operates. (Ref. Sec. 27.6A).
During normal condition and external fault the protection system is balanced and the CT's Secondary of CT is never .left on-open circuit.
ratios are such that secondary currents are equal. These currents circulate in pilot wires. The vector
differential current 11 -12 which flows through the relay coil is zero. { PROTECTED ZONE
1-·- ------------------1
I l - l 2 = 0 (normal condition or external faults 1
4 ~I
This balance is disturbed for internal faults. When fault occurs in the protected zone, the cur- ·
I I
rent entering the protected winding is no more equal to the leaving the winding because some cur- R!LAV j __ _ I
rent flows to the fault. The differential I 1 -12 flows through the relay operating coil and the relay I . __ _..___-,-..___ _ __ COIL - - - - - - - - - - - • - - -J
operates ifthe operating torque is more than restraining torque.

I
.2L
The currents 11 and I 2 circulate in the secondary circuit. Hence CT's does not get damaged. ! i !
,. •• 1.. ____ .J ______ L •• ~ r,---1-1
t.¼+lh+lc= R
Polarities of CT's are considered. CT's are connecte1 such that the circulating currents I 1 and I 2
: ;
.: '-"POTECTED
are as shown in Fig. 28.1 (a) for normal condition. :I II ZONE
N RESTRAIN/NG COIL
I I N
2 2 OR BIASED COIL
28.4. DIFFICULTIES IN DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
•&..---- ---- --- _______ J
1 I
1. Difference in pilot wire lengths. The current transformers and machine to be protected
Fig. 28.2. Differential Protection
of 3-phase circuit.
A.T. = (11; l2 )N
are located at different sites and normally it is not possible to connect the relay coil to the equi- Fig. 28.3. Per cent Differential Relay.
potential points. The difficulty is overcome by connecting adjustable resistors in series with the (Biased Differential Relay.)
pilot wires. These are adjusted on site to obtain the equipotential points. 28.6. BIASED OR PER CENT DIFFERENTIAL RELAY
2. CT Ratio errors during short-circuits. The current transformer may have almost equal
ratio l;lt normal currents. But during short-circuit conditions, the primary currents are unduly large. The reason for using this modification is circulating current differential relay is to overcome
the trouble arising out of differences in CT ratios for high values of external short-circuit currents.
The ratio errors of CT's on either sides differ during these conditions due to :
(Refer the previous paragraph). The percentage differential relay has an additional restraining coil
(i) Inherent difference in CT characteristic arising out of difference in magnetic circuit, satura- connected in the pilot wire as shown in Fig. ~8.3.
tion conditions etc.
(ii) Unequal d.c. components in the short circuit-currents. In this relay the operating coil is connected to the mid-point of the restraining coil. The total
3. Saturation of CT magnetic circuits during short circuit condition. Due to these number of ampere turns in the restraining coil becomes the sum of ampere turns in its two halves,
causes the relay may operate even: for external faults. The relay may loose its stability for through . l1N l2N · I1+l2
i.e. - - + - - which gives the average restraining current of--- in N turns. For external faults
faults. · 2 2 2
To overcome this difficulty, the Percentage Differential Relay, or 'Based Differential Relay' is both I 1 and I 2 increase and thereby the restraining torque increases which prevents the mal-opera-
used. It is essentially a circulating current differential relay with additional restraining coil. The tion.
current flowing in restraining coil is proportional to (Ii+ 12)/2 and this restraining current prevents
the operation during external faults. Because, with the rise in current,. the restraining torque in- The operating characteristic of such a relay is given in Fig. 28.4.
creases and 11 -12 arising out of difference in' CT ratio is not enough to cause the relay operation. The ratio of differential operating current to average restraining current is Fixed Percentage.
(Ref. Sec. 28.6). Hence the relay is called 'Percentage Differential Relay'.
4. Magnetizing Current Inrush in transformer while switching in. When the trans- The relay is also called 'Basec! Differential Relay' because the restraining coil is also called a
former is connected to supply, a large (6 to 10 times full load) current inrush takes place. This biased coil as it provides additional flux.
certainly causes operation of differential relay current inru·sh takes place. This certainly causes
535
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
I
CHARACTERISTIC
POSITIVE TORQUE ,,,.4

REGION ,.-:~·•:.:.-..
EFFEcT OF · ,• { \ \ : / ' . } \ OVER CURRENT

5PRiNG
....,.•;··· ... ,
. 1 :·: ..:;·::,'•.:;,•-::.·,::
'•'
RELAY (1)
. ..,,--?::N;;,;;i,~/ rJiiti;J: ~: :'_:.: Fig. 28.5 (a). Through fault condition Differential Protection
based on balanced voltage principle.
. . :. ,'J": '·, ,;; ~· .. ·REGION,•·:-:•:•:,·.•.:
;"~i:j; /.-:: ·. ·. :-·~ : ~ \-: .~: (/);:)): \:
I
!J.±,_!J AVARAGE RESTRAININ6 CURR£Nt
Fig. 28.4. Operating characteristic of differential relay.
-
The percentage of biased differential relay has a rising pick-up characteristic. As the magnitude
of through current increases, the restraining current increases.
1,+12
-2-
28.7. SETTINGS OF DIFFERENTIAL RELAYS
Fig. 28.5 (b). Internal fault condition. './,
The circulating current differential relay has two principle settings namely,
QUESTIONS ",.
- Setting of operating coil circuit 1. Define 'Differential protection'. Describe the principle of circulating current differential protection.
- Setting of restraining coil circuit. 2, Draw neat sketches illustrating the principle of circulating current differential protection. Indicate
Setting of Operating Coil Circuit (Basing setting). The percentage setting of (Basic Setting) polarities of CT's and direction of currents for internal faults.
of operating coil circuit is defined as the ratio: 3. State the diff~rence between Circulating Current Differential Protection and Balanced Voltage Dif-
ferential Protection with reference to behaviour of CT's.
,oBas1c. Sett·1ng = Smallest current
m in oprerating coil to cause operation 100
.
Rated current of the operatmg coil
. x 4. Explain the 'Differential Protection'. State the various applications of differential protection.
(when the currnet in restraining coil is zero)

Setting of Operating Coil Circuit (Pick-up Value). It is defined as the ratio:
= Current in operating coil for causing operation
100
Current in restraining coil x
. 11-/2
%Pick-up Value= (J I x 100
1 + 2)/ 2
While determining this setting the factors to be considered include
- CT errors - Tap-changing
- Resistance of pilot wires - Stability for through faults.
In case of power transformers, percentage basic setting is of the order of 20% and percentage
Pick-up Value is of the order of 25%.
28.8. BALANCED VOLTAGE DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION

Fig. 28.5 illustrates the principle of differential protection based on balanced voltage principle,
In this system the secondaries of CT's are connected such that for normal conditions and through
fault conditions, th,e secondary currents of CT's on two sides oppose each other and their voltage
are balanced [Fig. 28.5 (a)]. During internal fault, the condition changes as illustrated in Fig. 25.8
(b) and an equivalent current (/ 1 + / 2)/2 flows through relay coils at each end.
The current transformers used in such protection are with air gap core so that the core does
not get satu:rated and overvoltages are not produced during zero secondary current under working
normal condition. ·
DISTANCE PROTECTION 537
The three variables V, I and <jl are converted into two variables R and X. Impedance Z 1 is
defined as ratio of r.m.s values of V and /, i.e.
1v1I
1z11=w
29 Z can be plotted on R-X diagram. (Ref. Fig. 29.2).
R 1 =Z 1 cos <j> ;X1 =Z 1 sin <jl
<jl is positive if 12 lags <jl is negative if leads V1, /1 V1,
Distance Protection Thus Vi, 1 1 and <jl can be converted on R-X diagram as shown in Fig. 29.2.
Introduction - Principle of R-X Diagram - Theory - Impedance Relay - Time - Direction

The family of impedance relays (Distance Relays) can offer wide range of characteristics.
Impedance Relay - Mho type Admittance Type Distance Relays - Distance Protection schemes - The basic principle should be understood and needs clear explanation.
Applications - 3 step Characteristics Coordination - Method of Analysis - Load Impedance - Relays which measure plain impedance (Z) are called impedance relays. Their characteristic
Power Swings - Various Characteristic Shapes.
on R-X plane is a circle with centre as origin and radius as Z, Fig. 29.2.
29.1. INTRODUCTION TO DISTANCE PROTECTION Relays which measure impedance but respond to faults on one direction only are called direc,
tional impedance relay. Their characteristic on R-X plane is a semi-circle on an inclined line. The
Distance relays are double actuat- centre of semi-circle is at centre of R-X diagram.
.ing quantity relays with one coil ener- Relays having voltage restraint in additional to dire~tional and impedance elements have a
gized by voltage and the other coil
energized by current (Ref. Fig 29.1).
The torque produced is such that when
V ll reduces below a set value, the relay ~. TO TRIP circular characteristic on R-X diagram but with centre shifted from origin.
Mho-relays have a circular characteristic, the circumference of the circle passes through the
origin.
-\-
I The detail explanation about these characteristics has been given below.
operates. During a fault on a transmis- A CT
sion line the fault current increases and
'+---◄CB
+ jX OHM CHARACTERISTIC
the voltage at fault point reduces. The V
1
_ _ _R_E_S_TR-,AINING
ratio VII is measured at the location of OPERATING
CT's and VT's. The voltage at VT loca- ~\
:ct.I I
COIL ACTUATED COIL ACTUATED
t.1 BY CURRENT BY VOLTAGE
tion depends on the distance between 1
lf l,u:.tt
Z c,\ I jX
the VT and the fault. If fault is nearer,
measured voltage is lesser. If fault is
further, measured voltage is more. z LPROTECTED /
,,,.--- --- ...... + jX
LOCUS OF P
I \\
Hence assuming constant fault resis- LINE / + z, (CONSTANTJX)
---- __ \ ___ _
I q> jX,\ I
tance each value of VI I measured from I I
11 -........L----1'-'-+----+--R p
relay location corresponds to distance •Ill - ij \ 0 R1 / ~LOCUS OFP
\ I :(CONS!ANT R)
between the relying point and the fault '~FAULT lp/ \ I
I ' /'LOCUS OF __ ....1..._ _ _ _ _~ : . . . . . . . . . - - - - - +R
along the line. Hence such protection is I ',...___ _..,..,,,, CONSTANT Z I
called Impedance Protection or Distance

Protection.
______ , I
I R~I
I
13' : -jx
Distance protection is non-unit type Fig. 29.2. Representation ofZ Locus ofpointP for constantX. Locus of constant R.
protection, the protection zone is not on R-X diagram. Fig. 29.3 Characteristic ofreactance Fig. 29.4. Characteristic of ohm
exact. The distance protection is high element on R-X diagram. relay on R-X diagram.
speed protection and is simple to apply. B ----·· --1---LOAD 29.3. THEORY OF IMPEDA1"-TCE MEASUREMENT
It can be used as a primary and back-up
protection. It can be used in Carrier The term impedance applied to resistance plus reactance. We know that the ratio of voltage
Aided Distance Schemes and in across a branch to current in the branch gives impedance of the branch, i.e.
Fig. 29.1. Explaining Distance Protection.
Autoreclosing Schemes. Distance y_=Z=R+JX
protection is very widely used in protection of transmission lines. I
The impedance relay operates for certain conditions of the ratio V to I which may expressed
as impedance.
29.2. PRINCIPLE OF R-X DIAGRAM
In any impedance relay, there are two actuating quantities namely V and/. The current gives
R-X di~grams are useful in plotting characteristics of Distance Relays. operating torque. The voltage gives restraining torque.
538 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION pISTANCE PROTECTION 539
The characteristic in terms of V and I is I 29.3.2. Plain Impedance Characteristics,
shown in Fig. 29.5. The plain impedance characteristic shown in Fig. 29.7(b) is the simplest in use and consists of
The impedance relay can be made to sense a circle with centre at the origin.
the ratio between voltage and current at a point Operation occurs in the shaded area inside the circle. The significance of this is that the relay
on the line. In such a case we can say the relay
operates below certain impedance level, which is independent of the phase angle between voltage
is sensing the impedance. The impedance be- and current. A straight line on VI plane (Fig. 29.5) having a constant slope gets converted into a
tween the location of CT, VT and the fault is circle of radius VII on R-X plane.
proportional to the distance between the above
location and the fault. Hence impedance relay is X
called distance relay. Such a relay operates if the X
OPERATION OCCURS
impedance is below that of the relay setting, INSIDE SHADED AREA
hence if the fault is within a certain length of
Fig. 29.5. Operating characteristic of an impedance relay. LOCUS OF FAULT
the transmission line. ON FEEDER
Distance relay is a versatile family of relays that includes

1. Impedance relay; measures ...Z.
2. Reactance relay; measures .. X.
3. Mho type relay ; measures a component of admittance Y.
A distance relay is one whose operation is bqsed on measurement of impedance, reactance or
a-Phase angle of feeder Impedance.
admittance of line between the location of relay and the fault point. Fig. 29.7 (b ). Plain Impedance Fig. 29.7 (a). Impedance Diagram of
29.3.1. R-X Diagrams of Plain Impedance Relay Characteristics of relay. System Fault.
In Fig 29.5, the operating characteristic of an impedance relay on V-I plane. It is in the form The resistance and reactance between the
of a straight line. By adjustment, the slope of the operating characteristic can be changed. relay location and fault can also be plotted on +JX ,:J y
R-X diagram as shown in Fig 29. 7(a). The angle A,P
, •.•,.::•:\ :!.':':.·•.
,,,:•·..:_::;·.-·,, ~il,::,:,< ~-...
LOCUS OF FAULT
POINT ON
The more convenient way of describing the operating characteristic of a distance relay is by
a will depend upon ratio RIX of line per unit .,:•.'· ~..--..,_,, ·>... R.·X DIAGRAM
means of 'Impedance Diagram' or R-X diagram. Since the relay operates for certain value, less than
length. For a given fault condition, the ~:t '\.
the set value of, the Z operating characteristic is a circle of radius Z.
lt:l
/:,:, . CHARAc:TERISTIC OF
measured impedance can be marked on this
Any value of Zr less than the radius of the circle produces positive torque. Any value of Zr more line [Fig. 29.7(a)]. The line can also be super- i',,,•:: IM:;ANCE RELAY
than the radius, of circle produces a negative torque and relay does not operate. This is a rule imposed on the relay characteristic (Fig. 29.8).
regardless of phase angle between V and I. If the measured impedance ofline is within the •::::.·.-.-. O POSITIVE '.ff!i_ii:ii
........ TORQUE FOR ,,::;•::
circle, the relay operates, the circle gives the
+X relay characteristics. The distance along trans- \~;_· .:_.:_'.:.'.:.·.: .·:, ·.·. ·,.:.:·:,·.:.,.. Zf<Z ;:;i~f;:•
..{~!:/:\'J!=NE6ATIVE
llil£l REGIONTORQUE
mission line can be represented by a line on R-
X diagram. By superimposing the line '·\\{~}:,'/) mmg?}t:i:::,t1;:c:::i~EO XY:UN·PROTc.CTED LINE
LIN£
characteristic, on the relay characteristic, the
operation of the relay can be predicted. (Refer- Fig. 29.8. Superimposition of line characteristic OXY
ring to Fig. 29.8) on relay characteristics.
OX represents the feeder on RX diagram.
If fault occurs within distance OX, the relay operates. For fault beyond X region XY, relay does not
operate. *
29.3.3. Disadvantages of Plain Impedance Relay.
Plain impedande relay has the following disadvantages.
- It is non-directional. It responds to the faults on both sides of CT,VT location. Hence it can-
not discriminate between internal and external faults.
- It is affected by arc resistance of line fault and results in under-reach.
r7-::tNE6ATIV£ . -X - It is sensitive to power swings as a large area is covered by the circle on each side on R-X
1;.;.;.iJTORIWE REGION plane.
Fig. 29.6 R-X diagram ofimpedance relay for characteristic shown in Fig. 29.5 ..
* Ref. Sec. 42.13 and 42.14 for Examples on\setting distance relays with the help of R-X diagram.
Suppose the location of fault. Point (with corresponding R and X) is plotted on R-X diagram.
29.3.4. Time Characteristic of High Speed Impedance Relay
In case of Directional Relay, the positive torque is provided when the fault point lie on right
Fig. 29.9 shows a typical operating time vs. im- hand side of the inclined line (Hatched area in Fig. 29.10). This line when superimposed on the
pedance characteristic of a high speed impedance characteristic of plain impedance relay, we get final characteristic of Directional Impedance Relay
relay for one value current. For other currents (Fig. 29.11)
similar characteristics are obtained. It is observed ~
that for impedance values above 100% pickup im- i::: + jX
LOCUS, OF MAXIMUM
pedance, the relay does not operate. The curve I TORQUE
represents actual characteristics. Curve II is
simplified representation of the same (right angle
y
instead of curve).
LOCUS OF FAULT
The relay unit used for distance protection are 100 POINT ON R-X DIAGRAM
double actuating quantity instantaneous relays. IMPEDANCE IN PERCENTA6E OF PICKUP
The electromagnetic relays of balanced beam type Fig. 29.9. Time characteristics of high IMPEDENCE
or induction cup type are preferred. speed impedance relay. CHARACTERISTIC
Static impedance relays are preferred in modern installations. +R
29.4. METHODS OF ANALYSIS

Characteristics of various types of distance relays of R-X plane are in form of circles or sectors
DIRECTIONAL
of circles. CHARACTERISTIC
There are mainly three categories of these characteristics on R-X plain
- Circle with centre at origin.
~NEGATIVE TORQUE
- Circle with circumstances passing through origin. liliili::J REGION
- Semi-circle above a directional line passing through origin. Fig. 29.11. R-X Diagram of Directional Impedance Relay.
- Circle enclosing the origin.
With Directional Characteristic added to the plain impedance characteristic, the results in a
- Circle cut-off from top by a line parallel to X-axis. characteristic with a sector of a circle (Fig. 29.11). Consider a locus of fault point on transmission
These varieties of characteristics are obtaining by changing the operating coil/restraining coii line (locus OY). Angle ROY= a depends upon the phase angle between V and I with given setting
design, providing the additional polarised coils supplied)by voltage or current, providing two or more of directional element, the operating torque is positive within the semi-circle with radius Zand on
elements within a single relay case. right hand side of the inclined line of directional characteristic DD'.
The type of relay can be identified on the basis of the form of characteristic on R-X plane. For faults on one side of the relay location, angle a lies between angle DOD'. Hence relay
operates for two conditions :
The characteristic of transmission line is, as a rule, a straight line on R-X plane. The length
- Locus OXY should have angle a with angle DOD' given by Directional Feature.
of the line is proportional to the length of transmission line.
- Impedance measured by relay should be less than the Setting Z.
The length of transmission line covered by positive torque region of relay characteristics indi-
cates the reach of distances relay, i.e. the length ofline protected by the relay. (Ref Sec. 42.13).
29.6. TORQUE EQUATION OF DIRECTIONAL IMPEDANCE RELAY
29.5. DIRECTIONAL IMPEDANCE RELAY The directional relay responds to the phase angle between V and I at relay location.
X Suppose torque of directional unit is given by,
Directional features senses the direction in which the fault T = K 1 VI cos ( - 0) ... (1)
power flows with respect to the location of CT and VT. Directional
impedance relay operates for following conditions : where T = Torque
K1 = Constant
- Impedance between fault point and relay location is
less than the relay setting Z. V = Voltage supplied to relay coil
- The fault power flows in a particular direction from I= Current ~upplied to relay coil
relay location. The direction power flow is sensed by R = Phase angle between V and I
measuring phase angle between voltage and current .. 0 = Angle of maximum torque
Directional Characteristics when the relay is on verge of operation.
The characteristic presented on R-X diagram is a straight T =0
line passing through the origin as shown in Fig. 29.10. Opera- Hence cos ( - 0) = 0
tion takes place on one side of the line as indicated by shading. Fig. 29.10. Purely directional i.e. ( - 0) = ± 90° ...(2)
characteristics (operation in .shaded area).
I
542 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION DISTANCE PROTECTION 543
Hence for positive torque, $ should be within 0 ± 90°.
This directional characteristic when presented on R-X diagram is a straight line (DOD) for
which $ is within e ± 90°.
However, impedance characteristic puts another conditions, i.e. VII< Z represented by a circle
on R-X diagram (Ref. Fig. 29.11). Hence the net characteristic of directional impedance relay is a POSITIVE TORQUE SETTIN6
semi-circle above a straight line passing through zero. (Fig. 29.11). The radius of circle corresponds -R +R
to measured impedance.
29.7. MODIFIED (SHIFTED) CHARAC1'ERISTIC

~NEGATIVE
The impedance unit may be given a current bias, i.e. the voltage coils is supplied by additional -x 't!!iillTOROUE REGION
voltage proportional to line current (say DI), Basic Torque equation gets modified to Fig. 29.13. Ideal characteristic of plain reactance
type distance relays (simplified).
jX ti{,{{(,]NEGATIVE TORQUE The directional element is arranged to develop maximum negative torque when current lags
behind voltage by 90°, (i.e. $ = - 90°).
The complete characteristic of voltage restrained reactance relay is illustrated in Fig. 29.14.
j:X MHO CHARACTE{'.ISTIC
STAGE 2
5TA6E 1
~NEGATIVE TORQUE
~ REG/ON
Fig. 29.12. Directional offset impedance characteristic on R-X plane. (a) (b)
2 2 Fig. 29.14. Voltage Restrained Directional Characteristic (Ohm Characteristic).
T = K11 - K2 (V + D/) (V + DJ) is the voltage supplied to voltage coil of impedance relay.
29.9. MHO TYPE DISTANCE RELAY
The characteristic when plotted on R-X diagram is a circle with radius VII and with centre
~- shifted from origin. Mho relay is also known as Admittance Relay and measures a component of admittance
The circle may be completely 'offset' from the origin so much so that origin is left out of the Y < e. It is also called as angle impedance relay.
circle. The characteristic of mho relay on admittance diagram is a straight line.
Directional feature combined with offset impedance characteristic is shown in Ref. Table 29.1. The mho characteristic on R-X diagram is a circle passing through origin. This characteristi~
is obtained by polarizing the impedance relay and directional relay (refer : reactance type distance
29.8. REACTANCE TYPE DISTANCE RELAY relay). From Fig. 29.14 the following points can be noted :
The reactance relay has a characteristic such that all the impedance radius vectors whose outer 1. Characteristic is directional and will operate for faults in one direction only.
ends lie on a straight line having constantX component.Xis the reactance of protected line between 2. Relative reach of the relay goes on changing for various ratios of RI x.
the relay location and the fault point.
The reactance type distance relay has reactance measuring unit. The reactance measuring unit Summary
has an overcurrent element developing positive torque and a directional element (VI cos$) which The distance protection responds to the ratio VII. The impedance relay is set for a value Z
either gives a positive or negative torque. such that when the value VII measured by the relay is less than the set value Z, the relay operates.
Hence reactance relay is an over-current relay with directional restraint. Characteristics of Distance Relays are plotted on a R-X plane. Distance Relays are used for protec-
tion of transmission lines, distribution lines etc. These relays are generally high speed relays.
Details about distance protection schemes are given in Chapter 30.
the origin. The angle a of this line characteristic depends on natural ratio of RIX of line per unit
29.10. APPLICATION OF DISTANCE PROTECTION
length. (sin a== XIZ). Each point on the line represents certain distance from origin in terms of
Distance protection schemes are used universally for protection of high voltage AC transmission z.
lines and distribution lines. They have replaced the over-current protection of transmission line The setting of the relay decides the radius of the characteristic circle or shape of boundary of
(Refer Part 30.A). The success of distance protection is due to the following: the characteristic.
- faster protection - simpler co-ordination
For pre-determining the operation of relay in response to fault on transmission line, the line
- less effect of amount of generation and fault levels, fault current magnitude. characteristic. Fig. 29. 7 (a) is superimposed on relay characteristic Fig. 29. 7(b) as in Fig. 29.8. Refer
- permits high line loading Fig. 29.17 also.
- simpler application ; permanent setting without need for readjustments
29.10.3. Condition for Relay Operation (Refer Fig. 29.17)
- static distance relays have superior and versatile characteristics (Refer Ch. 42) Sec. 42.1
enlists several addition merits of static distance schemes. The fault. point F shifts from line end towards origin O depending the location of the fault with
respect to location of CT/VT (substation). For a fault away from the sub-station, the point is farther
Distance protection schemes are generally used for providing the Primary Protection (Main from origin. If it is outside the boundary of the characteristic figure, (Circle or Quadrangle). The
Protection) and Back-up protection for AC transmission and distribution lines against relay does not operate. During a fault on line, (assuming negligible fault impedance) the VII
- 3 phase faults - phase to phase faults measured between origin and the fault reduces and the point moves towards the origin. If the point
- phase to earth faults moving along the line characteristic comes within the characteristic of the relay (Fig. 29.8) the relay
In some schemes for short lines, the phase to earth faults protection sensing may be by distance operation.
relay and measurement by over-current relays because distance protection for shorter lines are sus- 29.10.4. Operating Time
ceptible to errors due to arc fault resistance. In general, the choice of type of distance protection
The time characteristic of high speed distance relays is a straight line (Fig 29.9). The relay
depends on length of line, configuration of lines, whether single infeed/double infeed, tripping time
operates within set time. When measured Z falls within its pick-up value. If measured Z is beyond
required and co-ordination requirements. Refer Table 30.2 regarding alternative distance schemes.
its pick-up value the relay will not operate.
Todays trend is toward the use of static distance protection for all types of line faults,
main and back-up for short, medium and long lines. These have been dealt in Chapter 42. 29.10.5. Stages of Relay Time Characteristics
The following paragraphs give an overall review. The long transmission lines are with intermediate sub-stations. In each sub-station the distance
Distance relays respond to the ratio of VII. They measure impedance VII or a component of relays are provided for line protection. The settings of these relays are set with respect of impedance
impedance from the location of CT, VT. The measured VII is proportional to the distance between (radius of characteristic circle) and operating time (position of horizontal step Fig. 29.9).
the location of CTNT and location of fault. Hence the relays are called distance reiays. The distance relay in each sub-station has generally 3 step characteristic with respective set-
The operating limits of an impedance relays are usually specified in terms of impedance com• tings of Z and t for each step. The three-step characteristics of distance relay of each sub-station
ponents resistance and reactance. It is convenient to describe the operation limits on R-X diagram is achieved by providing three sets of relays in each sub-station for protection of each line. Sec.
on rectangular co-ordinates with resistance Ron abscissa and reactancej-X on ordinate. The operat- 30.12 and Fig. 30.12 illustrate a three-step characteristic of distance protection of transmission line.
ing characteristics on R-X diagram in the form of simple geometrical figures such as circles or sec- Refer. 29.15 also.
tors of a circle or rectangles. Electromagnetic relays can achieve only circular characteristics. Static
Distance Relays can achieve rectangular, quadrangular, lense, type, double-mho and a variety of Ill
characteristics on R-X diagram (Sec. 42.5, 42.17). ....
UJ II tAJ TIME CHARACTERISTIC
The choice of R-X characteristic is m'ade such that the relay operates for line faults in the ~ RELAY AT 'A' TO
protected portion of line but remains stable during power swings. .... OPERATE BREAKER RA
RA tAI Re
29.10.1. R-X Diagram
The geometrical figure on R-X diagram (a circle, quadrangle or a sector of circle) may be in the LENGTH
B C D
first or second quadrant of rectangular co-ordinates.. ...(Table 29.1)
Relay Characteristics IMPEDANCE CHARACTERISTIC
The operating region is within the characteristic figure i.e. when the measured impedance com- OF RELAY AT A TO OPERATE
ponent is less than the set value (boundary of characteristic figure) the relay operates (Figure 29. 7 BREAKER RA
b). Refer Fig. 29.15. ZONE STEPS: I II III
29.10.2. Line Characteristics
Refer Fig. 29. 7 (a) representing line characteristics. The locus of line impedance before occur- Fig. 29.15. Three-step time-characteristics of Distance Relay at Station A.
rence of a fault measured by the relay and plotted on R-X diagram is a straight line passing through 3 Step-Characteristics
Ref. Fig. 29.15. This figure explains a time-distance characteristic of a 3-step distance scheme
Further References : in sub-station A for one direction. There are three sets of relays for protection of each line. Each
Ch. 30. Distance Protection Schemes.
Ch. 42. Static Distance Relays and Distance Protection of EHV lines. relay provides characteristic for one zone. The combined effect the distance scheme in substation
Sec. 42.14. Setting of Distance Relays. A provides.
546 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION DISTANCE PROTECTION 547
Primary protection for first zone AB with minimum time setting. Normally 85% of first zone 2. Relay at station B provides primary protection to section BC and remote back-up to DC, DE.
is covered to take care of errors such as fault resistance. 3. Relay at Sub-station C
- Remote Back-up (Refer Sec. 25.5.3) for the second zone BC with time setting .... and Remove This provides primary protection to 85 to 90% of section CD as first zone protection with min-
Back-up for the 3rd Zonal CD with time setting ... imum time t C 1 . This is primary protection at sub-station C to operate breaker Re,
First Zone. The first zone setting is 85 to 90% ofline length and with highest speed of protec- Three steps in R-X Diagram
tion so that these relays operate at the earliest and will never operate for the fault in 2nd and 3rd
zones. Also the margin of 15 to 10% takes care of fault resistance seen by the relay measurement The impedance characteristics of zone 1, 2, 3 are similar geometrical figures with different im-
as additional line impedance. pedance settings (Fig. 29.14). In case of static di~tance relay~ wit~ quadra~gular characteristics,
the characteristics of 3 zones are in the form of different straight lmes formmg the quadrangle.
Underreach. Suppose line impedance is ZL and arc resistance relay measures (ZL + Rr) instead
29.10. 7. Significance of R-X Diagram and Method of Analysis
of measuring only ZL- Thereby the relay will see the fault as beyond its characteristic circle and
A distance relay should operate below set fault impedance within set-time. It should not fail
will not operate even though it should have operated. This is called Underreach Defn. Sec. 25.8.(34).
to operate for faults beyond protected zone. It should operate for faults within protected zone. It
Second Zone. The second zone relay at A provides protection for remaining 15 to 10% ofline should not operate due to power swings. For the purpose of analysis and choice of settings of first
section AB. The relay is set to reach beyond the length AB and twenty to fifty per cent of the next zone second zone and third zone Distance Relays in each sub-station and their co-ordination; the
line section BC. For achieving time co-ordination, the second zone relay at sub-station 1 is set with R-X Diagram is very useful. The following characteristics are plotted on the same R-X diagram.
time t 2 with a time delay of 0.2 to 0.5 seconds between the first zone t 1 and second zone t 2 . The
- Relay characteristic (circle or sectors of circles or some geometrical shapes).
primary protection for section BC is provided by first zone relay at sub-station B. - Line characteristic (Straight line passing through origin)
Third Zone. The third zone relay at A provides back-up protection for section AB, BC and CD. - Load impedance region
The primary protection for line section CD is provided by first zone relay at sub-station C. - Power swings.
Third zone protection at sub-station A is delayed by 0.4 to 1 second from first zone and 0.2 to Relay characteristic should cover the line characteristic.
0.5 seconds from second zone.
Relay characteristic should be away from load region. Normal power swing should touch relay
29.10.6. Co-ordinated Characteristics of Distance Relays in three stations. characteristic. Ref. Fig. 29.17.
Fig. 29.16 illustrates the time distance characteristic settings of Distance Relays at Station A,
B, C for one direction. Similar relays are provided for other direction.
1. Relays at Sub-station A + iX LINE
CH ARAC TERI STI C
3-step distance characteristic of relay at sub-station A having following features :
- First Zone. Primary protection to 85 to 90% on line AB (First Zone-) with time t A 1 to operate
breaker RA.
- Second zone covering remaining 15 to 10% of section AB and about 20 to 50% of section BC (IN SIDE) SWING
with time t Az.
- Third zone covering remaining 80 to 50% of section BC and further 20% of section CD.
2. Relays at Sub-station B
This has three-step characteristic just like that of sub-station A
NON-OPERATING
1. First zone protects 85 to 100% of section BC as primary protection with time t B 1 and, second REGION
zone covering remaining 15 to 10% of BC with higher time. Third zone covering remaining protec- (OUTSIDE) - jX
tion of line BC and further 20% ofline CB. Fig. 29.17. Summary of characteristic of a distance relay.
29.10.8. Load Impedance
Ill lil Ill The load on transmission line represented by certain load impedance having certain R and X
II II II Re
values. This is covered by region ZL shown in Fig. 29.17.
1
.... RA RB Load impedance is much higher than fault impedance and line impedance. Therefore, the dis-
RA DISTANCE RB RC RD - L
tance relay does not operate due to change in load impedance under normal load conditions. During
faults on the line the measured line impedance falls. Operating point suddenly comes from region
A Re' Re' Ro' -L Zi on line AB.
-DISTANCE
29.10.9. Line Impedance
II II II Ro' This is represented by a straight line passing through the origin. During no-load the point on
III Re' III l the line represents the impedance seen by the relay from origin. During the fault, the relay will
measure the line impedance upto fault point.
Fig. 29.16. Co-ordination of3-step time characteristics at
Station A, B, C for forward and opposite directions.
Fault Resistance. The faults on overhead line will be arc faults having pure resistance Rr- DISTANCE PROTECTION 549
This is represented by a horizontal line on R-X diagram.
3. Explain the Directional Impedance relay by means of its characteristic o~ R-X plane.
Total impedance measured by the relay is equal to line impedance upto fault point (ZL) plus 4. Write short notes on :
arc resistance (Rr) i.e. ZL + Rr, - Reactance Relay - Mho Relay - Directional Impedance Relay
The relay characteristic should be broad in the middle (Fig. 29.17) and Fig. 42.31) so that Xis 5. Explain the principle of following distance characteristics with the help of R-X diagram.
within relay characteristic. - Plain impedance characteristics. - Directional impedance characteristics
- Plain Reactance characteristics - Mho characteristics
29.10.10. Power Swings - Offset Mho characteristic
During switching of lines, large loads or generating units, surges of real power and reactive 6. Define the following terms and explain their significance in distance protection.
power flow through transmission lines causing oscillations in the voltage vectors and current vec- - Reach of a distance relay - Under-reach
tors (Sec. 42.9). 7. Explain how the arc resistance introduces an eITor in distance measurement.
The power swing is represented by a curve originating in load region and travelling towards
relay characteristic. Refer Sec. 42.13 and Sec 42.14 for examples on setting of Distance Relays.
During power swings the measurement of Vil by distance relays at sending-end and receiv- Refer Ch. 42 for static distance relays.
ing-end sub-stations do not represent true VII characteristic of the line. The measurement is fal- Refer Ch. 30 for Sec. 30.8 to 30.16 for applications of distance relays.
sified by power swings and the distance relay may operate wrongly if the measured Vil falls within
the operating characteristic of the relay (Sec 42.9.2). The power swing point travels from load region
L towards are relay characteristic as shown in Fig. 42.18.
The shape of characteristic is such that the minor low magnitude power swings approaching
from load region do not enter the enclosed area of the relay characteristic. For this purpose the
characteristic is narrow near the bottom half region. The area of characteristic is restricted at the
bottom and enlarged at the top.
The static relays are provided with features to block the relay against permissible power swing
but operate for faults.
29.10.11. Choice of Characteristic Mho/Reactance Mho/Static
The various types of characteristics on R-X diagram have been re-viewed in Table 29.1.
Plain impedance characteristic has several limitation mentioned in the Table 29.1 (a).
Solved Example 42.1 (a) in section 42.14 illustrates how the relay fails to detect a fault within
80% of protected line because of. fault resistance FX. In past plain impedance relay was used ex-
tensively for long lines and short lines. However, now it is no more preferred.
Mho-characteristic (Table 29.1 C) is used for protection of long lines. The characteristic is a
circle passing through the origin on R-X diagram and with axis almost coinciding with the line
characteristic.
The measurement error due to arc fault resistance remains within the characteristic circle as
shown in Figs. 30.13, 30.14 and Example 42.2.
Hence such a characteristic is preferred for short lines. Oval characteristic (Fig. 42.9) for Quad-
rangular characteristic (Fig. 42.11 and Fig. 42.28). These are achieved by static relays and are such
that arc fault resistance is within relay characteristic (board at middle) and minor power swings
do not touch relay characteristic (narrow at the bottom).
With modern static relays, a very wide choice of relay characteristic and settings are available.
The choice is made on the basis of application requirements.
QUESTIONS
1. Describe the principle of impedance type distance relay and explain its characteristic on V-I and R-X
planes.
2. Derive expressions for torque developed by a double activating quantity distance relay. Show that the
1
relay operates when fault is wi.thin the protected distance of line.
PROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION LINES 551
Table 30.1. Protection of Transmission Lines.
Type of Protection Remarks
Overcurrent Protection Applied as main protection for distribution lines and back-up for main
0 - Time graded or current lines, where main protection is of distance or other faster type.
graded
- Directional or non-directional Inverse define minimum time relays preferred for time graded systems.
Instantaneous relays for current graded systems.
Earth-fault Protection Separate earth-fault protection is necessary in addition to phase fault
Protection of Transmission Lines protection. Type of earthing and magnitude of earth fault current should
be considered.
Introduction - Choice of Protection - Over Current Protection -- Time graded non-directional Faster than overcurrent protection. Several combinations of schemes
Protection - Setting of Inverse time over current relays - Current graded systems - Distance available depending upon length of line.
Relaying- Impedance, Reactance, Mho relays - Overreach, arc resistance·- Carrier aided distance Pilot wire differential protection. For important lines of relatively shorter length (a few tens of km).
schemes - Pilot Wire Protection - Principle of Merz Price Protection - Voltage balance type - Carrier Current Protection Where length of transmission line is long and simultaneous opening of
Discriminating factor - Transley system - Limitations of Pilot wire systems - Carrier Current circuit-breakers at both ends is necessary .
. Protection - Equipment - Radio Links - Summary
•single shot auto-reclosure schemes are used for high voltage overhead lines.
30.1. INTRODUCTION* Unit protection provides fast selective clearing. Pilot wire protection based on differential cir-
There are several methods of protection of transmission lines. The first group of non-unit type culating current principle (Merz-Price) and other types are used for short lines where cost of pilot
of protection which includes wires is not prohibitive. Carrier current protection is used for long lines, interconnected lines. It
provides a fast relaying. Radio signals of frequency bands 1000-3000 MHz are used U.S.A. for
1. Time Graded overcurrent protection protection of feeders.
2. Current Graded overcurrent protection Auto-reclosure schemes are incorporated in the protection of distribution lines and transmission
3. Distance protection. Such non-unit type protections do not have pilots. The discrimination lines. Auto-reclosure (Ref. Ch. 44) of distribution lines is mainly for improving service continuity.
is obtained by coordinating the relays settings. Fuses are used in distribution systems, where relays Whereas Auto-reclosure of transmission lines is mainly for improving system stability (Ref. Sec.
and circuit breakers are not necessary and fuses are. preferable due to their low cost, current limit- 2.13 and 2.14)
ing features etc. The principles of protective relays and protection schemes discussed in Ch. 25 to 29 will be
further studied with reference to protection of transmission lines.
The other group of protection of line is unit-type of protection such as pilot wire differential
protection, carrier current protection based on phase comparison method ; etc. PART 30 A. OVERCURRENT PROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION LINES
Separate protection are systems are necessary for earth faults because earth faults are more
frequent on overhead transmission lines than phase faults, and earth fault current is different from 30.2. NON-DIRECTIONAL TIME GRADED SYSTEM OF FEEDER (OR LINE)
phase fault current in magnitude. PROTECTION (Ref. Ch. 27)
Time and current Graded protection is used where a time-lag can be permitted and instan- . In this system the time setting of over-current relays at different locations is graded. Fig. 30.1
taneous operation is not necessary, i.e., where time-lag in fault clearance does not cause instability illustrated the principle of time graded overcurrent protection of a radial feeder (line).
or damage to cables, lines, etc. In a_ddition they are used as a back-up protection to the main unit
protection. I
Distance relaying is employed where time and graded current relaying is too slow or selectivity tt'I
is not obtained from them. In other words distance relaying is applied for faster protection. In dis- I
tance relays there are three main types of measuring units, namely : Impedance, Reactance and
Mho type distance relays. Each type has certain advantages and disadvantages. For very short
I
I
t·.Bl~ec.
_
BL,J..--sec.- } ~ ~
_ J Z' t0•3SeC.
I I
lines reactance type is preferred because it is practically unaffected by arc resistance. For short A
line resistance is large as compared to the line impedance. For medium length lines, impedance DISTANCE b--+-
relay is suitable but likely to operate wrongly on severe reactive power surges. Mho type relays
are used for phase faults of longer lines. A B C
Distance schemes comprise starting elements, measuring elements, timer elements. There are
two broad categories called switched and non-switched schemes. Carrier aided distance schemes
include carrier acceleration, carrier blocking and intertripping schemes. t=LESS THAN Jo8 sec.
-
o-esec.
t=lcSS THAN O-Bsec.

} ·01srR11iur10N
SYSTEM
o:-:C.t- ..,__ ~ C -
Fig. 30.1. Graded time lag overcurrent protection of

* Ref. Ch. 42 "State Distance Protection of EHV Lines". a radial feeder (Non-directional).
552 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION PROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION LINES 553
Fig. 30.1 shows two sections of radial feeder connected between stations A, B and B, C. The Overtravel is the travel of a relay moving elements after the actuating force is removed. This
relaying is provided at each station A, B, C, D. The arrow marks pointing towards both directions overtravel occurs because of inertia of moving parts. Overtravel is important feature of a time-delay
indicate that the relays operate for faults on either sides. The time lag is indicated on the arrow relay where selectivity is obtained by time lag. Overtravel of 0.1 sec. is generally assumed for in-
head. verse time relays.
For a fault beyond station C the circuit breaker at C operates first, i.e., with relay time of 0.3 The next step in co-ordination is adjustment of time lag of inverse time overcurrent relays to
second. Meanwhile the other relays at station B and A start operating but after about 0.3 second obtain selectivity. The equation given above is used for determining the time settings of relays in
the fault is cleared and the relays at A and B get reset.Th~refore for faults beyond C, only the CB the adjoining sections.
a~ C operates. For faults between Band Conly CB at B operates and likewise. Thus unnecessary
tripping is avoided. Secondly by some failure if the relay atB fails to operate, the relay at A provides, The procedure of selecting time setting and plug settings is as follows. The time multiplier set-
back-up protection. ting of the relay at remote and from the source is set to a low value, say 0.1. The interval of 0.4 to
0.5 second is added to select operating times of relays at consecutive stations, as described earlier.
This system is suitable for radial feeder in which power flow is only in one direction.
Suppose T 0 is the required operating time.
Inverse definite minimum time delay relays are extensively used for obtaining combination of
current and time gradings, Then, Ta= Tm x TMS
Time interval of0.5 sec. is usually found suitable, this covers errors in CT, relay and CB operat- where TMS = Time multiplier setting.
ing time. Hence operating times of relays in consecutive stations can be 0.3, 0.8, 1.3, 1.8, seconds. Tm = Time from relay characteristic for time multiplier setting of 1
At sub-stations B and A transformers are shown connected to the station bus. The time setting and for plug setting equivalent to maximum fault current.
of the relays in this connection should be less than setting of the relays on the main feeder.
For example, suppose fault current= 3000 amperes, relay is set to operate for primary current
We graded inverse time protection, the characteristic of relays should be taken into account of 300 amperes, then plug setting multiplier is equal to 3000/300 = 10. See from the characteristic
while setting the relays With inverse relays, the time setting and plug setting can be preset. The of the relay, the operating time of relay for plug setting multiplier of 10. This corresponds to time
fault current is calculated. The time interval of 0.5 second is provided between consecutive relays setting of 1. This time is T,n- Suppose Tm is 2 seconds. From the relay co-ordination point of view,
and operating times are calculated. The plug settings and time settings are so arranged that for a the desired operating time T 0 is say 1 second. Then time multiplier is set to
fault on last section (beyond C), the desired operating times are obtained.
Time graded overcurrent protection for phase faults is supplemented by time graded earth fault TMS= Ta
protection. The earth fault relay is residually connected. In general, two relays are employed for Tm
phase faults and one for earth fault. Since both phase fault and earth fault relays are set for short which is this case is given by,
circuits, they do not detect over-loads of small magnitude. Overload protection may be provided in
addition, with long time setting (minutes) and low current setting. TMS=½=0.5.
Setting of Inverse Overcurrent Relays for Co-ordination (Definitions and explanations of TMS and PS are given in Sec. 26.11, Ref. Sec. 26.6 for plug
Step I. Choose pick-up of the relays so that they will operate as follows : (Ref. Sec. 26.6 ) setting.)
1. Operate for short circuits in its own line section. Disadvantages of Graded Time lag Overcurrent Relaying
2. Provide back-up protection to the next line section.
1. Time lag is to be provided, time lag is not desirable on short circuits.
For a phase relay phase to phase fault is assumed. For an earth fault relay, a single line to
ground fault is assumed. 2. The method is not suitable for ring mains or interconnected lines. It is suitable for radial
lines with supply at the one end only.
The operating time is graded by considering the following aspects :
TA=Ts+CB2+0A+F 3. It is difficult to co-ordinate and needs changes with new connections.
TA= Operating time ofrelay at station A 4. It is not suitable for important, long distance transmission lines where rapid fault clearing
Ts = Operating time of relay at station B necessary to ensure stability of systems.
CB2 = Operating time at circuit breaker at station B
30.3. DIRECTIONAL TIME AND CURRENT-GRADED SYSTEM
0 A = Overtravel time at station A
F = Factor of safety. To obtain discrimination, where power can flow to the fault from both the directions, the circuit
Considering, arbitrarily breakers on both the sides should trip, so as to disconnect the faulty line. Such case occurs in paral-
Ts== 0.8.second lel feeders, ring mains, T feeders, interconnected lines. Directional time and current graded systems
are suitable in such cases.
CB2 = 0.16 second (assuming 8 cycle Breaker)
Here the directional relays can operate for fault current flowing in a particular direction shown
0 A = Overtravel time = 0.1 sec by arrow ➔ (Fig 30.2)
F = Factor of safety= 0.2 sec.
In the diagram, the double headed arrow Hindicates non-directional relay. In Fig. 30.2 (a) a
TA= 0.8 + 0.16 + 0.1 + 0.2 = 1.26 sec. fault on feeder I will trip only circuit-breakers at the end of feeder I. The circuit breaker at the
Hence the time of relay at A should be atleast 1.3 seconds. ends of neighbouring feeder (II) would not trip as a main protection.
\
PROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION LINES
graded systems normally employ high speed high set over current relays. They operate at pre-deter-
mined setting without a time lag.
Fig. 30.5 illustrates the protection of a radial feeder with instantaneous overcurrent relay.
rt
t
r ~
(a) Parallel Feeders,

+-+-NON DIRECTIONAL
-+-DIRECTIONAL
tt
(b) Tee Feeders.
~
il:
A
/2•5A
B.
IOA
0
A
DISTANCE-
-
RELAY PICKUP 0
A B
t
J
SECONDARY CURRENT
INFEEO
C,T. RATIO-
...,_...
l2•5A
300/5
IOA
300/5
--
SA
300/5
HKM. CURRENT- 3600A 2900A 2'llJOA

(c) Ring main. Fig. 30.5. Graded current protection of a feeder (Non-directional).
Fig. 30.2. Typical directional protection schemes. For a fault beyond C relay at C is actuated. For fault between C and B is ac_tuated. For fault
30.4. SETTING OF DIRECTIONAL OVER-CURRENT RELAYS OF A RING MAIN between B and A relay at A is actuated. The current setting diminishes progressively from the I ,
source to the remote end of the line. ',I
'·'
Fig. 30.3 illustrates the setting of a directional overcurrent relaying for 3 ph. faults. For faults
between B and C the relays B2 and C1 operate first and BC is disconnected from the ring main. Difficulty. (a) If a fault is very near to station B in section BC, the relay at A may feel that
So, als~ for t~e. faults ?n o~her sections, the faulty section is disconnected from the system. it is in section AB because there may be very little difference in the fault currents and the relays
If, i~ addit10~ to direct10n~l overcurrel?-t fe~ture, time lag is necessary to obtain selectivity, the
do not discriminate between the fault in the next section and the end of first section. The reason
graded time lag is used .. The tu:~e lag of direct10nal relays is selected such that it is minimum for being
relay near the source, Fig. 30.4 illustrates the principle. 1. Difference in fault currents is low.
TIM£
CHARACTERISTIC
I
A B C 2. Magnitude of fault currents can- I

I
A Jj (J not be accurately determined. A~'-___
I n _____ c_____
A, JJ,
- --
Ba
i!J;5,
-- --
4()(}/5 ,00/5 400/5 40()/5 300/5 300/5 300/5 3. The accuracy of relay under tran-
Tr 0·03 1-9 0•51 1•2
sient condition is likely to be different. 80%--j
Therefore, to obtain discrimination Fig. 30.6. Instantaneous overcurrent protection of line.
only about 80% lines protected by relay (It is supplemented by time graded back-up).
at one station. Since only 80% of line is
protected this system should be supplemented by time graded inverse definite minimum time relay
system.
300/5 300/5 (b) The fault currents for different types of fault are different. This brings a certain difficulty
in relay setting.
E D
Maximum Fault Currents 3 Ph. Fault (c) For ring mains, parallel feeders etc. where power can flow to the fault from either directions,
Fig. 30.4. Example of time grading of direc-
ViaAB ViaAE tional earth fault relays. a system without directional control is not suitable.
A = 12000 A A = 12000 A
B = 8000 A B = 8000 A
Instantaneous and IDMT Protection
C = 5000 A C = 5000 A Instantaneous overcurrent relays in conjunction with inverse definite minimum time (IDMT)
D = 3000 A D = 5000 A relays can be used for high speed protection of radial lines. The coils of instantaneous element and
E = 2000 A E = 2000 A IDMT element are connected in series. Fig. 30. 7 illustrates the characteristics of the combination.
Fig. 30.3. Example of directional over-current relay
settings Load connections not shown.
The instantaneous element has a characteristics like Fig. 30.6.
Such protection can be effectively applied only if the following conditions are satisfied :
30.5. CURRENT GRADED SYSTEMS
- The fault level at the sending end of the line is at least thrice that at the receiving end of
~nalternativ~ to time grading or in addition to time grading current grading system can be the line.
a~phed when the_ impedance betwe~n two sub-stations is sufficient and current grading can be ap- - The changes in the generating station do not change the fault current significantly.
phed. The long time delays occurrmg in graded time lag system can be partly avoided. Current
PROTECTION OF TRAi"-rSMISSION LINES 557

Earth-fault currents depend on type of natural earthing. Where no natural point is available,
556 grounding transformer is used.
The instantaneous element should be set for more than 150% of maximum fault current at the In case of resonant earthed system or ungrounded systems, the earth-fault currents are min-
end of the line section which it protects. For example, the instantaneous element at sectionA should imum (Ref. Ch. 37). Hence conventional earth-fault protection by residual earth-fault relays cannot
be set for more than 150% at maximum fault current at section B. Such a margin takes care of give a satisfactory protection. Hence a double actuating quantity earth-fault relay is provided at
transient and over-reach. each station. In addition, a directional element is provided to determine in which feeder is the earth-
Over-reach of Instantaneous Over-current Relay fault. The double actuating quantity relay has one voltage coil energized by residual voltage and
Over-reach is a tendency of a relay to pickup for faults further away from what is expected current coil energized by residual current.
from a relay neglecting the d.c. component of a fault current. Magnetic attrnct~on. type ~elays are In case of resistance earth or solid earthed systems, the over-current element connected in
most affected by over-reach because they are sensitive to d.c. component Certam mduction relays residual circuit of CTs is preferred.
are least affected by d.c. component. Percentage over-reach is defined as The setting of earth-fault relays may be made less than rated full load current of the line.
A-B
Percentage over-reach =~ x 100 The earth-fault elements are with inverse characteristics and time-grading is preferred for
earth-fault protection of radial feeders.
where A= relay pick-up current steady state r.m.s. value
The practice followed is to apply relays having a setting range of 10 to 40%. A setting of 10%
B = r.m.s. value of steady state current which when fully offset on a 500/5 A; current transformer means the relay operates for primary earth fault current of
causes relay pickup.
500 10
To take into account the d.c. component, the maximum value of symmetri~al value of current 5 X 100 = 5 A.
for which the relay should not operate, should be multiplied by about 1.25, to obtain relay pick-up
Selection of optimum setting of earth fault relay is difficult. The final setting is determined by
setting. ·
test before commissioning.
The procedure for time setting is similar to that of overcurrent relays. However the errors are
calculated for each current level an.d corresponding relays time should be considered.
IDMTATA
I
Directional earth fault relays are used where fault power can be supplied from both ends of
protected equipment. Fig. 30.4 illustrates the time graded scheme of ring main based on direction
~ earth fault protection.
30.8. SUMMARY OF OVERCURRENT PROTECTION OF LINES

Overcurrent protection of lines falls into following categories :
A B INSTANTANEOUS C
Graded time lag overcurrent protection. In this protection, inverse time relays are employed.
ATB This time settings of over-current relays at successive stations are so graded that 'dis-
Fig: 30.6 (a) Characteristics of the combined instantaneous crimination is obtained.
and IDMT protection. - Graded time lag or graded that directional overcurrent protecti01~.
30.6. DEFINITE TIME OVERCURRENT PROTECTION OF LINES (Fig. 30.7) - This is employed where power flow can be from either sides and simple overcurrent protec-
tion does not provide selectivity.
Definite time overcurrent relays have adjustable overcurrent elements, When an element picks - Protection by instantaneous overcurrent relays.
up it energizes a built-in time element, which initiates a tripping signal after the elapse of the
- Protection by definite time overcurrent relays.
preset time. f
I
- Separate relays are provided for phase fault protection and earth fault protection. The relays
The tripping times are so graded that the t 1 · for phase fault protection are co-ordinated independently of relays for earth fault.
relay beyond the remote station (C) is set at a
shorter time than the relays nearer to the power
source. This form of time grading is satisfactory
_ l
Q--'-~--------¼-1-o-------,lt-,
r
60------
PART 30B. DISTANCE PROTECTION OF
TRANSMISSION LINES
for simple line configurations with single-end in- 11 a c
feed provided that the tripping times at the Fig. 30.7. Time graded overcurrent protection with 30.9. INTRODUCTION TO DISTANCE PROTECTION OF H.V. AND E.H.V. LINES
power source do not become excessively long. definite time relays.
(Ref. Ch. 29, Ch. 42)
Definite overcurrent protection is also employed
as back-up protection for generators and transformers. Distance relaying is considered for protection of transmission lines where the time-lag cannot
be permitted and selectivity cannot be obtained by overcurrent relaying. Distance protection is used
for secondary lines and main lines.
30.7. EARTH FAULT PROTECTION OF LINES
The general practice is to use a set of two over-current relays for protection against interphase A distance relay measures the ratio j at relay location which gives the measure of distance
faults and a separate overcurrent relay for single line to ground fault. Separate ground fault (earth between the relay and fault location. The impedance (resistance/reactance/admittance) of a fault
fault relays) are generally preferred because they can be adjusted to provide faster and more sen-
sitive protection for single line to ground faults than that provided by the phase (Refer Ch. 27).
loop is proportional to the distance between the relay location and the fault point. For a given set- 30.9.1. Plain Impedance Protection (Ref. Ex. 42.1)
ting, the distance relay picks up when impedance measured by it is less than the set value. Hence Fig. 30.9, the plain impedance relay
8 0
it protects a certain length of line. Hence it is called distance relay. does not recognize the direction in which Al 1 cT c
Measurement. Considering zero fault impedance the voltage at fault point will be zero. The the fault has occurred. Relay is Non-Direc- ...,,,_,+---,,,-.,----•-+__,.,.,__,,g,.,,_,__v_r _ ....,_,_j_l-• - - - - - - - - • I •
voltage at relay location O will be equal to the voltage drop along the length OF, whereas same tional. Hence it will operate for all faults
current I is flowing in the line at O upto F. If fault had occurred near 0, the voltage at O would along the line BC and also along BA 28
be different. Current would be more because of the reduction in line impedance. If fault occurred provided the impedance measured by relay
away from 0, the voltage at O would be lesser and current would also be lesser. In distance relays ZB is less than the setting. Fig. 30.9. Explaining Impedance Protection.
the ratio VII is measured. The current gives operating torque and voltage gives restraining torque.
Hence for values of Z above certain setting the relay does not operate. Hence it protects only a The relay unit can be high speed (instan- +J CHARCTERISTIC OF
certain length ofline equivalent to its Impedance taneous) or with time increasing with measured im- PLAIN IMPEDANCE
setting. RELAY FAULT pedance. RELAY Za
LOCATION LOCATION
For the impedance measurement there The relay will not only operate for faults on sec-
several possibilities however, for distance protec- a
tion BC but also faults in section AB and faults on
F +R
tion equipment the impedance Z == VII or the busbar in station B. Therefore, discrimination be-
conductance G == (IIV) cos qi are generally tween faults on neighbouring sections is not pos-
measured. When planning impedance-dependent sible with plain impedance protection.
protection schemes particular attention must be Plain impedance relay has three major disad-
paid to the influence of the arc resistance on the vantages: Fig. 30.10. Explaining Plain Impedance Protection.
loop impedance. This arc resistance has ohmic Selectivity cannot be obtained as it operates
nature and increases the circuit impedance of the for faults on either sides. Circle covers all
short-circuit loop. This falsifies the measurement four sectors.
a DISTANCE--~
F
of impedance by the protection equipment as
Fig. 30.8. Distance relaying: measurement of distance. - As it measures resistance and reactances, it
regards both magnitude and phase. relation.
is affected by resistance of arc, resistance of
Allowance must be made for the effect of arc resistance when setting the protection equipment. transmission line.
The resulting tripping characteristics represent a modified value between the impedance and con- - It is affected by power swings (fluctuation
ductance measurement. Modern distance protection relays include provisions for matching the de- of reactive power) as the circular charac-
gree of arc compensation to the short-circuit angle of the line depending on the application. teristic covers a large area on every side of
The arc resistance is approximately give'n by centre wing point comes within circle.
3 x 104 L
Ref. to Fig. 30.9 for faults near C, in the line Fig. 30.11. Impedance Relay at 'A' to protect
Rare== 11.4 BC, the relay at B cannot accurately discriminate 85% oflineAB.
between fault in CD and fault in BC. The fault
where Rare == resistance of arc, Ohms resist~nce will be seen by relays as extension ofline length, thereby the relay set for protecting line
L == Length of arc in metres in open standstill air ~C will not operate for faults very near C. This is called under reach. Fault resistance is a horizontal
I== Fault current Amperes. line segment_ on R-X diagra~ (Fig. 30.14). For a fanlt near C (Fig. 30.10), such segment will take
Due to the extra arc resistance the distance measured by the impedance relays is inaccurate. measured pomt beyond the circle. Therefore the relay will under-reach (Defh. Sec. 25.8.)
The distance relay will measure in impedance Zr+ Rare, where Zr is impedance of line. It is a standard practice to set the reach of the first zone of distance relay to cover only about
85% of protected line impedance (Ref. Fig. 30.11).
For short lines, the Zr is relatively low and Rare is not negligible. Hence measurement of im-
pedance Z == Zr+ Rare does not give accurate measure of distance. For long lines, the Rare is negli- 30.9.2. Directional Impedance Relay
gible compared with Z. Hence measurement of impedance gives fairly accurate measurement of For achieving discrimination between for-
distance. ward and rear faults, the directional impedance
A sudden change in loading condition in a power system causes power swings between load relays are used. Directional impedance protec-
IMPEDANCE CHARACTERISTIC
point and source. Under certain circumstances, the power swings can cause the operation of dis- tion acts only for faults in forward direction. This OF DIRECTIONAL IMPEDANCE
tance relays. Hence it is desirable to examine the behaviour of distance relays during power swings. is explained in Fig. 30.12. RELAY z 8
The principle of measurement in following types of distance relays was described in Ch. 29 : The directional impedance relay ZB does not -R-;.;:.;.4.;;;.,;;:;:,::.~~--~:----R
- Plain Impedance Relay - Directional Impedance Relay operate for faults in zone BA and for faults on DIRECTIONAL
CHARACTERISTIC
- Mho type distance Relay - Reactance type distance Relay busbar B.
The application of such relay in practical distance schemes are discussed in this chapter. There Directional Impedance Relay combines the
is no hard and fast rule regarding these applications. There is overlapping in many areas of ap- directional element and impedance measuring
plications. (Static Distance Protection : Ch. 42) element in a single case.
Fig. 30.12. Directional Impedance Relay Characteris_tics,
I
560 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION PROTECTION bF TRANSMISSION LINES 561
The voltage supplied to the directional element is taken from the two phases from which current
is not taken. Thereby the function of directional element is not affected by drop of voltage.
Directional Impedance Relays are preferred for phase fault protection of lines of moderate OFFSET MHO CHARACTERISTIC
OF RELAY AT 8 1
lengths.
30.9.3. Reactance Relay
The main advantage of reactance relay is that is not affected by fault resistance. The charac-
teristic of plain reactance relay is a line parallel to R-axis in R-X plane. However, the reactance
relay is not used by itself. It is generally used along with Mho Relay or offset Mho Relay.
Suppose reactance relay is used along with Mho Starting Relay (Fig. 30.13). The reactance relay Fig. 30.16 (a) Off-set Mho characteristic Fig. 30.16 (b).
measures reactance upto fault point. The voltage drop due to arc (AB) does not affect the measure- to cover bus-bar zone.
ment, as all points on AB are in operating region. 30.9.5. Offset Mho Characteristic (Ref. Sec. 42.7)
Hence such relays are used for protection of short lines having fault currents less than 20 KA. The offset Mho characteristic encloses the origin of R-X axis. The main applications off-set Mho
In such lines the effect of fault resistance is predominant. relay are following :
In case of long lines, the effect of arc resistance is negligible. - Bus bar back-up protection
I) - Carrier starter unit in carrier Aided Distance Blocking Schemes
- Power Swing Blocking
STEP ZONE ·.'-;!f(X))..'._;·,.-, . p~~rffTED
Referring to Fig. 30.16 the Mho characteristic
>i -----~--+-~ :\ ;:\ at B1 is offset so as to enclose origin B and cover

the bus bar zone at B. .,,MHO CHARACTERISTIC
FOR PROTECTING
/·/ i--,--1---+--...,.,...--.ri ··:\ REACTANCE (Hatched Area indicates that impedance char-
STEP Z.ONE 1 HARACTERTIC acteristic has much more of +ve torque region
ZONE I which is beyond that of Mho characteristic).
Referring to Fig. 30.17 during the power swing
locus of impedance measured by relay moves along
MHO STARTING "'-'' U/}((<'D,i,,)"")"' +R :1
CHARACTERISTIC ... ,.,.-.,.::-:,,• ' 'rJJZF!J~btAJ~~ TfRQUE the curve. As soon as it comes within the positive
torque region of the offset Mho characteristic
-jX
Fig. 30.17. Blocking during power swings.
II
II
-jX [fi].t=DR ZoNE2 (Point P, the offset Mho relay acts and blocks the
Fig. 30.13. Combined Characteristics of Fig. 30.14. Relay measures
Mho Starter and Reactance Relay. Line voltage plus fault voltage.
measuring relay for line BC. Therefore, the relay does not operate during power swings. (Details
about Power Swing: Sec. 42.9)
30.9.4. Mho Relay Admittance Relays (Ref. Sec. 42.14 b)
Mho characteristic is a circle passing through origin of R-X diagram (Fig. 30.13) Mho relay 30.10. DISTANCE SCHEMES
preferred for phase fault relaying oflong lines particularly where severe synchronizing power sur-
ges can occur. (Fig. 30.15) Distance schemes comprise set of protective systems. The choice of Distance scheme depends
upon
- distance between relaying points, number of stations in series
MHO CHARACTERISTIC - speed of operation desired.
- system configuration.
LOCUS OF POWER SWING - other protections provided for the line.
- whether directional feature necessary
- whether high speed auto-reclosure provided.
~----IMPEDANCE CHARACTERISTIC - stability considerations, etc.
There are several alternative schemes from which choice is made. The schemes may be divided
Fig. 30.15. Comparison ofMho characteristic and impedance
characteristic under conditions of Reactive Power Swings.
into the following three broad groups:
1. Distance schemes designed for phase faults only.
Comparing to impedance characteristic (for protecting line AB), the Mho characteristic requires
Ground fault protection provided by overcurrent relays.
very much less area. Hence many points covered by impedance characteristic are in the negative
torque region of Mho characteristic (Figs. 30.15 and 30.16). 2. Non-switched schemes for phase faults as well as earth faults.
Hence Mho relay can remain inoperative during power swings on EHV lines to a greater extent Such schemes have separate distance relays for phase faults and earth faults. Thus such
than impedance re~ay. schemes have several measuring elements.
3. Switched schemes having a single set of measuring element (for all kinds of fault) to which
an appropriate measured quantity is applied according to type of fault.
4. Static distance schemes (Ref. Ch. 42.)
Distance schemes comprise the following components :
- starting elements - measuring elements
- tripping relays. L:: load
- zone timer OA = Protected line
Z = Relay setting
30.11. STARTING ELEMENT (FAULT DETECTORS) 0 = Location of relay
Starting Elements are used with distance schemes having one or more measuring elements.
The tasks of starting elements are the following :
- To switch the measuring element to correct input quantity, depending upon type of faults,
in case of distance relay with single measuring element.
- Selecting of correct phase for tripping instructions, if single phase auto reclsoure is used. Fig. 30.18. Characteristics of an impedance relay on R-X plane.
- Changing distance steps or reversing the direction of measuring element after a certain time 30.12. STEPPED CHARACTERISTIC
lag.
The distance relays of early day used to have Inverse characteristic of Distance us. Time. Now
- To give non-directional back-up to measuring elements.
such characteristic is no more preferred and distance relays have stepped characteristic.
- To prepare carrier equipment to receive a possible instruction.
The stepped characteristic may be either single stepped (Fig. 30.11) or three stepped, (Fig.
The starting element also called fault detector acts first and switches the measuring ele- 30.12).
ment to appropriate input quantity. Single Stepped Distance-Time Characteristic
In switched schemes, there is only a single measuring element which is switched to appropriate i" Single step distance relays can be used where high set instantaneous overcurrent relays cannot
phase by starting element and their auxiliaries, depending upon the type of fault. The choice of <:> be used. The typical applications of single-step distance protection are protection of transformer
scheme is made from standard schemes (examples in Table 30.1). In non-switched schemes, for feeder, protection of single section transmission lines, protection of bus bars etc. The conventional
each type of fault there is separate measuring element. distance measuring element has instantaneous time-distance characteristics. The operating time
Types of Starting Elements becomes infinite at relay reach point. 'l'he distance relay is set for a value say Z corresponding to
length of line L. Then if a fault occurs within length L, the ideal distance relay operate instan-
- Overcurrent Starters - Undervoltage Starters taneously.
- Impedance Starters - Minimum Impedance type. However the d.c. component of wave, fault resistance, influence the relay measurement and
- Compounded Impedance type. cause over-reach or under reach.
In the event of a fault the starting elements will operate first and apply the secondary voltage +jX
and current of the faulty phase or phase to the measuring element.
For the majority of applications overcurrent staring will be adequate, but where required, for
example in a resistance earthed system, undervoltage starting can be added.
When impedance staring is required (see above) the over-current and undervoltage elements M = Centre of the circle
are replaced by the impedance starting-elements. These are normally connected to select correctly Z 0 = Compounding impedance
the faulty phase in the case of phase faults. In the case of an earth fault, the connections of the L = load
three impedance starting-element are switched by means of the residual-current starting element Z = Setting of relay
to select correctly the faulty phase. OA = Protected line
0 = Relay location
Minimum Impedance Starters
As starting element of distance relays in e.h.v. system minimum-impedance relays are
preferred because the minimum short-circuit current in such system at low loads is often less than
the maximum service current at peak load. The minimum impedance relay compares the voltage
and the current; its functional principle being described in Figs. 30.18 and 30.19. 0
For the protection of long and/of heavily loaded ones, the voltage applied to minimum-im-
pedance relays can be compounded to enable the starting elements to earth further along the line.
At the same time a much heavier load can be carried without the starting elements picking up.
Fig. 30.19. Characteristics of a modified impedance relay in the R-X plane.
564 SWITCHGEAR AND PRO'I'ECTION pROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION LINES 565
Over-reach. When short circuit occurs, the current swings. Overcurrent SE is readily affected. During power swings, there is a heavy flow of equalizing
wave has d.c. component which causes a distance relay current in transmission lines, current caused.by swing flows equally in all phases causing the over-
to over-reach, i.e. to operate for a large impedance than current SE to pick up in all phases. Minimum impedance SE responds to ratio VII. During power
desired. The tendency to over-reach is minimized by ad- swing, voltage also drops at certain points of the system in addition of equalizing currents. There,-
justing the voltage to 90 to 80% of its normal value. fore, such starting relay of all three phases can pick up during heavy power swing.
Effect of arc resistance, Under-reach. The arc Z-+or £ - Thus overcurrent SE or impedance SE. operate during power swings.
resistance is approximately given by Fig. 30,11. Single-step characteristic of high
Hence the measuring element (ME) has to decide whether to operate th~ relay or to block it.
speed impedance relay: above certain Z, the
R = 2.9 x 104 L relay is inoperative. In general distance relays having mho characteristic are less susceptible to power swings be-
arc 1.4 For smallest Z the relay operates in time t1. cause of their narrow characteristic. Generally during power-swings an out-of-step blocking relay
1
operates. If measuring element operates within a certain time after operation of blocking relay,
where Rare= Resistance of arc, Ohm
then tripping is allowed. Modern distance relays are stable lover a wide range of power swings,
L =Length of arc in m. in open standstill air they do not trip unselectively, if power swing reverts to normal condition fairly soon. If the condition
I= Fault current Amperes. prevails, the relay trips (Ref. Sec. 30.8.5.)
Due to the extra arc resistance the distance measured by impedance relays inaccurate. The
distance relay will measure an impedance Zr+Rarc, where Zris impedance ofline. 30.15. CARRIER ASSISTED DISTANCE PROTECTION (Ref. Sec. 30.19)
By adding Zr and Rare the measured point on R-X diagram goes out of impedance circle and While protecting a transmission line the following are the desirable features :
relay does not operate even though the fault in within the protection zone. This is called Under- - Simultaneous opening of circuit-breakers at both ends of the line for internal faults.
reach. - Simultaneous reclosure.
- Discrimination between internal and external faults.
30.13. THREE STEP DISTANCE-TIME CHARACTERISTIC
- Single pole switching.
The transmission lines having successive line sections can be protected by means of three-zone - Independent phase relaying, etc.
distance protection schemes. By such schemes, quick protection can be obtained and back-up of the - Distance relays are used in conjunction with carrier channel.
sections as well as adjoining lines/bus bars can also be provided.
Referring to Fig. 30.12, the distance relay RA, located at section A has a 3-stcp characteristic 30.15.1. Carrier Transfer (Intertripping)
given by dashed line marked tA1, tA2, tA 3 , tA 1, is called the first step and covers about 80 per cent Carrier signal is transmitted to the other end of the section to bring about simultaneous trip-
ping of the line-section. This is called Transfer trip or Intertrip technique. After the tripping, the
of the first line section AB, and gives instantaneous protection. tA 2 is the second step of relay at . auto-reclosure relays takes over.
station A (RA) and covers the remaining portion of section AB and about 20 to 50 per cent of the
With stepped time-distance characteristics of distance relays, the first distance step (RA) is
next section (BC). The third step having timing TA 3 covers the entire remaining line. The steps
generally to cover about 80 per cent of first line section. The relay at remote end (RB) is arranged
are obtained by one of the following methods : in a similar way, but in opposite direction (Fig. 30.13).
- Changing taps on auxiliary voltage transformer,
- Switching resistance in relay restraint circuit at pre-set time intervals by means of time-
__ ,_________ A ____ . , ____ .J1··-----·---
..L-_
element. RA, R 8 =Distance relays
- Separate measuring element for zone 2 and zone 3. - t, - A= Characteristic of RA
RA Fz
1- -~'---- ~f--------------Ra B = Characteristiic of R 8 .
tt TA~ ----T--.----.J
B
B
_/A2 __! ..i{_ - - - - - _A~i ________ _
_____ .L!~t..J _____ i!:_1_ ------- Fig, 30.13. Explaining Carriers Transfer.
LINE Ra Carrier transfer is explained by means of Fig. 30.13. If fault occurs in the middle of the section,
the distance relays at both end (RA and Rn) will trip with time t 1 of the first step. However, if the
A n
AB = Section I BC = Section II fault uccurs near the end of the line section, (say F 2 near RA), the relay at P remote end (RB) will
Beyond C = Section III A, B, C = Stations operate with time t2 whereas relay at local end (RA) will operate with time t 1 resulting in non-
RA, RB, RC= Relays t Ai, t A 2 , t A 3 = Times of RA stages simultaneous operating of circuit-breakers at both the ends. This is not desirable from stability and
t B 1, t B 2 = Times RB stages. t C 1 = Times of RC stages. auto-reclosure considerations.
Fig. 30.12. Three step characteristic of distance relay. The nearer relay (RA in this case) is therefore, made to send a carrier signal to the remote end
(Rs) to bring about simultaneous tripping of the circuit-breakers at both ends. After operation of
30.14. POWER SWINGS (Ref. Sec. 42.9)
the relays and circuit-breakers, auto-reclosure relay takes over.
Sudden change in load conditions in the system cause power swings between the load and
generating station. The starting elements (SE) in distance scheme generally respond to power
,. PROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION LINES 567
566
30.15.3. Carrier Acceleration
The scheme for carrier transfer is illustrated in Fig. 30.14. The relay step 1-circuit initiates
the transmission signal sent by the carrier transmitter via the line Fig. 30.14 (b). The step 1 relay '\ In this scheme, a signal received from a relay at opposite end is used to extend the first step
S initiates the carrier transfer in addition to completion of the trip circuit at local end. A similar · from about 80% to about 150% of the reach (length of the protected line) by shunting the timer
1 element of zone 2. The contacts of timer of zone 2 relay are shunted by normally open carrier
set arrangements are provided the remote end. recei~er relay contacts .. Thus all faults within protected section can be cleared approximately at
FD
TE the time of first zone. Fig 30.16 explains this principle. For faults near B, in section AB, a carrier
--- -----r---------~ signal is sent from section B to station A. The relay at station A is accelerated and the second step
i .::.,co---'---...,.....----/ timer is shunted. Thereby the second zone time is reduced from tA 2 to tA 1. A similar characteristic
(not shown) is provided at B in direction BA.
,..,_______
d4g _
tAz . •
fA1
f •
;·· ------
I
-----1
______ .f. ________ , ___.____ ._ ---~
FD
CR
(a) Trip Control Circuit.
=Fault Detector S 1, S 2, S3 =Steps
(b) Carrier starting for Transfer Signal.
CTR= Carrier Transmitter
-
516NAL TO
ACCf=LERATI:
RELAY AT A
p
B
tA,i t Ai, t A 2 , t A 3 = Original steps
t Aa = Characteristic due acceleration.
TE = Time Element T 8, T 2 = Timer Elements S 1 = Zone 1 Relay

Fig. 30.15 (b) Carrier Acceleration.
TR = Tripping Rehay CR = Carrier Receiver CS= Control Circuit (a)
Fig. 30.14. Scheme of carrier receiver transfer relaying.
30.16.DISTANCE SCHEMES FOR SINGLE POLE AND TRIPLE-POLE AUTO-
RECLOSING (Ref. Sec. 44.8)
30.15.2. Carrier Blocking Scheme (Directional Comparison Method)
Distance relays can be arranged in conjunction with single phase or three phase auto-reclosure.
In this case the distance step is arranged to over-reach. Provision is made to prevent the trip-
In case of switched schemes, the pole selection is made by starting element auxiliaries. In non-
ping of the circuit-breakers for faults on next section. switched schemes, it is provided by respective phase measuring elements and their auxiliary ele-
ments. However all the three measuring elements may be tripped to ensure whether the fault is
on more than one phase.
-+-0
i 30.17. CONNECTIONS OF DISTANCE RELAYS
SIGNAL T() BLOCK C,B. AT Aa Distance Relays are connected in the secondary circuit ofCT's and VT's. The connections should
OJJRIN6 FAULT ON B,C. such that the impedance measure¢! by the relay should be proportional to the distance between
Fig. 30.15 (a) Directional comparison, or Carrier Blocking.
relay location and the fault, for all types of faults.
The voltage supplied to relay coil (V,.) must be proportional to the voltage drop upto fault point.
The principle is as follows : "The direction of fault power at two ends of the protected line is
compared by means of directional relays. Under internal fault conditions the direction of the fault The current supplied to relay coil (l,.) should be proportional to fault current. To achieve this, the
power must be outwards at one end and inwards at the other end. Under through fault condition distance relays should be connected such that they cover the fault loop.
the fault must be fed into the line at only one end. (Ref. Fig. 43.13) CTs
In three phase systems the faults can be
The primary protection is given by distance relays. The directional comparison relaying - phase to phase fault.
operates in conjunction with the distance relays. - phase to earth fault
When fault power is flowing outward from the line at one end, the directional relay at that end - Double phase to earth fault.
actuates a carrier signal which block at its local end and at the other end. Suppose fault occurs in - Three phase fault.
adjacent line BC. Phase to phase fault can occur between
The directional relay at B 1 will actuate and it will send signal to station A. Thereby the tripping R-Y, Y-B, B-R. To cover these faults, dis-
of CB's at A1 and B1 is blocked. If short circuit occurs in the section AB no signal is sent to block tance relay should have three measuring ele- J%hfJ1
ments (in one casing). Alternatively, a single COll.5
tripping A2 and B 1· measuring element switched over to ap-
Thus carrier signal is sent only during fault conditions. propriate voltage and current. Fig. 30.16 il-
Depending upon the kind of distance relay, various circuit arrangements may be used. During lustrates a typical connection for phase fault
fault on BC very near to B 2 , the distance relay at A 2 will start as it is set with an over-reach of protection. In this scheme there are three
measuring elements.
about 20% over the length AB. However, a time delay is provided such that a relay at the A2 does
The current coils are connected in star to
not operate earlier than receiving blocking signal. If no blocking signal is received, the fault is in-
ternal for zone AB and relay at A 2 operates. Thus carrier blocking schemes should have a slight three secondaries of line CT's. The voltage
coils are connected in delta across secondaries B Y R
time delay for their first step. By using first blocking signals, this time delay can be cut down. of line VT's. Fig. 30.16. Connections of Distance Relay for Phase Faults.
Carrier Blocking schemes have an advantage that the signal is transferred over healthy line.
568 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION PROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION LINES
569
Connections of distance Earth fault relay (Not shown) are different from the Distance phase
fault relays.
PART 30C. PROTECTION OF LINES BASED ON UNIT PRINCIPLE

The unit protection responds to internal faults only. The use of channel to compare conditions
at the terminals of a power line, provides the only selective means of high-speed clearing of end
zone faults. In many ways pilot protection is analogous to differential protection of buses, trans-
formers and machines.
The advantages of high speed simultaneous clearing of all terminals are :
- Limits the possibilities of conductor burn down due to over-loading and in general minimizes Fig. 30.19. Pilot wire relaying with split pilot connection using
3-core cable for pilot connections. ·
damage to the line.
- Improves transient stability of system by quick disconnection of faulty line. C.B.
- Permits high speed reclosing, which is successful, will improve transient stability or mini-
mize outage time or poor voltage conditions on portions of the system load (Refer Ch. 44) I I
Unit type feeder protection includes pilot wire protection and carrier current protection. Merz-
Price or differential circulating current protection was widely used in U.K and U.S.A. In earlier
years d.c. pilot sch.emes were used. Now they are replaced by A.C. pilot schemes discussed in this
section.
11t><<:l111
u
I
30.18.PILOT WIRE PROTECTION USING CIRCULATING CURRENT DIFFERENTIAL z
RELAYING
The differential circulating current protection principle can be readily applied to feeder protection.
Two CT's are connected in each protected line,
one at each end. Under healthy/external fault A B
E
Fig. 30.20. Principle of voltage-balance.
PROTECTED l/NI= ~he re!ay coils. _During_internal fault current cir~ulates through relay coil. Voltage balance system
conditions the secondary currents are equal ISbasically a differential system (Ref. Sec. 28. 7).
and circulate in pilot wires. The relay is con-
nected between equipotential points of pilot c ltDi~chriminati~gFactor. Operati~g current at one terminal or an internal fault to an external
1 au wit same pnmary current applied from that terminal.
wires. For external faults and normal condi- .......
,._,,,
tion the differential current I 1-12 of two CT's ,,_,,I
RELAY INSTANTANEOUS
is zero and relay does not operate. During in- ✓ TYPE
)._
ternal faults this balance is distributed and ~

f..,
OISCRIMINATIN6
differential current flows through the relay TRIP A TRIP B ~ FACTOR=:~

~
operating coils.
The circuit-breakers at two ends separated Fig. 30.17. Pilot wire protection of line. ~
e A./
i::: POJNTOF
by a long distance, there is a need to have STABlt/TY'
relaying going at each end associated circuit- C.D ~
breaker. In line protection (Fig. 34.17), relay- ----o~--------t.X:\.J i
:...
"(
PILOT WIRE
ing point falls in the middle of the line. This
means added difficulties. ~16"::=--------!.--------
c
PRIMARY' FAULT CURRENT AT ONE E N D -
To solve this problem the circuit is modified
(Fig 30.18) by providing two relays, one at each Fig. 30.21. Discrimination factor.
end. Referring to Fig. 30.22, consider a current differential scheme.
Another method (Fig. 30.19) is by using '----""" JI----'\~---' Let Io be relay operating current, I be the primary current at one end. Keeping primary current
'] TRIP CIRCUIT
split pilot principle which uses a three core cable : the same, let 101 be the current in relay for
Fig. 30.18. Us~, of two relays, one at each end.
as pilot. mternal fault and IoE be current in relay for
~ ~
mwr~:
EXT. FAULT
external fault. Then 10 is plotted against fault
current. The ratio of I 01 and I OE gives dis- - - 0 ~ 1
Pilot wire Relaying using voltage balance. In this method the secondary currents are [J 71
replaced by or converted to an equivalent voltage source of fairly low impedance. The equivalent
at two ends are comp~red as shown in Fig 30.20. For healthy condition, no current flows through crimination factor. It is observed that beyond a
certain value of fault current the relay loses
s~ability and operates for exte;nal faults. (Ref. Fig, 30.22. Current differential scheme.
Fig. 30.12-Point of Stability)
570 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION pROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION LINES 571
Transley System. This is based on differential balance voltage principle. It has telephone lines Summation-transformers
as pilot wires. Advantages of higher currents can be used. Arrangement consist of induction relays The most common device in use is the "Summation-transformer", which is shown in its simplest
at either ends. Schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 30.23. form in Fig 30.24. A common primary-winding is connected to the line current-transformer outputs,
each phase energizing a different number of turns, from line to neutral. The arrangement gives an
equivalent secondary output for the various types of fault, as shown by the table of Fig 30.24 ;
these can easily be derived for any tapping arrangement by construction of the equivalent ampere-
turn vector diagram. Such devices are not perfect as there are complex fault-conditions, such as
LINE TOB 2 : 1 : 1 fault-distribution on Y-B-R phase with equal R-Y and Y-B sections, which will give no
PRO TIX TED
. ·output.Another example of the limitations of summation transformers is a double earth fault with
a resistance earthed neutral. In the ratio of phase fault current to earth fault current is of the right
order, it is possible with some double earth-fault, for the output to be zero or very small.
TO PILOT WIR€5 _________ ,....._
I'll.Or W/ReS
'-,
', r---11
R o----,.
TO PILOT WIRES
Fig. 30.23. Transley system of balance voltage protection. y o----...Qf
Limitations of Pilot Wire Protection of Line. Pilot wire protection needs additional expen-
diture of Pilot wires, the Pilot wires need supervision to check. Open circuits and short circuits on
Pilot wires lead to relay failure.
The Pilot wires are put at the same time along with power conductors. In cable systems, Pilot
cables are put in the same trench of power cable. Equivalent output for Equal fault-current.
For short lines of less than 16 km the Pilot wires give most economical form of high speed R-N=n + 2Y-N =n+ 1 B-N=n
relaying. For lines upto 16 km Pilot wire protection is popular. It used even for lines upto 50 km .. R-Y= 1 Y-B = 1 B-R = 2
in rare cases. Beyond the length of 16 km. carrier current Pilot relaying is more economical and 3-phase = ✓3
preferable. Fig. 30.24. Summation-transformer.
Voltages are induced in pilot wires due to the field of power conductors: This voltage should be
SEC. 30D. CARRIER CURRENT PROTECTION OF
limited to 5-15 volts.
TRANSMISSION LINES.
Overhead Pilot wires are expos!=)d to lightening and high voltage surges. They must be protected
by means of lightning arresters. Similarly they should not c;ome in contact with power circuit. Ac-
30.19. CARRIER CURRENT PROTECTION
cording to the rules the voltage across Pilot is limit to about 200V and current to 200mA.
Pilot Supervision. If Pilot circuit opens or shorts, relaying system fails. The effect as follows : This type of protection is used for protection of transmission lines Carrier currents of the fre-
quency range 30 to 200 kds in USA and 80 to 500 kds (kHz) in UK are transmitted and received
Pilot fault Circulating current scheme Balanced voltage scheme through the transmission lines for the purpose of protection.
Short circuit Fails to trip for internal faults. Trip on full load. The schematic diagram of carrier current protection is given in Fig. 30.25.
Open circuit Trip on full load. Fails to trip on internal faults. LINE TRAP
To avoid this trouble, automatic supervision is usually applied along with overcurrent fault . PT PT
detectors to prevent wrong tripping.
Summation Circuits
The need to economize in the pilot cores has resulted in the use of current summation devices
so that the polyphase line currents may be reproduced as a single-phase quantity. This enables the
comparison over the pilot channel to the effected on single phase basis and the pilot cores to be
reduced to a minimum of two.
Most summation devices include transformers and can, therefore, be used to reduce the burden CARRIER CURRENT
RECEIVER, TRANSMITTER
imposed by the Pilots on the current-transformer by changing the impedance levels. A further ad- RELAY UNIT
POWER AMPLIFIER LINE
vantage is the possibility of isolating the current-transformers from the Pilots. This enables the TUNNING UNIT, MASTER
current-transformers to be earthed and the Pilots to be without earth. OSCILLATOR
Fig. 30.25. Scheme of carrier current relaying.
>•pROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION LINES 573
Carrier frequencies are generated in oscil-
Each end of the line is provided with identical carrier current equipment consisting of trans-
lator. The oscillator can be tuned to a particular ------ct--- -- - - - - --·-
mitter, receiver, line-tuning unit, master oscillator, power amplifier, etc. frequency selected for the application. Or it can
1. Coupling capacitor. The carrier equipment is connected to the transmission line through a crystal oscillator with which the operation ?T
'Coupling Capacitor' which is of such a capacitance that it offers low reac~ance ( ro~) to carrier fre- for a particular band width can be achieved by
. selecting on appropriate crystal. The output
COUPLING UNIT
quency but high reactance power frequency. For example, 2000 pF capacitor oiters 1.5 megahoms voltage.of the oscillator is held constant by volt-
to 50 Hz and 150 ohms to 500 KHz. age stabilizers. - ~INE TUNNING UNIT
Thus coupling capacitors allows car- The output of the amplifier is fed into the
rier frequency signals to enter the car- amplifier* to overcome the losses in the trans- POWER AMPLIFIER
Z=-1- mission path between the transmitter and
rier equipment but does not allow 50 Hz wCi
power frequency currents to enter the = 1.5 mega ohms for 50 Hz. receiver at remote end of the line. Signal at-
MASTER OSCILLATOR
carrier equipment. To reduce impedance = 150 ohms for 500 kHz. tenuation comprises.
further a low inductance is connected in HF GENERA TOR - losses in coupling equipment which are
series with coupling capacitors to form a 500 kHz
constant in the given frequency range. RELAY UNIT TRANSMITTER AND
resonance at carrier frequency. - line losses which vary with length of RECEIVER UNIT
2. Line Trap Unit. Line trap unit line, frequency weather conditions, tee Fig. 30.29. (a) Schematic Diagram of Carrier Current Units.
is inserted between busbar and conneca _ of connections of the line, the size and
tion of coupling cap~cito: to the ~i?e· It Fig. 30.26. Function of coupling capacitor. type of line. The h.f. losses of underground line are higher than overhead line.
is a parallel tuned circuit compnsmg L The losses in overhead line are affected by weather. In fair weather the attenuation is about
and C. It has a low impedance (less than 0.1 ohm) to 50 Hz and high impedance to carrier frequen- 0.1 dB/kHz at 80 kHz rising 0.2 dB/km at 380 kHz. The output of amplifier is of the order of 20 W
cies. This unit prevents the high frequency signals from entering the neighbouring line, and the for a 250 km line. The amplifier should be designed for maximum power over a selected bandwidth.
carrier currents flow only in the protected line.
The control of transmitter can be achieved by different methods depending upon the type of
LINE TRAP LINE TRAP protection desired.
PROTECT~~-L~~-ro-o- Amplifier constantly energized transmission initiated by energizing the oscillator. In this
method the oscillator stability and response time is a constraint.
I"couPUNG /
T CIRCUIT
Ii Amplifier and oscillator constantly energized and the signals are initiated by interconnecting
the oscillator to the amplifier. The control circuit switches the device which interconnects the os-
cillator to the amplifier.
(ii) Receiving unit. The high frequency signals arriving from remote end are received by
Receiver. The receivers, the signal sand feeds to carrier receiving relay unit (Fig. 30.29). Receiving
Fig. 30.27. Line Trap Units. unit comprise.
3. Protection and Earthing of Coupling Equipment.
- An attenuator, which reduces the signals to a safer value.
Overvoltages on power lines are caused by lightning, switching, - Band pass filter, which restricts the acceptance of unwanted signals (signals from adjacent
faults, etc. produce stress on coupling equipment and line trap· sections, spurious signals.)
unit. Non-linear resistors in series with a protective gap is con- - Matching transformer oi matching element to match the impedances of line and receiving
nected across the line trap unit and inductor of the coupling unit.
unit. The gap is adjusted to spark at a set value of overvoltage.
3
Base of coupling unit is earthed by earth rod in the vicinity CONTROL
UNIT
to obtain low earth-resistance. Carrier panel usually installed
in relay room is connected to station earthing system. ,- - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ OR
FROM RELAY
'f I
4. Electronic Equipment. There are generally identical
units at each end:
UNIT
OSCl~LATOR I +- I 2 I
► AMPLIFIER 1----•
►
ro LINE
(i) Transmitter unit. (ii) Receiver unit (iii) Relay unit. Fig. 30.28. Protective gap for line trap
and coupling capacitor. 1. Oscillator generates high frequency signals.
(i) Transmitter unit. Fig. 30.29 gives the general arran-
2. Amplifier amplifies the signals.
gement of power line carrier protection scheme. 3. Control unit controls the initiation action.
Frequencies between 50 to 500 kHz are employed in different frequency bands. Each band has Fig. 30.29. (b) block diagram of transmitting unit.
certain band width (say 150-300kHz, 90-115kHz).
* Amplifier increase the signals to be transmitted. Attenuator weakens the signals received ..
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION PROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION LINES 575
574
(2) Phase comparison method.
FROM LINE
COUPLER MATCHING BANDPASS Phase comparison method compai·es the phase relation between current entering in the
ATTENUATOR 1----11>1 FILTER
ELEMENT protected zone and current leaving _the protected zone. The magnitudes of currents are not com-
pared. Phase comparison provides only main protection. Back up protection should be provided in
addition. In one of the phase comparison methods signals are sent from each end of the line and
received at the other end. The signals are related to the current flow in the main line, as they are
derived from CT secondary current. When there is no fault, the signal is sent for alternate 1/2 cycles
from each end which result in continuous signal over the line half the cycle from one end, remaining
half from the other. 'fhe same condition holds good from an external fault. During internal fault
the current in one of the lines reverses in phase or differs in phase and remains below the fault
detector setting, so that carrier is sent only for half the time. The relay is arranged to sense the
PROTECTIVE
RELAY absence of signal in the line. Depending upon the setting, the tripping occurs when the phase angle
between the two signals reaches a certain value.
Fig. 30.30. Block diagram of receiving unit.
The spurious signals are caused by short-circuits, radio interference. To avo~d the mi:-1-ope~atio:n OSCILLATOR 1------1 MODULATOR1------1 AMPLIFIER
due to noise, a setting above 2 milliwatts recommended is given to the r~ce1~er. Thrn setting 1s
above the noise level. To avoid operation due to spurious signals, the carrier signals should have
higher power level (20 W) and receiver should be set at a higher level (5 ~illiwatts). ~efore feeding
the signal$ to amplifier detector, the signals should be attenuated to avmd overloading.
(ii) Frequency spacing. Different frequencies are used in a?jacent line ~ections. The wave-
..._.
SUMMATION
traps e11sure that the carrier signals do not enter the next line section. The receiver filters filter-out
other frequencies.
I
L.-_ _ _ s_T:_A_R_T~E_R_ _ _ _ _ _ ~ COMPARATOR ~
I
I
COUPLING TRIP
I
RELAY
I OSCILLATOR
Fig, 30.33. Block diagram of phase comparison circuit.
Referring to Fig. 30.34, for internal fault condition shown on right hand side, the transmitted
SUMMATION ~ MODULATOR ~----i AMPLIFIER signals and received r:;ignals are almost in phase. The comparator compares these signals. Due to
absence of signals for alternate half cycles, the comparator gives output causing operation of trip
Fig. 30.31. Block diagram of modulator.
relay.
Carrier signals are transmitted to the line from both ends. For external faults the effect
The choice of frequency bands for produced by the sum of these two signals is similar to that obtained when a continuous hiah fre-
various sections should be co-ordinated.
quency carrier is available on the line, and the protection is designed to remain stable under the
(iv) Modulation of high frequency
condition. The sum of these two signals on all internal faults produces and effect similar to the
signal. The modulator modulates 50 Hz
signals and the modulated signal is fed so periodic suppression of such a continuous carrier, the duration of each suppression being propor-
the amplifier and is then transmitted via tional to the phase-displacement between the primary current at both ends. The protection is
coupling unit (Fig. 30.31).
The process involves taking half cycle of
current and producing the requisite blocks of
1 designed to operate for phase-displacements greater than a normal angle 30°. Thus for phase-dis-
placements of less than 30° the protection will stabilise. This angle is usually referred to as the
stabilsing angle of the protection (angle X in Fig. 30.34 (b )).
carrier (Fig. 30.32) by turning the oscillator Fig. 30.34 (a) illustrates the two extreme cases with symmetrical fault conditions. The exter-
on. The level ofline current at which the os- nal-fault condition is implied by the fact that the primary current at both ends is in phase and the
cillator is made on to produce the carrier Fig. 30.32. Modulation of line current into high frequency blocks. internal fault condition by the fact that the two primary currents are 180° out of phase.
blocks should be theoretically constant.
However, in practice there is a critical As a first step to produce the required carrier-signals the secondary current at one end only
minimum current. (end B) is made 180° out of phase with the primary current by the reversal of the current-trans-
former connections. Thus for external fault," the secondary currents at the two ends are 180° out
30.20.PHASE COMPARISON CARRIER CURRENT PROTECTION of phase with each other. (Fig 30.34 (b )).
There are different methods of carrier current protection such as : It will be seen that the carrier-signal produced at both ends takes the form of a continuous
(1) Directional comparison method*. carrier which is periodically suppressed. In other words, a high frequency signal is only transmitted
on alternative half-cycles of the power-frequency corresponding say to the period when the secon-
* Refer Sec. 30.14 for distance-carrier schemes, Carrier Transfer/Blocking etc.
--
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION pROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION LINES 577
576
dary current is positive. The type of high frequency signals is achieved by a process of modulation,
EXTERNAL FAULT INTERNAL FAULT
whereby the normally consistent magnitude of a high frequency carrier is made to vary in accord-
ENDB ENDA ENDB
ENDA ance with a square wave-shaped derived from the power current and having the same period (Ref.
Di/'\ [\ I\ I\ I\ I\ I\ Fig. 30.32).
-vv PRIMARY
CURRENT vv \TV
PRIMARY
CURRENT 1\]\]
30,21. APPLICATIONS OF CARRIER CURRENT RELAYING
Pilot channel such are carrier current over the power line provides simultaneous tripping of
1\/'v SECONDARY
CURRENT
vv f\ f\ I\ I\
vv
SECONDARY
CURRENT
CV¼- circuit-breakers at both the ends of the line in one to three cycles. Thereby high speed fault clearing
is obtained, which improves the stability of the power system. Besides there are several pther merits
of carrier current relaying. These are :
1. Fast, simultaneous operating of circuit-breakers at both ends.
Ji- TRANSMITTED
SIGNAL
-1-1 i-1--- TRANSMITTED
SIGNAL
1-t- 2. Auto-reclosing simultaneous reclosing signal is sent thereby simultaneous (1 to 3 cycles)
reclosing of circuit-breaker is obtained,
3, Fast clearing prevents shocks to systems.
4. Tripping due to synchronizing power surges does not occur, yet during internal fault clearing
~~~ ~~~~
I+ SIGNAL FED
TO RECEIVER
~ ~~ w~ SIGNAL FED
TO RECEIVER
rn m is obtained. '
5. For simultaneous faults, carries current protectio'n provides easy discrimination.
6. Fast (2 cycle) and auto-reclosing circuit-breakers such as air blast circuit-breakers require
faster relaying. Hence, the carrier current relaying is best suited for fast relaying in conjunction
SIGNAL FED SIGNAL FED
with modern fast circuit-breakers (Ref. Table 44.1)
□ □ □□
TO COMPARATOR TO COMPARATOR
_n_r 7.JU 7. Other uses of carrier equipment. The carrier current equipment is used for several other
CURRENT IN
COMPARATOR VALVE
nn CURRENT IN
COMPARATOR VALVE
nn applications besides protection. These are :
(a) Station to station communication. In power station, receiving stations and sub-stations
telephones are provided. These are connected to carrier current equipment and conversion can be
Fig. 30,34 (a). Diagram illustrating the working principle phase comparison method. carried out by means of "Current Carrier Communication".
(b) Control. Remote control of power station equipment by carrier signals. (Ref. Sec. 46.1)
A
(c) Telemetering (Ref. Sec. 46.5)
(\
I I
(\ (\
I I 30.22. RADIO LINKS OR MICROWAVE LINKS
I I
I Radio links are used for all forms of protections otherwise based on power line carrier or pilot
wire, The transmission is generally by line of sight and this must take into account the curvature
of the earth and topology of the route cover which the transmissions takes place. The suitable range
vvv
is about 60 km.
Frequency bands used are of the range 80-170 MHz, 470 MHz, 1500 to 7500 MHz. The trans-
mitters and receivers are controlled in the same manner as the carrier current transmitter and
receiver. With radio links (microwave pilots) the signals are sent by line oflight antenna equipment.
s Thus the coupling and trapping units are eliminated. In U.S.A., radio links are used for communica-
A A
(\ (\ (\ L\ (\ tions, remote control and protection.

These are most expensive, but give fast and reliable service.
MWfBNf-wnN
I
Summary
Lines or feeders can be protected by several methods, Each method has some advantages and
some limitations. The classes of protective relays used for line protection; roughly in ascending order
B
'
V8
I
vvv t-~--
Fig. 30.34 (b)

I I of cost and complexity are :
- Instantaneous overcurrent
- Directional overcurrent
- Time-overcurrent
- Distance
- Pilot (pilot wire, power line carrier, or microwave).
578 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIQ
Graded time lag and grade current overcurrent protection is used for single radial feeders whe
time lag can be permitted.
Distance relaying is based on measurement of impedance between relay location and faul
point. It has three types namely impedance type, reactance type, mho type. The relay operates]
· the impedance is below the set value, Distance relay is used where time lag cannot be permitted
Differential protection is of unit type, It gives fast relaying. Pilot wire differential relaying used fo
lines upto 40 km of length.
QUESTIONS rotection of Induction Motors

1. Describe with the help of neat sketches the graded time lag protection of a radial feeder. W'nat
Introduction - Abnormal conditions - Under voltage pr?tec~ion - C~ntactors - C~rcuit Breaker_ -
the disadvantages of such a protection in case of the following? Motor protection - Single phasing protection - Short C1rcmt protection - Groundmg - Protection
(a) Parallel feeders (b) Interconnected lines (c) Fast relaying. of motors in general - Summary.
2. Explain the principle of distance relaying applied to protection ofradial transmission line Distinguish
between reactance, impedance and mho relays as regards their applications to distance protection. ; 31.1. INTRODUCTION
3. In what way is distance relaying superior to overcurrent relaying in case. of feeder protection.
The type of protection used for a particular motor depends on the switchgear used for its control
4. Distinguish between unit protection and non-unit protection. What are the various methods of protect-
(starting, stopping, speed variation, etc.) In general two basic protections are provided for every
ing a transmission line by unit protection and by non-unit protection?
••.· motor which are :
5. Explain with the help of neat sketches the set-up of carrier c.urrent relaying employed in transmission
line protection. 1. Thermal overload protection 2. Short circuit protection.
6. Explain the principle of The switchgear used for motor control falls in two distinct classes:
(a) Line trap unit (b) Coupling unit. (i) Contactor starters with H.R.C. Fuse and thermal over current relays.
7. Explain the phase comparison method of carrier current protection. (ii) Circuit-breakers and associated protective relays.
8. Explain the directional comparison method of carrier current protection. Why should it be used in Contactors and fuses are used for motors upto approximately 150 kw. For larger motors, cir-
impedance or other type of non-unit protection?
cuit-breakers are used.
9. What are the merits of carrier current relaying? Where is it used? Compare pilot wire relaying with
carrier current protection. Contractors are available for a wide range of a.c and d.c. duties (Ref. Sec. 15.10).
10. Explain why carrier cutrent protection in suitable for important interconnected lines. In general contactors can be used where current to be interrupted is limited to about six times
11. Explain the schemes of pilot wire relaying employed rated current. The rated current is a little higher than the full load current of the motor (Ref. sec.
15.13).
(a) Circulating current method (b) Voltage balance method.
What are the difficulties il'l circulating current protection of feeder. Direct acting overload trip devices such as
12. State the applications of power line carrier signals. thermal overload relay can be incorporated with
the contactor starter. The protection against
13. Select suitable relaying method under the following conditions. Give reasons for your selection.
short circuits is provided by HRC Fuses. The fuse
Case (a) Protection of radial feeder from a power station to receiving station. Length of the feeder selection depends upon starting current. The
about 500 km. There are two stations in between. Time lag cannot be permitted. fuse should blow at currents more than those
(b) An interconnecting iine between two power station 16 km apart.
which can be interrupted by the contactor.
(c) A feeder in case (a), but for following conditions.
In case of voltage loss the coil is de-energised
The line is fed from both the ends and fast relaying is desired for internal faults. and the contactor opens. The motor has to be
(d) Distance protection of a feeder of
started again. Hence the contactor starter provides
(i) Medium length (ii) Short length (iii) Very long feeder no volt release. Generally start, stop, reverse but-
State what type of dist;mce protection will be suitable. tons are provided along with the starter. Large
14. Discuss the various methods of protection of a transmission line with reference to advantages and motors are provided with various relaying schemes
disadvantages of each method. · and a circuit-breaker. The circuit breaker is air-
15. Explain the principle of any one of the following : break type or vacuum or SF6 • Air-break type circuit-
1:Carrier transfer 2. Carrier blocking (Directional comparison) breakers are more popular. The closing
3. Carrier acceleration mechanisms are manually operated or solenoid
16. Explain the 3-steep characteristic of distance relay. operated or spring closing type. Solenoid closing is
17. Explain the difference between 'switch' and 'non-switch' distance schemes. suitable for remote controlled motors and larger
18. Explain the functions of starting element, measuring element and time in distance protection. motors. Generally overload trip devices operating Fig. 31.1. Oil immersed direct on line starter.
direct on the tripping mechanisms form and in- (Courtesy: Jyoti Ltd., India.)
19. Explain how power-swing affects distance relays.
tegral part of the circuit-breaker.
Motors rated upto 1000V are usually protected by HRC Fuses. Motors rated between 660 V pROTECTION OF INDUCTION MOTORS 581
and 2200 V are protected by direct acting overcurrent trip device associated with circuit-breaker. _ Fault in starter or associated circuit. The choice of protection for a motor is depends upon
Differential protection is applied to motors rated above 3.3 kV, 1500 kW. the size of the motor, its importance in the plant, nature of load. Table 31.1 gives an idea
about the motor protection practice.
31.2. ABNORMAL OPERATING CONDITIONS AND CAUSES OF FAILURES IN
INDUCTION MOTORS 31.3, PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS
Three phase induction motors are very widely used for industrial use. The abnormal conditions Motor protection should be simple and economical. Cost of protec~ive syst~m should be ;1it_hin
can be classified follows : about 5% of motor cost. The motor protection should not operate durmg s~artmg and perm1ss1ble
1. Mechanical overloads overloads. The choice of motor-protection scheme depends upon the followmg :
- sustained overloads - prolonged starting or locked rotor - Size of motor, rated voltage, kW.
- stalling - Type: squirrel-cage or wound rotor.
2. Abnormal supply conditions - Type of starter, switchgear and control gear.
- loss of supply voltage unbalanced supply voltage - Cost of motor and driven equipment.
- phase sequence reversal of supply voltage - Importance of process, whether essential service motor or not ?
- overvoltage undervoltage - Type of load, starting currents, possible abnormal conditions, etc.
- under frequency.
3. Faults in starting supply I circuit 31.4. PROTECTION OF LOW VOLTAGE INDUCTION MOTOR. (BELOW lOOOV AC)
- interruptions in phases - blowing of fuse/single phasing
- short circuit in supply cable. 31.4.1. Scheme of Starting Circuit
4. Internal Faults .in Motor itself These are most widely used industrial motors. [Ref. Fig. 31.1 (b)].
The motor (8) is connected to three phase supply via the main circuit (shown dark) comprising
(Caused by 1, 2, 3 above)
(1) Fuse; (2) Isolating switch; (3) thermal relay; (4) Contactor. The auxiliary control circuit (shown
- phase to phase faults - phase to earth faults thin) (which carries only control current) comprises (5) control coil (6) ON push button usually green
- failure to phase (open circuit) - mechanical failure. normally off (7) OFF push button usually red and normally closed.
The abnormal conditions are summarised below. Table 31.1. Protection Chart for Induction Motors
- Prolonged overloading. It is caused by mechanical loading, short time cyclic overloading. Abnormal Alternate forms of protection
Overloading results in temperature rise of winding and deterioration of insulation resulting Remarhs
condition from which choice is made
in winding fault. Hence motor should be provided with overload protection. Overloads - Over load release - Overload protection given for almost
- Single phasing. One of the supply lines gets disconnected due to blowing of a fuse or open - Thermal overload relays all motors
circuit in one of the three supply connections. In such cases the motor continues to run on
- Inverse overcurrent relays - Should not trip during starting
a single phase supply. If the motor is loaded to its rated full load, it will draw excessive currents
currents on single. phasing. The winding get overheated and damage is caused. The single - Miniature circuit-breaker with built
in trip coils
phasing causes unbalanced load resulting in excessive heating of rotor due to negative se-
Phase faults and earth - HRC fuses - Differential protection becomes
quence component of unbalanced current. Static single phasing relays are becoming very faults economical for motors above about
popular. · - High-set instantaneous over-current
relays 1000 kW. Below this high set
- Stalling. If the motor does not start due to excessive load, it draws heavy current. It should instantaneous protection is
be immediately disconnected from supply. - Differential protection preferred
- Stator earth faults. Faults in motor winding are mainly caused by failure of insulation due Undervoltage - Under v.oltage release - Under voltage release incorporated
to temperature rise. with every starter
- Phase to phase faults. These are relatively rare due to enough insulation between phases. - Under voltage relays - Under voltage relay used in certain
Earth faults are relatively more likely. applications
- Inter-turn faults. These grow into earth faults. No separate protection is generally provided Unbalanced voltage - Negative phase sequence relays - Only in special applications
against inter-turn faults. Reverse phase sequence - Phase reversal protection - Generally at supply point
- Rotor faults. These are likely to occur in wound rotor motors, due to insulation failure, - Prevents reversal of running.
- Failure of bearing. This causes locking up of rotor. The motor should be disconnected. Bear- Single phasing - Usual thermal overload relays - Recently developed static single
ing should be replaced. - Special single phase preventer phasing devices becoming popular.
- Unbalance protection
- Unbalanced supply voltage. This causes heating up of rotor due to negative sequence cur-
rents in stator winding. Stalling - Thermal relays - Instantaneous
- Instantaneous 0.C. Relays -trip
- Supply undervoltage. The undervoltage supply cause increase in motor current for the same
load. Rotor faults - Instantaneous overcurrent relays - Only for wound rotor motors
Switching surges - RC surge suppressor - 100 ohm, 0.1 µF connected between
phase and ground
582 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION pROTECTION OF INDUCTION MOTORS 583
'.I'he operation is as follows : '.i,turn operates the trip contact in case of overloads. The bimetal strips are either heated directly by
When push button (6) is pressed by the operator control coil (5) gets voltage from supply. · current flowing through them or by special heater coil through which motor current flows. In case
of bigger motors, they are connected in the secondary circuit of CT's. Bimetal relays can usually
The coil current flows through contact of(6) and (7). The energized coil lifts contactor (4) and
be set in a certain range. Most of them are provided with additional bimetal strip to enable ambient
closes Main contact (RYB) and auxiliary contacts (C). The ON push button (6) is then shunted by
auxiliary contact (C). Motor starts. temperature compensation. Further, bimetal strips can be self-setting type or hand resetting type.
In the latter, the trip mechanism locks itself in operated condition until reset mechanically.
If motor is to be stopped, OFF button (7) is pressed. The control coil is de-energized. The con-
tactor opens by spring action and gravity. Motor stops. While selecting the bimetal-overload devices for motor protection, the following aspects should
If supply voltage fails, control coil is de-energized and contactor opens. be considered.
During overloads, the thermal relay (3) operates and thereby control circuit is internally dis- - Characteristic of relay, characteristic of motor
connected. HRC fuses (1) provide very rapid short-circuit protection'. Current is cut-off by HRC - Nature of loading
fuse even before it reaches prospective peak. (Ref. Ch. 14). - Type of starting, startihg current
- Protection against overloads
R------..------- - Protection against single phasing.
V-------+--~----- 31.4.3. Short Circuit Protection by HRC Fuses (Ref. Ch. 14)
8------.-..+---.---- Short circuit protection of motor, connecting fl:leder and starter requires careful study. The over-
load protective device (OLPD) and short circuit protective devices (SCPD) employed for motor
protection shall be well coordinated. The range of current between 1.5 to 10 times rated current is
FUSE 1. Supply side Fuse generally termed as overload range. The motor switching device for AC-3 duty can successfully
2. Switch make and break over-load currents in this range. Fault currents exceeding 10 times the rated cur-
2 SWITCH 3. Thermal Relay rent ~an be considered as short circuit currents and these should be covered by short circuit protect-
4. Generactor ing devices (SCPD). The SCPD may be in one of the following forms :
5. Coil ~f Contactor
- HRC Fuse 11
'7 I
- Short circuit release opening the circuit-breaker
OFF
BUTTON - Instantaneous high set overcurrent relay which trips the circuit-breaker.
By proper selection of short circuit protective devices, it is possible to prevent undue damage
t""'
CONTACTOR
C
~ =Bc;,L ---~-f~t-
L
R V B
CONTACTOR
to the motor, starter in the event of a short circuit. The back-up protection of circuit-breakers
through HRC fuses is now an accepted practice. It enables the use of economical circuit breakers
of low breaking capacity.
Table 31.2. Relay Selection Chart
Direct-on-line Motor Starters
THERMAL RELAY
3 ph 50 els 400/440 V Full load Back-up fuse rating in
motors line current Relay Amp. HRC fuses
in Amp. range Amp.
8 MOTOR HP kW Max. min.
10 7.5 13.6 13-20 50 25
Fig. 31.1 (a.). The fuse provided Fig. 31.1 (b) Circuit of magnetic contactor starter, for 12.5 9.4 17 13-20 50 25
S.C. protection*, thermal relay low voltage induction motor.
provides overload protection. 15 11 20 20-30 80 35
The selection ~f thermal. relay \3) is such that for normal starting conditions, the relay does
20 15 28 20-30 80 60
no~ operate. A settmg range 1s provided for adjustment for different variations in load conditions.
It is wrong to go on increasing the setting if the motor trips during starting. The starter should be 25 18 35 30-45 100 60
selected properly. (Ref. Tables 31.2 and 31.3).
30 22 40 30-45 100 60
31.4.2. Bi.metal Overload Devices**
These are v.ery popular. In case of 3-phase motors triple pole bimetal relays are generally 35 26 47 45-63 125 80
employed. Bendmg of one or more bimetal strips causes movement of a common lever which in 40 30 55 45-63 125 80
* Ref. Ch. 14 for applications of HRC fuses for motor protection.
** Courtesy : "Over-load Protection of Motors" Mr. V.S. Bhatia, Siemens India Ltd.
584 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION PROTECTION OF INDUCTION MOTORS 585
Table 31.3. Relay Selection Chart - Those which respond to winding temperature, e.g., resistor devices embedded in slots,
Automatic Star Delta Starters thermostats, thermistors etc. Such devices are e.mbedded in slots and serve to supervise the
3 ph 50 els 400/440 Bach-up fuse rating winding temperature and trip the switching device.
Full load Relay
Vmotors line current Ill Amp. HRC fuses The current sensing overload protecting devices can sense the following abnormal conditions :
range
Amp.Ill ✓3 Amp.
H.P. hW Max. Min 1. Overloads, undervoltage 2. Single phasing
20 15 28 3. Locked rotor, stalling 4. Heavy starting
16 13-20 60 60
5. Continuous overloads 6. Heavy breaking.
25 18 35 21 20-30 100 60 However, the following conditions can be sensed only by embedded thermal devices :
30 22 40 24 20-30 100 60 1. Temperature rise due to higher ambient temperature.
35 26 47 28 20-30 100 80 2. Temperature rise due to failure of cooling.
40 30 55 33 30-35 125
3. Temperature rise due to other causes.
80
The details about Thermal Overload protection are described below.
50 37.5 66 40 30-45 125 100
The purpose of thermal-overload protection is to protect the motor insulation frotn excessive
60 44 80 48 45-63 160 100 thermal stresses. During full load, the temperature of motor winding reaches almost maximum
75 55 95 57 45--63 160 125 permissible unit (dependent on insulation class). During abnormal condition, the temperature ex-
(Courtesy: Larson & Toubro Ltd., Bombay) ceeds the safe limit and the life of insulation is reduced.
The temperature of stator winding rises exponentially with time under moderate overloads.
31.5. PROTECTION OF LARGE MOTORS (Ref. Sec. 43.7) The rate of temperature rise is determined by losses and thermal time constant of the stator.
The heat loss from motor to surrounding air depends upon ambient temperature, ventilation and
~c:;:~;,:::: Large motors need protection against various abnormal conditions. design aspects.
~(~' . ,~::
1::,:1:::
li;91;1~,1~~i
;1•1i;i,1
Several types of protective relays are developed to suit various applications. These relays sense
the abnormal condition and trip the trip circuit of motor circuit breaker. The protection provided
for large 3-phase motors takes into accounts overloads, short circuits and in some specially
The time taken to reach limit of temperature rise and the shape of current versus time curve
depends on load on the machine. For any machine, the thermal withstand curves can be drawn for
'cold' condition and 'warm' condition. The 'replica' type thermal relay operates with a thermal fac-
Ii
I
I
i1 developed relays for motor protection, protection against unbalanced load is also incorporated. simile of the motor, i.e. the characteristic of such relay is an approximate replica of motor heating
Large motors are provided with protection against following : curve.
- Faults in windings and associated circuits The relay is compensated for ambient temperature variation so that it can protect the motor
- Reduction of bss of supply voltage - Excessive overloads for both cold start and hot start conditions.
- Phase unbalance, and single phasing - Phase reversal. The characteristic of replica relay and motor heating curve is plotted on the same current versus
- Switching overvoltages Surges (Ref. Sec. 18.12) time curve. The relay trips at point where 1'5
the motor heating curve crosses the relay
Types of relay available for motor protection. characteristic. (Ref. 31.3.)
- Thermal protection only In practice, motor heating curves are
- Thermal protection, Instantaneous overcurrent protection not readily ava1lable. The thermal time \/'I~
- Thermal Instantaneous Three Phase Overcurrent, Instantaneous Unbalance, Single phasing. constant or the motor can vary widely (15 ~ ~
minutes to 1 hour). Hence the relay char- ~ ;
- Thermal, Instantaneous three phase overcurrent, Instantaneous Unbalance, Single phasing
acteristic should be selected and set to suit i ~
and Instantaneous Earth fault.
the protection requirement of particular
The characteristic of the relays are such that the time reduces with increase in current. motor. REPLICA RELAY
Protection against short circuits is provided by high set instantaneous overcurrent and earth The operating conditions resulting in t 4 CHARACTRISTIC
15 MINUTE
fault relays. Attraction armature type relays are used in some cases. The typical settings of these temperature rise should also be considered. , A THERMAL
relays are : If motor is required for frequent starting, its WITHSTAND CURVE
temperature rise more rapid. OF LOAO
(a) 4 to 8 or 8 to 16 times full load current for instantaneous overcurrent element.
(b) 0.2 to 0.4 times full load current for instantaneous earth fault current. Referring to Fig. 31.3 curve A indicates i='
characteristic of motor heating to reach max- ~
31.6, OVERLOAD PROTECTION OF INDUCTION MOTORS imum permissible temperature in 15 ~
a::
minutes for moderate overload (1.3 times full Q.w
The overload protective devices can be grouped as : load current). The relay will trip according to 0
- Those which respond to motor current, e.g. bimetal relays, Eutectic alloy relays, electromag- characteristic B. e.g. for overload of 200%,
3 6
netic.relays, static relays. These relays opened the control circuit of the main contactor or the relay will trip in less than 4 seconds. MULTIPLE OF FULL LOAD CURRENT
close the trip of circuit-breaker. Motor can withstand 200% overload for 4
Fig. 31.3. Explaining Characteristic oflnduction Motor Heating
minutes. and Replica Relay.
586 SWITCHGEAR AND PRO'rECTIO'N PROTECTION OF INDUCTION MOTORS
587
31.7. PROTECTION AGAINS'!' UNBALANCE 31,8, PROTECTION AGAINST SINGLE-PHASING (PHASE FAILURE)
The voltage supplied to three phase induction motor can be unbalanced due to any of the fol- A 3-phase in~uction moto~ continuous to run even if one of the supply lines is aisconnected.
lowing reasons : The "'.hole powe~ is then supplied through the two windings and they are likely to get overheated.
- single phase loads on distribution service line The smgle phasmg causes m_ibalanced stator currents. The negative sequence component of un-
- blown out fuse in power factor correcting plant balanced current causes heatmg of rotor and temperature rise For small motors sep t t
- short circuit within or outside the motor
t' g · t in 1 h · • ll · , ara e pro ec-
10n a a~ns s g e P asmg is gen?ra y not ~ecessary as the thermal relays sense the increased
- phase failure by blown fuse. (single phasing) current m healthy phases due to smgle phasmg and thereby offer adequate protection.
The unbalanced voltage itself may not be harmful but the negative sequence currents caused In c~se _of large motors (sa~ 50 kW and a_bove) even a modest unbalance can cause damage of
by unbalanced voltage results in rotating magnetic field revolving in opposite direction. This field motor wmdmg due to overheatmg. Further, 1f motor is stalled due to losses of one ph
induces double frequency induced currents in the rotor body and conductors giving rise to heat due d age t to · 'bl h'l . ase, severe
a~ o ro r is possi e w I e startmg. Therefore, a separate single phasing prot t· ·
to copper losses (Ref. Table 31.4) desirable. ec IOU is
The rotor gets heated and the temperature of motor winding may reach above safe limit.
Single phasing is extreme unbalance condition for a three phase motor Such a cond't'
The unbalanced protection provided to a motor should prevent prolonged unbalanced condition, be caused by blowing of fuse in the supply circuit or due to improper conta;t in a switch i IOn ca~
but should not disconnect the motor for permissible unbalance of short duration. The permissible tactor. or a con
loading depends upon the percentage unbalance and the ratio of positive sequence impedance to
negative sequence impedance. (Ref. Table 31.5) J?ur~ng single p_ha~ing, the current in healthy phases increases by ✓3 times. This increases the
The unbalance protection is not provided, the motor should be derated to 40 to 60% of its rated he~tmg m motor. wmdmgs. Th? unbalanc~d s~ator currents have a negative sequence component:
full load capacity. This component causes i:uagnetic_ flux rotatmg m opposite direction to the main flux. Thereby double
The unbalance voltage protection can be based upon the following methods : ~requenc)'. current~ are m~uced 1~ ro_tor body and rotor conductors. Rotor heating caused b these
1. Bimetallic relays arranged to trip faster for unbalanced currents. currents_ is _very high. ~his heatmg is not detected by replica type thermal relays proteclng the
2. Single phase relays sensing overcurrent in heavily loaded phases. ~tator wmdmg; Hence s1r,1gle phasi~g ~uses major damage to motor rotor. The phase overcurrent ]Ii
3. Phase unbalance relays. ielays act slow,y . He_nce i~ cannot give mstantaneous protection against single phasing. l:i
Table 31.4. Derating factors of Induction Motor Under In som_e apphcatIOns like elevator motors, where it is dangerous to eliminate plugging · h' 1,1,
Unbalanced Supply Voltage Condition j,!

and reversmg, the motor should be disconnected instantaneously when single phasing oc;uI~c ;~g I
Derating factor for full load current phase ~nbalance relay_s (Ref. Sec. 31.10) are provided for large motors. But they are with ti~~ la e
Voltage unbalance dependmg upon magnitude of unbalance. g
V2/V1 X 100 Z1 Z1 Z1
-=4 -=6 -=8
Z2 Z2 Z2
R. y
B
1 - - -
5 0.96 0.93 0.9
8 0.92 0.88 0.72
10 0.9 0.8 0.56 NSF
12 0.9 0.7 0.3
15 0.9 0.4 0 ON > I2 Built-in negative
Note. 1. This factor is to be applied if unbalance protection is not given.
2. Z 1/Z2 is approximately equal to the ratio of starting current to full load current.
b sequence filter and
level detector.
(Ref. Sec. 33.11)
Table 31.5. Relation between Voltage Unbalanced
and Copper Losses in Motor
% Voltage unbalance 1 2 3 5
% Stator loss
* 101 106 115
102
% Rotor loss
* 105 130 175
112
*For full load as per cent of losses during balanced voltage condition.
For smaller motors the cost of separate phase unbalance relay, is not justified. The unbalance
protection is given by (1) and (2) on page 700. Additional phase failure relay (single phasing
preventer) is provided where essential. For larger motors, additional unbalanced current relays are
provided. The secondary currents of CT's are fed to negative phase sequence filter. The output of
the negative sequence filter is given to a overcurrent unit or static level detector. The setting is
based on the Z 1 /Z2 ratio and permissible time for per cent unbalances (Also Ref. 33-11 for Negative
Sequence Circuit).
Fig. 31.4. Connections of single phasing preventer.
PROTECTION OF INDUCTION MOTORS
589
value of d.c. component. After three/four cycles, value of d.c. component in starting current reduces
Single phasing preventers ar~ used for small motors. These are con~ected to secondarie_s ofline and the rel;::ty does not pick-up due to the same. (Fig. 31.5).
CT's. These contain a negative sequence filter. The output of the negative sequence _filte_r is fed to
a level detector (Ref. Fig. ::!1.4) which sends tripping command to the starter or circmt breaker
Limitations of Overcurrent Relays. With higher setting of overcurrent relays above starting
characteristic, (say above 5 to 7 times full load current), the fault current may be less than the
when the negative sequence current exceeds a pre-set limit.
pick-up value of relay. This can happen for phase to phase faults near the neutral point of the star
connected motor. Although the probability of such a fault is less, the fault can cause extensive
31.9. PHASE REVERSAL RELAY damage as it will not be cleared instantaneously.
The direction of rotation of an induction motor depends upon the phase sequence of the supply The most sensitive and quick protection for all phase faults in the motor is possible by Cir-
voltage. Phase reversal occurs when the supply connections are changed after repairs: Assuming culating Current Differential Protection (Ref. Ch. 28). The biased differential protection prevents
after the repairs (at local load point or supply sub-station) the phase sequence of supply is reversed, mal-operation due to d.c. component and CT errors.
the motor will run in wrong direction. In some applications, phase reversal is dangerous, e.g.
Slip Ring Induction Motors. The starting current of slipping induction motors is limited to
elevators cranes, hoists, trams etc. In such applications phase reversal relays should be provided.
about 1.25 times full lo~d current by means ofresistance in rotor circuit. Hence overcurrent relays
The phas'e reversal relay may be provided at main incoming substation of industrial works.
set to about 1.4 to l.6 tunes rotated full load current provide satisfactory protection against phase
The phase reversal relay based- on electromagnetic principle comprises a disc motor driven by faults.
magnetic system actuated by secondaries of two line CT's or VT's. Overload and Phase Fault Protection of Large Motors•
For correct phase sequence (RYB) the disc exerts torque in positive direction so as to keep the The characteristics ofIDMT relays (inverse definite minimum time) for motor protection should
auxiliary contacts closed. When phase reversal takes place, the torque reverses and the disc rot~tes be mat~hed w~th the moto~ heating ~urve (Fig. 31.6). Thermal protection usually given adequate
in opposite direction to open the contacts. Thereby the magnetic coild of starter can be de-energized protect10_n at hg~t and medrnm long time overloads but are usually not enough for very heavy over-
or circuit breaker can be tripped. The solid-state phase reversal relays and phase failure relay sen- loads. High set mstantaneous overload relay do not give adequate protection against overloads.
ses the phase reversal or phase failure. Under abnormal condition it sends tripping command to Hence _the schemes of overcurrent protection of large motors include various combinations of :
output stage (which is a auxiliary relay or static device).
--- thermal overcurrent relay
- inverse long time relay
31.10, PHASE TO PHASE FAULT PROTECTION
- instantaneous overcurrent relays.
The phase to phase fault short-circuit in: stator winding causes burn-out of coils and stampings.
Hence the motor should be disconnected from supply very quickly. Fast overcurrent relays are
provided for phase to phase short-circuit protection.
TYPICAL
The relays giving short-circuit protection to the motor should not act during starting currents. MOTOR HEATING CURVE
The setting of instantaneous overcurrent relays for phase faults should not be below the starting
characteristic of the motor. BL-I
RELAY
Therefore, the short-circuit protection characteristic is set just above the maximum starting
current the motor.
While switching on the motor, staring current has d.c. transient and a.c. component (Ref. Sec.
3.4). The overcurrent relay set for short-circuit protection should not operate due to d.c. component.
r
TIME
To avoid to high setting, it is a usual practice t'o provide a definite time lag of 2 to 4 cycles for
overcurrent protection against phase faults. Thereby, the relay does not operate for initial high
\V""' i~t~t,~1RI~~~ ~~LAY

LOCKED
1 FOR PHASE FAULT l'ROTECTION
\
\ co-5
'~--- - - - - - - -- N = Speed r.p.m
LONG TIME
IR= Normal full load current STARTING

181 = Starting current TIME
TIME --o,J SEC
O'---------------------.l---CURRENT---~►
N Qormal
Fig. 31.6. Typical motor and relay characteristics.
TIME - s E c
Fig. 31.5. Starting characteristic of squirrel cage induction motor

co-ordinated with over-current relay for phase faults.
590 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION PROTECTION OF INDUCTION MOTORS
591
Table 31.6. Overcurrent Protection for Motors• cially suitable for system neutral earthed
(Earth-fault Relays Considered Separately) through resistance. In such systems, earth-
Scheme Relays applied Action (Note 4) Typical Settings fault currents are so low (due to resistance
earthing) that phase overcurrent relays
1. 2 thermal over-current
1 long time ind. over-current
Trip or alarm
Trip or alarm
100% IR
300-350% IR
(Note 1)
(Note 2)
cannot be set to pick-up for earth faults. I
(Ref. Fig. 27.11 (b)-Core Balance CT)
3 instantaneous over-current Trip above max start I (Note 3) Where the supply source is earthed an r.:-:IL
2. 2 long time ind. over-current
1 long time ind. over-current
Trip
Alarm
300-125%IR
115-125%JR
(Note 2) inverse, very inverse, or instantaneous induc-
tion type relay is connected in the current
CB
j ,_
above max Is 1 (Note 3) transformer 1:eutral. These sources usually
2 instantaneous over-current Trip
have neutral impedance to limit the ground
3. 2 long time ind. over-current Trip or alarm 125-150%IR (Note 2) DEFINITE
current so that sensitive ground relay set- TIME RELAY
2 instantaneous over-current Trip above max Is 1 (Note 3) 1 tings are required. Typical settings are 1/5 of
4. 2 thermal over-current Trip or alarm 100% IR (Note 1) the minimum fault current for a solid fault at
(Note 3)
the machine terminals. Time dial setting \
2 instantaneous over-current Trip above max Isl OVER
around 1 are used which give operations of 4- CURRENT
IR is rated (full load) motor current. 5 cycles at 500% pick-up. RELAY
Ist is starting current. Occasionally the high in-rush current
Courtesy: Westinghouse Electric Corporation of direct on-line starting of large motors
*Notes, 1. Replica type relay such as BL-I. Adjustment is change in contact setting. Normal wil_l cause the grounded relays to operate.
setting provides operation in 60 minutes at 125% IR. Can be set at 25 minutes at 125% current. This results from unequal saturation of the
2. Time selected so that operation occurs on locked rotor current but not on motor starting current transformers which causes a false
when starting time is less than locked rotor time. Where data are not available, this setting can residual current in the secondary or relay
be obtained by successive motor starts and advancing the time setting until relay operation does circuits. Two instead of three phase relays
not occur, then add around 1-5 sec to the relay operating time. Typical setting might be 10 sec. on or different settings among the three phase Fig. 31.7. Connections of core balance CT (Zero Se-
locked rotor current magnitude. If the relay are used for alarm only settings are reduced to 115% relays tend to increase the effect. quence CT) for earth-fault protection of motor
except where service factors or short time overload rating exist.
As a thumb-rule, no trouble should occur is the phase burdens are limited .
3. It is difficult to determine as d.c. offset currents may occur particularly when starting large
developed by the current transformer during starting is less than 75% of the 10s; t,h~t the vo,lt~g~
motors. Setting is best obtained by successive starts to determine the no operation setting and then
increasing pick-up approximately 10%. Typical settings might be 160 to 170% oflocked rotor current ?ftth~ current thransformer. A practical solution to prevent relay operation should t:~~~acdy ratlmg
~:~::',:::::~:::~e:~:e::h:; ::a~~~e:0:;;}:~i::; r~:~:~f~;1;:;;i;r1~':!ffF:e;:

is o mcrease t e ground relay burden b usin 1 . ' e eve op,
although settings as 250% may be required. This may be 12 to 15 times rated motor current. 0
4. Decision to trip or alarm depends on emphasis placed on service continuity and motor protec- 1~
tion. For essential motors of power house auxiliaries (where failure would cause shut-down of
generating capacity) alarms are frequently used so that operator can take corrective measures to The trend m 3.3 to 11 KV sub-stations and industr' 1 ·
impedance and appreciably less ground fault . t 1;:,o":er systems is towards higher neutral
avoid shunt-down or transfer generation before shut-down. very sensitive relay setting that will not operat;~~;~ .f 1 Is m~~ea~es the problem of obtaining a
5. Replica type relay attempts to duplicate on a small scale within the relay operating unit, This is the best solved by using a wi d t . e a se res1 ua cur~ent of the starting inrush.
the heating characteristic of the motor. The current from CT secondary passes through relay and winding surrounding all three phase :o~;,v~~;sc(uFr1~gen3tltr7a)nTsfiho1~mel~· ":h1cth htahs ~ slingle secondary
its characteristic approximately parallel that of the machine as illustrated in Fig. 31.6. The BL-1 p . ·t . · , · • • s e 1mma es e 1 a se ·d l d
/1ml1 s app1ymg a very sensitive instantaneous earth-fault relay An alternativ . t res1 uad_an
relay has two spiral-wound bimetallic springs. One is actuated by the heat pn'}duced by the applied wna overcurrent relay with the current ofvolta e 1 . . .' . e IS o use a irec-
current while the other, by the ambient temperature surrounding the relay. This provides ambient neutral or across the neutral resistor. . g po arizmg c01l connected m the ground source
temperature compensation so that relay operates on the same time current curve approximately
independent on the temperature of the air surrounding the relay.
31.12. FAULTS IN ROTOR WINDING
The BL-1 relay is available with one or two thermal overload units with instantaneous trip
attachments for applications. o~ In slip-ring induction motor, rotor faults are possible. The increase in rotor current is reflecte
31.11. STATOR EARTH-FAULT PROTECTION :~i:;::i~:;::~:~,~~f,'!;~;e ::l~~"i;;~: ~~;~:~i~ ;::dt~~;;Z~t~b~h:,:;~::h ;:~:;;,;v,~;

0
0
Earth-fault protection is set to disconnect the motor from supply as early as possible so that
the damage to winding and laminations is minimum. erat Inter-tur~ F~ult~. Inter-turn faults are difficult tn be, detected. The method adopted for en-
Zero Sequence Current Transformer (ZSCT) or core balance type protection (Ref. Sec. 27.9) is prac~~c:i~:~r wmdmg mter-turn faults can be adopted for motors. But it is too complex and isgnot
very convenient method of protection of motors from earth-faults (Ref. 31.7). This method is espe-
Grounding or Earthing (Ref. Ch. 18)
In low voltage circuits the neutral point of supply should be earthed. In ungrounded systems
a single line to ground fault on one line causes increase in voltage of healthy lines with respect of
neutral by ✓3 times. This can damage motor insulation.
To avoid this, the neutral point of supply, should be earthed at every voltage level. Cascade
failure of motors can occur if supply neutral is not earthed (Ref. Sec. 18.6.2.)
Summary (Refer Table 31.1)

3
The protection of motor is normally provided along with stator or switchgear.
Contactor starters or circuit-breakers are used for motor switching. Protection of Transformers
Thermal relays provided overload protection, single phasing protection. This circuit protection
is provided by fuses or instantaneous relays. Protection against unbalanced supply voltage is General - Protection Chart - Buchholz Relay - Sudden Pressure Relay - Biased Differential or
Merz Price Protection-'- Problems arising in Merz Price System - Harmonic Restraint - Overcurrent
provided by negative phase sequence relays. Relays - Interlock protection - Restricted earth fault protection - Overfluxing protection --
H.R.C. fuses are used for short circuit protection of motor. They should be co-ordinated with Protection of Arc-furnace transformers - Safety devices.
overload relays.
Abnormal condition is motors include : faults, under voltage, single phasing, unbalanced vol- 32,1. PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS
tages, overloads etc. Protective equipment for transformer protection includes gas relays which give an alarm on
incipient faults, differential system of protection which gives protection on phase to phase faults
QUESTIONS plus phase to ground faults, other protective relays, and surge arresters which give protection to
1. Describe contactors starter of a three phase induction motor. State what protective measures are the insulation from high voltage surges (Ref. Table 32.1)
provided along with the starter ? A Through Fault in one which is beyond the protected zone of the transformer, but fed through
2. Describe the principle of operation of thermal relay used for motor protection. the transformer. The unit protection of the transformer (usually differential current protection)
3. State the various abnormal conditions in a 1200 h.p. Induction motor and protection provided against should not operate for through faults. The overload relaying may be provided to operate with a
each. time lag to provide back-up protection. Internal faults are those in the protected zone of the trans-
4. Distinguish between overload protection, short circuit protection and earth fault protection of motor. former. These faults can be between phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground, Generally they result
5. Explain how to select a fuse for motor. How to co-ordinate it with circuit breaker or contactor? from failure of insulation due to temperature rise or deteriora'tion of transformer oil. Incipient faults
6. Explain the various methods of short circuit and earth fault protection of motors. are initially minor faults causing gradual damage. These faults grow into serious faults. Incipient
7. Which protections are provided for essential service motors? fault include loose connections in conducting path, sparking, small arcing, etc.
8. Discuss the causes of motor failure of both electrical and mechanical origin. . The faults occurring in power transformers are earth-faults phase-to-phase faults, inter-turns
9. In a factory, a 15 kW .motor is to be provided with a starter. However a starter for 35 kW motor is qm1ts and overheating from overload~ng or from some internal cause such as core-h~atin_g. Of these
readily available in the store. Can this starter be used ? Give technical considerations. uhe most common are earth-faults ; mter-turns faults ; but the latter develop rapidly mto earth-
10. It was found that the thermal relays tripped while starting the motor was started without load the faults and, therefore, only earth-fault protection is generally provided.
thermal relay did not trip. What can be the various causes of tripping during starting? The choice of protection for any given power-transformer depends upon a number of factors,
11. Explain the term "Single Phasing". In what form the protection is provided in case of such as its size, importance, and whether it has no-load or off-load tap changer.
(a) Fractional horse power motor (b) Large motor above 150 h.p. The following information is necessary while selecting the protection scheme for a power trans-
12. State whether correction or wrong, Write corr.ected statements ifnecessary. former.
- Squirrel-cage motors can fail by rotor insulation failure.
1. Particulars of transformer
- In motor protection, thermal relay provide short circuit protection.
- Phase sequence of supply determines the direction of rotation of motor. (a) kVA (b) Voltage ratio
- Differential protection if provided for 100 h.p. motor. (c) Connections of windings (d) Percentage reactance
- Differential protection does not sense overloading of motors. (e) Neutral point earthing, value of resistance
- Undervoltage of supply reduce starting current of motor.
(f) Value of system earthing resistance
(g) Whether indoor or outdoor, dry or oil filled
(h) With or without conservator.
Ref. Sec. 43. 7 and 43.8 for static protection scheme for motors. 2. Length and cross-section of connecting leads between CT's and relay panel.
1. Ref. Sec. 18.12. Protection against switching overvoltages. Vacuum circuit-breakers tend to chop the
current giving switching voltage surges. RC surge suppressors are connected with such switchgear to protect 3. Fault level at power transformer terminals.
motor insulation. 4. Network diagram showing position of transformer, load characteristics.
2. Thyristor-control of induction motors gives harmonic contents in the supply 'Yave form. Harmonics cause The general practice of protection of power transformer is given in Table 32.1.
addition heating in the magnetic circuit. The harmonic content in supply would be within certain limits. The The faults 1n transformer can be caused by failure of insulating materials due to dust, moisture,
voltage waveform should be sinusoidal with permissible deviation less than 3 per cent suitable harmonic filters voids weakening of winding due to external short-circuits.
should be provided on supply side.
PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS 595
594 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTEC'rION
The surge arresters provided at the bus-bars or at transformer terminals spark-over at about 32,2. SAFETY DEVICES WITH POWER TRANSFORMERS
80% of impulse insulation-level of the transformer and protect the transformer against surges. (Ref, · The electrical portion systems can sense the abnormal conditions by measuring current/voltage.
Ch. 18). Besides electrical relays, a power transformer can be provided with the following safety and
Table 32.1. Power Transformer Protection monitoring devices.
Abnormal condition Protection Remarks (a) Fluid level gauge (b) Vacuum gauge
Incipient faults below oil level Buchholz relay sounds alarm Buchholz relay used (c) Pressure/vacuum switch (d) Sudden Pressure Relay
for
resulting in decomposition of (Gas actuated relay). transformers of rating 500 kVA and (e) Pressure Relief Valve (() Fluid temperature Indicator
oil, faults between phases and Sudden pressure relay above. (g) Hot spot temperature indicator (h) Gas temperature indicator
between phase and ground. Pressure relief valve
~
Large internal faults 1. Buchholz relay trips the circuit- Buchholz relay too slow and less
phase-to-phase, phase breaker. sensitive. 32,3. LOW OIL LEVEL-FLUID LEVEL GAUGE
to-ground, below oil level. Buchholz relay for tapchanger also. Low oil level is a harmful condition because internal insulation clearance, creepages etc. be-
Faults in tap-changer. 2. Percentage differential protection. Percentage differential protection tween leads, bushings and tanks are exposed to air when the oil drops below the specified level.
3. High speed high set over-current used for transformers of and above Low oil level could result from (1) initial mistake to fill sufficient oil upto the mark (2) Leakage of
relay. 5MVA.
oil through the tank.
Saturation of magnetic circuit 1. Over fluxing protection For ~mportant generator
2. Overvoltage protection transformer and feeder If the cooling tubes are partially cool or nearly at ambient temperature, it is an indication that
transformers. the oil is not circulating in the cooling tubes or oil level has dropped below the desired level. The
Earth faults 1. Differential protection. For transformers of and above 5 cooling tubes are warm and level indicator gives an alarm, it may be a false alarm and level in-
MVA. dicator needs checking. Its position may be improper.
-
2. Earth fault relay. (a) Instantaneous The level indicator has a float and an arm. The float is suspel,lded in the oil. When the oil level
Restricted E.F. Relay. drops down, the float tilts the arm thereby closing the alarm contacts. Both low and high level
(b) Time lag E.F. Relay.
alarm contacts are provided.
Through faults 1. Graded time lag overcurrent Protection of distribution
relay transformers.
2. HRC Fuses (Ref. Ch. 14)
32.4. GAS ACTUATED DEVICES
Small distribution transformers
upto 500 kVA During internal faults below oil level, the heat of arc causes decomposition of oil. The gases
Overloads 1. Thermal overload relays. Generally temperature indicators formed by decomposition are gathered in the air cushion and the conservator of the transformer.
2. 'I'emperature relays sound alarm. are provided on the transformers. The rate of gas generation depends upon fault current and arc voltage.
'femp. increase is indicated on
control board also. Fans started at The arc voltage is of the order of 50 to 200 volts and the rate of gas generation is of the order
certain temp. of 50 to 200 cubic centimetres per kilowatt sec. The fault may be inter-turn fault, earth fault or
.. High voltage surges due 1. Horn gaps. Not favoured phase to phase fault.
lightning, switching (Ref. Ch. 2.
18) Surge arresters. In addition to arresters for incoming The gases generated by the arc can be used for detecting these faults. The following devices
3. R-C Surge suppressors lines. are used.
Small distribution transformers Only H.V. fuses for earth faults protection and phase
fault protection. Overload protection generally not (a) pressure relief devices
provided. (Fig. 14.12, 14.15.). (b) rate of rise pressure relay
For more important transformers of (c) gas accumulator relay (Buchholz Relay).
. about 500 kVA 32.4.1. Pressure Relief and Pressure Relay
Overcurrent relays
Instantaneous earth fault relays 'fhis is different from rate of rise pressure relay.
Transformer in important locations, ratings 500 Restricted earth-fault protection Pressure relay and pressure relief device is mounted on transformer tank. It releases gas pres-
kVA above Overcurrent and E.F. protection sure to the atmosphere during.
Buchholz relay - high overload peaks
Transformer of about 5 MVA and above Differential protection, - prolonged overloads
Restricted earth fault protection,
Overcurrent protection, - arcing faults within oil.
Overfluxing protection, The pressure relief value is spring loaded and has a seal-seat. (Fig. 32.1 a). When the pressure
Buchholz Relays, inside the tank increases above a certain value, the force on movable sub-assembly exceeds the
Sudden pressure relays.
spring force and the valve operates (Fig 32.1 b ). The alarm contacts are closed. After release of
Under-voltage and overvoltage relays : wherever necessary. pressure the valve may be manually reset (not shown in figure).
Reverse power relay : for parallel transformers. (Sec. 32.12).
TRANSFORMER
TANK
--TAP TO COLLECT GAS
.SAMPLE
TO SPRING
ALARM COMPRESSED GAS ACCUMULATED
COILED TRIPPED
FlOAT TILTING WITH
tL: POSITION
SPRING
NORMAL REDUCED OIL LEVEL
f!IUi.dl-l--+-1-11-J.+-J~fl POSITION
MERCURY SWITCH
SEALING
RING
SEAL
(a)Normal Position. (b) During internal pressure. TO TH/=
Fig. ::J2.1. Pressure relief device and sudden pressure relay for transformer protection. CON.SERIJAi
32.4.2. Rate-of-Rise Pressure Relay

TO TRIP
Rate of rise pressure relay does not respond ---CIRCUIT
to static pressure. It responds only to rate ofrise
pressure resulting from internal arcing. The Fig. 32.3. Buchholz relay principle. (Gas Operated Relay) I
main pressure sensing element is a pressure ac-
tuated micro-switch mounted inside a metallic The decomposition of transformer oil starts at about 350°C. The gas accumulated in the upper
bellows. Static pressures do not squeeze the bel- portion of the relay can be tapped. The gas is tested for colour, combustibility, chemical test etc.
low. Dynamic pressure squeeze the bellow and -=-=14---PLUNGER IS 3638-1966 'Application Guide for Gas operated Relay' gives details about analysis and mounting.
operate the micro-switch. (Fig 32.2) METALLIC From its analysis the kind of failure can be predicted. The insulation can be repaired before a major
BELLOW
breakdown occurs.
In some designs, oil pressure itself squeezes
the bellow filled with special oil. TRANSFORMER:
TANK= -
Rate of rise pressure relay is generally ar-
ranged to trip the transformer. It can be
mounted on the tank.
32.4.3. Buchholz Relay
(Gas Actuated Relay)
1. Principle. The incipient faults in trans- TANK
former tank below oil level actuate Buchholz
relay so as to give an alarm. The arc due to fault
causes decomposition of transformer oil. The Fig. 32.2. Rate of rise pressure relay.
product of decomposition contain more than 70% Fig. 32.4. Arrangement of Buchholz relay.
of hydrogen gas, which being light, rises upwards and tries to go into the conservator. The Buchholz
relay is fitted in the pipe leading to the conservator. The gas gets collected in the upper portion of This type of relay can be used only for transformers with conservator. For faults above the oil
level, this relay is ignorant. Buchholz relay gives an alarm when the oil level reduces below a certain
the Buchholz relay, thereby the oil level in the Buchholz relay drops down. The float, floating in
level due to leakage of oil transformer.
the oil in the Buchholz relay tilts down with the lowering oil level. While doing so the mercury
switch attached to the float is closed and the mercury switch closes the alarm circuit. Thereby the -- A Buchholz relay is installed in the pipe connecting the transformer tank and the oil conser-
operators know that there is some incipient fault in the transformer. The transformer is discon- vator (Figs. 32.3, 32.4, 32.5). The following are the guide lines for the installation ..
nected as early as possible and the gas sample is tested. The testing of gas gives clue regarding - The angle of inclination of the axis of the pipe with horizontal plane should be between 10
the type of insulation failure. Buchholz relay gives an alarm so that the transformer can be dis- to 11°
connected before the incipient fault grows into a serious one. - The length of the straight run of the sectl.on of the pipe between the relay and the trans-
former tank should be more than 5 D (D is the internal diameter of the connecting pipe)
When a serious short circuit occur in the transformer, the pressure in the tank increases. The
- The length of the straight run of pipe after the Buchholz relay upto the conservator should
oil rushes towards the conservator. W11ile doing so it passes through the Buchholz Relay. 'fhe baffles
be more than 3D.
(plates) in the Buchholz relay get pressed by the rushing oil. Thereby they close another switch
with in turn.closes the trip circuit of circuit-breakei·. Thereafter the transformer is removed from
the service. *The nominal pipe bore diameter is recommended by Standards as 25 mm for transformers upto 1000.
kVA, 50 mm for between 1000 to 10,000 kVA and 80 mm for above 10,000 kVA.
0TECTION OF TRA.J.'l"SFORMERS 599
598 SWITCHGEAR ANil _PROTECTION;
In the circulating current differ.en-•
Limitations of Buchholz Relay 'al protection, the phase displacement
Only faults below oil levels are detected. line currents on two sides, introduces
Setting the mercury switch cannot be too sensitive base difference in secondary currents POWER TRANSFORMER
otherwise there can be a false operation by vibrations, f CT's on two sides. .STAR .SID£
earthquakes, mechanical shocks to the pipe, sitting of The CT connections should be such
birds etc. that the resultant currents fed into the
The relay is slow, minimum operating time is 0.1 pilot wires from either sides are displaced
second, average time 0.2 second. Such a slow relay is un- TRANSFORMER in phase by an angle equal to the phase
satisfactory. TANK shift between the primary and secondary
cu1Tents. To get this arrangement, the fol-
However, it is r>n excellent relay to bring to notice in- Fig. 32.5. Installation of Buchholz Relay. lowing mles are followed :
cipient fault.
- Secondaries of CT's on star con-
Buchholz relays are not provided for transformers below 500 kVA. (This is for economic connected side of power trans-
siderations). A separate Buchholz relay is provided with the tap changer to detect the incipient faults former are connected in delta
in the tap-changer. This does not respond to a small arcing. (Fig. 32.6).
- Secondaries of CT's connected PILOTS
32.5. BIASED DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION, PERCENTAGE DIFFERENTIAL on delta side of power trans-
PROTECTION OF POWER TRANSFORMER (Ref. Ch. 28) former are connected in star Fig. 32.6. Connection of CT secondaries on star side. (Contd.)
(Fig. 32.7). With such arrange-
(a) Description. The differential protection responds to the vector difference between two
similar quantities. In protection of transformer, CT's are connected at each end of the transform¥l• ment, the phase displacement between currents gets cancelled with the phase displacement·
due to star/delta connections of CT secondaries, and the current fed to pilot wires from both
The CT secondaries are connected in star or delta and pilot wires are connected between the CT's
sides are in phase during normal conditions.
of each end. The CT connections and CT ratios are such that currents fed into the pilot wires from
both the ends are equal during normal conditions and for through faults. During the internal faults
such as phase to phase or phase to ground, the balance is disturbed. The out of balance current
I 1 - I 2 flows through the relay operating coils. To ·avoid unwanted operation on through faults CT'S
resignrotraini bias coil are provided in series with pilot wires. The ampere turns provided by bia:s ·• POWER
~TRANSFORMER
. . c01·1 are propor t'10na1 t o 12
co1·1 s or res t raimng -- +-12. DELTA ASIDE
2
As a result the restraining torque increases with though current and relay does not operate
due to the difference in CT ratios for high values of short circuit currents. High speed relay element
is provided in the Merz Price System.
(b) CT connections, Fig. 32.6 gives the connections ofCT's for a star side and Fig 32.7 shows
connections of a delta side.
- In both cases three currents transformers are required at each side of the protected trans-
former. The connections of CT secondaries are such that during normal conditions and for
external faults, no current should flow through the relay operating coils. PILOTS
There is an inherent phase displacement between vectors representing the voltage induced in
high voltage winding and low voltage windings having same marking letter and corresponding
Fig. 32.7. Connections of CT secondaries on delta side.
neutral points, in case of star-delta transformers. Hence the load currents on H.V. side are displaced
in phase with respect to load currents of corresponding phase on L.V. side. The power transformers
- The neutrals of CT star and Power Transformer star connections are grounded.
are grouped according to the phase displacement e.g.,
- CT ratios, Current ratios of CT's on each side will be different depending upon line currents
Group 1 : Star-star, Phase displacement = 0° of power transformer and connections of CT's. The currents fed into pilots from each end
Group 2: Star-star, Phase displacement= 180° should be the same for normal condition. Suppose this current is 5 Amp. then secondary
Group 3 : Delta-star, Phase displacement = Minus 30° current of delta connected CT will be 5/'Y3 Amp. and star connected CT will be 5 Amp.
Group 4 : Delta-star, Phase displacement = Plus 30° The star-star transformer comes under group 1 or group 2, having phase displacement of 0° or
(Refer. IS : 2026-1962) 180° respectively. The CT secondaries on both sides are connected in delta (Fig, 32.9).
600 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION I PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS 601
, ·Currents in pilot wires. On the delta side of transformers the CT secondaries are star con-
STAR CONNECTED & ,de. GROUND ne~ted. Their secondary current is 5 Amp. Hence current fed in pilot wires from LT side is 5
CT SECONDARY ,Amperes. Same current is fed from CT connections on HT side which are delta connected.
Hence secondary current of CT's on HT side is
5
"3Amp.
ta Hence CT ratio on HT side is
5
60: "3'
Example 32.2. A 30 MVA,11.5 kV/69 kV, star-delta power-transformer is to be protected by
differential protection. The high voltage side phase lags behind low voltage side phase by 30°. For-
mulate the complete differential protection for the transformer by selecting CT ratios, CT connections.
The continuous current carrying capacity of restraining coils of the differential relay should not ex-
ceed 5 Amp. CT ratio is 3000/ 5 on.11.5 kV side. Determine CT ratio on 69 kV side.
-.Io 3000/5 JJ,5kV 30MVA 69kV 600/SmuUi :ratio

RESTRAINING COIL A .--......- - - - - - A = - A . . - - - 1
Fig, 32,8. Differential protection of delta Star transformer.
Pr)WER TRANSFORM!:"N
DELTA CONNECTED Ib.
Of:LTA STAR CT. SECONDARY
B -+·
Ia
C -+
PIIOT CABlES RESTRAININ6 COILS Note: High side Zags

Low side by 30 °
.___...,__ _.__-11(1•
Fig. 32.9. Differential protection of star-star transformer.

Example 32.1. Describe with the help of a neat diagram the connections of differential protection
of a transformer. A 3-phase 33 I 6. 6 kV star I delta connected transformer is protected by Differential
system. The CT's on LT side have a ratio of 300 I 5. Show that the CT's on HT side will have a ratio
60: 5'✓ 3.
Fig. 32.10. (a) Connecting differential relays.
Solution. CT's on delta side are star connecte.d. Hence the secondary phase currents are equal •courtesy: Westinghouse Electric Corporation, U.S.A.
to currents in pilot wires. CT's on star connected side are delta connected hence current in secondary
is equal to current in pilot wires divided by ff. *Procedure. Draw work sheet for connection of differential relays showing the main trans-
Assume 300 A is flowing in the lines on LT side former CT's, operating and restraining coils of CT's (Fig. 33.10). Connect the pilot wires with operat-
ing coils and restraining coils as described in the earlier section.
'Y3 X 6.6 X 300 = 'Y3 X 33 X J .
Calculate the full load current of transformer on HV side and LV side. Select CT ratio.
I= Current in HT lines
Solution. Calculate full load current for a 30 MVA, 11.5 star/69 delta power transformer.
= 6.6 ;
300 =60A. On 11.5 kV side
3
which, is primary current of CT on HT side. 30,000
Ip = 'Y3 x 11.5 = 1505 A.
602 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS 603
600/5 MULTI RATIO 32.6. PROBLEMS ARISING IN DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION APPLIED TO
~Io I 1.5KV 30MVA 69KV-+Ial.e
A 1 TRANSFORMERS
Simple differential protection system is inadequate because the following difficulties arise.
B
- Ib
-> Ib-Io
2
(1) Difference in lengths of pilot wires on either sides of relays. The difficulty is overcome by
connecting adjustable resistors to pilot wires. These are adjusted on site to get equipotential points
on pilot wires. Taps can be provided on operating coil and restraining coil of relay for adjusting the
C
- IC
-+Ic-Ib
balance.
(2) Difference in C.T. ratios due to ratio error difference at high values of short circuit currents.
Because of this difference the relay operates for through faults. This difficulty is overcome by using
biased differential relay for percentage differential relay. In such a relay a restraining coil is con-
nected to pilot wires. The current flowing through restraining coil can be taken as (/i + / 2)/2.
With increase in through current the restraining torque increases too, and the current due to
OP CT inaccuracy is not enough to cause relay operation. The characteristic of such a relay is given
A
R
earlier.
(3) Tap changing alters the ratio of voltage (and currents) between H.V. side and L.V. side.
Differential protection should be provided with bias (Restrain) which exceeds the effect of variation
B
in secondary current due to tap changing.
(4) Magnetizing current inrush. When the transformer is energized, initially there is no in-
duced e.m.f., the condition is similar to switching of an inductive circuit. The resistance being low
a large inrush of magnetizing currents takes place. The magnitude of this current inrush can be
several times that of load current. The magnitude of inrush currents depends on circuit conditions
C
R and voltage at the instant of switching. Maximum peak values equal to 6 to 8 times the rated cur-
rent can occur.
• Fig. 32.10. (b) Complete diagram of protection. The factors which influence the magnitude and duration of magnetizing current inrush include :
Courtesy: Westinghouse Electric Corporation, U.S.A. - size of transformer
- size of power system
CT ratio == 3 000 == 600 ... (Given)
5 - type of magnetic material in the core
I __ 1505 __ . - residual flux in the transformer before switching in
s -- 600 -- 2.51 A.
- how the transformer is energized.
. Si?-ce 1~.5 kV side is star c~nnected, CT secondaries will be delta connected. Hence current fed Maximum inrush current occurs if the transformer is energized when the voltage wave is passing
into pilot wires from 11.5 kV side CT secondaries is through zero. At this instant, the current and flux should be
maximum in highly inductive circuit and in half a wave
'✓
3 X 2.51 == 4.35 A, the flux should change in direction to attain maximum
On 69 kV Side value in the other half-cycles. If there is residual flux in
the transformer, the required flux may be in the same or
I == 30,000 == 251 A opposite direction. Accordingly the magnetizing current A
P "3 x69 · will be less or more. If the magnetizing current is more,
CT ratio to be selected.
Current in secondary of CT's ==Current in pilot wires. Since 69 kV side CT secondaries are cons
nected in star = 4.35 A.
251
it will saturate the core and increase the magnetizing
current component further.
The inrush currents decays rapidly for the first few
cycles and then very slowly. Sometimes they take 4 to 6
seconds to subside. In high resistance path, the inrush B
IV I/ l/ V I/ I/ V
Hence CT ratio == 4.35 == 57.7 currents decay more rapidly. V
The time constant of the circuit (LI R) is not constant
Select CT ratio 60
because Lis variable due to change in permeability of the
Secondary current
Primary current,
== 5 A.
60 x 5 == 300
core material. The losses damp the inrush currents. The
time constants of inrush currents vary from 0.2 seconds __
c ~/~v{lvflv(lv~u/l,
i ____
J_~_)~___\J~V~V~ J__~__r:1--H
CT ratio on 69 kV side = 300/5 to 1 minute, depending upon whether the transformer is
small or large.
Fig. 29.8 (a) and (b) illustrate CT connections. The wave shapes of inrush current in three phases Fig. 32.11. Typical magnetizing current inrush
are different as shown in Fig. 32.11. waveforms in three phases.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS 605
604
Inrush currents are seen onl_y by the primary side CTs. They do not reflect on secondary side.
CT
The inrush of magnetizing current will, therefore, cause the operation of differential protection
SUPPLY•
system unless some special modification is done. LOAD
ONLY
Formerly, the relay was provided with time lag of0.2 second. By this time the inrush will vanish .
and relay does not trip unnecessary. But what about the protection of the transformer during this
period?
· While commissioning, one does not know whether there is a fault or not. Providing a time lag
is therefore risky. There are several reported incidents that the relay was tripped due to internal
fault during switching on for the first time. The engineers thought that the relay has tripped due Fig. 32.12. (a) Differential protection of three-winding transformer,
to magnetizing current inrush. They made the relay in-operative and switched on the transformer. feeding loads only. (Single line diagram).
Since there was a fault and relay was inoperative the transformer was damaged. SUPPLV OR
Next development was desensitizing the relay for short period of 0.1 second during switching. LOAD
SUPPLV
Mte,;- this time the shunt across the relay coil is removed. This method also leads to the same danger
mentioned above. The latest method adopted in transformer protection is Harmonic current
restraint. •
32.7. HARMONIC RESTRAINT AND HARMONIC BLOCKING
The initial inrush of magnetizing currents have a high component of even and odd harmonics.
Table 32.3 gives a typical analysis.
Harmonic component of short circuit currents is negligible. This principle is used for restraining
the relay from operation during initial current inrush. The harmonic restrain differential relay
remains sensitive to fault currents but does not-operate due to magnetizing currents. Fig. 32.12. (b) Differential protection of three winding transformer
Table 32.3 with supply on three side (Single line diagram).
Harmonic components in Amplitude as a % of To achieve current balance in pilot wires, ratio adjusting (current balancing) transformers are,
magnetizing current Fundamental used in some schemes. The relay unit used in such protection have three restraining coils and one
2nd 63.0 operating coil.
3rd 26.8
32.9. DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION OF .AUTO-TRANSFORMERS
4th 5.1
The principle of differential protection can be applied to three phase auto-transformers. The
5th 4.1
connections of CT secondaries differs for earth-
6th 3.7 fault protection alone and combined phase fault
7th 2.4 and earth fault protection. (Ref. Fig. 32.13).
The Kirchhoffs current law states that the
The operating coil of the relay receives fundamental component of current only. The restraining vector sum of component currents entering (or
coil receives rectified sum of fundamental and harmonic component. leaving) a point in electric circuit is zero. Thus
Thereby, inrush currents having more harmonic content give more restraining torque and the the CT secondaries can be so connected that
relay does not operate. during normal condition and external faults, the
Harmonic blocking. The harmonic component of inrush current is used for blocking a vector sum of currents in relay operating coil is Fig. 32.13. (a) Location ofCT's.
separate blocking relay whose contacts are in series.with the contacts of the differential relay. The zero. During internal faults, this balance is dis-
blocking relay contains a 1,00 Hz blocking filter in operating coil and 50 Hz blocking filter in turbed and relay operates.
restraining coil. During inrush currents, the 2nd harmonic component is predominant and the Procedure of connections is as follows :
blocking relay is blocked. The blocking relay contacts remain open.
- Draw the diagram of auto transformer. Indicate three sets of CT's [Fig. 32.12 (a)].
During short circuits, 50 Hz component is predominant. Hence blocking relay operates and
relay contact circuit is closed. - Connect the one end of each set of CT i.n star.
- Connect other end of each CT of a phase to pilot wire for same phase (say r, y, b ).
32.8. DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION OF THREE-WINDING TRANSFORMER - Connect star points of CT secondaries to commop. pilot wire 'n'. Provide one earthing.
- Connect relays between r-n, y-n, b-n of pilot wires.
The principle of differential protection can be adopted for three winding transformer. (Ref. Fig.
32.12).
606 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS 607
R
R
y
EF
B
~;6
YY.
HIGH IMPEDE.NC E
OVER CURRENT
RELAY
(a) Protected zone covers neutral point. (b) Protection of 3 phase 4 wire system.
n
(b) CT connection
Fig. 32.13. Protection of Auto-transformer from phase faults and earth faults.
32.10. EARTH-FAULT PROTECTION (Refer Sec. 27.6)
Earth fault protection of transformer can be in one or more forms such as
- restricted earth-fault protection by differential protection (Ref. Sec. 28.3, 33.4).
- additional/separate restricted earth-fault protection.
EF
- leakage to frame protection (Ref. Sec. 27.10).
;,
- neutral current relays (Ref. Sec. 27..7).
EF (d) Neutral not earthed within
Leakage-to-Frame Protection for Small Transformers protected zone.
(c) N eutral not earthed within protected zone.
Principle explained in Sec. 27.10 can be used for small transformers.
Fig. 32.15. Restricted earth fault protection (Earth faults with the boundary of CT's are detected).
32.11. RESTRICTED EARTH FAULT PROTECTION
Earth fault relays connected in residual circuit of line CT's [Fig. 32.15] give protection against
earth faults on the delta or unearthed star connected windings of transformers. Earth faults on
secondary side are not reflected on primary side; when the primary winding is delta connected or F,
has unearthe-d star point. In such cases, an earth fault relay connected in residual circuit of 3 CT's
on prim'ary side operates on internal earth faults in primary windings only. Because earth faults
on secondary side do not produce zero sequence currents on primary side. Restricted earth fault
protection may then be used for high speed tripping for faults on star connected earthed secondary STABILISING RESISTOR
winding of power transformer.
EARTH I-AULT RELAY
In Fig. 32.16 the star connected side is protected by Restricted Earth Fault Protection. An '---"'---1111,,
earth fault (F1 ) beyond the transformer causes the currents 12 and 11 in CT secondaries as shown
t 1i t
in Fig. 32.16. Therefore, the resultant current in earth fault relay is negligible. EARTH FAULT PROTECTION -
BY /i'cSIDUALLY CONN€CTE:O 7 Re5Ti?ICTE{) EAl?TH FAULT
For earth fault within the transformer star connected winding (F2), only 12 flows and 11 is neg-
ligible. Hence 12 flows through the earth fault relay. Thus restricted earth fault-relay does not
EARTH FAULT RE/..AY{-//'f)
1PROTECTION OF STAR aJNNECT£l>
N&UTRAL GROUNDW SID£
Fig. 32.16. Earth fault protection of transformers.

operate for earth fault beyond the protected zone of the transformer.
When fault occurs very near the neutral point of the transformer, the voltage available for driv- and switching surges. Hence the practice is to set the relay such that it operates for earth fault
ing earth fault current is small. Hence fault current would be low. If the relay is to sense such c~rre_nt of the order of 15% ofrated winding current. Such setting protects restricted portion of the
faults, it has to be too sensitive and would therefore operate for spurious signals, external faults · Wmdmg. Hence the name restricted earth fault protection (Ref. Sec. 33.4).
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION pROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS 609
608
Table 32.4•
32.12. PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS IN PARALLEL
R.M.S. Value of Symmetrical current Time period in Transformer %
The following protections are necessary in case of transformers operating in parallel : in a winding (Times base current) seconds Impedance
- Overcurrent protection 25 2 4
- Earth-fault protection 20 3 5
- Directional overcurrent and Directional earth fault relays on secondary side to prevent the 16.6 4 6
healthy section feeding into faulty section. 14.4 5 7
Fig. 32.17 illustrates the scheme. The feedback is prevented by operation of directional over-
*Ref. ANSI C 57 12,00 - 1968.
current relay of faster setting. By operation of this directional overcurrent relay, the corresponding
CB is quickly tripped and the feedback from healthy section is prevented. The current coils of d.o.c. Throt~gh faults are not detected by differential protectiori.,of transformer. If-the through faults
relay and o.c. relay on secondary side may be connected in series. persist of longer duration, the transformer gets damaged by thermal stresses. The through faults
are detected by overcurrent relays, overcurrent relays w1tli undervoltage blocking, zero sequence
50URC£ protection, negative sequence protection.· ·: · ·~ · ·
The setting of overcurrent protection for through faults covers transformer, station bus bar and
portion of a transmissio·n line. The overcurrent protection for through faults provides back-up
protection to differential protection for internal faults. ·
The overcurrent due to faults are accompanied by voltage drop, negative phase sequence cur-
rents. Earth faults are accompanied by zero phase sequence currents.
NON-DIRErJONAL
O,C,REL4Y 32.13.1. Overload Protection
The permissible overload and their duration depends upon the type of cooling and insulation
class of transformer. Higher overloads are permissible for a shorter duration (Table 32.5).
nnMnnn,--'IJI• Table 32.5. Permissible Duration of Overload,
1
VOL TA6E COil OF DIRECllONAt. Overload% 125 150 175 200 300
r---r 0,C.RELAY
Duration (Minutes) : 125 45 15 10 1
,t CURRENT COIL OF O,0,C·RELAY f
CURRENT COIL OF NON-DIRECTIONAL Hence for sub-station transformers, overload protection is generally arranged to initiate alarm.
O.C, RELAY J In unattended stations, overload protection is arranged to trip the breaker after a requisite time
delay.
LOAD
The transformers with utility equipment are prone to sudden overloads. (Furnace transformers,
transformers for Motors). The overload protection for such transformers is also given requisite time
Fig. 32.17. Protection of parallel transformers. delay. ✓.-
32.13. OVERCURRENT PROTECTION OF POWER TRANSFORMERS While selecting the overcurrent protection of transformer, the following aspects need considera-
tion.
Differential protection is generally uneconomical for power transformers below about 5 MVA.
In such cases, overcurrent protection is employed as main protection against phase faults. For - Magnetizing current inrush: IDMT relays are not affected by the current inrush as they
transformers above about 5 MVA, if differential protection is used as a main protection, overcurrent have enough time lag, Instantaneous overcurrent relays should be high set to avoid mal-
protection is used in addition, as a back-up for sustained through faults. Earth fault protection is operation.
provided in addition to phase fault protection, - The fault currents on primary side and secondary side ofpower·transformers are different
For small distribution transformers below 500 kVA, overcurrent protection may be provided for phase-phase faults. Lower value should be selected for setting of overcurrent relays.
simply by means of fuse on H.V. side, as such transformers are installed in unattended sub-stations, - Primary full load current should be considered while setting the overcurrent relay.
circuit breakers and relays are not provided. [Ref, Fig, 14.12(c)]. - The setting of IDMT overcurrent relay is generally 125 per cent of transformer rating to
External short-circuits (Through Faults) take care of normal overloads. Enough time delay should be provided as per the application.
As per .the various standards on distribution transformers, power transformers and regulating - The setting of instantaneous..9yercurrent relay oh primary side should be more than asym-
transformers, the transformer should be capable of withstanding the mechanical and thermal stres- metrical value of fault.current for 3 phase fault on secondary side of transformer. This set-
ses caused by external short-circuits with following conditions. · ting is generally-adequate to take care of magnetizing current inrush.
- the magnitude of r.m,s. value of symmetrical current in any winding does not exceed 25 - Same set of current transformers should not be used for differential protection and over-
times the base current in that winding. current protection.
-- the duration of external short-circuit is limited to time period indicated in the table. [Refer Sec. 27 .5, 27, 7 for connections of overcurrent protection and earth fault protection].
(intermediate values obtained by interpolation)
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS 611
610
32.14. THERMAL OVER-HEATING PROTECTION OF LARGE TRANSFORMERS >provided in the automatic voltage regulator of generator. The relay blocks and prevents increasing
, excitation current before full speed and frequency is reached.
Thermocouples or resistor temperature detectors are kept near each winding. T_hese are con-
In VI/relay, a resistance and capacitance are connected to secondary of VT. The voltage drop
nected to a bridge circuit. When t~mperature increases above safe value, an alarm 1s sounde~. If ·· across the resistance is a function of VI f, where Vis the line to earth voltage and / is frequency.
measures are not taken, the circuit breaker is tripped after a certain temperature. Some typical This voltage is fed to the volts 'per Hertz' relay.
settings for oil temperatures are as follows : , The magnetic flux density in the transformer core is a function of VI f. Hence the relay senses
Switch on fans 60°C. magnetic flux condition: Overfluxing relay is provided with enough time lag. Overfluxing relay is
Alarm 95°C. not necessary for substation transformers. In substations, VI f relays are provided for load shedding
(Sec. 45.7)
Trip 120°C.
Oil Temperature Indicator Thermometer
32.16. PROTECTION OF ARC FURNACE TRANSFORMERS
An oil thermometer which is common with all oil-filled transformers, can be considered as a
partially effective prote~tive device when equipped with alarm contacts connected to_ give remote Furnace transformers are subjected to repeated short circuits during the melting process. In-
warning of abnormally high oil temperature. Its location is i,uch that it naturally momtors the hot- verse time overcurrent relays are provided for both phase faults and earth faults.
test fluid that exists in the transformer. The same thermometer is often used to start fan motors Induction type inverse overcurrent-relays are used for short circuit and overcurrent protection
on transformers equipped with automatic air blast to increase the nameplate kVA rating. of Furnace Transformer. The setting is such that for current of the order 300 to 400 per cent of full
The thermometer cannot be relied upon as a fault-detecting device. Transformer oil has a much load current, faster tripping is obtained. For overcurrent of the order of 150 per cent, ·enough time
longer time constant then the windings themselves, hence is many times more sluggish in response "delay provide so that the relay does not trip during normal current surges.
to changes in loading losses which directly affect winding temperature. Thus the thermometer's The time delay should be such that the relay should not operate during initial magnetizing
temperature warning will vary between being to conservative or too pessimistic, depending on the current inrush. High speed overcurrent relays are provided on secondary side. These are set to pick
rate and direction of change in loading. up instantaneously for currents more than full load secondary current but slightly less than the
Alarm contacts used in conjunction with a oil thermometer are adjustable but are typically set corresponding setting on relays on HT side.
in a sequence that brings on fans at a liquid temperature of 60°C and actuate a switch contact Backup breaker is provided in the main sub-station which is set to interrupt short circuits in
should the temperature reach 90°C. For a typical design in a 30°C ambient, the fans are brought the HT side of the furnace ti'ansformer.
into operation at about 90 per cent rated foad whereas the alarm is given at about 130 per cent Differential protection schemes have been developed for arc furnace transformers and have
rated load. These percentages will vary with each manufacture for each design and are dependent been used in several installation.
upon the actual ambient temperature. The percent loadings will be somewhat lower at ambient
32.16.1. Power Supply Requirements of Arc Furnace Plants .1
above 30°C and higher at ambients under 30°C.
While selecting the power supply for an arc furnace plant the fault level at the point of con-
' Switches are usually capable of readjustment through a range of± l0°C, thus allowing com- nection of the furnace should be adequate. Hence, the power line should be taken from the sub-sta-
pensation for some of the factors mentioned above. tion bus having adequate fault level. If the fault at a bus is inadequate the power should be taken
Hot Spot Thermometer (Winding Temperature Device) from the bus of yet higher voltage level, having desired fault level. The expression given below can
The thermometer bulb is located in a pocket near the winding. The bulb is surrounded by hot be taken as a guide rule. ·
circulating oil. The bulb is also heated by a small heater connected across CT secondary. Thereby Sa = K • 80, T mva
the heat given to the bulb is a function ofload current as well as the temperature of oil near winding. where Sa = Fault level at the point of connection of furnace transformer (MVA)
The device is matched with heating curve of the transformer winding. T mva = Nominal rating of furnace transformer (MVA)
Th reading of hot spot thermometer is related to actual thermal condition of transformer than K = Multiplying factor to take into account, the number of arc furnaces in the plant
that of oil temperature indicator. However due to the necessity of closely matching its artificial
K = l for one furnace
bimetal gradient to the theoretically hottest spot winding gradient, a short time heavy overload
A = 1.2 for two furnaces
will often register higher on the dial than a long-time light overload.
Choice of Voltage. The choice of voltage for feeding the arc furnace plant is determined by
the voltage-levels of the buses in the sub-station and their fault levels. The fault level requirements
32.15. OVER-FLUXING PROTECTION of the supply are calculated as described above.
The flux density.'B' in transformer core is proportional to Vlf ·(Ba VI/). Power transformers kVA Rating of Intermediate Step-down Transformer that feeds that arc furnace
are designed to withstand (V,/fn x 1.1) continuously, where V 11 is normal highest r.m.s. voltage and plant.
fn is standard frequency. Core design is such that higher Vlf causes higher core loss and core heat- The furnace transformers are given a nominal kVA rating such that they can be safely over-
ing. The capability for V//for higher values is limited to a few minutes. loaded by about 20% during the melt down periods. In other words : ·
vlf 1.1 1.2 1.25 1.3 1.4 (T mva) max= 1.2 (T mva) ... (2)
vnlf,, where, (T mva) =Nominal MVA rating of the furnace transformer.
Dm:ation of Withstand limit (minutes) Continuous 2 1 0.5 0 (T mva) max= The rated apparent power the furnace transformer can supply.
· High V / f can occur in Generator Transformers and Unit-auxiliary transformers iffull excitatio_n · *Overvoltage relays should be provided in bus-bar protection to avoid transformer failure do to temporary
is applied to generator before full synchr9nous speed is reached. VI f relay (Volts/Hertz) relay 1s overvoltage.
!
\'
612 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIO oTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS 613
32.17. PROTECTION OF RECTIFIER TRANSFORMER 2. Describe the principle of Differential System of Protection applied to a power transformer. What are
Protection of rectifier transformer depends upon type and class of rectifier i.e. whether diod the difficulties experienced and how are they overcome?
or thyrtstor rectifier. Static relays having characteristics closely matching the overload chara 3, Explain the meaning of percentage differential protection. Why is it necessary to provide a bias coil?
teristics of the rectifier are preferable. The general practice is as follows : 4, Explain why .densensitizing of relay was not satisfactory process in transformer protection. What.is
- Overload protection. Very inverse or extremely inverse over-current relay for protection the principle of Harmonic Restraint?
0
rectifier transformer. 5, What is the meaning of restricted earth fault protection? A 10,000 kVA, 11/6.6 kV transformer has
- Faults in rectifier : (a) HRC fuses for protection of rectifier 11 kV star connected side. 'l'he neutral point is earthed through an impedance. Calculate the im-
pedance magnitude to provide protection to 90% winding from phase to earth fault.
(b) Overload relays on primary side of transformer as a. backup. 6. A star-delta, llkV/6.6kV transformer is protected by means of Differential Protection system. The 6.6
kV delta is connected side has CT of ratio 600/5. Calculate CT ratio of HT side. ·
32.18. PROTECTION OF GROUNDING TRANSFORMER 7. Describe the principle of Differential Protection system applied to Delta-Star connected transformer.
The CT secondaries are delta con- 8. Describe in brief the various protections to be provided to a 20 MVA transformer and a 250 kVA Trans-
RELAY TO PROVIDING
nected. An overcurrent relay with time DELAYED PROTECTION former.
lag is inserted in the delta. The zero se- AGAINST EXTERNAL 9, Explain the Buchholz relay with reference to
quence currents circulate in this delta. FAULTS
(a) Principie of operation · (b) Installation
The time setting of this relay is selected (c) Difficulties (d) Merits
to co-ordinate with thermal rating of the (e) Limitations.
earthing resistor (if used) or with time 10. Distinguish between :
setting of other earth fault relays. The (a) Through faults and internal faults. (b) Incipient faults and serious faults.
earthing transformer is disconnected by 11. Write notes on :
opening the circuit-breaker, on a persist- (a) Protection of Arc Furnace Transformer. (b) Harmonic Restraint
RELAYS PROVIDING
ent earth fault. PROTECTION AGAINST
(c) Overfluxing Protection. ·
The other three relays provide INTERNAL FAUL TS 12. The bus bar voltage of a 220 kV substation shot-up to 280 kV while frequency was 48 Hz. Which
protection against faults in the ground- protections would operate and protect the 220 kV/110 kV power transformers in the substation?
ing transformer. These are instan- GROUNDING
TRANSFORMER
taneous relays, set between 25 to 50 per
cent of continuous current-rating ,:if
grounding transformer. Buchholz relay
is also used. Earth fault protection is
Fig. 3_2.18. Protection of grouriding transformers.
provided by residually connected relay
(not shown in the figure).
SUMMARY
The protections provided for a transformer are summarised in Tables 32.1 and 32.2.
Buchholz relay is used transformers with conservators. It is connected in the pipe between the
tank and the conservators. It gives an alarm on incipient faults below oil leveL
Differential protection is used for phase to phase and phase to ground faults. Harmonic
restraint is used for preventing the relay operation due to magnetizing cu_rrent inrush during
switching. Biased or percentage differential relaying is use_d to prevent wrong operation due to in-
accuracies of CT ratios. The secondaries on star connected side are connected in delta. The secon-
daries on delta connected side are connected in star.
Restricted earth-fault protection is provided to prevent operation on external earth faults and
to give sensitive' earth fault protection.
The overload protection is given by overcurrent relays and thermal relays. V If relays are for
overfluxing protection and surge arresters for protection against switching/lightning surges.
QUESTIONS
l. With the help of net sketches explain the protections of a star-delta power transformer, against the
following abnormal conditions :
(a) Phase to phase fault (b) Earth fault (c) High voltage surges.
PROTECTION OF GENERATORS 615
In unit system of generator cotj.nection, generator is connected to LV side of the main step-up
transformer and H.V. side of unit auxiliary step-down transformer (Fig. 33.1). The H.V. side of the
main transformer is connected to bus via switchgear, from where power is transmitted into the
Grid. The unit auxiliary transformer feeds the power to the auxiliaries directly, concerned with the
unit. The generator and main transformer form a 'unit' and each unit has a boiler, turbine, con-
denser and other auxiliary systems.
While selecting the scheme for generator protection, the protection of the complete unit and
the stability of the system due to disturbance, in the generator should be considered in addition to
the protection of the generator itself..
Protection of Generators
futroduction - Protection Chart - Faults on Generator - Differential Protection of Generator - Problems
- Turn to tum Fault - Stator Overheating - Reverse Power - Rotor Earth Fault - Field Suppression
- Unbalanced Loads - Back-up Protection - Overspeed - Bearing fusulation - Protection of Large
Generator - Transformers Units - Protection of small standby Generators - Summary.
33.1. INTRODUCTION 1. Generator (Indoor)

2. Main Transformer (Outdoor)
Protection of turbo-generators is the most complex and elaborate. The reasons being the following : 3. Unit auxiliary transformer (Usually outdoor)
- Generator is a large machine and is connected to busbars. It is accompanied by unit-trans- 4. Station Service Transformer. (Usually outdoor)
formers, auxiliary transformer and bus system. 5. H.V. bus. (Outdoor)
6. Transmission line. (Outdoor, overhead)
It is accompanied by excitation system, prime mover, voltage regulator, cooling system etc, 7. Inter-connection between the Unit Auxiliary Switchgear
Hence it is not a single equipment. The protection of generator should be co-ordinated with and Station Service Switchgear.
associated equipment. 8. Circuit Breaker. (Indoor)
- It is a costly and important equipment. It should not be shut off as far possible because 9. Station Service Switchgear. (Indoor)
10. Unit Auxiliary Switchgear. (Indoor)
would result in power shortage and emergency.
Modern Turbo-generators have the following typical ratings. 3
60 MW 11.8 kV
120 MW 13.8 kV
500 MW 22 kV
Generator unit upto 500 MW have been installed in India.
1000 MW unit capacity Turbo-generators has been installed in U.K. during 1970's.
A generator is protected against several fault. Table 33.1 gives data about the present practice
of alternator protection. Several other abnormal conditions give an alarm and indication. Static
10 *I )le-·-1--)k l,<r'.
protection schemes have been developed for generator protection.
Table 33.1. Generator Protection Fig. 33.1. Generator connections in unit system. (Refer Table 33.2).
Below 1 MW Above 1 MW Above lOMW Above 100 MW The protection of generator-transformer unit can be divided into three groups :
1. Differential * * - Protective relays to detect faults or abnormal conditions external to the unit.
2. Restricted earth fault * *
*
- Protective relays to detect faults internal to the unit.
3. Stator turn to tum fault
- Devices associated with the unit e.g., over-speed safeguards; temperature measuring devices
4. Time over current * * ' for bearings, windings etc. Some of these wound an alarm and some cause tripping.
5. Temperature (Thermo-Detector) * * *
6. Negative sequence current * * * The protection of a large Generator-Transformer unit can be grouped as follows :
7. Loss of load * * - Preventive measures forming part of the generator protection scheme, indicating systems
8. Loss of input-anti-motoring ~* *
* and alarms.
9. Loss of field * * - Protective systems for generator-transformers together.
10. Loss of synchronism * * - Protective system for generator.
11. Overs peed * Only for hydro-generators
- Protective systems for main transformer.
12. Over-voltage *· Only for hydro-generators
* - Protective systems for unit-auxiliary transformer.
13. Rotor-earth Faults *
* * (Refer Table 33.1, 33.2). (Refer Sec. 17 .5).
14. Back-up overcurrent * *
15. Bearing temperature * "
16. Bearing insulation * * *
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION PROTECTION OF GENERATORS 617
616
The electrical overcurrent protection is generally set at higher value for responding the exces-
33.2. ABNORMAL CONDITIONS AND PROTECTION SYSTEMS (Ref. Table 33.3).
sive overloads. Hence it cannot sense the continuous overloads of less value. Neither can it sense
Table 32.2. Protection of Large Generator-T~ansformer Unit the failure of co.oling system.
Protection of Generator Generator-transformer overall 33.2.3. Unbalanced loading.
Transformer together differential protection
Continued unbalanced loads, equal to or more than 10 per cent of the rated current cause
Generator protection Generator differential protecfj.on• dangerous heating of the cylindrical rotor in turbo-generators. Salient pole rotors in hydro-gener-
- Stator earth fault protection ators often include damper windings and are, therefore, much less affected by unbalance loading
Negative phase sequence prp_tection
Against-unbalanced loading (negative phase-sequence currents).
Inter-turn fault protection Unbalanced loading on generator can be due to
Reverse power protecti<]p.
Field failure protection - unsymmetrical faults in the system near the generating station.
Rotor earth fault protection ••• - mal-operation of a circuit-breaker near generating station, the three phases not being
Temperature sensors in slots cleared.
Overcurrent relays in stator and rotor circuits
Surge arresters for surge overvoltage Negative sequence protection senses unbalanced loading of generators.
R-C Surge suppressors 33.2.4. Stator Winding Faults.
Protection of unit auxiliary transformer Differential protection· • Stator winding faults involve armature winding and must therefore be cleared quickly by com-
Restricted earth fault protection plete shutdown of the generator. Only opening the circuit does not help since the e.m.f. is induced
Buchholz relay in the stator winding itself. The field is opened and de-energized by "Field Suppression" (Ref. Sec.
Overcurrent protection, overvoltage protection
Winding and oil temperature sensors 33.16).
Protection of main transformer HV Overcurrent Protection•, overflu:png protection The stator faults include.
HV Restricted earth fault protection (1) Phase-to-phase faults. (2) Phase-to-earth faults. (3) Stator inter-turn faults.
Buchholz relay
Winding and oil temperature sensors Phase to phase faults and phase inter-turn faults are less common. Inter turn faults are more
Surge arresters on HV side difficult to be detected.
Preventive measures Continuous monitoring of outlet temperature of gaseous of Phase to Earth faults. These faults normally occur in the armature slots. The damage at the
- Sound alarm on control panel liquid coolants point of fault is directly related to the selected neutral earthing resistor. With fault currents less
Flow monitors· than 20 A, negligible burning of the iron core will result if the machine is tripped within some
Low boiler pressure alarm/trip
Lubrication oil failure
seconds. The repair work than amounts to changing the damaged coil without restacking of core
Emergency trip laminations. ·
Low vacuum If, however, the earthing resistor is selected to pass a much larger earth-fault current
I
• Trip generator c.b. close throttle valves, opened field c.b., one auxiliary c.b. (> 200 A) severe burning of the stator core will take place, necessitating restacking oflaminations.
~5'
•~t
•• Close emergency throttle valves main c.b. opened only after operation of interlock reverse power relay. Ev~n when a high speed earth-fault differential protection is used, severe damage may be caused
owmg to the large time constant of the field-circuit and the relatively long time required to com-
••• Trip main circuit breaker only. (Refer Fig. 33.1).
ia1 pletely suppress the field flux. In the case of high earth-fault currents it is therefore normal practice
33.2.1. External Faults. to install a circuit breaker in the neutral of the generator in order to reduce the total fault-clearance
••=• During external faults with large short-circuit currents, severe mechanical stress will be im-
=•=t time.
posed on the stator windings, If any mechanical defects already exist in the winding, these may be Circulating current biased differential protection provides the earth fault protection. However
further aggravated. The temperature rise is however, relatively slow and a dangerous temperature the sensitivity of such a protection for earth faults depends upon the resistance in neutral to earth
level may be obtained after about 10 seconds. With asymmetrical faults, severe vibrations and over- connection and the position of earth fault in the winding. .
heating of the rotor may occur. A separate and sensitive earth fault protection is generally necessary for generators with resis-
The external faults such as faults on bus-bars are not covered by generators protection zone. tance earthing. ·
Hence differential protection of generator does not responds to external fault. Phase to phase faults; Short circuits between the stator windings very rarely occur because
The overcurrent and earth fault protection of generator provides back-up protection to external the insulation in a slot between coils of differents phases is at least twice as large as the insulation
betwee~ o_ne coil and the iron core. However a phase to earth fault may cause a phase-to-phase
faults, while the primary protection as provided by the protective system of respective equipment fault w1thm the slots. If a phase-to-phase fault should occur, this is most likely to be located at the
(e.g. bus-bars, transmission lines). end-connections of the armature windings, i.e. in the overhanging parts outside the slots. A fault
33.2.2. Thermal overloading. of this nature causes severe arcing with high temperatures, melting of copper and risk of fire if the
Continued overloading may increase the winding temperature to such an extent that the in- insulation is not made of fire-resistant, non-flammable material. Since the short-circuit currents
in this case do not pass via the stator core, the limitations will not be particularly damaged. The
sulation will be damaged and its useful life reduced. repair work may therefore be limited to replacing the affected coil and mechanical parts of the end-
Temperature rise can also be caused by failure of cooling system. In large machines thermal structure.
elements (thermo-couples or resistance thermometers) are embedded in the stator slots and cooling
system. With acknowledgements to ASEA Sweden ; Brown Boveri, Switzerland.
618 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION PROTECTION OF GENERATORS 619
Circulating current biased differential protection gives adequate and fast protection against and (b) the step up transformer inter-winding capacitance, and (c) the ohmic value of the generator
phase-to-phase faults in the generator zone. (Ref. Sec. 33.3). neutral earth resistor.
Stator Inter-turn faults, Short circuits between the burns of one coil may occur if the When the HV system is directly earthed, the voltage across the generator earthing resistor,
stator winding is made up of multi turn coils. Such faults may develop owing to incoming during an HV earth fault will be small and can normally be disregarded. However, if the HV net-
current surges with a steep wave-front which may cause a high voltage (L di/ dt) across the work is Petersen coil earthed, the neutral displacement voltage of the generator can reach the nor-
turns at the entrance of the stator winding. mal setting of the earth fault protection. This problem must therefore be investigated for each
If, however, the stator winding is made up of single-turn coils, with only one coil per slot, it is, particular installation, and can be solved by either increasing the earth-fault relay setting or reduc-
of course, impossible to have an inter-turn fault. If there are two coils per slot the insulation between ing the ohmic value of the generator earthing resistor.
the coils is of such dimensions that an inter-turn fault is not likely to occur. Surge arresters and R-C surge suppressors installed between the generator circuit-breaker and
For large mach,ines ( > 50 MVA), it is the normal practice in some countries to use single-turn the generator may also assist in reducing some of the highest switching surges. (Ref. Sec. 18.12)
coils whereas in the U.S.A. and Canada multi-turn coils are used. In the latter countries, therefore,
the inter-turn, or split-phase, protection has become very popular. Specially developed indoor type surge arresters are connected near generator terminals. These
Differential protection and overcurrent protection does not sense inter-turn faults. Stator in- comprise three star connected unit plus another unit between star point and earth and thus provide
terturn fault protection detects the inter-turn faults. overvoltage protection for all phases and between phases. Capacitors rated about 0.1 µF to earth
33.2,5. Field Winding Faults. are fitted to absorb surge voltages.
Rotor faults include rotor inter-turn fault and conductor-to-earth faults. These are caused by 33.2. 7. Other Abnormal Conditio11s,
mechanical and temperature stresses. Loss of excitation results in loss of synchronism and slightly increased speed. The machine con-
The field system is normally not connected to the earth so that a single earth fault does not tinues to run as an induction generator, drawing excitation current from bus bars, the damper wind-
give rise to any fault current. A second earth fault will short circuit part of the winding and may ing acts like a squirrel cage. The currents are taken at a high lagging power factor and magnitude
thereby produce an unsymmetrical field system, giving unbalanced force on the rotor. Such a force is of the order of full load current. This causes overheating of stator winding and rotor winding.
will cause, excess pressure on bearing and shaft distortion, if not cleared quickly. This condition should not be allowed to persist for a long time. The field should be either restored
The unbalanced loading on generator gives rise to negative sequence currents which cause or the machine should be shut off, before system stability is lost.
negative sequence component of magnetic field. The negative sequence field to rotates in opposite
direction of the main field and induces e.m.f.'s. in rotor winding. Thus the unbalanced loading Field-failure protection or loss of field protection is provided for generators. (Ref. sec. 33.13).
causes rotor heating. In addition to the above mentioned electrical faults, the running of a machine can be en-
Reduced excitation may occur due to short circuit or an open circuit in field or exciter circuits dangered by relatively minor mechanical defects in any of the auxiliary apparatus associated with
or a-fault in automatic voltage regulator. If the field circuit breaker opens by mistake, the fully the prime mover.
loaded generator falls out of step within 1 second, and continues to run as an induction generator Loss of Synchronism. If the machine losses synchronism with respect to the network after
drawing reactive power from the bus. To avoid this, a tripping scheme is so arranged that opening-
of field circuit breaker causes the tripping of generator unit breaker. a short circuit has been interrupted, a certain amount of slip is generally permissible, providing
'Rotor earth fault protection' is provided for large generators. that the stator current does not exceed 85% of the maximum asymmetric short current with a solid
Rotor temperature indicators are used with large sets for detecting rotor overheating due to short-circuit at the terminals.
unbalanced loading of generator. Wrong Synchronization. Present day requirements stipulate that a generator must be short-
33.2.6. Overvoltages (Ref. Sec. 18.11) circuit proof. However, with low reactance of the network and at the unit-connected transformer,
Atmospheric surge-voltages are caused by direct lightning strokes to the aerial lines in the in the event of wrong synchronization the current can be higher than under short-circuit conditions.
H.V. system. Induced and capacitiv.ely transferred voltage surges can, however, reach the generator This is not permissible. In other words wrong synchronization must not occur. Preventive measures
via the unit transformer. The amplitude and the duration of the surge on the generator side depends must therefore be taken. In particular, uncontrolled reclosure after complete isolation of the gen-
on the type oflightning arresters used on the H.V. side and also on the actual configuration of the erator from the network must be avoided because this quickly results in an excessive phase angle.
H.V. busbar. In this connection it must also be noted that the recovery voltage in the network following inter-
To protect generators from severe voltage surges, surge arresters and surge capacitors and rupt.ion of a short circuit can lead to considerable stresses.
often _used. In the case of smaller machines directly connected to a distribution network comprising Asynchronous Running without Excitation, If asynchronous running is permitted by the
overhead lines, such protective devices are of prime importance. manufacturer and requested by the operator for emergency conditions, it must be monitored. It
Switching Surges. Switching operations may cause relatively high transient overvoltage if must be decided whether asynchronous running is to be carried out with open or short-circulated
restriking occurs across the contacts of the circuit-breakers. These transients are similar to those rotor. Slip and stator current must not be allowed to exceed the specified limits.
obtained during intermittent earth faults (arcing grounds) and may be limited by using modern Local Overheating. Local overheating can occur in generators for various reasons and it is
circuit-breakers. often a difficult matter to locate these with the usual protection equipment. Normally, emission
Arcing Grounds. The amplitude of the transient voltages during arcing grounds may theoreti- products, in the form of gas, mist or smoke escape and these can be used for tripping a signal. An
cally, under the most unfavourable conditions of arc-restriking, ·reach a value of 5 times normal analysis of these products provides a basis for decision.
line to neutral peak voltage. By means of the resistance earthing of the generator neutral these Leakage in Hydrogen Circuit. Hydrogen losses are predetermined on the basis of gas con-
over-voltages will be reduced to a maximum value of about 2.5 times the rated peak voltage. In the sumption. However, continuous direct display is not recommended because temperature fluctua-
case of generator-transformer units, stray voltages may appear at the generator neutral during an tions in the generator cause variations in pressure and therefore gas make up is not directly related
earth fault in the HV network. This is due to the capacitive coupling between the HV and LV wind- to losses. Consequently, long term monitoring is more suitable. It is only hyd:rogen leakage into the
ings of the step up transformer. The magnitude of these stray voltages depends on: (a) the method pure water system which is detected separately by the gas blow-off device in the pure water tank.
of neutral earthing of the HV network, i.e., effectively earthed or reactance earthed (Petersen-coil) Other points of leakage are not directly detected: It is essentialfor adequate ventilation to be
provided in the vicinity of the generator and terminal box. Special attention must be paid to the
620
Reverse-power protection achieved by directional power relays are incorporated in the generator
cooling water circuit because any hydrogen carried along by the water is a danger factor and must
protection scheme. (Ref. Sec. 26.16).
therefore be prevented. .
Moisture in the Generator Winding. Moisture is the generator is to be avoided. Moisture Vibrations may occur owing to unbalanced loads or certain types of mechanical faults. Vibra-
detectors and drains must be provided at all points where liquids can collect. The situation can tion detectors are usually mounted on the generator bearing pedestal.
arise where the make up hydrogen is moist and can thus introduce moisture into the generator Excessive bearing temperature may arise due to mechanical faults, impurities in the
even if the cooling water circuits are absolutely leak.proof. This can be overcome by a gas drying lubricating oil or defects in the oil circulation system. These fault may be detected by means of a
plant which must be kept operational by the staff. temperature monitoring device embedded in the bearing.
Oxygen in Pure Water Circuit. Dissolved oxygen in the pure water circuit leads to wear at
the copper of the hollow conductors of windings with direct cooling. At hydrogen cushion of adequate Bearing Current. An induced e.m.f. of some volts may be developed in shaft of a generator
pressure in the pure water compensating tank reduces the oxygen content to a minimum Con- owing to certain magnetic dissimilarities in the armature field. If the bearing pedestals at each
tinuous supervision of oxygen content thus becomes superfluous. side of the generator are earthed, the induced e.m.f. will be impressed across the thin oil films of
Overspeeding may occur as a result of a fault in the turbine governor or its associated equip- the bearings. A breakdown of the oil-film insulation in the two bearings can give rise to heavy bear-
ment. If the main generator circuit-breaker is tripped while full electrical power is being delivered ing currents owing to the very small resistance of the shaft and the external circuit thus developed.
to the network dangerous overspeeding is prevented by the normal actions of the governor. It is · · Consequently, the bearing pedestal farthest from the prime mover is usually insulated from
essential, ther~fore, that the normal working of the governor be supervised by some additional earth and the insulation _supervised by a suitable relay. Further, to prevent the rotor and the shaft
protective devices. Over-frequency and Under-frequency Protection : Ref. Ch. 45.
·.. _.fr~m being electrostatically charged,the shaft is usually earthed via a slipring and a 200 ohm resis-
Motoring of generator will occur if the driving torque of the prime mover is reduced below
the total losses of the turbo-generator unit. Active power will then be drawn from the network in tor. This res.istor also contributes by taking the injected a;c. leakage current of the field circuit_eal'th-
order to maintain synchronous running, and the generator will work as a synchronous motor. If fault protective scheme. · · ·
this is allowed to persist(> 20 seconds), serious over-heating of the steam turbine blades may occurs,
depending on the type turbine and the design limits imposed by the manufacturer. 33.3. PERCENTAGE DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION OF ALTERNATOR STATOR
Table 33.3. Some Abnormal Conditions and Protection Systems WINDINGS
S.No. Abnormal Condition Effect Protection (Also called Biased Differential Protection or Merz-Price Protection) (Ref. Ch. 28).
1. Thermal overloading Overheating of stator winding Thermocouples of resistance
thermometer imbedded in stator . (a) Principle. The differential protection is that which responds to the vector difference be-
- continuous overloading and insulation failure.
- failure of cooling system slots and cooling system. Stator tween two or more similar electrical quantities. In generator protection, the current transformers
over-load protection with are provided at each end of the generator armature windings. When there is no fault in the windings
overcurrent relays. and for through faults, the currents in the pilot wires fed from CT connections are equal. The dif-
2. External fault fed by generator Unbalanced loading stresses on Negative phase sequence ferential current I1-I2 is zero. When fault occurs inside the protected winding, the balance is dis-
winding and shaft, excessive protection for large machines. turbed and the differential current I 1- I2 flows through the operating coil of relays causing relay
heating for prolonged Overload protection for small
short-circuit. generators. operation. Thereby the generator circuit-breaker is tripped. The field is disconnected and discharged
3. Stator faults Winding burn-out, welding of Biased differential protection, through a suitable impedance (Ref. Ch. 28). ·
- phase to phase core laminations, shut down. sensitive earth-fault protection, (b) Connections of CT's for differential protection of generator. Fig. 33.2 illustrates con-
- phase to earth interturn fault protection.
nection ofCT's for !l star-connected generator. Fig. 33.3 illustrates connections for a delta connected
- inter-turn generator. ·
4. Rotor earth faults Single fault does not harm Rotor earth-fault protection. CIRCUIT 8REAKER
second fault causes unbalanced
magnetic forces causing damage
to shaft, bearings.
5. Loss of field Generator runs as induction 'Loss of field' or 'Field failure'
- Tripping of field generator deriving excitation protection.
circuit-breaker. currents from bus-bar. Speed
increases slightly.
6. Motoring of generator. When input Effect depends upon type of Reverse power protection by
to prime mover stops, the prime mover and the power Directional power relays direct
generator draws power from drawn from the bus during the reversal of power.
bus-bars and runs a synchronous motoring.
motor in the same direction. RESTRAINING COILS
7. Over-voltages. Insulation failure Lightning arresters connected
Fig. 33.2. Percentage differential relaying of a star connected generator,
near generator terminals.
for phase-phase faults.
8. Over-fluxing of Generator Heating· of core V If relay. Connected in voltage
Transformer and Auxiliary regulator circuit generator. The percentage differential relay has an operating coil and a restraining coil, one for each phase.
Ttansforme·r The restraining coil is connected centrally in pilot wires. The operating coil is connected between.
9. Under-frequency Failure of blades of steam Frequency Relays (Ref. Ch. 45) mid-point of restrains coil neutral pilot wire (Ref. Sec. 28.4).
turbines
The CT connections are as shown in Fig. 33.3.
622 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION pROTECTION OF GENERATORS 623
EARTHING
~
33.4, RESTRICTED EARTH-FAULT PROTECTION BY DIFFERENTIAL SYSTEM
c.S. .When neutral is solidly grounded, it is possible to protect complete alternator of transformer
winding against phase to ground fault.
However, neutral is earthed through resistance to limit earth-fault currents.
With resistance earthing, it is not possible to
protect complete winding from earth-fault and
the% of winding protected depends on the value
ofneutral earthing resistor and the relay setting. N
While selecting the value of resistor and earth-

fault relay setting, the following aspects should
RE.STRAIN/NG COILS
be kept in mind : ·
Fig. 33.3. Percentage differential relay of a delta connected generator, The current rating of resistor, resistance =
for phase-phase fault. value, relay setting, etc. should be selected
Typical protective arrangement of a generator connected to bus bars is shown in Fig. 33.4. carefully.
Setting should be such that the protection
Differential relay provides fast protection to the stator winding against phase to phase faults
does not operate for earth-faults on EHV
and phase to ground faults. If neutral is not grounded or is grounded through impedance, additional
side. Earth faults are not likely to occur
sensitive ground fault relaying should be provided. Differential protection is recommended for gen-
near the neutral point due to less voltage
erators above 2 MVA rating. Separate sets of CT's are used for each protection. Desirable features Is-,. --...::_RESTRICTED EARTH FAULT
w.r.t. earth. It is a usual practice to protect RELAY
of generator differential protection .are :
about 80 to 85% of generator winding Fig. 33.5. Percentage Differential with protection
- high speed operation, about 15 ms. with static protection against earth-faults. The remaining 20 to ' Restricted Earth fault relay.
- low setting 15% winding from neutral side left un-
- full stability on external faults. protected by the differential protection. In additional to differential protection, a separate
earth-fault protection is provided to take care of the complete winding against earth faults. (Ref.
600/S Sec. 33.6 (b)).
The restricted earth-fault relays in the differential protection is explained here. During earth-
fault Irin the alternator winding, the current, Ir flows through a part of the generator winding and
neutral to ground circuit. The corresponding secondary current ! 8 flows through the operating coil
and restricted earth-fault coil of the differential protection. The setting of the restricted earth fault
relay can be selected independent of the setting of the overcurrent relay.
If the earth-fault Ir occurs at point f of alternator winding Var is available to drive earth-fault
current If' through the neutral to ground connection. If point is nearer to terminal a (nearer to the
neutral point) the forcing voltage Var will be relatively less. Hence earth fault current Ir will reduce.
It is not practicable to keep the relay setting too sensitive to sense the earth-fault currents of small
'{ 0/FFERENTIAL
RELAY
magnitudes. Because, if too sensitive, the relay may respond during through faults of other faults
due to inaccuracies of CT's, saturation of CT's etc. Hence a practice is to protect about 85% of the
Fig. 33.4. Protection of a direct connected generator. generator winding against phase to earth fault and to leave the 15% portion ·unprotected by the
Differential protection which protects only generator is arranged to trip main circuit breaker differential protection against earth-faults. A separate earth-fault protection covers the entire wind-
and to suppress the field. ing against earth-faults. [Sec. 33.6 (b )] .
Differential protection does not respond to through faults and overloads. The resistance R limits the earth-fault current. If R is too small (solid earthing) earth fault
Differential protection gives a complete protection to generator windings against phase to phase currents are too large. Hence such a method is not used for large machines. Solid earthing is limited
faults. to machines upto 3.3 kV.
The biasing of the differential relay eliminates the problems associated with CT's. (Ref. Sec. For low resistance earthing the resistance R is such that full load current passes through
28.6). neutral, for a full line to neutral voltage.
The protection against earth faults by differential is influenced by the magnitude of earth-fault
Medium resistance earthing is commonly used on generator transformer units. The earth-fault
current. The magnitude of earth-fault current depends upon value ofthe reactance/reactance con-
current is restricted to about 200 A for full line to neutral voltage, for a 60 MW unit.
nected between neutral and earth; and the position of earth fault in generator winding. When the
generator winding is earthed through impedance, a separate additional earth fault protection is In high resistance earthing maximum earth-fault current is of the order of 10 A. Such earthing
necessary in addition to differential protection. The differential protection provides earth-fault is used for distribution transformers and generator transformer units.
protection to about 85% of generator winding.
0TECTION OF GENERATORS 625
20 = R x 65.5 100
6340 X
Hence resistance to be added in the neutral connections is

20 X 6340
} %OF WINO/NG UNPROTl:CTED R= _ x
65 5 100
=1.94 ohms. Ans.
--------AGAINST GROUND FAULTS
RX Io. X/OO Example 33.2. The neutral point of a 10,000 V alternator is earthed through a resistance of 10
V
ohms, the relay is set to operate when there is an out of balance current of lA. The CT's have a ratio
of JOOO I 5. What percentage of the winding is protected against fault to earth and what must be
minimum value of earthing resistance to give 90% protection to each phase winding ?
R Solution. Out of balance current in pilot wires is 1 Amp. Corresponding current in CT primary
will be
1 X lOOO = 200
5
Hence current I 0 for which the relay operates in 200 A.
Fig. 33.6._ Percentage of unprotected winding against phase to ground faults.
% of winding unprotected
_ . With higher neutral ;esistance, the earth faults current is re~uced, hence lesser percentage of
winding is protected by the. restricted earth fault protection. = R X Io l00 = 10 x 200 lO0 = 20 X ✓3 = 34 So/£0
V X 10 000 X 14 .
Assuming R is the resistance in neutral connection to the earth and the fault current for line ..:::..::.i..::
✓3
to ground f~ult is equal to full lQad cu:r;rent of the generator or transformer, the value of impedance
to be inserted in neutral to earth connections is given by, % of winding protected = 100 -
34.8 = 65.2%. Ans.
Resistance to get 90% of winding protection
R=y l0 =RX 200 X 100
where R = impedance in ohms between neutral and ground 10,000
V = line to neutral voltage ~
I= full load current of largest machine or transformer. 10 X 10,000
R=
If a relay setting of 15% is chosen this affords protection of 85% of the winding of largest
200
x✓ x
3 100 = 2.88 ohms. Ans.
machine while a greater percentage of windings of smaller machines running in parallel with the In these problems, remember, for largest machine :
large machine. R xI
% of winding unprotected = ~0 x 100
. .. RxI0 x 100
% of wmdmg unprotected = V R = Resistance in neutral connection,
R = ohmic value of impedance I 0 = Primary current for relay operation,
I 0 = minimum operating current in primary of CT V = Phase voltage.
V = line to neutral voltage: Example 33.3. A 3 phase, 2 pole, 11 hV, 10,000 hVA alternator has neutral earthed through a
If 15% of relay .setting is used, 10 is 15% of full load current of the machine. resistance of7 ohms. The machine has current balance protection which operates upon out of balance
current exceed 20% of full load. Determine % of winding protected against earth fault.
Example 33,1. A generator is provided with restricted earth-fault protection. The ratings are
11 kV, 5000 kVA. The percentage of winding protected against phase to ground fault is 80%. The Solution. hVA = ✓3 kV I
relay setting such that it trips for 25% out of balance. Calculate the resistance to be added in neutral I= 10,000 = 525 A
to ground connection. ✓3 X 11 .
Solution. v = ✓11 x 1000 = 6340 v
3
Out of balance current for which relay operates I 0
20
I = 5 000 = 262 A = 100 x 525 = 105 A
✓3 X 11
25 11
= ✓ = 6.35 kV
Io= 262 x lO0 = 65.5 A
Voltage V line to neutral
3
% of winding unprotected
% of winding unprotected against earth fault
RxI0 Rx Io 7 x 105 x 100
=~X 100 = ~ X lOO = 6.35 X 1000 = ll,Go/o,
Note : % reactance of generator winding was not considered.
Example 33.4. Fig 33. 7 shows percentage differential relay applied to the protection of an al- 200xX
ternator winding. The Relay has a 1% slope of characteristic 11 - 12 vs. (11 + 12)12. 11/✓3X 100 X 100 = 15
A high resistance ground fault occurred near the grounded neutral end of the generator winding
while generator is carrying load. As a consequence, the currents in amperes fiowing at each end of X=
15
\1 ✓
1 3
= 4.75 [ohms]
the winding are shown in Fig. 33. 7. Assuming CT ratio of 400 I 5 amperes will the relay operate the Reactance of unprotected winding= 4.75 x 0.1 = 0.475 [ohms]
trip of the breaker.
Voltage induced in 10% unprotected winding
11000
CIRCUIT = ~ x 0.1 = 635 volts.
BREAKER
If the voltage is say v and impedance is say Z, then fault current in the loop is i = v/Z
Z= ✓r2 +x 2
where r = resistance in neutral connection
x = reactance of 10% winding
v = voltage of 10% winding
Given i = 200 A
v = 635 (calculated value)
x = 0.475 (calculated above)
Fig, 37.7 (a) Fig. 33.7 (b) 200 = 635
Solution. CT ratio 400 : 5 · ✓r + (0.475) 2
Secondary current of CT1 r 2 + (0.475)2 = (3.18) 2 = 10.2
304 +JO . r = 3.145 ohms. Ans.
11= x5=3.8+J0A Or
400
Secondary current of CT2 Neglecting the impedance of alternator winding,% of unprotected winding
RxI0 xlOO
I = 320 x 5 = 4 .0 A =
2 400 +J V
where R = resistance in neutral circuit
Directions of current are as shown in Fig. 33.8.
Io= minimum operating current in generator winding.
Out of balance current 11 -12 flows through the relay Fig. 33.8,
V = line to neutral voltage.
coil. i.e.
In this problem : R is to be determined
3.8 - 4.0 = - 0.2 A
l1+I2=3.8+4= A V= ll✓~OO = 6350 V
2 2 39
' '
Io= 200 A
. . I1+I2
C orrespon d mg pomt on 11 -12 vs. - - characteristic is 0.39 A [from the known slope]. The relay % of unprotected winding = 100 - 90 = 10
2
operates if out of balance current is above the characteristic. In this problems out of balance current Hence 10 =Rx 200 x 100
is 0.2 A and therefore in negative torque region. Hence the relay does not operate. Ans. 6350
63,500
Examples 33.5. A 11 kV, 3 phase Alternator has full load rated current of 200 A. Reactance of R= = 3.175 ohms.
20 000
armature winding is 15 per cent. The differential protection system is set to operate on earth fault '
currents of more than 200 A. Find the neutral earthing resistance, which gives earth fault protection Hence resistance .in neutral connection= 3.175 ohms.
to 90% of stator winding.
Solution. In this problem, the alternator reactance should be considered in calculations. 33,5. OVERCURRENT AND EARTH-FAULT PROTECTION FOR GENERATOR BACK-UP
Full load current 200 A. For generators above 1 MW, where primary protection to stator winding is provided by Dif-
ferential Protection, the overcurrent and earth-fault protection gives back-up protection for external
Let resistance in neutral connection be r ohms. Let reactance per phase be X ohms.
phase to phase faults and earth-faults (Ref. Fig. 33.9).
IX I= rated current Induction type inverse definite minimum time relays may be used for generator back-up protec-
V x 100 = %X X = reactance per phase in ohms tion for external faults.
V = phase voltage. Since the faults in stator winding are fed by the stator winding itself, their influence on current
in the outgoing terminals of generator depends upon fault level of the main bus (Ref. Fig. 33.10).
GENERATOR C.B.
CT'S
CT EF2 LIGHTNING
ARRESTER
PHASE -
EARTH FAULT RELAYS
RELAY
GROUND__.
RELAY (a) (b)
Fig. 33.11. Sensitive earth-fault protection of generator-transformer unit.
With resistance earthing (Fig. 33.11) two earth-fault relays may be provided on the secondary
Fig. 33.9. l?ack-up protection by overcurrent protection. side of neutral CT. The First EF relay is set at 10 per cent and is instantaneous type. The second
EF relay is inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) and is set at 5 per cent. (The relay pick-up when
earth fault current is 5 per cent of full load current of generator).
Depending upon sensitivity, the first relay would protect about 90 per cent of stator winding
and the second winding about 95 per cent. For such sensitive settings, it is necessary to provide a
time delay, otherwise the relays may respond to transient neutral currents during external faults.
I
I I I When neutral is connected through VT (Fig. 33.11), the rated primary voltage of VT is generally
0 0 0 equal to phase to neutral voltage of generator. The EF relay is connected to the secondary of VT
Sequence of operation= 1, 2, 3 with a setting of 10% of rated secondary voltage of VT. When the voltage between neutral and
1. Line protection. 2. Bus bar protection,
earth reaches 10% of phase to neutral voltage of generator, the earth-fault relay operates.
3. The generator back-up overcurrent, earth-fault protection, The VT for neutral connection is specially designed. It should not saturate for twice the max-
imum neutral to earth voltage. The VT is protected from high voltage surges by Lightning Arrester
Fig. 33.10. The generator back-up protection should be the last to operate for external faults. connected in parallel with the primary. (Fig. 33.ll(b)).
Hence overcurrent and earth-fault relays do not provide satisfactory protection against internal 33.6. (b) 100% STATOR EARTH-FAULT PROTECTION
faults.
The earth-fault protection by differential relays or by
However the overcurrent and earth-fault relays provide back-up protection to generator against residually connected relay can give effective protection to
external faults (e.g. faults in bus zone, transmission zone). about 80 to 85% of generator winding. 100% stator earth-
The setting is selected that the generator overcurrent and earth-fault protection does not nor- fault protection is provided in recent installations.
mally operate for external faults such as F. A coupling transformer is connected in neutral to
However, if fault F continues for a long time due to failure of line protection (1), the fault will ground circuit, A coded signal current is continuously in-
. be fed by the generator. Hence the over-current and earth-fault protection of generator (3) may be jected into stator winding through the coupling trans-
former. The frequency of coded signal is 12.5 Hz. During
set to operate with due time lag for higher values of external fault currents. Hence high set, definite
I minimum time, induction type, inverse over-current, earth fault relays are recommended for gen- normal condition the signal fed into stator winding flows
erator back-up. only into stray capacitance of generator and directly con-
nected system. In case of earth-fault, the capacitance is COUPLING SIGNAL
SOURCE
33.6. (a) SENSITIVE STATOR EARTH-FAULT PROTECTION by-passed and the monitoring current increases. The in- TRANSFORMER 12,SHz
crease in monitoring current (of 12.5 Hz) is sensed by the
When generator neutral is earthed through a high impedance, differential protection does not measuring system.
protect the complete alternator stator winding against earth faults, hence a separate sensitive This protection covers 5 to 20% of stator winding
earth-faults protection is necessary. The method for sensitive earth-fault protection depends upon from the neutral end. The remaining 80% winding is Fig, 33.11. 100% Stator earth fault protection by
the generator connection. protected by differential protection or earth fault protec- signals through neutral.
Two alternative methods are employed for neutral connection. tion discussed in Sec. 33.6 (a).
- The neutral connected through resistor which limits the maximum earth-fault current to
much lower value than full load current, Fig. 33.11 (a). This method is preferred for large 33.7, PROTECTION AGAINST TURN-TO-TURN FAULT ON STATOR WINDING
units.
The incidence of turn to turn fault in alternator is rare. One method of detecting inter-turn
- The neutral cormected through a voltage transformer. The earth- fault current is limited to faults is by employing five limb voltage transformer with tertiary connected ~o watt hour meter
the magnet;ising current of the voltage transformer plus the zero-sequence current of gen- type induction relay. The inter-turn faults are detected by measuring the residual voltage of gen-
erator, Fig. 33.11 (b).
630 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION 'oTECTION OF GENERATORS 631
erator terminals. This voltage appears across the GENERATOR The fault between turns does not disturb the current balance of CT's for differential protection,
WIND/N§
tertiary winding which is connected to operating hence differential protection does not detect inter-turn fault.
winding of a three element directional relay. The
quadratic winding is operated from secondary side
of the voltage transformer (Fig. 33.12).
During normal condition, the residual voltage
PARALLEL PATHS
is zero, i.e., OF GENERATOR PHASE J
WINDING
VRES = VRN + VYN + VBN = 0.
VOLTAGE
This balance is disturbed during inter-turn fault TRANSFORMER
on any of the single windings. And the residual volt-
age is fed to the relay coil.
When the generator is with single winding per
phase, the Residual Voltage Detection method is
employed for inter-turn fault protection. VOLTAGE
OPERATED
Another method is to connect main voltage WATT HOUR
transformers in star-delta and connect an auxiliary METER TYPE
RELAY
Vf in the delta circuit (Fig. 33.13). A voltage Vres
proportional to the residual voltage PHASEUJ
VRES = VRN + VYN + VsN

flow through the secondary delta connected winding r = Stabilizing resistor R = Relay
of the VT. The relay is connected in this circuit via Fig. 33.14. Generator inter-tum fault protection based on cross-differential principle.
an auxiliary VT. The short circuit between turns
gives residual voltage of fundamental frequency Fig. 33.12. Generator protection against inter-turn faults 33.8. ROTOR EARTH FAULT PROTECTION
by residual voltage direction.
A single ground fault does not cause flow of current since the rotor circuit is ungrounded. When
G
the second ground fault occurs part of the rotor winding is by-passed and the currents in the remain-
ing portion may increase. This causes unbalance in rotor and may cause mechanical as well as
TUNED TO 50 Hz
thermal stresses resulting in damage to the rotor. In some cases the vibrations have caused damage
to bearings and bending of rotor shaft. Such failures have caused extensive damage.
One method of detecting earth fault on rotor circuit is described below. A high resistance is
connected across the rotor circuit. The centre point of this is connected to earth through a sensitive
relay. The relay detects the earth faults for most of the rotor circuit (Fig. 23.15) except the centre
MAIN__
RESTRAINIIJG point of rotor.
VT
COIL
Other methods of rotor earth fault protection include d.c. injection method and a.c. injection
OPERATING
method, (Fig. 33.16). A single earth fault in the rotor circuit completes the circuit comprising voltage
COIL source S, sensitive relay earth fault. Thereby the earth fault is sensed by the voltage relay. D.C.
injection method is simple and has no problems of leakage currents.
Fig. 33.13. Residual voltage inter-turn fault protection using main VT.
,,....-- HIGH RESISTANCE
which should operate the relay. The relay should not operate for earth fault. Earth fault also causes FIELD
residual voltage. Hence the zero-sequence voltages of third harmonic are fed to the restraining coil WINDING
of the relay. The LC circuit tuned to fundamental frequency offers low resistance path to power
frequency voltages appearing due to inter-turn faults. Hence for inter-turn faults the restraining
SENSITIVE EARTH
current does not flow and relay operates only for inter-turn fault. FAULT RELAY
Another method of inter-turn fault protection is based on cross-differential principal (Fig.
33.14). In this case, the stator winding has two separate parallel paths. The current transformer
primaries are inserted in these paths and the secondaries are cross-connected. During inter-turn
fault in the phase winding, the out-of balance current CT secondaries flows through the relay. Such Fig. 33.15. Schematic diagram of rotor e.f. protection.
a protection can be extremely sensitive. However it can be employed to generators with parallel
winding for each phase. (Ref. Fig. 33.14).
633
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION PROTECTION OF GENERATORS
632
33.9. ROTOR TEMPERATURE ALARM
This protection is employed only to large sets and indicates the level of temperature and not OVER
CURRENT
the actual hot spot temperature. It is not practicable to embed thermocouples in rotor winding since crs REPLAY
the slip ring connections would be complicated. Resistance measurement is adopted. The rotor volt-
age and current are compared by a moving coil relay. The voltage coil of the relay is connected
across the slip ring brushes. The current coil is connected across the shunt in the field circuit.
Double actuating quantity moving coil relay is used, the restraining coil being circuit coil and the NEGATIVE
SEQUENCE
operating coil is the voltage coil (Fig. 33.17). Resistance increases with temperature. FILTER
The relay measures the ratio

Vil= R (which gives a measure of rotor temperature).
GENERATOR
STATOR
WINDINGS
Field
Winding
Fig. 33.18. (a.) Protection against unbalanced load using negative sequence filter.
EXCITER
SENSITIVE
VOLTAGE RELAY
J
$
7?
.
RESISTOR. lcAPACITOR j
(For d.c.J/ · (For a.c.)
FOR CURRENT
LIMITING
Voltage Coil
' Current Coil
,,if[~
VOLTAGE SOURCE
d.c. or a.c.
Fig. 33.17. Rotor temperature protection

Fig. 33.16. Principle of d.c./a.c. injection method for rotor
by measuring VII.
earth fault protection.
33.10. NEGATIVE SEQUENCE PROTECTION OF GENERATORS AGAINST
UNBALANCED LOADS
The unbalanced 3-phase stator currents cause double frequency currents to be induced in rotor.
They cause heating of rotor and damage the rotor. Unbalanced stator currents also cause severe
vibrations and heating of stator. From the theory of symmetrical components, we know that un-
balance three-phase currents have a negative sequence components. This component rotates at
4 5 6 7 100 2 3 4 5 6 7 1000 2 3 4
synchronous speed in a direction opposite to the direction of rotation ofrotor. Therefore double fre- 10 :J
TIME----+-
ms >I< SEC---->-
quency currents are induced in the rotor.
Negative sequence current filter with overcurrent relay provides protection against unbalanced Fig. 33.18. (b) Current time characteristics of a static negative phase sequence relay.
Courtesy : Brown Boveri, Switzerland.
loads (Fig. 33.18). ·
The relative asymmetry of a three-phase generator is defined as the ratio of negative sequence Negative sequence filter circuit comprises resistors and inductors connected in the secondary
current (1 2) to rated current (l 11 )i i.e., circuit in such a way that negative sequence component flows through the relay coil, ZL (Ref. Fig.
12 33.19).
%S=-X 100
In The overcurrent relay (ZL) of negative phase sequence protection is with inverse characteristics
In case of loss of one phase the relative asymmetry %S is equal to 58%. matching with the l§t rating curve of the machine and is arranged to trip the unit.
The time for which the machine can be allowed to operate for various amounts ofrelative asym-
metries depends on type of machine. The additional heat caused by negative sequence currents in
rotor is proportional to l§t. The product I§t is a machine characteristic. 33.11. NEGATIVE PHASE SEQUENCE CIRCUIT
l§t = 30 is a generally accepted figure as per ASA, (I 2 in per unit, t in sec.) for would rotor Fig. 33.19 illustrates the principle of the negative phase sequence circuit. The twin windings
of the two auxiliary current-transformers are so connected to the line current-transformers that
machines and 40 for salient pole machine. under normal balanced-load condition, currents Ia, lb and le flow in the direction shown. Impedance
It is generally necessary to install negative sequence relays that match with the l§t charac-
teristic of the machine. (Ref. Fig. 33.18 (b)).
634
33,12. STATOR-HEATING PROTECTION
CURRENT-TRANSFORMERS A Generator overheating can be caused by failure cooling system or by sustained overloads.
B Embedded resistance detectors or thermocouples are provided in the slots among with the
stator coils for large generators. These give an alarm if temperature rises above safe value. The
C protection is provided for generators above 1 MW.
It is not practicable to provide overload protection by. back-up stator-fault over-current protec-
tion. Because back-up over-current protection is generally set for sensing fault currents and should
not trip for overloads. Electrical over-current relays cannot sense the winding temperature ac-
curately because temperature rise depends on 12Rt and also on cooling. Electrical protection cannot
detect a cooling system failure.
33,13. LOSS OF FIELD PROTECTION

A 'loss of field' or 'field failure' can be caused by opening of field switch or field circuit-breaker.
The behaviour of the generator depends upon whether the generator connected singly to a load or
whether the generator is connected in parallel with other units or the system.
If it is a single unit supplying a local load, the loss of field causes loss of terminal voltage and
subsequently loss of synchronism depending upon the load conditions.
If the generator is connected in parallel with other units it can draw the magnetizing currents
from the bus-bars and continue to runs as induction generator. The magnetising currents are large
and are to be supplied by other units. Hence the stability of the other units is affected.
The power-output of the generator is reduced while running as induction generator. The slip
frequency e.m.f. is induced in the rotor.
In wound rotor generators, the e.m.f. induced in the
1------111 R rotor gives rise to circulating currents in the rotor body
p
Q
and slot wedges resulting in overheating. In salient pole
machines there are no rotor slots and the rotor body is
X E X formed oflaminations. Hence salient pole machines can
UNDER
endure the condition for a longer duration. CURRENT'
RELAY
The stator currents may increase above normal cur-
rent rating of generator during the run as induction Fig, 33.20. Loss of field protection.
generator, High currents may cause voltage drop and
overheating of generator bus-bars; stator winding, etc.
Fig. 33.19. Circuit showing principle of negative phase-sequence circuit.
• Courtesy, Reyrolle Parsons Ltd. England.
Fig. 33.20 illustrating the loss of field protection by means of an under-current relay connected
across a shunt in series with the field winding.
z 1 and Z 2 are connected across auxiliary current-transformers T1 and T2, and a load impedance
ZL is connected across the terminals XX. 33.14.REVERSE POWER PROTECTION (Ref. Sec. 26.16 Directional Power Relay)
When primary load current flows, the current through T 1 will be (lb - le) and that through When the input to the turbine .is stopped the generator continues to rotate as a synchronous
T 2 will be (la - lb), For a given value of load impedance ZL, ( over-current relay), the impedance motor, taking power from the bus bars. It then rotates as synchronous motor and the turbine acts
z1 and z2 are chosen such that points P and R remain at the same potential, i.e., the voltages as a load. Such incidents have occurred in old stations.
across QR and QP are equal and opposite. Under unbalanced conditions these voltages differ, and Motoring protection is mainly for the benefit of the prime-mover, and load coming on generator
an output is produced proportional to the negative-phase sequence across XX (voltage E) so ~s to bus while motoring. Reverse power protection measures the power flow from bus-bars to the gen-
operate the relay. The protection remains stable on symmetrical overloads up to about three times erator running.as a motor. Normally the power taken in most cases is low of the order of2 to 10%
rated full load. of the rated power. Power factor and current depends on excitation level.
As the output is instantaneous in operation, it is necessary to operate the equipment in con- During the motoring action of the generator, the power flows from the bus-bars to the machine
junction with a time-lag relay. and the conditions in the three phases are balanced. Hence a single-element directional power relay
(reverse power relay, Sec, 26.6 sensing the direction of power flow in any one phase is sufficient.
Negative phase sequence relays are used for protection against unbalanced loads. The CT's for reverse-power protection may be either at the neutral end or the bus-bar and of the
· generator winding. The setting depends on the type of prime-mover. Intentional time lag is provided
636 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION ROTECTION OF GENERATORS 637
in the reverse power protection so that the protection does not operate during system disturba~ces uickly and increase in speed is checked. This is achieved by sensing overspeeding by electrical
and power swings. measurements on generator side and by steam measurement on turbine side.
1. Steam Turbine. Time delay sensitive directional relays, set to operate on somewhat less
The emergency valve is closed momentarily so as to stop the steam supply more rapidly. The
than 3% of rated power. opens again automatically, meanwhile the governor responds to changed conditions and regu-
Back-pressure steam turbine sets should be protected with sensitive reverse powe~ protectio~. the speed.
The blades of such steam turbine get overheated quickly as the stem gets trapped if rotated rn
opposite direction due to windage. · With gradual reduction in load the emergency valve does not operate.
In steam turbines the steam acts like a +90°

33.16. FIELD SUPPRESSION
coolant of the turbine blades and maintain them MOTORING ZONE GENERATING ZONE
at constant temperature. If the steam flow stops, When a fault develops in an alternator winding even though the generator circuit-breaker is
the blades get overheated due to windage (fric- tripped, the fault continues to be fed because e.m.f. is induced in the generator itself. Hence the
tion with air). field circuit-breaker is opened and the stored energy in the field winding is discharged through
In condensing type steam turbine, the heat- another resistor. This method is known as field suppression.
ing of blades is slower hence reverse power FIELDC.B. EXCITER
protection may not be necessary.
For large turbo-generators with back-pres- DIRECTIONAL DIRECTIONAL
POWER RELAY
sure type, non-condensing steam turbines, sensi- POWER RELAY
OPERATES DOES NOT OPERATE
tive reverse power protection with sensitivity of MAIN
FIELD
the order of0.5% ofrated power is preferred. The Fig. 33.21. Operating characteristics of reverse power
relay should have directional stability for the en- protection.
tire relay operating zone (Fig. 33.21).
2. Reciprocating Engine. Motoring is harmful to the engine. Hence the reverse ~ower pro~ec-
tion should be sensitive and the engine must be disconnected from generator shaft durmg motormg,
3. Hydraulic 1'urbines. The water-turbine is generally fitted with mechanical devices wh~ch
detect the low water flow because such a flow causes cavitation. However reverse power protect10n Fig. 33.22. Principle of field suppression (The energy in main field is discharged through
may be provided to operate for motoring power less than 3 per cent of rated power. resistor by closing C.B. on to the discharge resistor).
4. Gas Turbine. The gas turbine driven generator should not be permitted to operate as a 33,17. OTHER'PROTECTIONS
motor because the gas turbine offers a load of 10 to 50% of full load during motoring.
Bearing Insulation. In case of large generators, the voltage generated in the shaft due to
The factors to be considered are :
leakage fluxes can circulate currents through the shaft. These currents flow through the bearings
1. Capability of prime-mover to run as a load. and foundation and cause pitting of bearing. To prevent the circulating shaft currents one of the
2. Load current drawn while motoring. bearings and its auxiliary piping should be insulated from ground.
The reverse power protection is generally set for 10% rated power in reverse direction. . Vibration Protection. A vibration detector may be mounted on one of the bearing pedestals
m the case of a horizontal shaft machine, or on the upper guide-bearing of a vertical shaft machine,
33.15. OVER-SPEED PROTECTION It may be set to trip the machine or initiate an alarm when the radial deflections of a certain dura-
It is essential to incorporate safety device in turbine governing system to prevent overspeeding. tion exceed a pre-selected value. Stepped Underfrequency Relays are also used. (Ref. Ch. 45)
Overspeeding can occur due to sudden loss of electrical load on generator due to tripping of Bearing overheating protection. Temperature detectors are inserted in the bearings which
generator circuit-breaker, before disconnection of prime-mover. are connected to temperature indicator and alarm circuits.
The speed of the generator should be maintained by the governor. Mechanical conditions. These are related with prime mover, cooling systems and other
The overspeeding results in over voltages and increase in frequency. auxiliaries. Sometimes these abnormal conditions are serious enough to bring about the complete
Hydro-generators.* Overspeeds are prevented by centrifugal governors. Sensitive frequency shut-down. But generally an alarm is provided for less serious abnormal conditions,
relays operated from an auxiliary permanent magnet alternator fitted on the shaft sense the over- , Loss of vacuum, Failure of vacuum plant associated with steam turbine gives rise to very
speed. high temperature and pressure at exhaust end, The loss of vacuum protection is in two stages :
Steam turbines." The generator responds to the over-speed caused by load rejection. However, ---,. In the first stage, the unloading gear operates and the control valves start to close the input
the steam beyond governor keep.s on expending causing further increase in speed, The steam beyond to steam turbine. If loss of vacuum is a temporary, the valve opens again and original con-
governor should be bypassed by some other path quickly so that input to steam turbine is bypassed dition is restored.
* Blades of steam turbine have tendency to vibrate at speeds other than rated speed. Frequency Relays are used. - The second stage operates when the vacuum is too low, the vacuum trip operates the emer-
Ref. Sec. 45.8.1.
gency control and the generator unit is tripped open.
638 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION PROTECTION OF GENERATORS
639
33.18. PROTECTION OF SMALL, STANDBY GENERATORS* Table 33.4.
Protection Chart for Generator-Transformer Unit (Ref. Table 33.2)
Small generators and standby generators require simple but reliable protective equipment.
Protection Equipment covered
Basically the following operating conditions and fault conditions should be considered while select-
ing a protection scheme. (Also, refer Sec. 43.9). 1. Generator differential protection. Generator
Overcurrent. The generator of the standby set and the consumers must be protected against 2. Main transformer differential protection. Main transformer
the effects of short circuit currents. Fuses are inaccurate in their rupturing characteristics and are
not available for high currents. Also, the rupturing of a fuse cannot be indicated at a central display. 3. Unit auxiliary transformer differential protection. Unit auxiliary transformer
It is advisable therefore, to use a time-lag over-current relay operating direct on the generator 4. Overall differential protection. Generator main transformer
breaker, even at relatively modest overcurrents. 5. Generator protection. Ref. Table 33.1
Overvoltage. Dangerous overvoltages, such as can occur due to a fault at the controller or due
6. Unit auxiliary transformer protections. Ref. Table 32.1, 32.2
to sudden load shedding can be monitored with a time-lag overvoltage relay.
Overload. The winding insulation of an electrical machine can sustain damage at excessive 7. Main transformer protection. Ref. Table 32.1, 32.2
bar temperatures and this will shorten its service life. Stator winding temperatures must therefore
be monitored. If a given permissible limit is exceeded, an alarm must be given or the machine 33.19. Generator Transformer Unit Protection
switched off. Monitoring is mostly carried out by a thermal replica of the machine; a thermal relay,
(Ref. Sec. 31.6). The scheme of Generator transformer Unit Protection comprises the following (Ref. Table 33.2).
Frequency. Certain installations, such as transmitters, depend on a constant frequency and - Primary Protection and back-up protection of generator
consequently the frequency must be monitored. If there is an excessive drop in frequency the gen- - Primary and back-up protection of main transformer
erator breaker of the standby set must be opened or an alarm given. If the relay acts on the gen- - Prim~ry and bacl~-up protection of unit auxiliary transformer (service transformer)
erator breaker there is no need to throttle-back the diesel engine. - Com.bmed protection for generator and main transformer. The basic layout of generator con-
In other cases the frequency relay prevents feedback into the supply system. During storms or nect10ns has been illustrated in Fig. 33.1.
under other conditions which can be dangerous as far as the supply system is concerned, the 33.19.1. COMBINED DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION FOR GENERATORMAIN
standby set is often run in the parallel with the system before being separated. If, under these TRANSFORMER
conditions, the supply voltage fails, relay must respond to the drop in frequency due to the over-
loading of the machine and cause the line switch to open; the standby set thus continues to operate In the protection scheme the differential protection generally covers the generator and main
without interruption. · ste~-~p transformer. Separate differential protections are provided for generator and for unit
auxiliary transformers (Ref. Table 33.4).
Depending on the plant and the design of the protection system, it may be necessary to use
two frequency relays with staggered time gradings, arranged such that the first one opens the line The zone of combined differential protection may include generator stator winding main step-
switch and the second opens the generator breaker. In many cases, however, the trip command of up tran~former and t~e bus-bar connections. A separate set of CT's is provided for thi~ protection.
orily one of the relays is passed from the control system to one or the other breaker. In parallel The CT s at neutral side are star connected and CT's on HT side of main step-up transformer are
operation with the system the frequency relay operates on the line switch, and in isolated operation del;a connected. A third. set of CT's is provided on the Teed-off to unit-auxiliary transformer. The
on the generator breaker. To give the standby generator drive time to accelerate again after dis- CT son T?ed-off connect101:1 are necessa.ry to compensate for the load current in Teed-off connection.
connection from the supply, the command to the generator breaker must be delayed. These CT s are connected m parallel with the CT's of combined differential protection (Fig. 33.23).
Forward power. The rated power output of a standby generator set is adequate to cover the Generally_ it is n~t practicable to cover the unit auxiliary transformer in the generator main
total installed power of the installation. To this end a part of the load, which is classified according transformer differential protection due to following reasons :
to certain priorities for this purpose, is switched off during standby operation. This can be carried - Zone of protection should not be too large.
out the control system or by a power relay with several load-shedding stages. - Burden on CT's increases.
A power directional relay can be used in place of the frequency relay to prevent feedback from - Rating of_ unit auxiliary transformer is 1110th main generator and it is difficult to select
the standby set into the system. As soon as the maximum power feedback permissible in normal relay settmg.
service is exceeded, the relay issues a trip command to the line switch.
Reverse power. If the drive for the generator fails in parallel operation, the generator is driven 33.20. STATIC PROTECTION OF LARGE TURBOGENERATORS AND MAIN
by the system and operates as a motor. To prevent damage to the machine a power directional TRANSFORMER
relay must be used to monitor the direction of the active power flow. Under such conditions the
generator must be decoupled from the system as quickly as possible. The shortest response time Th~ static pro~ection equipment for protecting generator-comprises solid state relays in form
depends on the degree of hunting to be expected in the system. ~f p~ug m ~~s~mbhes'. as~ociated auxiliaries, intermediate transformers, tripping programmes and
estmg.facihties for c1rcmts. As compared with conventional electrons mechanical relays the static
pr?tection has many superior features which make the use of static relays a must. The reasons
bmng: '
* Acknowledgements to Brown Bovery and Co. Ltd., Switzerland Ref. "Protection Equipment for Stand by
Generating Plant and Small Generators". - Complex generator protection requirements.
PROTECTION OF GENERA'l'ORS 641
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION large number of protective.systems resulting in large CT burdens and complex set-up.
640 - CT saturation problems.
- stability requirements of protective relaying.
R - large power concentration near generator-transformer bus.
- several protections needed.
The conventional protective relaying, therefore, becomes too complicated and unacceptable for
POWER
TRANSFORMER generators of 500 MVA and above, as superior static-relays are now available.
33.21. STATIC, DIGITAL, PROGRAMMABLE PROTECTION SYSTEM FOR

GENERATOR AND GENERATOR-TRANSFORMER UNIT
The static protection equipment for protecting generator-comprises solid state relays in form
of plug in assemblies, associated auxiliaries, intermediate transformers, tripping programmes and
testing facilities for circuits.
The Programmable, Numerical (digital) Microprocessor based Protection Systems have been
introduced during 1990s. Table 32.6 gives a list of protections incorporated in the schemes for
various sizes of generator-transformer units. ·
The major features and merits of such protection systems are :
A real-ti:rp.e microprocessor system utilizes sampled or preprocessed power system waveform
Fig. 33.23. Differential Protection of unit type Generat~r-Transfor~er systems. (Single line diagram)
data.
(Courtesy: Westinghouse Electric Corporat10n, U.S.A.) Digital filtering and numerical calculations take place on the bases of a continuous stream of
R = Restraining Coil
data from the power system.
O = Operating coil.
G -Generator Unit transformer Programs, algorithms and settings are stored in the memory used by the microprocessor.
EB - Service transformer
T- Unit transformer Extensive hardware and software monitoring ensures high availability.
ER - Exciter transformer The protection system can communicate with the Station Control System (SCS) and the Station
S - Circuit breaker
E - Excitation system
Monitoring System (SMS), SCADA.
LS - Load switch ; (which can Event and disturbance recording on printouts, with time tagging is initiated by abnormal power
switch normal load currents)
system conditions, being afterwards available on request.
Relay:
~==-2~
EB LS
1 - Differential protection
2 - Differential protection, unit
transformer generator,
3 - Differential protection, service
transformer
4 - st:tor earth-fault protectioi-i
5 - Earth-fault protection
6 - Inter-tum-fault protection
The interface for the man-machine communication (MMC) is either a personal computer, a
mounted terminal or a remote terminal (with modem). Communication via the personal computer
is menu-driven, highly structured, and provides full documentation of all the settings and recorded
information.
The implementation of suitable algorithms allows an adaptive response by the protection func-
tions to changing power system conditions and changed system parameters.
7 - Overcurrent protection, service Protective Functions in two Groups
transformer
8 - Overcurrents protection exciter Two indepel).dent protective systems are provided for Redundancy.* In one of the protection
transformer system fails, the other operates, Table 32.6 gives a list of protective systems. The division in two
9 - Stator overload protection groups (A and B) is given in Table 33.5.
10 - Reverse power protection
\duplicated)
11 - Overvoltage protection
12 - Minimum impedance or
maximum current/minimum
voltage back-up protection
13 - Asynchronous running
* Redundant Protection : Additional, independent, duplicate protection, which is superfluous, can be avoided
protection but is provided in important protection scheme.
14 - Asymmetrical load protection
15 -· Minimum frequency protection
16 - Rotor earth-fault protection
=" 17 - Rotor overload protection
* .
Fig. 33.24. Protection scheme for a large generator in unit connection
· (*Courtesy: Brown Boveri, Switzerland)
PROTECTION OF GENERATORS 643
SWI'fCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
642 Unbalanced load c;rnse rotor heating. Loss of input to turbine causes motoring action. (Ref.
Table 33.5 Tables 33.1, 33.2 and 33.3).
Two Independent Protection Schemes for Higher Availability
toss of excitation causes generator to run as induction generator. The back-up protection
ANSI Protection function System against external faults is given by.over-current and earth fault relays.
Ty~e of fault No.
Generator stator
87 G Generator differential A
Short circuits QUESTIONS
87 T Overall differential B
21 Minimum•impedance or as alternative A 1. Show in detail, the protection arrangement of a 60 MW generator provided with :
51/27 Overcurre~t/undervoltage (for thyristor excitation) or as option . B (a) Differential protection
51 Overcurrent B (b) Back-up over-current protection through faults.
46 Negative sequence A {c) Standby earth fault protection in neutral connection.
Asymmetry
49 Thermal A [Hint. Refer Fig. 33.2 to 33.4 and 33.9].
Stator overload
Earth fault, 59 Stator earth fault (90%) 2. Explain, with the aid of neat diagram of connections, the principie of operation of current balance
stator type differential protection of generator against earth and interphase faults.
64 Stator earth fault (100%) A B A 3-phase, 11 kV, 15,000 kVA star connected alternator has differential protection. The neutral is
Earth fault,
stator earthed through a resistance of 8 ohms. The relay operates for out of balance of 18% full load. Calculate
40 Minimum reactance B percentage.of winding unprotected against ground fault.
Loss of
excitation 3. Fig. Q. 3 shows a differential protection system. The fault current for an earth fault on the winding
78/21 Pole slip A are indicated. The CT ratio is 400/5. The relay is set to operate for ciirrent of 0.1 Amp. in its coil.
Out of step
32 Reverse power (dual protection for large generators) A Under the indicated conditions, will the relay operate? Relay is without bias.
Motoring
Maximum frequency B
Overspeed 81
Minimum frequency B
Blade fatigue 81
59 Overvoltage or overcurrent A
Interturn fault
Undervoltage B FAULT
Low.er voltages 27
Overexcitation (UIf) B
Increased 24
magnetization
59 Overvolta!{e A
Higher voltage
Generator rotor RELAY COIL
B
Rotor overload 49 Thermal
A
Earth fault, 64 R Overvoltage Fig. Q.3.
rotor
Step-up transformer 4. What is differential protection ? What is percentage differ~ntial protection ? Why it is superior to
Short circuits 87 T Transformer differential A simple differential protection. Explain the characteristic.
50/51 Overcurrent B 5. What are the difficulties experienced in differential relay in generator protection ? How are they over-
A come? ·
Earth fault 51 N Earth fault overcurrent
87 N Restricted earth fault B 6. What is the effect of balance load on the generator ? Which part is damaged due to sustained un-
balanced currents?
Unit transformer
A 7. Why field suppression is necessary?
Short circuits 87 T Transformer differential
50/51 Overcurrent B 8. State the protections provided for a-100 MW generator.
49 Overload· A 9. Why restricted earth fault pr,otection is provided to alternators though it leaves a portion of winding
A unproteded against earth fault. Can it be justified ?
Earth fault (51 N)Residual overcurrent (option)
(87 N)Restricted earth fault (option) B 10. State effect of unbalanced load on the generator. What are the permissible durations of unbalance?
11. State the effect of providing full excitation current to synchronous generator at 70% of synchronous
speed. Which equipment in the generator-transformer unit will fail ? which protection prevents such
Summary
a failure.
Alternator protection is complex. Most of the alternators are provided with % differential
protection of phase to phase and phase to ground faults.
Differential relaying responds to vector difference between the current entering in the winding
and current leaving the winding.
Bias ofrestraining coil is providing to prevent faulty tripping due to inaccuracies ofCT's during
through fault currents.
STATION BUS-ZONE PROTECTION 645
Table 34.1. Methods of Bus Zone Protection
Method Particulars Remarks
-Bus-protection by High-set instantaneous overcurrent Used in distribution system (6-33
0 vercurrent relays, of relays and earth fault relays, or definite kV) with transformers feeder supply
connected circuits. time relays. to bus bars.
Time of the order to 100-400 ms.
Bus-protection by Used in major stations.
differential protection. - High impedance circulating current - High impedance connected in
differential protection. series with relay coil to improve
stability.
Station Bus-Zone Protection - High impedance differential
protection based on voltage drop.
- Voltage drop across jmpedance IS
measured for discrimination.
Introduction - Method of Protection - Use of Overcurrent/lmJ?edance _rela_ys - D~fferential - Biased differential protection. - Biased coil gives restrain for
protection of buses - High impedance circulating current prot~ch~n - High impedance voltage external faults.
differential system - Check feature - Monitoring of Secondary Circuit - Autoreclosure - Interlock Frame-leakage The metal frame of switchgear (lightly Earth fault protection of metal clad
overcurrent protection - Bus transfer schemes - Summary. earthfault protection. insulated from earth) earthed only switchgear (Ref. Sec. 27.10).
through a CT.
34.1. INTRODUCTION Earth fault relay connected to
secondary of the CT.
Buses are essential in both the power system and industrial switchgear. Busbar protection Static protection. Rapid reliable, no problems of CT Preferred in modern installations.
needs careful attention because, saturation.
Back-up protection Overcurrent protection or Distance The zone of primary protection of
- fault level at busbars is very high. protection. feeders is extended to cover bus-zone.
- the stability of the system is affected by fault in bus zone. Overvoltage protection Inverse overvoltage relays. Connected to bus-VT
_ the fault on busbar causes discontinuation of power to a large portion of the system. Surge voltage protection Surge arresters Connected phase to ground for line and
a fault on busbar should be interrupted in shortest possible time, e.g., (60 ms), in order to for transformers
avoid damage to the installation due to heating of conductors. Internal bus faul~s are less
frequent than line faults. A bus fault tends to be appreciably more. severe, both with respect 34.2. BUS PROTECTION BY OVERCURRENT RELAYS OF CONNECTED CIRCUITS
to the safety of personnel, system stability and the damage. A maJor system shut-down can
The graded ov0rcurrent and earth fault protection on incoming feeders can provide bus-protec-
be caused by the lack of adequate bus protection.
tion. Such bus ptot.P,ction is provided as primary protection only when no other primary bus zone
The desirable features of bus protection include the following : protection is applied. In case other primary (main) bus zone protection is applied, the overcurrent
- high speed (less than 3 cycles). and earth fault protection of incoming circuits act as a back-up protection to the bus-bar. Fig. 34.1
illustrates this principle. The fault on bus A can be sensed by overcurrent relay (0) of the incoming
- stability for external faults.
circuit, and is disconnected by opening of incoming circuit. The overcurrent protection of incoming
- discrimination between fault in its protected section and fault elsewhere. feeder gives protection to the bus. The disadvantage of such system is :
- freedom from unwanted operation.
delayed action.
- no operation due to C'r saturation or power swings.
disconnection of more circuits in case there are two or more incoming lines.
- separate control of trip circuit of each circuit-breaker.
exact discrimination not possible, zone not clearly be used
- 'main' and 'check' protection to assure the disconnection only when desirable. STATION B STATION A
- interlock overcurrent protection to trip generator unit if bus-zone protection operates. ♦ .A
~ rirx*BXm
- non-autoreclosure, no single pole tripping of circuit-breakers for bus-fault.
(a)
The bus-zone faults are generally single line to ground faults. However phase to phase faults ml X
can occur for medium and mediumhigh voltage buses. The causes of bus zone faults can be the
following: )Pe (fl X X-(f)HH--------:l31>---1{f)--ttt--X.
t t I
- failure of support insulator resulting in earth fault. I : I
'
-
-
flashover across support insulator during overvoltages.
heavily polluted insulator causing flashover. (b)
6(0) 6 (0 or Z) OroJ (a)
F
failure of connected equipment. Overcurrent or impedance protection of Overcurrent protection of incoming lines
- earthquake, mechanical damage, etc. incoming lines at remote station as local primary protection to bus 'A')
(as back-up protection to bus A)
Fig. 34.1. Bus-protection at station A by (a) local overcurrent protection on incoming lines as primary protection.
(c) Overcurrent or impedance protection at remote station (B) as a back-up to (b).
646 TION BUS-ZONE PROTECTION 647
To isolate the bus fault all incoming lines connected to the bus must be opened. Since su
disconnection may include generating sources as well as transmission lines, it is important to ha
B: Buszone
correct operation ofbus zone protection for internal faults only. Hence bus protection by overcurr ·.
relays of other zones is not a satisfactory solution. It is used only distribution systems. Howev
such a protection always provides a back-up protection for bus-zone. The primary protection beitt
generally differential protection. ·
r- ·- -- [!J~R- -- -
I X
s
f.
'
~IIE:r
F
s
-l
I
;R-- --~~B
:
S:
L:
F:
Ir :
Source
Load
Fault
Fault current
I
I X
. X
I
I
I': Reduced load current
34.3. BUS PROTECTION BY DISTANCE PROTECTION OF INCOMING LINE AS A
REMOTE BACK-UP ! ~[I] ~/D ---
'•·-t•·----r -[JJJ
~R-.
DR : Directional overcurrent relay
NDR : Non-directional overcurrent relay
Referring to Fig. 34.1 again, the Bus A is covered in the second step of distance protection
Thus, for a fault Fon bus A, the distance protection B will operate. The operating time of the secon
step can be of the order of 0.4 seconds. In this system also, the protection is slow and there can b (d) Internal fault.
unwanted disconnection of all incoming parallel circuits. Distance protection is widely used i Fig. 34.2. Bus-zone protection by directional interlock.
protection of transmission lines, hence it is often economical to use the same for bus protectio , l ys are suitably interlocked in such a way that if power flows towards the bus bar fro1? the source
However, due to the limitations mentioned above, it is not desirable for important buses. ~fr:uit and the current flowing away from the busbars (I') is sufficie.ntly low, _the entir_e bus-zone
Referring to Fig. 34.1, considered the protection of bus-zone in station A. protection acts and all the circuit-breakers on load side and source-side are tripped. (Fig. 34.2. c~
(a) The local overcurrent protection at station A provides the primary protection to Bus-Zone The contact system of such protection is quite complex. Henc? su~h system wa~ adopted on~y
A. for earth fault protection. The system was too slow. Hence the dire~t10nal ?ompan.son_sc~em~ is
(b) The remote overcurrent protection or impedance protection at station B provides a back-u not preferred for bus bars of high fault power and important sub-stat10ns. It is ?se~ m ~1Stribut10n
protection to bus-zone A so that if protection 'a' fails, protection 'b' gives a back-up. systems to achieve selectivity in bus-zone protection. (Ref. Sec. 43.8 for static Direct10nal Com-
parison).
(c) Local overcurrent protection of incoming lines at station B provide primary protection
~R . Phase Comparison Protection
I this method two instantaneous relays are connected in rectifier bridge circuit. During in-
34.4. BUS-ZONE PROTECTION BY DIRECTIONAL INTERLOCK ~
t n faults the c~ntacts of both relays close and the trip circuit is closed. For external fa~lts, the
c::t:cts of both relays do not close and trip circuit is not energized. This type of protection was
Normally the busbars receive power from source circuits, and send power to load circuits. For.' tilied during 1940's.
internal faults within the bus-zone, the power will flow towards busbars from all circuits. For I
ternal. fault in one of the circuits, the power will flow from bus bar towards that circuit. Thus,
direction of power flow in each source and load circuit is sensed by respective directional relay, it
34.5. BUS-ZONE PROTECTION BY DIFFERENTIAL PRINCIPLE
should be possible to discriminate between internal fault and external fault for Bus.-zone protection. The 'differential protection' is a wide term applied to protections which responds to vector ~if-
Ref. Fig. 34.2 (b) During the external fault on load circuit Direction of power flow from source ference between two or more similar electrical quantities. A simple method of bus bar pr?tect10n
circuits remains unchanged. However direction of power flow from load circuits is likely to be is by comparing the vector-sum of currents entering and leaving the bus-zone. In absence of mter~al
reversed. For a severe fault, the overcurrent relays of load side may operate but the directional fault, the vector sum of currents entering the bus-zone is equal to the vector _sum of currents leavmg
relays on source circuit d.o not operate. the bus-zone. In other words,
s
os 5
Un =11 +/2 +/3 + ... In= 0
where I 1 I 2 ... In etc. are currents in the circuits connected to the bus bar (Ref. Fig. 34.3).
- ----, t- - --,:a Duri,ng internal fault the vecto~ sum of currents in the circuits connected to bus bar is equal
- - --~--,
___ ,, II
,-- to fault current, i.e.
I
I .1 :s __ j
-
I
,_ - • .J
''~- I1 +I2 +I3 +I4 +... In =Ir
~F p' 'I' ,
I I
I
I I
I
I I
I. I i' The out of balance current flows through the fault.
I
I I
L
I
l
I • I
l
L L t: L
In differential protection ofbusbar, CT's are conn?cted is eac~ circu~t connected ~o busbar. The
L L secondaries of these CT's are connected in parallel with due considerations to polarity and phase.
(a) Power flow-normal condition. (b) External fault in load circuit. (c) External fault in source circuit. The relay coil is connected across the pilot wires in such a way that the summation current of
Fig. 34.2. Bus-zone protection Directional Interlock. (Ref. d for symbols)
secondaries passes through the re.lay. .
For external fault on source circuit the directional relay of that circuit will operate. (Fig. 34.2 Referring to Fig. 34.3, the normal condition or external fault, the summat10n of secondary cur-
c) and current flowing in load circuit is substantially reduced. rents Ii~ = 0.
The principle of Directional Comparison was adopted in earlier schemes. The scheme comprised For internal faults Iin "I- 0.
directional relays in source circuits and overcurrent relays in load circuits. The contacts of these
\
SWITCHGEAR AND fROTECTION STATION BUS-ZONE PROTECTION 649
648
BUS - Saturation of CT cores due. to d.c: component and a.c. component in short circuit current.
The saturation .introduces ratio-error.
I XI -I
X
r
X l I
X
ir::r_ in
A B
7P, (;
-
-
-
Sectionalising of bus makes the circui.t complicated.
Settings of relays need a change with large load changes.
w u uu J ~ IJ
RELAY
I:> : 5
~ 5 CIRCUIT
34,7, SELECTION OF CTS FOR BUS-ZONE.PROTECTION
¼ l4 in R l 1 h , h , I, 1
In the protective schemes requiring close balance of secondary currents in various phase cir-
II1m I ll m: I .rrlm: cuits, the CT ratio error should be low. The CTs for such protection should be selected such that
T, 12 !3 1n Fi
I
the balance is maintained for maximum through fault current in primary of any of the phase under
For normal condition : l: in= 0 I, II, III : Phases of AlBIG transient conditions and also steady conditions.
for internal fault : l: in ~ 0 A, B, C : Incoming/Outgoing Circuits. The large power system have a large X/R ratio. The d.c. component of fault current decays slow-
F2 : External fault F 1 : Internal fault.
Fig. 34.3. Bus-zone protection based on differential ly and the CT cores remain saturated for longer duration (5 to 30 ms) since CT cote gets magnetized
Fig. 34,4. Connections of CT's for simple
principle. (Single line diagram). earth fault protection. with unidirectional component of fault current. The residual flux present in the core has a direction
which depends on the instantaneous condition at the end of earlier switching. The residual flux
The Iin flows through relay coil. also depends upon the remanance of CT core material. The total flux is caused by d.c. component,
3C'J.'s,ONE ff;'R PHASf:
CT connections depend upon type of residual flux, a.c. component. If residual flux is in same direction as that of d.c. component, the
protection desired. For example, in simple . core may saturate and harmonic spill current will flow through the relay coil.
earth fault protection scheme the CT connec- The following aspects are considered while selecting CT's for differential bus-zone protection.
tions are as follows (Fig. 34.4). The.primaries 1. Use of identical CT's in which saturation occurs at large short-circuit currents.
are connected in each incoming and outgoing 2. Increasing CT ratio 'n' (R€f, Sec. 35.10) so as to decrease. The ratio of Ishii' 1, /sh is fault
circuit (one in each phase). The secondaries
current and Ii, is rated primary current.
are connected in parallel and are connected to
the measuring relay. For external fault (F2), 3. Selecting as large core as economically and technically suitable thereby increasing limiting
or for healthy conditions, the sum of currents value of secondary current (in) for saturation of core.
entering the bus is equal to sum of current 4. Reducing the burden on CT's by using pilot wires of lesser resistance, static relays.
leaving the bus, (Kirchhofs Law). Hence the 5. Use of intermediate CTs (Ref. Fig. 35.11) with gapped core.
R = high impedance relay.
secondary currents sum up to zero and relay Fig, 34.5. Earth fault protection of sectionalised bus
gets no current. When an internal bus fault occurs, the magnitude of the fault current and its d.c. component
by circulating current differential. may be so large that the line CTs (current transformers) saturate within 2.4 ms. In such cases it
is essential that the bus differential protection operates and seals in within 2 ms, i.e., prior to the
The connections of CT's for protec-
saturation of the line CT's. This high speed is necessary because when a line CT saturates its output
tion of sectionalized bus are illustrated
e.m.f. tends to drop to zero. ·
in Fig. 34.5. The CT's are arranged on
both sides of busbar sectionalizing In the event of an external fault, just outside the line CT's of a relatively small feeder, the fault
breaker so the protections overlap and current may in an extreme case be as large as 500 times the rating of the feeder. The lines CT's
(3CT5,oNE PER PHASE) ·
no 'dead holes' are left in the busbar. of the faulty feeder are then likely to saturate at higher speed. If the remanance in the core from
a previous fault has an unfavourable polarity. The response of the restraint circuit to the differential
To obtain phase fault and earth relay must therefore be of atleast the same high speed as that of the operating circuit, if mal-opera-
fault protection, the four pilot wire tion is to be avoided.
scheme (Fig. 34.6) can be employed.
B--1-1-4-----1-~1-1-..1,.__ _ _ ___ Ref. Ch. 35 for stability of differential protection, the spill current through the relay should be
In the schemes described above, less than the relay setting. i.e. · · ·
y--+------+--f-+------r-+-
stabilising resistors are used in series R--+-------i--A,.,.,....-----1-+--f-
R
Ieb-Iea < Ir.
with instantaneous measuring ele- N---+------=-=-_._,......____,
ment in order to avoid wrong operation The CT error is minimum if the core does not get saturated for flux of the order of XI R times
Fig. 34.6. Pilot wire scheme for protection against phase
of the relay on spill currents. The spill faults and earth faults.
the normal current flux where XI Rare ratios of equivalent reactance and resistance on source side
current can be caused by saturation of of the fault. For large generating systems, equivalent XI R of source upto the fault point can be
a CT. high as 20. Therefore, to avoid saturation, very large cores would be necessary. This makes the
CT's prohibitively uneconomical. The CT's can be designed for higher value of a.c. component but
34.6. PROBLEMS IN BUS-ZONE DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION they cannot transform the d.c. component.
Simple circulating current differential systems with low impedance attracted armature relay
The basic problems are the following : (operating time of 0.1 sec.) can operate during external faults due to the above mentioned reason.
- Large number of circuits, different current levels for different circuits for external faults. Induction type IDMT relays with time setting of several seconds do not operate for external faults
650 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION STATION BUS-ZONE PROTECTION 651
because the transient component varnishes within a few hundred milliseconds and the relay gets 8(1.S BAR
reset. However, IDMT relays are slow and are not preferred for protection of buszone. However,
busbar differential protection with IDMT relay unit was superior to the simple overcurrent protec- C,8 ---- --- ·-·---.-----------
'
TRIP
..... ., I
I
tion described in sec. 34.2.
HIGH tMPcoANce I'
1,oJ
To ~ercome the problem of CT saturation and to improve the stability without intentional time I
delay, various modifications have been developed, These include the following:
- biased differential buszone protection. CTs
- high impedance bus-zone protection.
- high impedance voltage differential bus-zone protection.
Note : 'High Impedance' refers to relay unit. This is quite different from impedance protection
of transmission lines.
7 MEASURING
TRANSFORMER
'UNIT
The principles of these schemes are described below :
34.8. BIASED DIFFERENTIAL BUS-ZONE PROTECTION Fig. 34.7. High impedance bus-bar protection based on voltage drop.
In biased differential protection, the relay element has a restraining coil in addition to the Courtesy : Brown Boveri, Switzerland.
operating coil. The circulating current flows through the restraining coil _and the spiU current flows BUS
through the operating coil. For external faults, the restraining current 1s more and the relay does
not operate. For internal faults operating current is more and the relay operates.
34.9. HIGH IMPEDANCE CIRCULATING CURRENT DIFFERENTIAL BUS-ZONE

PROTECTION
By inserting a resistance in series with relay operating coil of di~eren~ial _protection th~. s~ill
current through the relay can be reduced. The resistance connected m series 1s called stab1hzmg
resistance. The relay is called High Impedance Relay. High impedance differential protection is an
alternative to biased differential protection. It is simpler and effective. The basic principle of high OVER. OVER CURRENT
impedance protection is same as that of differential protection. The circuit connections are also VOLTAGE TIME
similar. (Figs. 34.4, 34.5, 34.6 etc.). UNIT
un1i
High impedance relay unit is the attracted arirtature type instantaneous relay with setting of
the order of 25 mA. A relatively high staoilizing resistance is connected in series.
In some high impedance relays a capacitor and resistances are connected in se!ies w~t~ the
relay operating coils. The capacitors blacks the d.c. component and make~ the relay msens1tive to Fig. 34.8. Schematic of the High h~ped!).nce Voltage Differential System.
the d.c. component in short-circuit current. Courtesy : Westinghouse Electric Corporation (U.S.A).
34.10.HIGH IMPEDANCE DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION BASED ON VOLTAGE However, during internal bus~fault all the secondaries will be feeding the current into the im-
pedance ZH, Hence voltage drop VzH increases and this increase is sensed by the relay.
DROP (Fig. 34.8)
This relaying is based on differential principle. During normal condition the vector sum of cur- 34.11. HIGH IMPEDANCE-VOLTAGE DIFFERENTIAL SYSTEM
. rents in the arrays is zero. During fault on bus-bar the balance is disturbed. The out of balance
current l flows through the high impedance ZH producing voltage drop VzH• This voltage is supplied This scheme utilizes conventional CT's but the problem of saturation is avoided by high im-
to relay measuring unit M through transformer T. During faults on bus-bars the trip circuits of all pedance relay unit. The basic principle is similar to that described in sec. 34.10. Resistance of the
the circuit breakers are closed by the same relay, thereby the bus-bar is rapidly disconnected. CT secondary circuits must be kept low. This limits the applications to bushing type current trans-
formers only. These have a toroidally wound core where the leakage reactance is negligible, and
If the relay measuring system responds to voltage drop instead of circulating current, the hence 1 secondary impedance is low. It is further important to have all current transformers with
saturation of one of the CT's does not cause instability of protection. the same ratio, to operate the bushings on full tap and to parallel the several transformers in the
During external fault, one of the CT's may saturate, Thereby its output will be reduced and switchgear as near as possible to the current transformers. Auxiliaries to match ratios should not
the vector sum of1secondary currents will not be zero. The resultant unbalance current would cause be used as all transformEJrs must have the same ratios.
the relay operation. However the voltage drop across the CT under saturated condition will be The discrimination between internal and external faults is made by the magnitude of the volt-
limited by the IR drop in its•.~econd~ry, IR drop in leads which is relativEJly low. However, the vo!t~ge age applied to the relay. On internal faults, the voltage is high, approaching the open circuit voltage
drop across secondary o(CT does not increase but approaches to zero under saturated cond1t10n. of the current transformer secondaries. Thus, the curr.ent transformer, leads and relay are subjected
Hence VzH reduces. to voltages of the order of 1000 volts. On external faults, the voltage should be low and will be
S'l'ATION BUS-ZONE PROTECTION 653
34.15.INTERLOCKED OVERCURRENT PROTECTION FOR BUSZONE AND
essentially zero unless unequal saturation of the current transformers exists. The maximum voltage
GENERATOR-UNIT ZONE
occurs when one CT is completely saturated, with no saturation in the others, and will be the resis-
tance drop of the theoretical secondary current through the leads and secondary winding of the The boundaries of the bus-zone protec-
saturated current transformer. The relay is set by calculating this maximum possible voltage and tion and protection of generator-transformer
applying a safety factor of 2/L · are determined by location of CT's of respec- BUSBAR
PROTECTION
The relay unit shown in Fig. 34.8 is an instantaneous voltage plunger unit operated through tive differential protections. (Ref. Fig. 34.9).
a full-wave rectifier. The capacitance and inductance tune the circuit to fundamental frequency to BREAKER
The busbar protection will act for faults,
reduce·response to all harmonics. The impedance of this branch is around 3000 ohms, which means internal to bus-zone such as a fault shown in
that CT secondaries and relay are subject to high voltages on a bus fault. the figure.
FAULT
A thyrite voltage limiting unit is connected in parallel with the relay to limit the voltage to
The unit protection will actfor faults upto
about 1500 volts. In series with this is an instantaneous overcurrent unit, set to operate at very
the CT of the unit protection.·
high internal fault magnitudes. It must be set high to avoid operation on external faults. In addition
contacts on the auxiliary tripping relay are used to short circuit all current transformers after the What happens for a fault between the cir-
relay trips. The time of operation of the relay is three to six cycles for the voltage unit one to three cuit-breaker and the CT of unit protection? 1.0.C.
cycles for the overcurrent unit. This fault (shown in the figure) comes in bus- RELAY
□
zone protection and is detected by Bus-zone
unit. Therefore bus zone protection will act BUSBAR
34.12. CHECK FEATURES IN BUS PROTECTION PROTECTION·
and trip the circuit-breaker. UNIT
The methods of applying additional relays for increasing the reliability of bus differential PROTECTION
schemes vary appreciably from one manufacturer to another. The unwanted opening of a CT secon- However the fault is not internal to the
unit protection zone and will not cause shut
dary circuit has been of particular concern, because this may lead to maloperation of a bus protec-
down of the generator transformer unit. The
tion during normal service condition resulting in embarrassment.
generator will therefore keep on feeding the
Some supply companies permit tripping of th,e bus zone protection if a CT secondary is open- fault. A special overcurrent relay called Inter-
circuited, whereas other companies· require an alarm only, without tripping. The method which is locked overcurrent relay (IOC) is used in such
adopted depends is often on scheme reliability of CT secondary wiring and whether tripping can cases to trip the generator unit.
be accepted from the system stability point of view. Fig. 34.9. Interlocked overcurrent protection.
Bus zone protection schemes should not be allowed to trip by the closing of one relay contact Interlocked overcurrent protection is
only. Two separately actuated relays, with their contacts in series are then required to operate employed for discrimination between a bus- R----i-11---1---
.__-_-_---~- - -
simultaneously in order to achieve tripping. This is called check feature. bl;lr fault and a fault between CT and circuit-
breaker. Y-~i---lHH,---~--
Since maloperation of a bus differential protection may lead to a complete system shut-down,
the alarm relay is also normally arranged to disconnect the main tripping relay after a time delay Interlocked overcurrent relay (IOC) is B---f--t+½--~-4--
of about 5 seconds. energized by a set of CT's as shown in Fig.
34.9. Usually it is an induction disc relay with •II
It is desirable to be doubly sure about the fault in bus zone before de-energising the bus section.
With this understanding, check feature is generally added to the differential bus protection in im- summation input winding and separately
brought out secondary winding or shading TO GENERATOR
portant and large power stations. Both main .protection and check-feature can be of circulating cur- TRIP
winding. (Ref. Fig. 34.10). ·
rent type or.check feature can be overcurrent starter. Check feature operates from separate current
transformers. The trip-circuit is controlled by connecting the main protection contacts and check For a fault shown in the figure, the bus-
feature contacts in series. Thereby, the trip circuit is closed only if check feature and main protection bar protection acts and closes the circuit of
operate. tuned shading coil of IOC relay. Thereby the
IOC relay acts, and closes the contacts of gen-
34.13. LOCATION OF CT'S erator trip circuit. (Ref. Fig. 34.9 and 34.10).
The location of CT's determines the boundaries of protective zon_es. CT's for bus protection are For faults in generator-transformer unit
TUNED
generally arranged such that circuit breakers are also covered by the protection and are not left zone, the unit protection will act. The fault is SHADING
OPERATING COIL
unprotected. (Ref. Sec. 25.3). external to bus-zone. The bus-zone protection COIL
is not likely to operate. TURNING
CIRCUIT
34.14. MONITORING OF SECONDARY CIRCUITS The interlocked overcurrent relay (Fig. BUS ZONE PROTECTION L
34.10) acts when the operating coil current in- TRIP INTERLOCK - c::::::i
CT secondaries should not be open circuited, and there should be no open circuit in continuity creases above pick-up value and the circuit of
of pilots. For this purpose an alarm relay is provided to ni:onitor the continuity. If discontinuity Fig. 34.10. Interlocked overcurrent relay.
tuned shading coil is completed by operation
occurs, the alarm relay gets actuated and gives and alarm, after some delay it may trip the bus
circuit-breakers.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION .•.STATION BUS-ZONE PROTECTION 655
654
of busbar protection trip interlock. (The interlock contacts of shading coil circuit are closed as the Consider lighting load on the buses. The breakers A and B can be kept closed and X open.
l)uring failure of supply 1, breaker A is opened and X closed with a slight delay or simultaneously.
bus-bar protection operates.). Hence two conditions are to be satisfied :
The lighting load does not give current inrush and consequent voltage dip on the transformer bus.
- generator should supply overcurrent If the loads are motors ; the transfer scheme becomes complicated because, as the breaker·A
- busbar protection should act. opened, the motors on bus 1, keep on rotating and generate voltage. This residual voltage makes
Timelag of 0.1 to 0.5 .sec may be provided when these two conditions are satisfied, the IOC faster closing of circuit-breaker X harmful. Such closing will cause high inrush currents. The
relay of that generator-uni\ operates and closes trip circuit of that generator. Thereby the generator breaker X should be closed when niotor is still running and residual voltage has reduced. This will
unit stops feeding the fault. reduce the inrush currents sufficient magnitude.
Bus-transfer schemes are used in auxiliary switchgear in thermal power station (Ref. Sec. 17.3).
34.16. NON-AUTO RECLOSURE AND SIMULTANEOUS THREE-POLE OPERATION
The fault in bus-zone or generator transformer units are generally non-transient. After open~ng SUMMARY
of circuit breaker, the cause of fault should be ascertained. Auto reclosure should not be carried Bus-zone protection should be stable for external faults and very fast for internal faults.
out. Reapplication of voltage will cause further damage. Hence the generator-transformer protec- Circuit-breakers in incoming and outgoing circuits are also covered by bus zone protection.
tion and bus-zone protection should be non-autoreclosing type.
In smaller installations; overcurrent or impedance protection of incoming circuits gives protec-
Single pole operation of circuit breaker for single line to ground fault bus zone will lead to 1;1n- ·
balanced loads on generator units leading to damage of rotors (Ref. Ch. 33). ~ence the protect10n tion to busbars. However such system is slow and does not give satisfactory discrimination.
and circuit breakers associated with bus-zone protection and generator protect10n must be arranged Differential protection is used as a primary bus-zone protection. CT's are connected in incoming
for and outgoing circuits. The high-impedance relay or biased differential relay is connected such that
- non-autoreclosure out of balance current during internal faults, flows through the relay.
- three phase simultaneous operation The high impedance relay is an overcurrent relay with a series resistance. Such a relay remains
The autoreclosure and single pole operation is restricted to protection of overhead transmission stable against spill currents due to external faults or CT inaccuracies.
lineR, with stability considerations. Selection of CT's is very important and difficult task in bus-zone differential protection.
Interlocked overcurrent protection is necessary to trip generator unit during a busbar fault.
34.17.BUS TRANSFER SCHEMES FOR AUXILIARY SWITCHGEAR AND INDUSTRIAL The main protection is supplemented by check-feature in order to be doubly sure about bus-zone
SWITCHGEAR fault.
In continuous process installations, momentary power failure can lead to serious losses or There is also a provision for monitoring CT secondary circuits.
damage. If the incoming power is interrupted due to tripping incoming circuit-breaker, there should· Frame leakage protection is sometimes employed for metal enclosed switchgear.
be a very quick (within few cycles) change over or transfer of load to an alternate source. Such
schemes are known as Bus-transfer schemes or Transfer Schemes. HRC fuses are used for low voltage bus protection.
Manual transfer schemes are used in non-critical processes where shut down of several minutes
can be allowed. The operator closes and trips circuit-breakers in a specific sequence so as to transfer QUESTIONS
the load to alternate source. 1. Discuss one of the following. :-
Ref. Fig. 34.11, in the event of loss of supply from circuit 1, circuit-breaker A is opened and (a) Interlocked overcurrent protection.
circuit-breaker X closed, so as to transfer the load from source 1 to source 2. (b) Differential protection of bus-bars.
In automatic bus-transfer schem~s, the process of opening and closing the circuit-breakers 2. Explain the necessity of check feature in bus bar protection
A IX I B is much faster and automatic. The scheme depends upon the type ofload, whether trans- 3. Describe the earth fault protection of sectionalised bus.
l
formers T 1 and T 2 can be momentarily paralleled, timing of bus transfer etc. 4. Write short note on any one :
(a) High impedance differential protection of bus.
(b) Location of CT's with respect to CB location.
i 5.
6.
Discuss the protection of a bus bar as back-up from other station apparatus.
What are the likely causes of failures of outdoor bus bars?
T1 7. How are the outdoor bus bars protected against lightning?
8. Give a sketch of differential protection of station-bus.
A 9. Discuss the effect of short-circuits currents on CT performance. How does it effe~t the differential
X protection. What are the possible modifications to overcome the problem?
BUS 1 ''----0---J 10. Describe the principle of high impedance differential protection based on voltage drop.
11. Describe the principle of bus bar protection based on voltage differential systems. How does it respond
to saturation of CT's for external fault and internal fault?
LOAD LOAD 12. Describe the interlock!)d overcurrent protection between generator and busbar. Explain its necessity.
(When supply voltage 1 is lost, breaker 1 is opened and breaker X closed to
transfer the load from source 1 to source 2).
Fig. 34.11. Explaining bus transfer scheme.
CURRENT TRANSFORMERS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 657
35,2, TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
(a) Instrument transformer. The transformers which are used in conjunction with measuring
t instruments, protective relays and control circuits. Instrument transformers include measuring and
'. protective current transformers and voltage transformers. ·
(b) Current transformer. Instrument transformers used in conjunction with ammeters, over-
current relays, etc. Current transformers step down current from high value too a low value. Their
current ratio is substantially constant for given range of primary current and phase angle error is
within specified limits. The VA rating of current transformers is small as compared with that of a
Current Transformers and power transformer.
(c) Rated Primary Current. The value of primary current on which the performance of the
their Applications current transformer is specified by the manufacture [Ref. Sec. 35.9 (a)]
Introduction, Specifications - Burden - Accuracy - Magnetization curve - Secondary current The maximum permissible temperature-rise of a current transformer carrying its rated con-
ratings - Class of accuracy - Polarity - Open circuited secondary - CT's for protection - Effect . tinuous thermal current is given in Sec. 35.9. Unless otherwise specified, the rated continuous ther-
of transients - CT's for circulating current protection - Pro9edure of calculating the error -Types mal current is equal to the rated primary current. It should therefore, be noted that normally
of construction - Testing of CT - Selection of CT's for Protective Relaying - Transient Performance current transformers have no continuous overcurrent rating. When selecting a current transformer,
of CT's. therefore, the rated primary current should be so chosen as to make it suitable for all but the
momentary overcurrent that will occur in service. Where intermittent overcurrents are frequent
35.1. INTRODUCTION and severe, the manufacturer should be consulted as to a suitable current rating.
Protective relays in a.c. power systems are connected in the secondary circuits of current trans- Rated primary current is assigned after conducting heat run test. (Ref. Sec. 10.12.2).
formers and potential transformers. The design and use of these transformers is quite different from (d) Rated short time Current (primary). It is defined as r.m.s. value of a.c. component of
that of well known power transformers. In current transformers, primary current is not controlled by current which the CT can carry for rated time without damage due to thermal or electrodynamic
condition of the secondary circuit. Hence primary current is a dominant factor in the operation of current stresses.
transformers. Current transformers must be further classified into two groups :
The heating effect depends on the average r.m.s. value of the primary current and its duration
1. Protective current transformers used in association with relays, trip coils, pilot wires etc. of flow through the current transformer, whereas the mechanical stresses due to the electromag-
2. Measuring current transformers-:-used in conjunction with ammeter, wattmeter etc. netic forces set up in a current transformer depend on the peak value of the rated dynamic current.
As a rule, the ratio error is very important in protective current transformers, and phase angle The rated dynamic current being in turn dependent on the rated short-time thermal current, it is
error may be less important. desirable that purchasers should inform the manufacture regarding the magnitude and duration
Voltage transformer is used for transforming voltage from one value to another (generally of the short-time thermal current to be withstood.
lower) value. The short-time current is associated with time, (Rated duration of short-current) which may
Both current transformers and voltage transformers come under the little 'Instrument Trans- be 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2.0 or 3 seconds.
formers.' The short-time current rating is proved by conducting short-time current tests (Ref. Sec. 11.6).
As the relay time has reduced to the order of a few milli-seconds is modern protective relays, (e) Rated Secondary Current. The value of secondary current market on the rating Plate.
the transient behaviour of current transformers and voltage transformers need more attention. In [Ref. Sec. 35.9 (a)]
order to prevent saturation of current transformer cores during sub-transient currents, larger cores (fJ Rated Transformation Ratio. The ratio of the rated primary current to rated secondary
and air gaps are introduced in CT's for fast protective relays. current.
The Standard Specifications given by IEC and BIS cover several aspects about current trans- (g) Actual Transformation Ratio. The ratio of the actual primary current to the actual secon-
formers such as requirements, specification, testing, application, terms and definitions etc. These dary current.
should· be referred.
(h) Exciting Current. The r.m.s. value of current taken by the secondary winding of a CT
The major criterion of selection of the current transformer is the ratio at maximum load current when sinusoidal voltage of rated frequency is applied to secondary, with primary winding open cir-
through primary and secondary. In other words, the current transformer secondary current at max- cuited.
imum load should not exceed the continuous current rating of the applied relay. This is particularly
(i) Rated Saturation Factor. The ratio of rated primary saturation, current to rated primary
applicable to phase type relays where load current flows through the relays. This criterion applies current. ·
·indirectly to the ground relays even though they do not receive load current because they are
generally connected to the same set of current transformers as the phase relays. Since the ratio (j) Rated Primary Saturation Current. The maximum value of primary current at which
has been set on the basis of load current for the phase relays, this ratio would then apply to the the required accuracy is maintained.
ground relay. Thus, the current transformer ratio should be selected to provide around 5 amperes (k) Overcurrent factor. The ratio of Rated Short-time current to rated primary current.
secondary for the maximum load current. Some relays can carry up to 10 amperes and the ratio (l) Burden. The value ofload connected across the secondary of CT, expressed in VA or ohms
can be selected accordingly. Where delta-connected CT's are used, the ✓3 factor should not be over- at rated secondary current.
looked. (m) Rated Burden. The burden assigned by manufacture at which the CT performs with
specified accuracy.
658 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION CURRENT TRANSFORMERS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 659
(n) Current Error or Ratio Error, The percentage error in the magnitude of the secondary The current transformers are marked as follows [e.g., 30/5 P 10] where, first number : output
current is defined in terms of Current Error. in VA (i.e. 30),
% Current Error = -knlsIP- IP) x 100 Second number : accuracy class (i.e. 5 P).
[ Last number : composite error (i.e., 10).
k 11= Rated transformation ratio The class of accuracy required for protective current transformer depends upon the particular
ls = Actual s~condary current for IP application. These aspects are discussed below :
IP= Actual primary current. For Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays and Trip Coils, class 15 P protective current trans-
formers are generally sufficiently accurate. Rated accuracy limit factor of 5 should be enough. How-
(o) Phase angle error. The phase angle between primary current vector and the reversed ever, when the instantaneous overcurrent relays are set to operate for high values of overcurrents,
secondary current vector. say 6 to 16 times ofrated primary currents, the accuracy limit factor should have atleast the value
(p) Rated accuracy limit primary current. The highest value of primary current assigned of the setting used.
by the manufacture of CT, upto which the limits of composite errors are complied with. The current tra.nsformers for high set overcurrent relay may be allotted higher rated primary
(q) Composite Error. The r.m.s. value of the difference (kn is - ip) integrated over one cycle current thereby reducing the required accuracy limit factor.
under steady condition, given by For IDMT relays class 10 P current transformer is preferred for system networks discrimination
is obtained by graded time lag. Where close discrimination is not desired, class 15 P may be
Composite error=
1 0
1P
° ✓ lT JT o
2
(kn is - ip) dt preferred.
where k 11 = Rated transformation rati,o For residually connected Inverse and Definite Minimum Time Earth fault relays, the choice of
accuracy class of CT depends on characteristic and arrangement of protective system. Where phase
IP= Primary current, r.m.s.
fault stability and accurate time grading is not required, class 10 P and 15 P current transformers
ip = Primary current, instantaneous may be used. The product of rated burden and iated accuracy limit factor should approach 150,
is = Secondary current, instantaneous provided earth fault relay setting is not less than 20 per cent of rated secondary current of as-
T = Time of one cycle, in sec. sociated CT class 5 P CT's are preferred where accurate time grading and stability are desired.
35.3. ACCURACY CLASS 35.4. BURDEN ON CT

The class assigned to the current transformer with the specified limits ofratio error and phase Impedance of secondary circuit expressed in ohms and power factor. It can be expressed as
angle error. apparent power and rated secondary current at specified power factor. This power factor is not the
For relaying purpose the ratio-error becomes important. Generally the load on the secondary power factor of the secondary load.
side of CT is at such a high lagging power factor that the secondary current is almost in phase The circuit connected to the secondary winding is termed as 'burden' of the current transformer.
opposition with the magnetising currents and, therefore, phase angle error is negligible. Ratio error If the term 'load' is used, it refers to the primary current magnitude. Burden is expressed preferably
is very significant because the currents are high during short-circuit conditions. in terms of impedance of the circuit connected to the secondary and its resistance and reactance.
Ratio Error is expressed as The British method is to specify the burden on the CT in volt-amperes at rated secondary current
at specified power factor.
% R.E. atlp=[Kn;P-IP )x 100 Thus we may express the burden in the following two forms, e.g., 0.5 ohm impedance or 12.5
where % R.E. = %ratio error volt-amperes at 5 amperes. Let rated burden be P volt-amperes at rated secondary current / 8 ,
IP= r.m.s. value of current in primary. amperes. Then, the ohmic impedance of the burden Zb can be calculate'd as follows :
ls= r.m.s. value of current in secondary. p
Zb=-ohms
r,r • 1 ra t·10= -:::::--~---=--~----=---"-----
N 01n1na
_ Rated primary current 12s
L~n -
Rated secondary current If burden power factor is cos <j>, P = VA Burden
In general the percentage ratio error increases with increase in primary current. Refer table Rb =Zb cos <j> ohms
35.1, to get an idea of permissible error.
Table 35.1. Limits of Error [Ref Sec 35 9 (d)]
Current Error at
Xb = ✓z* -R* ohms.
Composite Error Example 35.1. Calculate the VA output required for a C.T. of 5 A rated secondary current when
Accuracy class Rated Primary Phase Displacement
at Rated Current Rated Accuracy Limit burden consists of relay requiring 10 VA at 5 A plus loop lead resistance 0.1 ohm. Suggest choice .of
current Primary Current CT.
Per cent Minutes Per cent Solution.
5P ±1 ±60 5
10 p Volt ampere required to compensate loop lead resistance
±3 - 10
15 P ±5 - =I2 R = 52 x 0.1 = 2.5 VA
15
'
In ~he given problem, Pe is to be determined
Relay requires 10 VA
Hence total VA output required
= 10 + 2.5 = 12.5
LEAD RESAqANCE 5A
RELAY
!OVA
P, =P, (~:J =2(z55 r =2 x 4=8VA. Ans.
The choice of rated VA output of CT should be nearest to that computed as above. Too much
Hence a CT of rating 15 VA and secondary current margin between calculated and selected values makes the choice either uneconomical or inade-
5 A may be used. quate. Nearest standard VA rating should be selected. CT manufacturer may be consulted.
The burden on a protective current transformer Fig. Example 35.1.
comprises the individual burdens of associated relays, 35,5. VECTOR DIAGRAM OF CT
trip coils, connecting leads etc. The total burden is calculated by addition of component burdens as
explained in Example 35.1. When individual burdens are expressed in the ohmic value the burdens Symbols : (Ref. Fig. 35.2)
are converted into VA burdens at rated secondary current. When VA burdens are referred to certain . Rated primary current
K n =norma1 ra t 10,
base VA, they should be converted to a common base VA Rated secondary current
Although usual practice is to add the component burdens arithmatically it is more accurate to ]{. t t' Secondary turns
T = urns ra 10 ' Primary turns
add resistances and reactances separately, and then calculate impedance.
Actual primary current
The impedance of relay coil changes with current setting Impedance decreases with increase Kc= actual current ratio, - - - ~ - - - " - - - - -
Actual secondary current
in current above rated current.
Ip = primary current
When the relay is set to operate at current different from the rated secondary current of CT, ls= secondary current
the effective burden of the relay is calculated as follows :
Io = exciting current
Im= magnetizing component of / 0 , in phase with$, responsible for setting flux$
P,=P,(]J le= component of / 0 , in quadrature with $, responsible to cater for eddy current and
where,Pe = effective VA burden caused by the relay. hysteresis loss in core
$ = main core flux
Pr= Vb burden of relay at its current setting. a = angle between / 0 and $
ls= rated secondary current of CT. y = angle of burden
· Ir= current setting of relay. p =phase angle between primary current and reversed secondary current.
The primary winding of current transformer has a few turns and low impedance. The primary
The following aspects should be noted :
is connected in series with main circuit. The current in main circuit flows through primary. The
- Impedance of relays, coil, etc., changes with current setting. primary current does not depend on the secon- lp
- Impedance of relays, trip coils, etc., decreases with increase in current beyond current set- dary current. The voltage drop in primary /
,,
ting. winding of current transformer is negligibly /
- Impedance of electromechanical relay depends upon the position armature. low due to its low impedance. /
/
The values of power consumption of relays, trip coil etc., are given by their manufacturer. The secondary of current transformer is /
/
connected to a low impedance burden such as /

/
~= PHASE ANGLE
After calculating the total burden on the CT is described above, the CT of suitable burden relay coil, ammeter current coil. In absence of / OF CT
should be selected. such a coil, the secondary is kept short cir-
It is uneconomical to select a CT having a VA output which is very much in excess of the burden. cuited. Secondary is not left open for reason dis-
The CT becomes unduly large. cussed later. 1£::....i.:::....-:.L-.----......;► ¢
Im
When the nearest standard VA rating is slightly less than the calculated burden, the former Ref. Fig. 35.2. The primary current Ip
may be adopted after consulting the manufacturer. produces magnetic flux$ in the core which in-
Example 35.2. The rated secondary current of a current transformer is 5 A. duces e.m.f. Es in secondary. Es is at 90° behind
flux$.
The plug setting of a relay is 2.5 A. The power consumption of the relay at the 2.5 A plug setting
is 2 VA. Calculate the effective VA burden on the current transformer. Secondary voltage Vs is given by,
Solution. P, =P, (~: J Vs= Es -ls (Zs+ Zb)

where Vs= Secondary voltage
Zs = Secondary impedance
... (1)
Es
where Pr= VA burden of relay at given setting.
Zb =Burden. Fig. 35.2. Vector Diagram of VT.
Pe= Effective VA burden on the CT.
18 = Rated secondary current of CT.
Ir= Current setting of the relay.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION CURRENT TRANSFORMERS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
662
The primary current IP is given by, 35,6, MAGNETISATION CURVE OF CT
lp=l0 +Krls Fig. 35.3 shows the excitation characteristic

curve of a typical oriented electrical steel. The ex-
where, / 0 is exciting current required for setting magnetic flux in the core and to cater for iron citation curve may be sub-divided into four main
losses in core. From Eq. (2), it can be seen that, for ideal transformer, regions- (i) from origin to ankle point (ii) from
I ankle point to knee (iii) knee region (iv) satura-
fs
= Kr ... if 10 = 0. tion region. Knee point is defined as where a 10%
increase in flux density causes 50% increase in ANKLE
However, exciting current 10 introduces the error and exciting ampere-turns. Protective current· trans- POINT
IP former generally operates over-working range of
y*Kr
r.m.s. AMPERE TURNS
flux density extending from the angle point to the Fig. 35.3. (a) Magnetisation curve-Secondary AT us.
s
knee-region or above, while the measuring cur- peak flux density.
This error is called current ratio error. rent transformer has the flux density in the
Secondly, ideal transformer the secondary current vector when reversed should be in phase region of ankle-point only.
with primary current vector. However, from vector diagram it can be seen that, due to exciting Prior to saturation, the flux density in core is
cui'rent 10 , the reversed secondary current vector leads primary current vector by angle ~- This proportional to ampere-turns. On reaching satura-
angle is called phase angle error of CT and is expressed in degrees and minutes. tion, magnetising inductance becomes low and the AC SUPPLY
total primary current is utilized in exciting the core
Let us see what happens with increase in burden Zb.
alone and, therefore, the secondary output of CT
The secondary e.m.f. Es is given by equation : disappears. The saturation continues till the
primary transient current is reduced below satura-
Es cx.fKn ·A· B
tion level. On entry in saturation zone, the CT be-
where f = Frequency ; Kn = Turns ratio haves as open circuited.
A = Area of core ; B = Flux density in core It is difficult to avoid saturation during short
Es= Vs +Is (Zs +Zb) circuit condition. The effect of saturation, is
the reduced output, hence reduced speed of over-
For zero burden i.e. short circuited secondary, secondary current ls (determined by lslKr)
current relays. In differential relays, the satura-
produces less drop and Es is nearly equal to Vs in magnitude and phase. The flux density Bis deter- · tion disturbs the balance and the stability of
mined by Eq. (3). protection is affected.
If the impedance of the burden increases, the second term on right-hand side ofEq. (1) increase. Current transformer saturation curve is
Thereby Es increases. To increase this e.m.f. the flux in core increases as indicated in Eq. (3). Thus, generally plotted in secondary volts us. exciting
higher impedance of burden leads to more flux in core and, therefore, increased exciting currents current measured in secondary. For the required lmag
and increased error. magnitude of secondary voltage, the degree of Fig. 35.3. (b) Experiment for Magnetization
saturation can be seen from the curve and is also Characteristic of C'r.
If secondary is open left circuited (by mistake), the secondary current is reduce to zero. The indicated by magnitude of exciting current to
secondary voltage Vs becomes equal to induced e.m.f. Es• Es increase significantly as turns ratio produce this voltage [Fig. 35.1 (b)].
K 11 is high and flux density B increases due to absence of any reverse flux. From the above analysis, For any transformer, the a.c. performance can be determined by this formula
following conclusions can be drawn : Es= 4.44 /NA · Bmax. volts
1. The exciting current 10 introduces ratio error and phase error in CT's. The phase angle error = Is (Zb + Z 8 + Zz) volts.
is caused mainly by magnetizing component Im of le and ratio error by exciting component ls. (Phase where, Es= r.m.s. secondary induced voltage, volts
angle error is important in directional relays). N = Number of secondary turns
2. The exciting current 10 depends upon primary ampere-turns ; magnetic properties of core f = frequency
2
material, reluctance of core cross-s.ection and length of core. A = Cross sectional area of core, m
2
For good design of CT, the rel udance of core should be low. For this the core should be of smaller Bmax. = maximum flux density Tesla, (1 T = 1 Wb/m )
lengths and increased cross-sectional area. The material of core should be of high permeability, low Zb = external burden
loss, small retentivity, high saturation limit. Zs = secondary burden
3. The burden on the CT secondary (Zb) should be within specified limits. Higher burden results Zt = connecting lead burden.
in higher ratio error.
while calculating CT performance, Es is determined. Is is calculated from known fault current and
4. Open circuited CT secondary results in very high secondary voltage and saturation of core, choice of CT ratio. Is multiplied by total burden gives E 8 •
and possibly permanent damage to CT.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION CURRENT TRANSFORMERS AND THEiR APPLICATIONS 665
664
Saturation is checked as follows :
. Example 35.3. A 2000 I 5 Ampere, silicon steel CT has 28.45 cm2 cross-section and secondary
resistance is 0.31 ohm. The maximum primary current for CT is 40,000 amp. at 50 Hz. Relay burden
including secondary leads is 2 ohms. Will the core saturate ?
Solution. Primary current = 40,000 A Ratio N = 400 RESIDUAL
RELAY
Secondary current = ls =
4
~ggo
= 100 Amp. Sz
Es= 100 (2 + 0.31) = 231 R.E.
Es= 4.44 (NA Bmax
= 4.44 X 50 X 400 X 28.45 X 10- 4 X Bmax Fig. 35.4. (c) Polarity of CT for EF protection, by residual relay.
231 =252.63 xBmax
Reference Earth (R.E.)
Bmax = 0.914 Wb, peak= 0.7 Wb, rms
The star point of secondary star is usually earthed for getting stable neutral for protection,
From B-H curve material, the saturation for this flux density is checked. measurement and control circuits. The earthing is at only one point as shown in Fig. 35.4
(b) and (c).
35.7. OPEN CIRCUITED SECONDARY OF CT Separate CTs are provided for protection, current measurement, watt-hour meter, VAr meter,
An important aspect in CT operation is, the voltage appearing across open circuite~ secondary. control circuits. CTs may be separately mounted in outdoor yards or in bushing-turrets or in
Normal voltage across secondary of a 15 VA CT with current of 5A, secondary voltage 1s 15/5 = 3V. metalclad switchgear.
However, if by mistake, secondary is open circuited, the vol~age_ ~cross the secoD:dary rises ~o
a high value. The peak value may reach some kilovolts. Open circmtmg ~f secondaries results m 35.9. SELECTION OF CURRENT TRANSFORMERS OF PROTECTION RATINGS
zero secondary current, hence reduced back e.m.f. The working flux ~ mcreases and core gets (a) The rated primary current should be selected from standard values. The value should
saturated. The secondary e.m.f. increases due to increased flux. be so chosen that it is suitable for all normal currents and permissible overload currents in the
The primary gets overheated and the core also gets overheated. Voltages are induced i? th_e primary circuit.
secondary by electro-magnetic induction. The peak v:alue of the secondary voltage on open ~irc1:1t
may be several times the r.m.s. value since the core is saturated and waveform of voltage 1s dis- Current transformer operating a high-set instantaneous overcurrent relay may be selected for
torted. This may cause danger to personnel working on P, "2 higher rated primary current thereby the required accuracy limit may be reduced.
secondary side. Therefore, when primary fUrrent is • 'cflfollo00.0000' "
flowing, secondary should never be disconnected. In
bus zone protection, a non-linear resistof ,may con-
T ~2
Referring values of rated primary currents : 0.5 - 1 - 2.5 - 5 - 10 - 12.5 - 15 - 20 -
25 - 30 - 40 - 50 - 60 - 75 - 100 - 125 - 150 - 200 - 250 - 300 - 400 - 500 - 600
nected across secondary to limit the peak voltage to I - 750 -800 -1000 - 1250 - 3000 - 4000 -5000 -6000 - 7500 - 10000 Amperes.
safe value. ls t Reference values of rated secondary currents :
1 - 2 - 5 Amperes.
35.8. POLARITY OF CT AND CONNECTIONS ..,__ _ _ _-1A1-----
Reference values of Rated output :
Polarity gives the relative instantaneous direc- lf instantaneous current flows from P1 to P2 as
tions of currents in the primary and secondary leads. marked by the arrow, the instantaneous current 2.5 - 5 - 7.5 - 10 - 15 - 30 VA and above.
According to B.S. 3938 the polarity of CT is marked. will flow from S 1 to S 2 through ammeter as (b) Rated short time current and its duration, example : 750 A for 0.5 sec., 525A for 1
P 1 and P2 : Primary Terminals shown by arrow 18 • sec., 300 A for 3 sec.
Fig. 35.4. (a) Polarity of a CT. (c) Rated output, the choice depends on connected load. It is desirable to select rated output
S 1 and S 2 : Secondary Terminals
y near the calculated total burden but not less than the same. Considerable excess rated output will
R B QC
make the choice of CT uneconomical.
(d) Accuracy class, for protection purposes :
(i) Instantaneous overcurrent relays : Class 15 P.
·'1 P1 Ri
t- f t (ii) IDMT relays : Class 10 P where discrimination is important. Class 15 P where discrimina-
s, S1 tion is not important.
(iii) Where phase fault stability and accurate time grading is not required : Class 10 P, 15 P.
S2 S2
(iv) Where accuracy, phase fault stability and accurate time grading is desired : Class 5 P.
R.E.
·,pl P2 Pai (Refer : "Application guide for current transformer" IS : 4201. Revised Reprint 1973).
-
Fig. 35.4. (b) Polarity of CT, for OC and EF protection.
666 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION CURRENT TRANSFORMERS AND THE.IR APPLICATIONS 667
(e) Insulation level. The in::;ulation level should be coordination with other system apparatus. - XIS
Standard levels are given IS : 2705 Part I -1964. The following aspects need consideration : - 100
-- Highest system voltage where X = percentage setting of relay
- System of earthing n = number of times rated primary current upto which stability is desired.
- Degree of exposure to overvoltage. ~sh}
sa
= actual secondary current during through fault condition
The quality of current transformers required generally varies with the type ofrelay application, Ra = resistance of secondary of CT 'A' plus pilots.
better quality transformers are desirable. These tend to reduce application problems, provide less
hazards in operation is that rally promote better relaying. The most critical application is that of
the differential schemes where the performance of all the current transformers should match. In
such schemes the relay performance is a function of the accuracy of reproduction not only at load
Rb = same for CT 'B'
Ea = Isa Ra + R,. (Isa - lsb)
Eb= lsb Rb+ R,. (lsb - Isa)
t Ea
currents, but also at all fault currents. neglecting relay resistance R,. ~
~
Some differences can be taken care ofin the relays. In general, for transmission line protection, ._., ~
Ea =Isa Ra
the performance of the current transformer is not as critical. They should reproduce reasonably ~
and Eb =lsb Rb )...
faithfully for faults near the remote terminal or at a balance point where co-ordination or meas- <,:
urement is being made. For the heavy close in faults, the current transformer may saturate, but From excitation curve Fig. 35.6 corresponding excita- ~
I
in that case, the magnitude of fault current, usually is not as important. For example, an induction tion currents lea and Ieb, are determined ~ I I
overcurrent relay would be operating on the part of the curve for a heavy close in fault. Therefore, 12
'-?. I,,+-- SPILL CURRENr
H THROUGH RELAV
it becomes relatively unimportant whether the current transformer current is accurate as the I I
timing is essentially the same. The same is true for instantaneous of distance type relaying operat- where K,. = turns ratio so that current Iea let,
ing for a heavy internal fault well inside the cut-off or balance point. In all cases the current trans- EXCITll)IG CURRENT ~
tending to operate relay Isa is given by
former should provide sufficient current during saturation to operate the relay positively.
Fig. 35.6. Magnetisation curves of CTs in Fig.
I,.o = Isa - lsb 35.5.
35.10,1. CT'S FOR CIRCULATING CURRENT DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
In earlier chapters, the principle of circulating current, differential protection was given. Let = [*-lea)-[*-leb )=leb-lea
f({f)l =-------•:.r(ITT1 ·-
us briefly study the requirements of CT's. For ~
through faults (External faults or faults beyond P,

CTI/'
fJ! P1
CT
1 where I,. 0 is the current which tries to operate the relay.
theprotectedzones)therelayshouldnotoperate. __,,,. Let I,. be the pick-up current, then for I,.0 > I,. relay operates and Ira< _I,. relay does operate
The relay should be "stable'; during steady state s, .s~ s, Se /Hence for stability Ieb - lea < I,. I
and transient state for through faults. I -- - f
Let
.
Ip= rated primary current.
lsat
-
@ Isb For time relays such as induction type, the transient resp~nse is not important because of the
slow operation of the relay.
RELAY
/ 3 = rated secondary current.
Fig. 35.5. (a) Basic circuit of circulating current protection. Procedure of calculating ratio error, The procedure is explained here by taking an ex-
Ia= nominal relay setting. ample.
I
Example 35.4. Data. Current transformer
t
I
oO·
1sf
><'a of nominal rated 50 / 5 A. · le ' i:XClrATION CURVI!
Isf
PRIMARY Secondary winding resistance 0.1 ohm. Bur- llJ 50
~
SYSTEM den connected to secondary ; ~ 4S
SOURCE ._.,
IMPEDANCE 0.4 ohms at primary current 1000 A and ~~ 40
saturation factor 20. :...c5
~::,,
~
Excitation curve as in Fig. 35. 7. To calculate 30
lsf
PRIMARY ratio error of the CT. 8
.SYSTEM lOAIJ
~ 20
IMPEDANCE Solution. Secondary circuit impedance is
R 0 = resistance of secondary of CT 'A'. Plus resistance of pilot leads the sum of (burden+ secondary impedance), i.e.
0.1 + 0.4 :.: 0.5 ohm. Draw an impedance line 10
Rb= resistance of secondary of CT 'B'. Plus resistance of pilot leads
l 1r= secondary current for through fault AXY having slope of 0.5 ohm. A
Zma• Z,,,b = excitation impedance of CT's. Primary current 1000 A, secondary current !OA 20 40 60 80 100
Fig. 35.5. (b) Equivalent circuit when RP is small. . 1000 . SECONDARY CURRENT (AMPERES}
(nommal) ~ = 100 A. Pomt A corresponds to EXCITING CURRENT
Fig. 35.7. CT excitation cnrve with impedance line.
5
secondary current 100 Amperes, primary current 100 x
50
= 10 A.
Excitation current le is given by the intersection of impedance line AY with excitation curve.
CONTINUOUS
From the graph le = 10 A, secondary induced e.m.f. = 45 V. TERMINATIONS
Assuming that exciting current oppose each other, we get secondary current value equal to '
100 - 10 = 90 A.
01
'
0 RE
• • a
% R.E. =[Knt-IP )x 100
t 1000 A= (lO x 9 o - lOOO) = - 10%.
1000 °
In differential protection, the balance between secondary currents from different phase circuits
~x
ELEVATION -SECTIONAL
END VIEW ,
.SECTION X-X
ELE
m S.E.V. ELEVATION X SECTIONAL.
RING SHAPE CORE RECTANGULAR CORe
should be maintained within close tolerance. Hence ratio error should be limited during through OVAL CORE ENO VIEW
SECT!ONX~X
faults on all the phases. The CT's should be designed and selected such that the stability is not Fig. 35.8. Ring type CT core.
lost during transient and subtransient state of through unbalanced fault. The CT cores get Bar primary current transformer schematic diagram.
saturated due to d.c. component of short-circuit current super imposed on a.c. component. To avoid P = Primary bar
this tendency, the CT's selected for differential protection should have such normal current rating S = Secondary as in (d) p
that / 81/Ip is not very high, where lsh is maximum through fault current in primary and IP is rated
The core is of a Nickel-Iron Alloy, or grain oriented sheet steel. The
primary current. In other works, the turns ratio K 11 should be sufficiently high. (IP high) core is continuously wound type. Before applying secondary winding, the
The difficulties arising due to CT saturation and unbalance is solved by Biased Differential core is insulated by means of end collars and circumferential wraps.
Relays or High Impedance Differential Relays.
35.10.2. CT's for Overcurrent Phase Fault Protection
While selecting CT's for overcurrent phase fault protection by IDMT relays, it should be ensured
that CT's are so selected that they do not saturate upto at least 20 times. current setting of relay.
This is achieved by selecting CT of low burden and by selecting CT ratio of appropriate high value.
High ratio CT will have high rated primary current and would saturate at higher value of short-
circuit current.
For graded time lag overcurrent protection, it is practice to employ high ratio CT's in some
location and low ratio CT's on other locations.
The low ratio CT's are likely to get saturated for fault currents and high ratio CT's are not.
Saturation of CT core gives rise so predominent third harmonic current in secondary current. t
The effect of this harmonic on induction disc relays is to increase the time of operation. Thus during $ECONDARV
fault conditions, the relay connected to low ratio CT's are likely to take more operating time than WINDING
(a) Core of a ring type CT, (b) Core is tapped with (c) Secondary winding (d) Exterior taping is then
to high ratio CT's. Hence discrimination based on graded time lag is not satisfactorily achieved." Core made of Nickel-iron insulating type. conductor wound on the completed with
alloy or oriented electrical tape core by means of circumferential insulating
steel continuous wound. hand-winding or toroidal wraps.
35.11.CT'S FOR OTHER PROTECTION SYSTEMS ; CT'S FOR DISTANCE PROTECTION
winding machine.
The current coil of distance relay is connected to CT. Here also the saturation of CT due to Fig. 35.9. Development of a ring type CT in sequence a-b-c-d.
fault current causes reduced CT output, hence the operating time of a distance relay is considerably Recently, the continuously wound cores are available in encapsulated form. Synthetic resins
increased. The transient saturation factor (XIR ratio) of the source side should be considered. The ~re used as encapsula~in~ material. The .material is applied by fluidised beds or electrostatic spray-
CT should be selected such that the saturation is avoided during fault conditions. mg. The secondary wmdmg conductor 1s then wound on the insulated core [Fig. 35.9 (c)] in the
CT's for Directional Relays· form of toroidal winding by hand winding or toroidal winding machine.
. The secondary winding is then completely wrapped by external tape with or without exterior
Phase angle errors are particularly important for CT's used for Directional Relays. The CT's rmg ends and circumferential insulating wraps. [Fig. 35.9 (d)].
should not saturated for maximum through fault current.
35.13. CORE SHAPES FOR MULTITURN WOUND PRIMARY TYPE CT
35.12. TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION CT'S
. Cores .are e~ther hot rolled silicon-steel stampings or spirally wound strips of cold rolled grain
I. Ring type CT or Windo"I type CT. This is the simplest type of CT. The core has three oriented mckel-1ron alloy.
types of popular shapes (1) rectangular (2) oval (3) ring shape. Wound primary CT's have primary and secondary windings arranged concentrically. The latter
winding is generally the inner one since resistance of this winding should be minimum.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION 'CURRENT TRANSFORMERS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 671
670
,,":'\ummation or where the current vectors have to be ~isplaced. They are, therefore, used for feeding
- protective devices - measuring systems
1-•-□ tl I!]
- control systems - relays in general
In order to satisfy the various requirements, intermediate c.t. of standard design are available
in five sizes. The choice is governed in particular by the rated output, the accuracy class and the
L-SHAP£D I .SHAPED E & I SHAPED
,ffAMPIN6S .STAMPINGS. STAMPING$ CUT C CORE
Fig. 35.10 I. Primary terminal
35.14. CURRENT TRANSFORMER FOR HIGH VOLTAGE INSTALLATIONS 2. Secondary terminal box
3, Secondary terminal base
4. Prima1y coil
5. Primary coil insulation hi\ Connected to ,
6. Internal shield ,,-'<:.Y L, ( or L )terminal
and expansion chamber
7. External shield
8. Secondary coil
9. Core (circular)
10. Expansion chamber cover
11. Expansion chamber
12. Oil level gauge
13. Porcelain
14. Cover
15. Tank
16. Sealed opening (upper)
17. Sealed opening (lower)
18. Rating plate
19. Pressure relief valve
20. Ground terminal
21. High-voltage lead
22. Secondary terminal board
(a.) (b)
Fig. 35.11. Outdoor High Voltage CT.
Separately mounted post-type CT's are suitable for

out door service. They are usually installed in the outdoor
switch yard. The primary conductor is at high voltage
with respect to earth. Hence it is insulated by means of
an insulator column filled with dielectric oil. The secon- I'
dary of CT is just like the ring type CT described earlier.
Dielectric oil is used as an insulating medium, Alter- Fig. 35.12. Construction of RV outdoor current transformer shown in Fig. 35.11 (a).
natively SF6 gas at a pressure of 2 to 3 atmospheres is internal consumption.
now being used, Design
Bushing mounted CTs. Several CTs are con-
. _The standard open-type design has vacuum-impregnated windings and a double-loop core con-
veniently mounted in turrets of power transformers. The S1Stmg of a pair of high-grade C-cores (small air gap = low magnetizing current = small current
primary conductor passes through the center-line. CT error).
cores encircle the primary conductor several cores are The core and coils are held in two vertical frames attached to which is the terminal block with
provided. Suitable turns ratios are provided for each CT. protective wire clip (the terminals may be in one or two rows). Also fixed to the frame is the earthing
screw, this being at one side so that if the transformers are connected in threes, a continuous earth
35.15. INTERMEDIATE CT ---+-➔ S con_nection is assumed. Due to their vertical construction the transformers occupy little floor space,
--r----.s ~h1ch results in a very compact arrangement, especially when they are grouped in threes, which
Application 1s the most frequent form.
Intermediate current transformers are used ; when (c) As special design, the transformers can be supplied, with the same fixing holes, potted in resin.
the secondary current of a main current transformer is Fig. 35.11. Typical arrangement in out-door HV In this case the cores and coils are moulded in a metal casing.
not the same as that for which the devices connected to CT. (Secondary is wound on bushing type Co-ordination of main intermediate CT
insulated core. Primary is mounted in insulator
it are designed to operate ; where two circuits have to be bushing insulation around primary not shown.)
insulated from one another (insulating transformers) ; for
672 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION CURRENT TRANSFORMERS AND THEIR APPLICA'l'IONS
673
"''1n/k □
S2 -
When intermediate CT are used it is always important to check whether the rated output of
the main CT is large enough to· cater for the requirements of the intermediate CT (rated ~utp,ut
plus internal consumption). Since the output of a CT is always shown as the rate.d output, i:e. its
output at rated current, the individual output figures (leads, internal c~nsumpt10n o~ the mte~·-
mediate CT burden) must always be referred to the secondary current ratmg of the mam CT. This
CT~nCT -:,:,oeorn
A
EXPECTED
IN SERVICE
A=AMMETER CELL-r-.. ~. ::::J. . •
V
.i,
CENTRE ZERO= C
MOVING COIL
VOLTMETER
is always important if the ratio of the intermediate CT applies under definite worki:1-g conditions
R9 Rp
MEASURES
SPILL
L ~~ '--')
and is not referred to the rated current of the main CT. Conversion of the outputs m accordance CURRENT P, .S1
with the rated data of the main CT must then take into account the squares of the currents, i.e. Fig. 35.13. Testing for differential protection. Fig. 35.14. Polarity test.
the sum of the total consumption of the intermediate CT has to be multiplied by the factor :
3 .. Exciting Cu~·rents. Exciting curre;int is measured for several secondary e.m.fs. This is ac-
Secondary current rating of the main CT J
2
comphshed by a.PPl_Ymg appropriate voltage to the secondary winding, measuring the current taken
( Rated primary current of the intermediate CT by secondary wmdmg, the pri~ary and other windings being open circuited.
4. Current transformers for balanced differential protective schemes. The CT's are con-
35.16. TESTING OF CT'S (BRIEF) nected in the test circuit. The spill current is measured for through faults.
Tests on CT's can be classified as Type Tests and Routine Tests. Type tests are conducted on 5, Polarity Test. If at any instant, current is entering the primary from P 1 the current should
one or first few CT's of each type, to confirm the design and ratings. Routine tests are conducted leave secondary from terminal marked S 1. A set-up. shown in the figure can show whether the
on each CT before despatch. polar.ity markings are correct or not. When the key is pressed, current enters the primary through
Type Tests termmal P1, the voltmeter connected as shown, should read positive,
- Verification of terminal markings !)nd polarities. 6. Insulation Tests. These are conducted according to B.S. 3938 (1965). Specit'ied power fre-
- Short time current test. (Ref. Sec. 11.6). .quency voltages are applied to primary for one minute. Impulse tests are conducted on high voltage
- Temperature rise test. (Ref, Sec. 10.12.2). current transformers.
- Impulse voltage test (for outdoor CT's) (Ref. Sec. 13.11). For secondary circuit test, voltage of 2 kV, 50 Hz is applied for one minute between secondary
- Power frequency voltage withstand test on primary. (Ref. Sec. 10.2.6, 12.10) terminals and ground.
- Over-voltage interturn test, etc. 7. Overvoltage Interturn Test. In this test the secondary winding is open circuited. Rated
- Error Measurement. fr~qu.encf, rated primary current is flowed through primary for about one minute. The secondary
Routine Tests wmdmg is then checked to see if the insulation has passed the test.
- Verification of terminal markings and polarities.
- High voltage power frequency voltage withstand test on secondary. 35.17. TRANSIENT BEHAVIOUR OF C'f'S
- Over-voltage interturn tests.
The ~easuring times of protective relays of today are reduced to the transient state. Hence
- Determination of errors and accuracy class. full attent10n must be paid to the transient behaviour of the instrument transformers for protective
Furthermore, tests are performed on protective systems by injecting current in primary. There- relays.
by the correctness of polarity connections and stability of protection is ascertained. Some tests on . In .current transformers ofconventional design saturation of the cores within a few milliseconds
CT's are briefly described below : ~s possibl.e due to d.c. components of the short circuit current, during which their secondary current
(1) Error Measurements. The error measurements are carried out in two different methods is f~lly disto~ted. In o:der to prevent this, the current transformer cores must be greatly enlarged
namely or mr-gaps should be mtroduced in cores.
1. Direct method. . .The necessary increase is impractical with an iron core of CT's, whereas the use of air gaps
limits the physical dimensions to reasonable values.
2. Comparison method.
. The short circuit current has d.c. component and a.c. component (Ch. 3). The extreme case is
In direct method, two ammeters are used. One is connected to that of a folly displaced short circuit current with ohmic load on secondary side. Primary current
measure the primary current, the other to measure secondary cur- can be represented by the equation :
rent, as shown in Fig. 35.13.
i1 = T2 (cos rot - e-t/T)
In comparison method a sub-standard CT is taken, whose error
is known. The CT under test is compared with the sub-standard where i1 = primary current, max. value
CT. There are several methods based on comparison principle. BURDEN
T = time constant of system
These are not given here. t = instantaneous value of primary current.
Specially designed test equipment is available for testing CT's. The d.c. component T1 e-t/T causes d.c. magnetic flux density Bd,c. the a.c. component
(2) Turns Ratio Teots. The usual method is to measure mag- i1 cos rot causes magnetic flux density Ba'.;v.
nitudes of primary and secondary currents near rated secondary
Fig. 35.13. Direct testing of CT.
current with a low value of secondary burden.
- - - -- -- -- -- ------------------------""1
SWITCHGEAR AND PRO'rECTION CURRENT TRA.NSFORMERS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 675

674
QUESTIONS
-!!_cl_:_<::_ ,,, - - - ~ - __ ( e- t!Tw __ e-- t/T) 1. Describe the construction of current transformers with the help of neat sketches. Sketch the sectional
Bae. 1 1 elevation of a current transformer to be used for high voltage circuit, say 110 kV.
T- Tw 2. What is 'Burden' of a CT ? How is it specified ?
where TicTw
Calculate VA output required from a CT of 5 A rated secondary cunont when the burden consists of
l!_~c_ =-=.co. te-tiT relay requiring 10 VA at 5 A plus loop lead resistance of 0.9 ohms.
and
l\,.c. 3. State the specification to be mentioned while selecting a CT.
where T = Tw 4. Why the secondary of a CT should not be open circuited ?
Tw being time constant of instrument.transformer formed by inductance of main CT and total .5. State the specifications to be mentioned while selecting a potential transformer,
burden. Taking T as 50 ms and several values of Tw between 1000 and 2000 ms it is observed that 6. Discuss the problem of transient behaviour of the CT's associated with high speed protective relaying.
d.c. component causes very high flux densities during transient period. This again is superimposed 7. Write short notes on any two:
on a.c. component. - testing of CT - selection of PT for protective relaying
The conventional CT core saturates during transient condition. The result being, high speed - summation transformer - selection of CT for differential protection
relays are delayed in operation (Ref. Sec. 55.10.2). - intermediate CT - selection of CT for bus-zone differential protection.
8. Illustrate CT connections for overcurrent protection and earth-fault protection. Indicate polarities
Choosing the appropriate current transformer design is determined by the protective system clearly.
requirement. Where the operation of the protective system is not affected by saturation phenomena 9. Explain the behaviour of CT's under transient fault condition. What is the effect of CT saturation on.
of the current transformers as, for instance, with plain overcurrent relays, one may keep using the
- overcurrent protection - impedance protection
conventional type of current transformers. Where, however, a saturation-free current transforma-
tion is important for a correct and rapid working of the system protection, the dimensions of the
current transformer core must be greatly increased. The appropriate factors of core section increase.
for such cases lead, however, to unreasonable core sizes with iron-enclosed cores and high-power
systems. Therefore, for such cases cores with air gaps, have been developed. In providing such ail'
gaps the current transformer time constant, T, is rnduced since the current main flux density is
diminished. Generally, the flux caused by the D.C. component assumes smaller values, if the cur-
rent transformer time constant is reduced. The maximum flux density value is, only half if the
current transformer _time constant Tw _is reduced from 2000 ms to 100 ms. Hence the core section
dimensions can be I limited to values which are still realizable. This is especially true with cores
having air gaps are residual flux is practically zero and thus each phenomenon begins again with
a flux equal to practically zero. The current transformer time constants can be chosen as small as
the resulting increase in phase error allows. A phase error of 1% corresponds for instance, to a
current transformer time constant of 250 ms, 3% approximately to 100 ms and 5% to about 60 ms
: such values may still be admissible in several systems. ·
The linear core provides a completely new solution to a wide range of protective systems per-
mitting saturation free transformation of transient phenomena with D.C. components of great time
constants.
SUMMARY
Protective transformers include current transformers and voltage transformers. The relays are
connected in the secondary circuit of protective transformers. The standard secondary voltage of
C'I"s is either 5 A or 1 A. The standard secondary voltage of voltage transformers is ilO V between
phases and 63.5 V between phase and neutral. ·
The construction of CT follows a general pattern in which the primary has a few turns or a
bar which is insulated from earth by means of a poreclain. The secondary is wound on a circular
core. The primary passes through the orifice of the core.
The 'burden' of protective transformer is specified in volt amperes at rated secondary current
at specified power factor.
The accuracy of protective transformer is specified by classification based on limits ofratio error
and phase error.
* Ref. : "Transient Behaviour of Current and Voltage Transformers" Dr. Ing. Rudof Zahorka Courtesy, ASEA,
Sweden.
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 677
Ref. Fig. 36.1 (a) represents a single line reactance diagram of the VT. The secondary quantities
can be referred to Primary by multiplying impedances by K; and voltages by Kn and equivalent
l
diagram can be drawn [Fig. 36.1 (c)]. Fig. 36.1 (d) gives the vector relations.
36
Ip
Voltage Transformers and their Applications

N1
Introduction - Theory of voltage transformers - Specification of VT's - Terms and definitions - (a) Representation of a VT
Accuracy class of VT's - Burdens on VT's - Connections of VT - Residually connected VT -
Electromagnetic voltage transformers - Capacitor voltage transformer - CVT as Coupling capacitor
for carrier current applications - Choice of capacitance for CVT - Transient behaviour of CVT -
Ferro resonant (FR) in CVT-Testing of voltage transformer - Summary.
36.1. INTRODUCTION
Voltage transformers (potential transformers) are used for measurement and protection. Ac-
cordingly, they are either measuring type or protective type voltage transformers. They may be
either single phase or three phase units. Voltage transformers are necessary for voltage, directional, (b) Single line diagram
distance protection. The primary of voltage transformer is connected to power circuit between phase
and ground. The voltampere rating 1of voltage transformers is smaller as compared with that of knls Zs x k~
power transformer. · ,
There are two types of construction :
- electromagnetic potential transformer, in which primary and secondary are wound on mag-
netic core like in usual transformer.
- capacitor potential transformer, in which the primary voltage is applied ~o a series capacitor
group. The voltage across one of the capacitors is taken to auxiliary voltage transformer.
The secondary of auxiliary voltage transformer is taken for measurement or protection.
- CCVT combines function of coupling capacitor and VT.
(c) Equivalent circuit (d)
36.2. THEORY OF VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS Fig. 36.1. Development of equivalent diagram of a VT.
Symbols: VP = primary applied voltage Primary current IP is a vector sum of exciting current / 0 and equivalent secondary current
Vs = secopdary output voltage referred to primary(//). The primary current sets-up flux qi. The induced secondary voltage E op-
. .. 1 ra t·10 primary. turns poses the induced primary voltage EP. s
K = nom1na
n · secondary turns The secondary voltage is given by :
'' primary volts
Kv = actual voltage ratio, ~----"----
secondary volts Vs =Erls (Z8 +Zb)
IP= primary current where Zs + Zb is impedance on secondary side.
ls = secondary current
0 = phase angle error of VT, angle between VP and reversed Vs Primary voltage is given by
10 = exciting current (no load primary current)
Im= magnetizing component of 10 in phase with flux qi, which sets up flux qi In case of ideal VT
le= component of lo in quadrature with qi which caters for iron loss, eddy current
/ 0 =0
loss in core.
Zp = primary impedance lpZp=0
Zs = secondary impedance Vp
Zb = impedance of burden v.=Kn
r
Z 8 = impedance of excitation circuit. Vp and Vs are 180° apart.
678 As alternate method describe the ratio is to specify the voltage ratio factor (V.R.F.)
In case of actual V"T Ku
The voltage drop in primary impedance and secondary voltage drop introduce errors in ratio. V.R.F. == K
11
Hence V:
This error is expressed as a ratio error as follows : K 11 = Nominal ratio·~~·
. 100 (K11 Vs - Vp) . V
% Rat10 error== V Ku= Voltage rat10 factual.
p s
The secondary voltage V8 , when reversed has a phase angle 0 with respect to primary voltage. %R.E.
This is mainly due to exciting current le of the VT. This angle is called phase angle error of the . . ·=' 1 - ~ .
VRF
VT.
36.5. ACCURACY CLASSES AND USES [B.S. 3914 (1965)]
36.3. SPECIFICATIONS FOR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS Standard specify the following limits of errors for voltage transformers and protection for meas-
The following aspects should be determined while selecting the current transformer : urement.
1. Rated primary voltage. 2. Rated secondary voltage. Table 36.3. Limits and Phase Errors for Voltage Transformers
--~~------
3. Rated burden. 4. Supply frequency. 0.9 to 1.1 times rated primary voltage 0.25
Accuracy to 1.0 times rated output at 0.8 lag p.f
5. Number of phases. 6. Class of accuracy. Classes ··- Application
Voltage error % . Phase error minutes
7. Insulation level. Power frequency and impulse voltage withstand. (per cent) ( + or - ) (minutes) (+or - )
8. Limits of dimensions, type of construction etc. - -------·
0.1 0.1 .. 5 Measurement
0.2 0.2 10
36.4. TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 0.5 0.5 20
(a) Rated Primary voltage. The voltage primary voltage marked on the rating plate of the 1.00 1.0 40
voltage transformer. The method of connection of primary winding to system and system voltage
3.0 3.00 120 Protection
should be considered while selecting the VT of correct primary voltage rating.
5.0 5.00 300
There are several values of standard primary voltages. These have a reference to standard sys-
10.0 10.00 - Residual VT only
tem voltages.
(b) Rated Transformation Ratio. The ratio of rated primary voltage to rated secondary volt- Applications of VT's Depending Upon Accuracy Clas!l
age.
(c) Rated Secondary Voltage. e.g. 100/✓3 = 63.5 V or 110/✓3:::: 190 V. It is the value of secon- Accuracy Classes Application
-----------·-----------
dary voltage marked on the rating plate. 0.1 Precision te~ting in standard laboratories
(d) Residual voltage, Vector sum of three line to earth voltages, i.e. 0.2 Sub-standard instruments in laboratories.
V1w = VRN+ VyN+ VzN 0.5--1 Industrial metering
Residual VT. A three phase VT or a group of 3 single phase residually connected VT's in
(e) 3.00 Voltmeters
which residual voltage appears across secondary terminals when three-phase. voltages are applied
5.00 ~Jnder voltage relays, overvoltage relays, other relay where phase angle is not
to primary windings. important
(() Ratio Error. Percentage ratio error sometimes called percentage voltage error is given in
10.00 Directional relays where phase angle is important.
(h) below.
(g) Voltage factor, The upper limit of operating voltage (primary) is given by Note. (1) Class 3.0 and 5.0 VT's are recommended for protection.
Rated pri1miry voltage x Voltage factor, is specified for certain time. e.g., 1.1 continuous, 1.5 2. Class 5.00 and 10.00 is recommended only in Residual VT's.
for 60 sec., 1. 9 for 30 sec.
36.6. BURDENS ON VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER
(h) Burdens are specified in voltamperes at a rated secondary voltage at a particular power factor.
Let rated secondary voltage be Vs. The ohmic impedance of burden be Zt,, Volt-ampere burden :·
where Kn= Nominal ratio P.
V~ =- Secondary voltage
V p "' Primary voltage.
R.E. ~ Ratio error.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 681
680
Let burden power factor be cos cl>
2. Star-Star Connections. (Fig. 36.2)
Rb =Zb cos clJ Either three separate transformers or a single three limb transformer are used. Primaries are
connected in star, secondaries also connected in star.
Xb =Zb sin cl>
Each primary phase winding is connected phase to earth Voltage of supply circuit is trans-
Zb= ✓R~xt. formed into secondary.
The total burden on a VT should be less than the rated burden of VT. The neutral point of load is connected to neutral point of secondaries. The neutral point of
primary is solidly earthed with such connections (Ref. Fig. 36.3).
Table 36.4 gives rated burdens of bushing type potential transformer device. The capacitor volt-
. age transformer output is upto about 200 VA. While that of wounded type is upto about 500 VA If primary neutral is not earthed, the zero sequence component of voltages (due to earth fault)
·· The standard values being 10, 25, 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 500 VA cannot flow through primary windings. Hence phase to earth voltages of system which contain zero
Example 36.3. A voltage transformer with rated secondary voltage of 110 V has nominal output sequence component do not get truly transformed. Measured voltages are distorted.
of 1 A, lead loop resistance is 0.1 ohm. Calculate the voltampere output of the voltage transformer Hence the earth fault on the system cannot be sensed on the secondary side of VT.
when the relay takes 0.1 ampere at 110 volts. In voltage restrained overcurrent fault protection (Fig. 36.3), in impedance protection for earth
Solution. Total voltamperes = Voltamperes for relay+ Voltamperes or leads faults, the VT connection should be such that zero sequence component of voltage is reflected on
secondary. Hence the neutral of primary should be earthed.
= 110 x 0.1 + (0.1)2 x 0.1 = 11 VA. Ans.
Table 36.4. Reference Voltage of Burdens on VT's
Rated Voltage J(V Rated Burden Volt-ampere
Phase to phase Phase to ground
115 66.4 25
138 9.74 35
161 93 45
P1 P1 P1
230 133 80
287 166 100 Pi P1 P1
Table 36.5
Typical Values of Burdens imposed by different measuring P2 P2 Pz
instruments and relays on Voltage Transformers P2 Pz P2
Voltmeter 5VA ·•I /I•
Voltage coil of Wattmeter 5VA
Voltage coil of k \Vh meter 7.5VA
111
Voltage coil of Synchroscope 15

Under voltage/over voltage Relay 5VA
Voltage coils of electromagnetic relays 3-lOVA
Static relays 0.02-0.2 VA
VOLTAGE
The total burden on a VT is vector sum (r and jK) of component burdens on secondary e.g., COIL OF
burden on a VT for under voltage protection would be the sum of burden of relay coil, pilot wires. RELAYS RESIDUALLY
'£:he VA rating should be such that the total burden is about 10% less than rated burden, for pick-up CONNECTED
VOLTAGE RELAY
.condition. If the VT is overloaded beyond its rated burden, the error will increase. The burden of
'a relay varies for various settings. The VA rating of VT should not be far greater than the burden. Fig. 36.2. Connection ofVT's with Fig. 36.3. Connection of Residually
Because the accuracy of VT at very low bur9ens (25% rated burden) is not guaranteed. star-star connection. connected, VT.
When electromagnetic type of VT is used for star-star connections it should be of 5 limb con-
36. 7. CONNECTIONS OF VT'S struction, to provide path for zero sequence component of magnetic fl~x. The zero sequence com-
There are three types of connections, V-V, Star-Star and Star Opef( Delta. (Residually Con- ponent of flux <l>o in three limbs is in one direction. In three limb construction, there is no return
nected) VT. path for flux.
1. V.V. Connection In five limbed transformer, the outer two limbs provide a path for zero sequence component of
This connection is used only for measurement and usually not for protection. Two VT's are used. magnetic flux. Thereby .the zero sequence voltages are transformed.
Primaries are connected V, secondaries also in V. There is no path for zero sequence voltages arising
from earth faults.
682 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 683
36.8. RESIDUALLY CONNECTED VT (ZERO SEQUENCE VOLTAGE FILTER) thetic resins. With this development, dry type PT's are available for voltages higher than 3.3 kV.
The primary windings are connected in star and star point is earthed. The secondaries are con- Cast resin insulated PT's are available for voltages upto 66 kV.
nected in series with the load [Fig. 36.3 (a)]. The core of a smaller voltage transformer is usually made up of normal T, U, E, I, L shaped
laminations when hot rolled steel is employed.
VsR+ Vsy+ VsB = 3Vso H.V, WINDING
For smaller PT's shape of Fig. 36.4 is generally
where, VsR, Vsy, VsB = Secondary voltages used.
Vso = Zero sequence voltage on secondary. For la1·ger single phase units cut C core is TERMINAL
The voltage appearing across broken delta (3Vso) is proportional to zero sequence component used of oriented sheet steels. PLUG
of voltage on primary. The electromagnetic VT's are either indoor

Under no-earth fault or outdoor. Porcelain enclosure is necessary for
outdoor VT's.
VPR + Vpy+ VpB = 0
The electromagnetic VT for residual°connec-
Vpo=O tions should have five limbs.
Hence VsR + Vsy+ VsB = 0 For voltages above 66 kV, electromagnetic
Vso = O PT's are generally in cascade connections. They
(Subscript P for primary, S for secondary, RYB for respective phases and O for zero sequence), employ a number of series connected primary
coils on separate cores, with coupling coils to link
Hence output of residually connected VT secondaries is zero under earth fault condition.
primary coils so as to keep the effective leakage
VpR+ Vpy+ VPB=3Vpo inductance at a low value. Such an arrangement
Hence, VsR + Vsy+ VsB = 3 Vso is conveniently housed in a porcelain enclosure.
3Vp 0 However, capacitor Type PT is more economical.
3 Vso = ·--r
n
= V,. For high speed distance protection, electromag-
Fig. 36.4. Cross-section of a resin cast VT.
netic voltage transformer is preferred.
V,. = Residual voltage flowing through the load connected across residually connected
The secondary leads should have low impedance to reduce voltage drop.
VT secondary.
Kn= Voltage ratio.
36.10. CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS (CVT)
The residually connected VT, the star point of primary must necessarily be earthed.
Capacitor voltage transformer are used for line voltmeters, synchroscopes, protective relays,
Residually connected VT is used for supplying : tariff meter, etc.
1. Voltage coil of voltage restrained overcurrent earth fault protection. The performance of capacitor voltage transformer is inferior to that of electromagnetic voltage
2. Restricted earth fault protection. transformer. Its performance is affected by the supply freq\}ency, switching transients, magnitude
3. Directional earth fault protection. of connected burden, etc. The capacitor voltage transformer is more economical than an electromag-
4. Distance earth fault protection. netic voltage transformer when the nominal system voltage increases above 66 kV.
5. Earth-fault alarm relays. The carrier current equipment can be connected via the capacitor of the Capacitor Voltage
Transformers. Thereby there is no need of separate coupling capacitors.
One point on secondary is necessarily earthed for safety. In case the primary comes in contact
HIGH VOLTAGE
with secondary. PHASE CONDUCTOR
The residually connected VT may have thr~e single phase units or one three phase five limbed
unit.
Accuracy class of residually connected VT is 5.00 or 10.00.
c,I
Types of Construction of VT's
1. Electromagnetic Voltage Transformer, oil filled/epoxy resin encapsulated. REACTOR
2. Capacitor voltage Transformer. (CVT).
□'""'"
C
PROTECTIVE
36.9, ELECTROMAGNETIC VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER 6AP
Potential transformer is similar to a conventional transformer with additional care taken to
INTERMEDIATE
minimise errors of transformation, and the power transformed is low. The construction of a PT POTENTIAL
largely depends on the rated primary voltage. For voltage upto 3.3 kV dry type transformers with TRANSFORMER
varnish impregnated taped windings are quite satisfactory. For higher voltages it is a practice to (a.) Capacitor Voltage Transformer. (b) Capacitor voltage transfonner-bas1c diagram.
immerse the core and winding in oil. Recently windings are impregnated and encapsulated in syn- Fig. 36.5.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION VOL'l'AGE TRANSFORMERS AND THEIR APPLICA'l'IONS 685
684
Capacitor type VT is used for yoltages 66 kV and above. At such v?ltages co~t of ~l~ctromag~etic quency is mainly a change in phase when the burden is of unity power factor. The permissible rated
type VT's tends to be too high. The capacitors connected in series act hke pote1;-tial dividers provid_ed output may be derived from the expression :
the current taken by the burden is negligible compared with the cu:rent passmg throu~h the series W =K (C 1 + C 2) Vt 0c ... (36.11)
connected capacitors. However, the burden current becomes relativ~ly larger and ratio error ;1:-d where W = output in VA ;
also phase error is introduced. Compensation is carried out by 'tumng'. The _reactor conne~te m
K == constant depending on frequency, losses, etc. ;
series with the burden is adjusted to such a value that at supply frequency it resonates wit~ the
sum of two capacitors. This eliminates the error. The construction of capacit?r type VT ~epen ~ on C1 = capacitance of primary voltage capacitor in farads ;
the form of capacitor voltage divider. Generally, h.v. capaci~o~s are enc:osed ma porcelam housmg. C2 = capacitance of intermediate voltage capacitor in farad ;
A large metal sheet box at the base encloses the tuning c01l intermediate transformer. Vi == intermediate (tapping point) voltage in volts ; and
36.10.1. CVT with Stepped Output . . 0e == phase angle error change in minutes per Hz.
When the same CVT is used.for various applications, it is likely to be subjected to a variation It is apparent from the above expression that, for a given accuracy over a given frequency range,
of burden. The CVT for such applications should have stepped outp_ut range. The number of steps the rated output is proportional to the total capacitance at a fixed tapping point voltage, but the
and output range depend upon the choice of user and recommendations of manufacturer. The sum capacitance required may be reduced to the economic limit by a suitable selection of the inter-
of outputs of the steps should be one of the following values : mediate voltage. On the other hand, when the capacitance values are fixed by other considerations,
for example, carrier current requirements, the rated output may depend entirely on the permissible
10,25,50, 75,100,150, 200,500VA. phase-angle error change (0c) per Hz.
36.10.2. Protection of Voltage Transformers Consider the single line diagram of a CVT (Fig. 36. 7) and its equivalent circuit as referred to
- HRC fuses on primary side for VT's rated upto 11 kV. . . primary voltage Vp [Fig. 36.7(b)]. At normal power frequency C and Lare in resonance, therefore,
_ HRC fuses on secondary side for overcurrent protection of electromagnetic umt. offer zero impedance. Therefore, the CVT behaves like conventional VT.
_ spark gaps or lightning arresters in parallel with intermediate capacitor for overvoltage
protection.
36.11. CVT AS COUPLING CAPACITOR FOR CARRIER CURRENT APPLICATIONS

The carrier current equipment is connected to the power line via coupli_ng capac~tor. The cou-
pling capacitor Voltage Transformer (CCVT) combines the functions of couplmg capacitor and Volt- Zt'
age Transformer. Fig. 36.6.
V
\JI p "I- POWER LINE
I n TERMINAL (a) Single line diagram ofCVT (b) Equivalent diagram of(a)
Fig. 36.7. Equivalent diagram ofCVT.
HIGH
VOLTAGE
CAPACITOR
le, ELECTROMAGNETIC
UNIT
However, this resonance is at a particular frequency (50 Hz). At other frequencies, le and h
FUSE
do not get cancelled and the reactive component present introduces phase angle error in measure-
ment. This error depends on the power factor of burden.
V; t----1
G
The phase angle error changes with frequency. If reactive voltage across C and Lis small com-
INTERMEDIATE pared with Vp, the error introduced is small and change in error with frequency is nQt excessive.
CAPACITOR
However, choice of frequency depends upon whether the capacitor is used as a coupling
capacitor for carrier channel or not.
-er&-o-•-
r 1/\ AUXILIARY
VOLTAGE
(a) The typical values of C 1 is 2000 pf. It offers 1.5 mega-ohms impedance to 50 Hz and 150
PATH I PATH
WITHOUT I WITH CCE TRANSFORMER ohms to 500 kHz carrier frequency.
CCE(-•-·-) I (---)
I
I (b) The value of C 2 depends upon the required nominal ratio.
I
CARRIER
I VP Ci
CURRENT "!S' ~ Vi= C2
EQUIPMENT (CCE}
Fig. 36.6. Connection ofCVT and carrier curre_nt equipment. Suppose Vi is 12 kV and Vp is 132/✓ 3 == 75.6 kV.
36.12. CHOICE OF CAPACITANCE VALUES FOR CVT 132 1
C2 == ✓
The maximum output from a capacitor voltage transformer is governed ~y the :a~ge of fre- 3 X
12
X 2000 == 1200 pf.
quency over which the accuracy has to be maintained. The change in error with variation of fre- (c) The output is of the order of 150 VA.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 687
686
Good design of CVT will not exhibit ferro-resonance for resistive burdens. However, non-linear
(d) 0c has a following range :
inductive burdens (such as auxiliary voltage transformers in protective systems) are likely to cause
50 minutes for 132 kV, CVT ferro-resonance. Auxiliary VT's should have a large core so as to maintain flux density at a low
25 minutes for 220 kV, CVT value (0.2 to 0.4 Wb/m 2) to prevent saturation.
15 minutes for 400 kV, CVT (b) Methods for Minimising FR in CV'f. The ferro-resonance arises due to the interchange
From Eq. 36.11 large c 1 and c 2 permit higher rated VA output. To reduce cost, the CVT's are of energy between the equivalent capacitance of the voltage divider and the non-linear inductance
designed for larger regulation (variation in secondary voltage) wit~ variation of b~rden Zb. :Tis of the magnetic unit. It results in a severe distortion of the secondary voltage. It can also result in
provided with taps which should be selected for required value ~f burden. Alternatively CVT s can sustained sub-harmonic oscillations. This can be avoided by taking suitable precautions while
be "Full Range Type" , without taps and suitable for burdens m a range of 25 to 100% of rated designing the CVT. Some of the methods are given below. ·
output. Such CVT's would require larger C1 and C2 and are costly. · - Maintaining the working flux density of the electromagnetic units at much lower levels as
(e) Effect of Supply Frequency. CVT's perform within accuracy lim_its for ,frequencies of 77 compared with the conventional voltage transformers (e.g. 0.2 to 0.4 Wb/m 2 only).
to 103% of rated frequency for protective VT's and 99 to 101% for measunng VT s. - Greater utilization of the linear position of the magnetisation curve by using strip would
The variation in the primary side power frequency has significant influence on the accuracy of cores, thus avoiding local saturation effects.
a CV'l'. Normally a capacitor voltage transformer is turned to achieve the required accuracy at rated - Providing an air gap in the magnetic Gircuit of auxiliary VT to maintain the linearity of
frequency (50 Hz). When the operating frequency deviates beyond t~ie reference range offrequ~ncy, magnetising inductance over a wide range of operating conditions.
the accuracy limits are likely to be exceeded. Coincident influential fa~tors ~re the ~ower fa~tor - Connecting a suitable damping resistance permanently across the secondary.
and the magnitude connected burden. Where accuracy is important as m tariff metermg apph_ca- - Spreading out (deploying) auxiliary tuning and damping networks in the electromagnetic
tions. It is desirable to obtain accuracy curves for the capacitor voltage transformer correspondmg unit. In this case it is necessary that additional precautions are taken to avoid introduction
to the limiting operating frequencies. of additional transients in the process of damping ferro-resonance.
These curves (supplied by manufacture of CV'r) give the ratio error and phase angle error for (c) Method of Testing FR in CVT
various frequencies. The power factor of burdens is also indicated on the same graph. In case of CVT's, it is necessary .to check that the ferro-resonance does not occur and the tran-
sient oscillations di_e down quickly after removal of secondary short-circuits.
36.13. TRANSIENT OF BEHAVIOUR OF CVT While testing CVT, the secondary is temporarily shorted. A voltage of 120% rated value is ap-
The transient performance of CT's discussed in Sec. 35.16 was related to saturation of core due plied to primary. The short-circuit on secondary is suddenly removed. The peak value of secondary
to d.c. and a.c. components in transient over-currents. voltage is recorded. The peak secondary voltage should not differ from 110% normal value, after
The transient performance of CVT's is influenced by transient over-voltages and resulting dis- . 10 Hz. Ferro-resonance should not sustain for more than 2 sec.
tortion in secondary voltage waveform, and duration of overvoltage.
When an impulse wave is applied to primary of CVT, oscillations of various frequenci~s take 36.15. TESTING OF VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER (BRIEF)
place and will continue for a duration which depends upon the resistive dam~in_g in ~he ?qmvalent (a) Error Measurements. The errors are generally measured by comparison method, i.e. com-
circuit (Fig. 36. 7 (b )] , Increased resistance reduces the time constant of transient osc1llat10ns. How- paring the voltage transformer under test with a sub-standard voltage transformer of high accuracy
ever initial amplitude increases. and known errors. Errors are measured for various primary voltages, for rated burdens.
For high speed protection, transient oscillations should be minin1;um. Hence cascade type (b) Core losses. Measurement of core loss and exciting current are made to check the quality
electromagnetic voltage transformers are preferred. They have a less rat10 error even under short- of core material and short-circuits in winding between turns.
circuit condition. (c) Insulation Tests. Routine insulation tests are of two kinds, applied and induced overvoltage
tests. In applied tests, the primary winding is short-circuited and test voltage is applied between
36.14. FERRO-RESONANCE (FR) IN CVT primary winding and earth, for specified time and of specified value.
(a) Principle. Ref. Fig. 36.7. The excitation impedance Ze and equivalent C of voltage divider Induced voltage tests are made to test inter-turn and inter-layer insulation of the windings.
may form a resonant circuit which may oscillate at a lower frequency than 50 Hz. The supply is usually applied to the secondary winding at a frequency two to four times normal
frequency to prevent core saturation and excessive exciting current. The secondary insulation is
If such a circuit is subjected to a impulse voltage due to switching transie~t voltage oscilla_tions tested by applying 50 Hz. 2 kV for one minute type tests on voltage transformer include impulse
of variable frequency do occm·. These can pass through a range of frequencies due to non-hnear tests.
nature of inductance of auxiliary VT. (d) High voltage tests. Power frequency with stand tests and impulse withstand tests. (Ref.
If natural frequency of this circuit is somewhat less than 50/3; it is possible that the oscillations Sec. 12.8, 12.11).
build-up by taking energy from system. When the variable oscillations reach the natural frequency (e) Polarity Test. These are similar to the test on CT's (Refer Sec. 35.8).
resonance condition occurs. This causes increased flux density in auxiliary transformer core and
thereby bringing the natural frequency to exactly 50/3. 36.16.APPLICATION OF CAPACITOR TYPE VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER FOR
This results in progre~sive build-up of third harmonic oscillations which are stabilized fo_r in- PROTECTIVE RELAYING
definite time. The third harmonic component increases the secondary voltage to l.~ t? 1.5 times
The requirements of protective voltage transformers depend upon the application.
rated secondary voltage. The waveform of secondary voltage containing third harmomc is also non-
1. For capacitor type voltage transformer used for residual connection, accuracy class 10 is
sinusoidal Hence ferro-resonance should be prevented. generally preferred.
- - -- --------------------
5. Describe the applications of VT's in the following applications :
2. In applications of voltage transformers where phase relationship between cul'l'ent and volt- - distance protection
age is important, accuracy class 3 is prefel'l'ed. 'l'hese applications include directional over-current - direction earth fault protection.
relaying, reverse power protection, distance protection, etc. Illustrate vT connections and CT connections in these.
3. In applications, where phase angle is not significant; accuracy class 5 is preferred. Such ap- 6, De~cribe the residual connections of V'f. Why a five limb core is essential for each electromagnetic
plications include under-voltage overvoltage, voltage restrained protection. residual VT.
4: For high speed distance relays, electromagnetic voltage transformers are preferred. 7. Desc:n?e ~he phenomena of ferro-resonance in capacitor voltage transformer and the methods adopted
to m1mm1se the same.
For potential transformer for protection purposes it is a common practice to measure the
8, Fill in the gaps :
primary and secondary volts in terms of line-to-line. In other words, 110.volts is generally line-to-
line voltage in terms of the secondary. Where relays are line-to-neutral voltage, their coils are (a) Electromagnetic VT is ...... accurate than CVT.
generally at 110/✓3, V. (b) Ratio Error of a VT is given by ......
5. Protective relays operate under system fault conditions. As the faults are associated with (c) In residually connected VT, the three secondaries are connected in .....
voltage drops, a protective voltage transformer is required to maintain its accuracy within the (d) Ferro-resonance occurs in ...... type VT.
specified limits from 5 per cent of the rated voltage to voltage factor time the rated voltage. (e) There are two categories of VTs. 1 ....... (2)
6. Capacitor voltage transformers may be of full range or of stepped range design. (f) Ohmic value ofburdenZb is given by the expression Zb = ......
7. Composite transformers used for protection and measurement, are normally of full range (g) Accuracy classes recommended for VTs are as follows:
design. Although adjustment of the ratio and series inductance of the electromagnetic unit is usual- 1. Measuring VT .... ..
ly necessary to enable capacitors with commercially practical tolerances to be employed, once the 2. Protective VT .... ..
adjustment setting to suit a particular set of capacitors has been determined, no further adjust- 3. CVT only ......
ments are necessary in service. Such full range devices may thus be employed in service in the
same manner as electromagnetic voltage transformer and power factor corrections for inductive
burdens are not necessary.
(8) When same VT is used for both protection and measurement (Dual propose) separate secon-
dary winding may be used. The rated burden of each winding may be separately specified.
(9) Actual VA burden on VT should be about 90% ofrated VA burden of VT.
SUMMARY
Voltage transformers are used for protection are generally different from those for metering
with reference to their accuracy class. Generally class 3.0, 5.0 is used for voltage transformers con-
nected in star-star and class 10.0 for residually connected VT's.
There are two types of construction: 1. Electromagnetic VT (2) CVT. Electromagnetic V'l"s are
more accurate than CVT's. CVT's are used for voltages above 66 kV.
Transient performance ofVT's is important in protection. CVT should not give ferro-resonance
and secondary over-voltages. Electromagnetic VT is superior to CVT in this respect.
QUESTIONS
1. Illustrate with clear sketches the following :
(a) Connections ofVT's in V-V for measurement of voltages.
(b) Connections ofVT's in star-star for under-voltage/over-voltage protection.
(c) Residual connection ofVT's.
2. Draw a vector diagram of VT and discuss the causes of ratio error and phase angle error.
State the preferred accuracy classes for protective relays.
3. The power consumption of each voltage relay coil used in a over-voltage protection is 5 VA. The lead
resistance if 0.1 ohm per lead. There is no other burden. Draw diagram of over-voltage protection for
a 132 kV, there phase bus-bar illustrating VT and relay coil connections.
4. Describe the construction of Capacitor Voltage Transformer and discuss the factors affecting the choice
of capacitors, auxiliary electromagnetic VT, spark gaps, arrangement of coupling of carrier current
equipment.
TESTING AND MAINTENANCE OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS 691
Installation tests are field tests to determine that the protection operates correctly in actual
service. These are not repeated unless incorrect operation occurs. Most frequently they are per-
formed by simulating test conditions by means of portable test sets. Other methods include :
- tests using primary current injection.
7 - operating tests with reduced primary voltage.

- system faulc tests (faults are applied on the protected ;ystem internal/external to protected
zone).
Such tests are conducted on every new installations only. The protection circuits, CTs, VTs are
also checked.
Testing and Maintenance of Protective Relays Maintenance testing is done in field periodically.
Importance of maintenance -Tests -Acceptance tests- commissio~ing tests-'- I~spection prior to Repair tests, involve recalibration and are performed after major repairs. These are generally
test - Testing of instantaneous relays - Inverse relay - Differentia~ relays - Distance. relays - performed in laboratory. Minor repairs done on field need not follow complete recalibration.
Restricted earth fault protection, Routine maintenance - Deteriorat10n of rel~ys - Mamtenance
schedule - Manufacture tests - Electrical tests -- Mechanical tests - Environmental tests - Manufacturers tests include development tests and type and routine tests.
Buchholz relay - Equipment for tests.
37.3. TEST EQUIPMENT
37.l. IMPORTANCE OF MAINTENANCE AND SETTING (a) Primary Current Injection Test Sets
Unlike the rotating machines or other equipment, the protective relays remain standstill and Most protective systems are fed from a current transformers on the supply cable or bus bars
without operation until a fault develops. However, the relay should be vigilant at all times. For PRIMARY current injection testing checks all INJECT
reliable service of protective relaying excellent maintenance is a must. Lack of proper maintenance parts of the protection system by injecting the c~i~iNT
may lead to failure to operate. test current through the primary circuit, of Vl
Every relay has a provision of setting. protective CTs. Ip
Setting determines pick-up value/time. The primary injection tests can be carried out CT
PRIMARY
Settings of various relays need co-ordination. by means of primary injection test sets. These sets CIRCUIT
are standard portable sets comprising :
37.2. TESTS ON RELAYS - current supply unit
- control unit
Tests are conducted by the manufacturer at manufacturer's works, and by the user at site
- accessories.
during commissioning and periodic maintenance. These tests are further divided into types, tests
and routine tests. The test set can give variable output current.
Th~ o_utput current can be varied by means of
Tests are conducted before accepting relay. b_mlt-m auto-~ransformers. The primary injec- SHORT CIRCUIT
Tests are conducted on site before commissioning. tion test set 1s connected to a.c. single phase OR LOAD
supply. The output terminals can be connected to
6-::i-----
Tests are conducted during periodic maintenance.
in the primary circuit of CT (37.1). The primary Fig. 37.1. Primary injection.
There is generally a good deal of co-operation between electricity boards and relay manufac- current can be varied by means of the injection set.
turers regarding relay testing. Quality control is given foremost consideration in manufacturing of (b) Secondary Current Injection Test Sets
relay.
Secondary injection checks the operation of the protective system but does not check the primary circuit
Tests can be grouped into following four classes : of the current transfonner. However,
1. Acceptance tests. it is rare for a fault to occur in the INSULATING
- One new relays, first time testing. current transformer and the TESTPLUGS
- Tests on each product received. secondary test is sufficient for
2. Manufacturer's tests. most routine maintenance. The
primary test is essential when V- INJECT
3. Commissioning test on relays and protective systems. CURRENT
commissioning and new installa- HERE
4. Maintenance tests. tion as it tests the whole protec-
tion system and will detect
oc
Acceptance tests are generally performed in the laboratory. Acceptance tests fall into two
categories : (i) On new relays which are to be used for the first time. On such products, intensive current transformers connected
testing is desired to prove its characteristics and to gain information about it. (ii) On relay types with incorrect polarity or relays -- - -- ______
L----- -- - -- J
LOAD
which have been used earlier, only minimum necessary checks should be made. Acceptance tests that have been set in the wrong
are performed in presence of the customer or by the customer. sequence in differential systems. Fig. 37.2. Secondary inj,ection tests on ovetcurrent relays.
692 TESTING AND MAINTENANCE OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS 693
Secondary current injection sets are very useful for conducting these tests. (v) Six Monthly
The Standard Secondary Current Injection Testing Equipment consi~ts of a ?O A ~urrent in- Inspections.
jection set, separate waveform filter unit and a digital counter. The ~qm~ment is designed as a Tripping tests.
portable kit for on-site testing of protective devices, circuit-breakers, trip_ coils motor overloads and Insulation resistance tests.
similar apparatus. The Filter Unit should be used when testing saturatmg core type relays to en- Battery biasing equipment check.
sure that the test current has a substantially sinusoidal waveform. (vi) Yearly
(c) Test Benches Check tripping angle of phase comparison method.
Test benches comprise calibrated variable current and voltage supplies and timin¥ ~evices. Secondary injection tests.
These benches can be conveniently used for testing relays and obtaining their charactenshcs. Buchholz relay tests.
D. Testing Equipment with Manufacturer Test on earthing resistors.
The testing equipment with manufacturer includes : (vii) Two Yearly
- artificial transmission lines Secondary injection tests.

- heavy current test plant (c) Periodic Relay Testing
- special test benches, etc. Periodic relay testing is a part of preventive maintenance. Thus, procedures and records should
be planned with preventative maintenance as the guide. The tests themselves will reveal failures
37.4, ROUTINE MAINTENANCE TESTS which would have prevented the relay from performing when called upon to operate, while properly
maintained records will reveal any trends which could lead to such failures.
The performance of protective relay is affected by maintenance. Basic requirements of sen- ,
sitivity, selectivity, reliability and stability can be satisfied only if the ~aintenance is excellent. In The interval of testing is subject to many variables, including type of relay, environment and
this section some basic aspects of maintenance and periodic tests are discussed. · of course history and experience. However, an annual or semi-annual schedule of maintenance is
a good starting point.
(a) Deterioration of protective relays. The relay does not normally deteriorate by ~1se but
other adverse condition cause the deterioration. Continuous vibrations can damage the pivots or Electrical Tests and Adjustments
· 1. Contact function. Manually close (or open) contacts and observe that they perform their
bearings.
Dampness causes weakness of insulation. The insulation strength is reduced because of ab- required function, i.e. trip, reclose, block etc.
sorption of moisture, polluted atmosphere affects the relay contacts, ligaments and relay parts. Dust ~- Pick up. 'Gradually apply current or voltage to see that pickup is within limits. Gradually
affects insulation and rotating system. Relay room should, therefore, be made dust-proof. apphed current of voltage will yield data which can be compared with previous or future data and
should not be clouded by such effects as transient over reach, etc.
Insects and vermins can cause menace. Switchgear room should be vermin-proof.
3. Dropout or reset. Reduce the current until the relay drops out or fully resets. This test
Relay maintenance generally consists of : will ~ndicate e~cess fricti?n. Should the relay be sluggish in resetting or fail to rest completely, then
- Inspection and burnishing of contacts. - Foreign matter removal. the Jewel bearmg and pivot should be examined. A 4X eye loupe is adequate for examining the
- Adjustments checking - Breakers tripped by manual contact closing. pivot, and the jewel bearing can be examined with the aid of needle which will re·1eal any cracks
- Screws checked for tightness. - Covers cleaning. in the jewel. Should dirt be the problem, the jewels can be cleaned with a thin brush while the
- Maintenance tests. pivot can be wiped clean with a soft, lint free cloth. No lubricant should be used on either the jewel
or pivot. Vacuum pump is used for sucking dust. .
(b) Maintenance Schedule
(i) Continuous Observation
37.5. INSPECTION AND TESTING FOR ACCEP'fANCE
Pilot supervision.
Trip circuit supervision. Acceptance tests are done once and generally in the laboratory. These separate into the two
Relay voltage supervision. types, first on (i) new products which have not been previously used, extensive testing on a sample
may be desired to prove it, gain experience and knowledge, and/or additional technical information.
Battery earth fault supervision.
Bus-bar protection CT circuit supervision. The second type (ii) test on each product received from the manufacturer should be streamlined to
a minimum including only important practical check points to assume that the product is up to the
These items need continuous supervision. A trained person should be on duty to observe the
manufacturer's standards. After receiving the shipment, the relay should first be visually examined
above mentioned aspects. for damage in the transit. 'fhe relay should be unpacked carefully so as not to bend the light parts.
(ii) Daily Inspection The precautions to be taken can be enumerated.
Relay flags (every shift) 1. Avoid handling contact su,faces. It tends to removal of material coating.
(iii) Once a Week 2. The cover should be removed before dusting it. It should not be dusted in assembled position.
Carrier current protection testing. 3. The packing pieces are removed lightly and armature is checked for free movement manually.
(iv) Monthly Tests 4. Do not take steel screw-drivers near the permanent magnets, if any.
Inter-tripping channel tests without tripping any switches. After the initial check, detailed acceptance tests (i) or (ii) mentioned above are carried' out.
TESTING AND MAINTENANCE OF PROTEC'rIVE RELAYS 695
694 37,8. SOME TEST CIRCUITS AND PROCEDUUES FOR SECONDARY IN,JEC'I'ION
37.6. SOME TESTS ON CT'S TESTS
(a.) Testing polarity of CT by Flick Test. A Injection Tests. The relay coils are energized and the calibration of relay is tested.
centre zero voltameter is connected acr~ss CT secon- There are several types of relays. Tests are conducted in general as follows. The lowest tap
dary. A 1.5 .V battery is touched to. pr~ma~y of CT. including all the turns of the coil is taken and relay operating characteristic is obtained for various
The deflection of pointer should be snrnlar m case of time settings. The procedure is repeated for all the plug settings.
~ach CT to be connected in the same protection.
(i) Instantaneous Relays
(b) Magnetisation Curve Tests. These are Fig. 37.3. Flick test. These are actuated by current or voltage and are usually Attracted Armature Type. The cur-
conducted on CT's to prove that the turns ofCT's are rents are increased slowly till the operation occurs. The current prior to operation should be noted.
This gives pick-up value. The current is then gradually reduced till the relay resets. The values of
pick-up current and reset current are noted for different spring tensions.
500
_____ l _________ ~ Secondary injection current sets can be conveniently used for testing. Instantaneous relays are
I
10%
I checked as follows. A synchronous timer with one second sweep and ten second register is incor-
iI --x----i----1::p,--+------ porated in the test circuit. To begin with, the relay coil is shunted and the current is set to a low
ui 400 value shunt is removed. The switch is closed and the relay operation is observed. The current is
~ I I
gradually increased till the relay operates. The following readings are taken :
0 -►:30%:~ --:::;x
~ BREAKER
w 300 RELAY CIRCUIT
- minimum current to give operation for each current setting
(')
TEMPORARILY - maximum current at which relay resets for each setting.
~
_J DISCONNECTED
0
BREAKER KEPT
If felt desirable, response to transient overcurrent is obtained by means of CRO or U.V. Re-
> 200
OPEN corder.
(ii) Inverse Time or Definite Time Overcurrent or Earth Fault Relays
100- oooool (iii) Inverse Definite Minimum Time Relays (IDMT) or Inverse Time Relays
0 t___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
240V, 1$ A timer is necessary to test this type of relay. A typical test circuit is given in Fig. 37,'7. The
Magnetising Current- (A) timer starts measuring time as soon as switch 8 is closed. The timer stops measuring time as soon
Fig. 37.4. A typical CT magnetisation curve. Fig. 37.5. Magnetisation curve test circuit.
as the relay closes its contacts and short
not short circuited and to establish the CT
characteristic and to establish the capability of
CT. A typical magnetization curve is shown in
circuit the timer circuit. The time ·is of
the order of several seconds.
Plug setting corresponds Lo the min-
_,, "-':,.,0..~----<>~!~-:1-Q]l--- TIMER ...._
. :fl ,., . ,
•~';---wv1r~ ~1:
Fig. 37.4. Magnetisation curves are obtained by imum value of current at which the relay TRIP
applying sinusoidal voltage to secondary wind- should stru·t ope,ating, Howevm·, due to ""''"
PRIMARY
ing of CT and measuring magnetising current CURRENT
friction and inertia, the relay must not '+------tRELAY
flowing for different values of applied voltage. INJECTION start operating at values near the plug RELAYcotL+ :
Test is conducted only upto knee point which SET setting value. The time setting cor- : _-___ ~
is at a point where 10% increase in applied volt- A ~AMMETER
responds to multiplying factor to be used
with operating time with time setting as Fig. 37.'l. Circuit diagram for setting an inverse
age results in 30% increase in magnetising cur- overcurrent relay. (Main Switch : S)
rent. unity (Ref. Sec. 26.11).
Fig. 37.6. The ratio test by means of primary current
(c) Ratio Test. The current is injected as injection.
Instantaneous relays are sensitive to transient overcurrents, but inverse overcurrent relays
shown in Fig. 37.6. The ratio A1IA2 gives the are not.
CT ratio. In this testing, the readings of operating time are taken for various values of operating currents
for a time setting and plug setting. The test is repeated for various time settings and the same
plug setting. Thus for a given plug setting, several characteristics are obtained corresponding to
37.7. SOME TESTS ON PT'S
various time settings. 'l'he procedure is repeated for other plug settings. The characteristics are
(a) Polarity test on PT. As mentioned in Sec. 37.6 (a) for CT Battery should be touched to verified with the cbaracteristic given by the manufacture. (Ref, Fig. 26.14).
primary winding. (iv) Distance Refays
(b) Ratio Check. Primary is first made alive by energising main circuit. Distance relays are commonly high speed permanent magnet moving coil type in which .the
Secondary voltage (measured) is compared with other existing PT connected in the same circuit. coils move axially or radially. In some types the relay has only one coil which is connected to rectifier
bridge comparator which compares V and I ,-10 that the relay measures impedance. In other type
(c) Phase Sequence Check. The phase sequence of three terminals is checked by means of relay has two coils on the same former. One coil is fed from rectified voltage, giving restraining
phase sequence ,meter.
-
697
696 SWI'l'CHGEAR AND PROTECTION TESTING AND MAINTENANCE OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS
to~·que proport~onal to voltage. The other sup- IMPEDANCE OF_~► ','<11~- IMPEDANCE OF
(vi) Restricted Earth Fault Protection Testing
~hed from rectified current which gives operat-
SYSTEM ON
GENERATOR SIDE I
PROTECTED LINE The polarities of CT's should be tested first. The polarity of CT in neutral connection can be
ing torque. The curreri. t and. voltage are tested by short circuiting one phase of star connection. The relay is replaced by an ammeter. The
separately varied to simulate the fault im- ammeter should read zero for correct polarity of CT's. The set up is illustrated in Fig. 37 .10.
peda?ce. ~eadi.ngs are taken and the protective POWER TRANSFORMER
gear 1s calibrated. Portable test set kits are avail-
able for testing distance relays. Fig. 37.8 il-
lustrates a test circuit.
Zs is a high adjustable reactive impedance
representing the part of the circuit upto th 1· CURRENT
t · · e me COIL VOLTAGE
con ammg generator, transformer etc. and z COIL
DISTANCE
the impedance of the line having adjustabt RELAY
X and R. The connections of the relay which in- TRIP CONTACTS
clude· a timer, contactor etc .
. The tim~r is started by closing the fault '------l-<>TIMER START
~-_<>:j---__J
switch. The timer stops by operation of the relay. STOP
Fig, 37.8. Test circuit of distance relays. Fig. 37.10. Relay replaced by an ammeter. A.C. polarity test for restricted earth fault. relay.
Portable test for distance relays ·comprise
- supply unit (vii) Testing Differential Relays
- control unit ALTERNATING CURRENT FOR TEST
- fault impedanr:e unit and external CT unit. A convenient method is to pass the main current
The various test can be simulated by means of these test sets e g through both the halves of the restraining coil and to
- phase fault injection test ' · ·i superimpose the differential current on one-half of the
restraining coil and the differential coil. A test circuit
- phase to neutral injection test
is given in Fig. 37.11.
- testing of distance schemes
(viii) Buchholz Relays OPERATING
testing of l\ilho/Impedance/Reactance measuring elements, etc. COIL
A special test rig is set up to test Buchholz relays.
(v) Directional Relays The rig consists of two oil tanks with interconnecting
RESTRAINING COILS
These relays accompany over-current or dista pipes and valves. Compressed air is used to force the
on directional relays that they will n t t .nee or other types of relays. Tests are conducted oil from one tank to other, while passing to the other Fig. 37.11. Testing of differential Relay.
0 opera e with only one actuating quantity.
tank the oil passes through the Buchholz relay.
Further, th~ phase angle between V and I to obtain . . .
torque changes m direction is noted. Then the h zero.torque, i.e. ~he pomt at which the relay Further, to test the performance on incipient faults, air at regulated pressure is passed through
angle of maximum torque In this p 't• .P. ase ofapphed voltage is moved through 900 to get the relay. Adjustments are made until desired operation of alarm and trip circuit is obtained.
· ·
operat10n at rated voltage Fig 37 9 .osi 1011 mm1mum operating c
t . urren t is
· reqmre
· d to cause relay
· · · gives a yp1cal arrangement of directional relay testing. (ix) Test circuit for double actuating quantity 1·elays
RHEOSTAT TRIP When only one quantity is required to operate the relay, the test circuit are straight forward
~ ----,----~~AAA~L-1 and there are very few problems. However, with two or more variable a.c. quantities, more com-
mv : ---
st,;~·Lv __,___. :I ---.,~~----------1::~ A _ _- , - CURRENT
COIL
~
--J---J~
DIRECTIONAL
RELAY
VARIABLE AUTO
TRANSFORMER
PRESSURE 230 VOLT USE
COIL ON 115 VTAP
TO REDUCE
EXCITING CURRENT
BWAVEFORM
PHASE ERROR
SHIF;7R AUTO TRANSFORMER

ig. 37 .9. Testing circuit at directional relay.
+
De!-!cription. Directional relay has tw •i . . . L-----' +- 1ob -
the circuit of Fig. 37.9, the phase shiftero ~01 s one ~nergized by curr~nt the other by voltage. In
Vand I, (Ref. Fig. 37.12 also). t
can be adJUS ed to get qesl!'ed phase angle between Fig. 37.12. The circuit for determining the phase angle curve
of a relay operating on a current and voltage.*
-
698 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION TING AND MAINTENANCE OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS 699
,10, COMMISSIONING TESTS
While testing the protective system at site the protection system for each zone should be tested
C parately to begin with and then the protective systems for the neighbouring protective systems
VARIABLE --t-+--...
AUTO-TRANSF ~ cv,
ould be co-ordinated as per the plan for the entire plant. The objectives of site testing are to
18-20 AMP
CONTINUOUS p n__ ensure that
TO OBTAIN
LARGE SHORT mVmn-j - connections are correct.
TIME
CURRENTS E++I - settings are correct.
LOAD
PHASE PHASE
- individual protection system is functioning satisfactorily.
ANGLE ANGLE - the co-ordination between various protection systems is as per broad plan given by desig-
METER METER
ners.
Nothing should be taken for granted and no connection should be assumed to be correct until
Fig. 3'7.13. Testing of double actuating quantity relay.* has been tested and proved.
plexity r~sul~s, particularly_wh~n the phase angle between the quantities must be controlled. Ty i- During testing, it may be necessary to change the relay setting. This setting should be restored
cal test Cll'cmts are shown m Figs. 37.12 and 37.13. p after completion of tests.
37.9. MANUFACTURER'S TESTS* All testing at site should be done methodically, systematically as per the plan. The anxiety to
commission a plant should not be allowed to affect the test schedule.
t.es~~~ufa~tured
A newly designed relay is subjected to a series of through tests by the manufacturer before it
on a lar~e scale. Almost every possible aspect about relays is determined in these
s .. ,uc te st s are earned out on a few .relays of each type. These tests are performed on a com-
Some relay coils are not continuously rated. They should not be energized beyond specified time.
Before working on HV circuits, the adequate precautions should be taken (Ref. Ch. 14).
plete ~clay. Further, tests are conducted on protective systems including current transformers volt- The procedure for testing should be well studied and understood. The testing engineer should
age bansformers, and relays. The tests on relays.cover: be thoroughly familiar with protection engineering.
(i) Electrical tests. The instruments for site testing should be robust and portable.
(ii) Mechanical tests. Correct size of pilot wires is necessary. Smaller size causes more burden on CT's. Following
(iii) Effect of environmental conditions. aspects should be checked :
- each point is securely connected and no dust, insulation or corrosion is interfering in the
After the exhaustive type tests the manufactures decides whether to go ahead with manufac-
continuity.
tu1re of tthBe r e/Ilay ~r some modifications are necessary in the design. The relays should conform the
re evan .8 . ndian Standard/other Standards. polarity of connections is correct.
(i) Electrical Tests the correct connections with terminals at remote end can be checked by loop tests.
Portable primary injection test sets are used to pass heavy current through primary of CT's of
· b ti Co;pon:n~~ of !;~ays, sub"~ssemblies, relay units, complete relays, relay schemes are tested the protection system .
. e ore . espa c ~ng.. ese tests mclude checking number of turns in coils, to measure parameters
The generator protection may be tested by simulating short-circuit condition. A short-circuit
~~:r:atrnn, c~7tmmty ~tc. /e st hon components. Thetest on complete relay include condition ~ve:
range. ow spee re ays ave static tests. High speed relays have dynamic tests. may be placed across the bus-bars and the machine is operated with reduced field current. The
operation of relay, circuit-breaker on phase faults, earth-faults, are checked and relays a:re set.
fi . t~iffer~ni:ial :el;ys ~r~ test_ed for h_eavy currents to make sure that the relay does not operate Primary injection tests may be utilized to prove the polarity ratio of CT's connection and protec-
01
roug au 1 s. , pecia eqmpment 1s used for heavy currnnt testing.
tive relays.
Artificial transmission lines are used for testing relay schemes.
Secondary injection tests are conducted by means of test sets.
(ii) Mechanical Tests
The commissioning tests include complete check of all closing, tripping, intertripping, sequence,
Thes~ are conducted by the manufacture in the factory. These cover the mechanical erfor- alarm, indication. The test may be simulated by artificially closing the circuits by means of plugs,
mai:ice. ~f rela~ 8.:1ch as tende~cy to vibra~e, effect of shocks, balancing of rotor, endu:·anc: te:::ts, short circuiting clips, test switch ; special kits etc.
deviabihty of "'pnngs etc. Special test eqmpment is necessary to perform these tests. Switching in tests should be carried out on transformers to check that the protection does not
(iii) Environmental Tests operate due to magnetizing current in rush.
th T~ese incfilude ascertaining the effect of humidity, temperature, atmospheric pressure, etc. on Buchholz relay is tested by admitting air through the cock at the bottom of the relay and later
e re ay per ormance. All relays are generally tropicalized. through inlet pipe of the relay.
Electronic relays (static relays) require test-bench with special facilities.
* Ref. Sec. 43.5 for Static Relays.
SUMMARY
Testing and maintenance ofrelays and protective devices is extremely important. A failure ma
result merely due to lack of proper maintenance. 1
Testings on relays can be classified as :

1. Test by manufacturer at his work.
2. Acceptance tests.
3. Commissioning tests at site.
4. Maintenance tests.
QUESTIONS
1. Explain the importance of testing of relays.
2. Describe the secondary of current injection test of the following relays-any two.
(a) Instantaneous overcurrent relay. (b) Inverse overcurrent relay.
(c) Differential relay. (d) Earth fault relay.
3. State tests performed on a relay group-wise.
4. Describe briefly the following test on relay :
(a) Manufacturer's tests. (b) Commissioning tests.
(c) Maintenance tests.
5. Describe procedure of CT polarity test.
6. Explain in about 20 sentences the insula•ion resistance measurements.
7. What are causes of relay deterioration? Describe a maintenance schedule of a relay.
8. Describe the procedure of inspection of a relay scheme during periodic check-up.
9. Explain the procedure of commissioning tests on a protection system.
10. With the help of neat diagrams explain the laboratory test of an electromagnetic Distance Relay.
11. Describe the following terms ofrelays.
- Plug setting --,- 'I'i.me setting.
12. State whether true or false. Write correct statement.
- IDMT relays are used in impedance protection.
- Distance Relays sense vector difference between two quantities.
- Earth fault relays are connected in the residual circuit .
...:_ Static Relays are used for Generator Protection.
SECTION IV
STATIC REI.AYS
STATIC PROTECTION SCHEMES

Introduction to Static and Microprocessor.. based
Integrated Programmable Protection,
Monitoring and Control Systems
- Introduction to Static Relays and Integrated programmable Protective monitoring and control
systems. Historical review - basic comparison, recent trends - Analogue Relays, Digital relays,
Programmable Relays -- Modular concept, Functional Modules and Assembly - Devices and
components - Functional units in static relay system - Analogue circuits, Digital Circuits,
Programmable Systems - AD Conversion - Applications of static relays - Components of Static
Relays.
Ch. 25 gives Introduction to Protective Relaying. The principles described in Sec. 25.1 to 25.i6
are applicable to Electromagnetic Relays and Static Relays. During 1980's Static relays and
Microprocessor-based integrated, programmable protection, control and monitoring systems have
been introduced. The versatile systems perform several tasks including monitoring, protection, data
acquisition, display, control etc. Static relays and combined protection and control systems form an
integral part of SCADA Systems. (Ch. 50)
38,1. INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION

Static Relay (Solid State Relay) is an electrical relay in which the response is developed by
electronic/magnetic/optical or other components, without mechanical motion of components.
Note. A relay which is composed of both static and electromechanical units in which the response is ac-
complished by static units is also called as a static relay.
In static relays, the measurement is performed by electronic/magnetic/optical or other com-
ponents without mechanical motion. However additional electromechanical relay units may be used
in output stage as auxiliary relays.A protective system is formed by static relays and electromechani-
cal auxiliary relays,
Fig. 38.1 (a) illustrates the essential components in a static relays. The output of CT's of PT's
or transducers is rectified in rectifier.
~rhe rectified output is fed to the measuring unit. The measuring unit comprises comparators,
level detectors, filters, logic circuits. The output is initiated when input reaches the threshold value.
The output of measuring unit is amplified by Ampliffor.
The amplified output is given to the output unit which energizes the trip coil only when reiay
operates.
In conventional electromagnetic the measurement is carried out by comparing operating
torque/force with restraining torque/force. The electro-mechanical relay operates when operating
torque I force exceeds the restraining torque I force. The pick-up of relay is obtained by movement of
movable element in the relay. In a static relay the measurement is performed by static circuits.
A simplified block diagram of single input static relay is given in Fig. 38.1 (a). In individual
relays there is a wide variation. The quantities : voltage, current etc. is rectified and measured.
704 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION JNTRODUCTION TO STATIC RELAYS 705
TRANSDUCER OR
INSTRUMENT C P M C SY STEM
TRANSFORMER
SECONDARIES
D.C.SUPPLIES r--EJ
.....
----ill
RECTIFIERS
TRIP 1. Data acquisition and Data processing System 2. Protection system
RELAY- AMPLIFIER OUTPUT CIRCUIT
MEASURING DEVICE 3. Control system 4. Data transmission system
CIRCUIT 5. Man-machine interface 6. Event recording
\.._ CONS':T OF )
7. Additional required features.
COMPARATOR
LEVEL DETECTOR Fig. 38.1 (c). Combined Protection, Monitoring and Control System (CPMC).
FILTERS CPMC has sub-systems (1 to 6) in a single unit.
VOLTAGE STABILIZER
Fig. 38.1 (a). Block diagram of a static relay-simplified. An integrated static programmable protective and control system has one or more of the fol-
When the quantity to be measured reaches cer- CT
C.B lowing subsytems (Fig. 38.1 (c)).
tain well defined value, the output device is - Data acquisition and processing subsystem
triggered. Thereby current flows in the trip cir- VT - Protection system
cuit of the circuit-breaker. Fig. 38.1 (b) gives a ~TRIP
- Control system
block diagram of a microprocessor based digi-
tal, programmable static relay. INPUT AID - Data transmission system
UNIT CONV.
The required subsystems are assembled and mounted on a single panel to form an integrated
Static relays can be arranged to respond to modular programmable combined protection and control system. Fig. 38.1 (c) gives the concept of
electrical inputs. The other forms of inputs such Combined Protection, Monitoring and Control System (CPMC) programmable system.
as heat, light, magnetic field, travelling waves SETTING DATA
etc. can be suitably converted into equivalent REQUEST The total interconnected power system is managed by Supervisory Control and Data Ac•
analogue or digital signals and then fed to the
AND DISPLAY K:========::::::: quisition (SCADA) system, Energy Management Systems (EMS) and Automatic genera•
static relay. A multi-input static relay can action control systems (AGC). Integrated Protection and control programmable systems installed
cept several° inputs. The logic circuit in the in generating station control rooms, substation control rooms and load control centres form the sub-
multi-input digital static relay can determine
DATA
LOGGER
systems of the SCADA, EMS and AGC system. The programmable protection and control systems
the conditions for relay response and sequence in different locations are linked by means of data transmission channels such as Power Line Carrier
Fig. 38.1 (b ). Block diagram of a simple Microprocessor (PLC), Microwave, Fibre optic cables (For shorter lengths).
of events in the response. Based Digital Static Relay.
The unit level has protective relays each of which performs one or more protective functions
A programmable protection and control system has a microprocessor or microcom- e.g. overcurrent protection, earth fault protection. Unit level is provided for each protected zone,
~uter in its circuit. With the help of the logic circuits and the microprocessor the integrated protec- e.g. bus zone, transformer zone, line zone.
tion and control system can pe1form several functions of data acquisition, data processing, data At substation or generating station level, the microprocessor based system performs several
transmission, protection and control. Earlier, for each of these /'unctions, separate electromechanical protective functions and monitoring such as back up protection, autoreclosing sequence, sequential
or static units were used along with complex wiring. tripping, load shedding, remote signalling etc.
A static relay generally has several functional units. Some of the auxiliary functional units may At control centre level the programmable system performs several functions of load manage-
be electromechanical. ment, load frequency control, planning operation, monitoring, economic loading, moral emergency
and post-emergency actions.
The types of electronic circuits in static protection system include :
In electromechanical relays and systems, a separate relay unit is required for each protective
. \1) Analogue circuits (2) Digital circuits (3) Hybrid circuits. For very simple functions, analogue function. Several separate units are required in protective system of a greater or a large motor etc.
circuits are preferred. For complex functions, digital circuits are preferred. And separate control systems are required for performing desired control and monitoring functions.
Advanced digital Static Relays may have Programmable System. Such relays are preferred for This results in very large control panels and protection panels and complex wiring. Several
complex functions. operators are required in the control room to supervise the various control and protective panels.
A static relay may have one or more programmable units such as a microprocessor. Such relays With microprocessor based combined protection, monitoring and control systems, the complex
tasks are performed automatically. The operator can get necessary information on the VDU (Video
are called programmable relays or microprocessor based relays or microprocessor controlled relays.
Display Unit) of the man-machine interface.
Programmable Static Relay system can perform several functions including protection, monitoring,
data acquisition, control. The electromagnetic units, hardwired stBtic relay units and programmable units a:re used judi-
ciously in the control and protective systems, For simple functions electromagnetic units will con-
706 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION JN'l'RODUCTION TO STATIC RELAYS 707
tinue to be used. For multifunction relays, hardwired or programmable static relays are being (a) Advantages of Static Relays
preferred. For higher hierarchical levels at substation control rooms, power station control room and 1. Low Power Consumption, Static relays provide less burden on CT's and PT's as compared
load control centres, the Combined Programmable Protection and Monitoring and Control Systems
to conventional relays [Refer Table 38.2 (Also see Sec. 35.4 'Burden'].
(CPMC) are preferred.
In other words, the power consumption in the measuring circuits of Static Relays is generally
Table 38.1. Evolution of Static Relays and Integ1•ated
Protection and Control Systems much lower than for their electromechanical equivalents. The consumption of 1 milliwatt is quite
common in static overcurrent relay, Whereas, an equivalent electromechanical relay can have con-
Type of Unit System Remarlls 8;.unption of about 2 watts. Reduced consumption has the following merits :
Single function relays with : - Performs one or more Protective functions. - CT's and PT's of less VA rating
- Modular concept for subassemblies - The accuracy of CT's and PT's increased.
1 Analogue Circuits - Required functional block is assembled to form the relay
2 Digital circuits unit. - Air-gapped CT's c-an be used.
Multifunction relays with : - Problems arising out of CT saturation are avoided
_.:__ Overall reduction in cost of CT's and P'l"s.
1 Analogue Circuits - One or more inputs
2 Digital Circuits - The relay unit may be hardwired or programmable. 2. Resetting 'rime and Overshoots. By using special circuits, the resetting times and over-
shoot time can be reduced thereby the selectivity can be improved.
Hardwired Digital or Analog Static - Several relay units required for protection of a machine or
Protective System power system component are assembled to form one protective 3. No moving contacts and associated problems of arcing, contact bounce, erosion, replace-
system. e.g. Generator protection system, has overcurrent, ment of contacts etc.
reverse power, under voltage relay units. 4. There is no effect of gravity on operation of a static relays. The relay can be installed in
Programmable Static Protective System - It has additional logic circuit and programmable vessels, aircrafts etc.
microprocessor. Table 38.2. Reference Values of Burden of Static Halays'
~-
Integrated Protection Monitoring and - It has required fm1ctional subsystems such as data acquisition
Control System. (IPMC) unit, protective unit data transmission unit, control unit. The Item Conditions Burden per phase
microprocessor performs several functions. 1. Instantaneous Measuring Relay Measuring circuit at lowest setting 7 to 100 mVA
Also called : ··- The protective functions may be segregated (separated) from (a) Current Relay current ; 0.3 A to 20 continuous ·--
Combined Protection Monitoring and control functions suitably. e.g. protective functions may deal (b) Voltage Relny Measuring circuit at lowest setting 20mVA
Control Systems (CPMC) with tripping· of breakers whereas the control functions may
[Fig. 38.1 (c)] voltage : 24 V/48, V/60 V, d.c.
deal with monitoring data processing and control. ----
2. Time-lag Over-current Relay At rated current, given current, 0.03 to 0.08 VA
With the developments in semiconductor technology, digital electronics, microprocessor tech- setting current 1 to 8 A
nology and digital control systems fibre-optics data transmission etc. there has been a tremendous 3. Impedance Relay At rated cun-ent, rated voltage 0.2 to 0.3 VA
leap in the field of a digital static relays. The development of integrated circuits are more reliable (a) Current circuit. 0.8 to 0.9 VA
and more compact. Furthermore, the microprocessor and digital computers are being increasingly (b) Voltage circuit
used in power system protection, and control. 4. Differential Relay for Transformer protection (a) Normal current: 1 A 0.02 VA
The static relays and static protection has grown into a special branch in its own right. This (b) Normal current : 5 A 0.18 VA
section covers principles and applications of static relays and static protection systems in details.
5. Single Relay for Several Functions. By combining various functional circuits, a single
static relay can replace several conventional relays.
38.2. STATIC VERSUS ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS
For example for motor-protection, a single static relay can provide over current, under voltage,
The static relays compared to the corresponding electromagnetic relay have many advantages single-phasing, short-circuit protection by ii1corporating respective functional blocks. This is not
and a few limitations. The choice between an electromagnetic relay and a static relay depends upon possible in electromechanical relays.
- Technical requirements of characteristics and protective functions. 6. Compactness. Static relay are compact. A single relay performs several functions. A single
- Overall cost. Microprocessor based system can substitute several independent protection and control relay units.
The space required for installing protective relay and control relays etc. is reduced. A single panel
For simple protective functions and for protection of simple low power equipment,
can incorporate a protection and control system for several functions.
electromechanical relays are preferred. Electromechanical units are also be used as cotnponents of
total predominantly static relay e.g. f'or auxiliary relay functions, output functions. 7. Superior Characteristic and Accuracy. The characteristics of static relays are accurate
and superior. They can be altered within certain range as per requirement of protection. e.g. stntic
For complex protective functions requiring accurate characteristics for various protective func- distance relay can have narrow rectangular characteri8tic on R-X plane. Several features can be
tions and for protection of costly, large equipment I machine, static relays are preferred. These may incorporated depending upon the application requirements. Static relays of superior speed (½ cycle,
be hard-wired or programmable.
1 cycle) are available.
For integrated protection and monitoring systems programmable microprocessor controlled
static relays are preferred. * As there are wide ranges and applications of static relays, the above mentioned values just for familiarity, not
for application guidance.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION INTRODUCTION TO S'l'ATIC RELAYS 709
708
8. Transducers. Several electrical or non-electrical quantitie13 can be converted into electrical Some components are more sensitive than others. Even small discharges can damage the com-
ponents which would normally withstand 100 V. Precautions are necessary in manufacturing of
quantities and then fed to static relays. static relays to avoid ESD caused component failures.
9. Static Relays can 'think'. Complex protection schemes employ logic circuits. Logic means
the process of reasoning~ induction or deduction. Suppose, several conditions are imposed on a 3. Voltage Transients. The st::itic relays are sensitive to voltage spikes or voltage transients.
Such voltage transients are caused by operation of breaker and isolator in the primary circuit of
protective system such that for certain conditions, the relay should operate, and for some other
CT's and PT's. Serious over voltage are also caused by breaking of control circuit, relay contacts
conditions, the relay should remain stable; in such cases logic gates can be adopted.
etc. Such voltage spikes of small duration can damage the semiconductor components and can also
Digital electronics and Logic circuits are used with multi-input static relays. The relay deter- cause maloperation of relays. Several relay failures were recorded during 1960 due to the above
mines the response depending upon the conditions, of various inputs and the allocated logic. mentioned cause. The measurements showed that the voltage spikes in secondary circuits can at-
e.g. Static distance relay can be given additional features of auto-reclosing unit. The relay can tain an amplitude of 20 kV in rare cases and generally 12 kV.
determine whether to give reclosing command or not depending upon the impedance measurement, Special measures are taken in static relays to overcome this difficulty. These include use of
synchronizing check, feature, etc. filter circuits in relays, screening the cable connected to the relays.
10. Programmable Operation. The characteristic programmable relays can be altered by 4. Temperature Dependance of Static Relays. The characteristics of semiconductor are in-
changing the programme. 'Programme' means sequential instructions that direct the microproces- fluenced by ambient temperature. For example, the amplification factor of a transistor, the forward
sor in the relay to perform specific functions. voltage drop of a diode, etc. change with temperature variation. This was a serious limitation of
11. On-line computation and Functions. The characteristics and functions of programmable static relays in the beginning. Accurate measurement ofrelay should not be affected by temperature
relays can b() altered on the basis of on-line computation of various variables. (-10°C to+ 50°C). This difficulty is overcome by the following measures :
e.g. which back-up break.er to operate with minimum outage can be decided by prevailing net- - Individual components in circuits are used in such a way that change in characteristic of
work configuration and on-line real time data. components does not affect the characteristic of the complete relay.
12. Interface with SCADA and EMS. Static protection, control and monitoring system for - Temperature compensation is provided by means of thermistor circuits, digital measuring
substations, power stations etc. form a part ofSCADA, EMS and AGC Systems which are indespan- techniques, etc. Thus modern static relays are designed to suit wide limits of temperatures
sable in to-days AC Networks. (Ch .. 50) (-l0°C to+ 50°C).
13. Remote Back-up and Monitoring. Static relays assisted by power line· carrier can be 5. Price. For simple, single function relays the price of static relays is higher than the
used for remote back up and network monitoring. equivalent electromechanical types. [Fig. 38.1 (d)]. For multifunction protection, static relays pro-
In centrally monitored systems, the back-up protection is monitored by the digital computer. vide economical solution. The production technology of plug-in type static relays on the panel (Sec.
The switching is carried out in such a sequence that the stability is improved. (Ref. Sec. 43.10) 38.7) permits manufacture of standard relays on large scale. The customer's requirements can be
fulfilled quickly by incorporating required relay units on the panel.
14. Repeated Operations Possible. Static relays can be designed for repeated operations as
there are no moving parts in measuring circuits. 6. In electromagnetic relay, the pick-up relays or reset of relays does not affect the relay char-
acteristic since the operation is based on the comparison between operating torques. However, the
15. Effect of Vibrations and Shocks. Most of the components in static relays, including the statics relay characteristic is likely to be affected by the operation of output device.
auxiliary relays in the output stage are relatively indifferent to vibrations and shocks. The risk of
unwanted tripping is less with static relays as compared to the corresponding electromechanical For simple protective functions, conventional electromechanical relays provide economic and
relays. This aspect makes the static relays suitable for earthquake prone areas, ships vehicles satisfactory choice. For complex protection systems static relays are preferred technically and
locomotives, aeroplanes etc. · economically. As static relays perform protective and monitoring functions, the additional cost is
justified on the basis of improved system stability, reliability and availability of electric power.
16. Self-supervision (monitoring) of the Relay. Complex static relays have a facility of con-
tinuous and comprehensive self-monitoring by a special hardware called 'Watchdog' and test
38.4. RELIABILITY AND SECURITY OF STATIC RELAYS
software. Any fault which occurs within the relay (e.g. failure of a component) are detected at once.
Thus, periodic testing of the relay can be minimised. Reliability is defined as the likelyhood of that the device will perform as expected at all times.
17. Simplified testing and servicing. The static relays are provided with integrated features This includes (1) Security to not operate incorrectly and (2) Dependability to operate correctly when
for self-monitoring, easy testing and servicing. Defective module can be replaced quickly. expected.
18. Extension of application by adding suitable modules. Security of a Relay or Protection system is the factor of reliability which relates to the degree
of certainty that the relay will not operate incorrectly.
19. Several functions. A static protection control and monitoring system can perform several
functions such as protection, monitoring, data-acquisition, measurement, memory, indication, data- Reliability of protective relaying is very important. Electromechanical relays have high
communication etc. reliability, due to (1) precision, manufacture (2) few, reliable components in their construction (3)
experience gained in designing manufacturing testing and maintenance Static Relays are in infant
stage and have to prove their reliability. As the static relays have several discrete components such
38.3. LIMITATIONS OF STATIC RELAYS as resistors, capacitor$, semi-conductors in their construction, reliability depends on reliability of
1. Auxiliary Voltage Requirement. This disadvantage is now not of any importance as these components arid reliability of the total assembly. It is therefore, necessary to choose the com-
auxiliary voltage can be obtained from station battery supply and conveniently changed to suit local ponents with great care. Each components should be type tested. Care should be taken in connec-
requirements. tions, soldering etc, The ambient conditions, voltage spike, should also be considered. The use of
2. Electrostatic Discharges (ESD). Semiconductor components are sensitive to electro-static integrated circuits increases reliability of static relays. Integrated circuits are much more reliable
discharges (ESD). Electrostatic charges are developed by rubbing of two insulating components.
710 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION INTRODUCTION TO STATIC RELAYS 711
than the equivalent discrete component circuits. Reliability of components is improved by strict -- Use of new type of instrument transformers instead of conventional CT's and PT's in ultra-
quality control, presoaking the components to improve temperature response presoaking of a relay high voltage networks. Development of optoelectric components for protection is in progress.
means, operating the relay under service conditions for certain time with current and voltage con- We can expect the development of static relays to suit such devices.
nected to it. With this method, bad components and poor joints can be detected. Increasing use of digital computers and microprocessors in power system protection. A closer
Self monitoring feature in modern micro-processor based relays ensures indication of failed in- co-operation of static relays and Energy Management Systems, Scada Systems etc. is in the
ternal component. Thereby the failed component/circuit can be replaced. This increases the offing.
reliability and security of static relays. - Programmable Relays, instead of Fixed-wired Relays. This gives 'flexibility' to the protection
system.
38.5. IUSTORICAL REVIEW IN BRIEF - Combined Programmable Protection, Monitoring and Control Systems. (CPMC) have been
The major break-through in the application of electronics in power system protection o~- introduced for Protection and Control of ERV-Substation.
curred in 1928 when carrier current protection system was introduced for the protection of - Use of fibre-optic cables in pilot wire differential protection.
transmission lines. Earlier schemes were with vacuum tubes. - Ultra high speed directional wave relay (5ms) for protection ofUHV AC lines and EHV-AC
- The protective relays employing the vacuum tubes and gas tubes were not popular due to lines.
the short life of tubes, need of heater supply, slow speed, less reliability etc. Their use was - Power system simulator for realistic testing of static protection systems.
mainly in control circuits. Protective relays employing vacuum tubes did not find any com- - Protection and control system for .HVDC-Substations.
mercial success, except for carrier current protection systems.
- Transistors were invented in 1941 which led to a revolution in electronic technology. The Table 38.3
development of static relays employing semi-conductor devices such as diodes, transistors, Electromagnetic Versus Static Relays
thyristors etc. was started in 1950's.
- The first generation of static relays were with discrete (independent, separately identifiable) Conventional Statir. Relay
Function
component fitted on printed circuit boards (PCB). Relays with PCBs are manufactured even Relay
Without Thyristor With Thyristor
now.
1. Input 1-3 W lOmW 20mW
During the period 1958-1974, many leading manufacturers in the world have conducted re-
search and development in static relays technology. The static relays of second generation 2. Switching capacity 30W l0W lO0W
employ Integrated Circuits (IC). The ICs may be small scale (SSIC), Medium Scale (MSIC)
3. Power gain 8-32 1000 500
or large scale (LSIC)
-- At present schemes of generator protection, bus-bar protection, transmission line protection· 4. Continuous current rating 5A lA lA
etc. employing static relays are being used. These are with IC's and PCBs and are very 5. Time 10 m sec 20 sec 50 sec
compact (1980's). The ICs are available for Analogue and Digital Circuits.
6. Effect of vibration Bearing affected No effect No effect
Fibre optic relays (1980's) use fibre optic circuits for conduction of light pulses. Fibre-optic
relays and central circuit pilot wiring is gaining commercially success. (1990) 7. A.111bient temperature range No effect 5 to 70° C Needs compensation Needs compensation
-- Earlier generation of static relays (1970s) were with Analogue Circuits. Now Digital circuits - 20°c to 100°c
are preferred. Such relays are called 'Digital Relays' or 'Numerical Relays'. 8. Operations Above 106 No limit No limit
- Development of digital Electronics and Microprocessor (1980s) has resulted in program-
mable multi-function systems. The functions include measurement, data transmission, 9. Effect of pollution I Yes No No
protection and control. Microprocessor controlled relays have become popular. (1990's) 1.0. Testing Easier Difficult Difficult
Communication. During 1980s, power system data communication systems with (1) car-
rier communication (2) Microwave radio communication (3) Telephone communication (4)
38.7. PRESENT TRENDS IN PROTECTION AND CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (1997)
FASIMILE transmission (5) Satellite c.ommunication systems, have been introduced for
protection, monitoring and control. The trends have been from simple electromechanical relays, to Microprocessor-based Digital
Relays and finally Combined (Integrated) Protection. Monitoring and Control Systems for substa-
38.6, RECENT DEVELOPMENT OF STA1'IC RELAYS tions, generating stations and load control centres.
The present trends in static relays indicate the following aspects : These trends have followed the advances in digital electronics, digital computer technology,
- Miniaturization. Due to change-over· from discrete components to integrated circuits, the microprocessor technology etc. and are listed in Table 38.4. The details have been covered in sub-
measuring parts of static relays are compact. The size of the complete relaying system will sequent chapters.
be influenced by the size of the transformers. The application of electromechanical, static, digital static, microprocessor based relays depends
- Increased reliability and reduced price. Static relays with ICs are cheaper than these with upon complexity of protective functions. For simpler single functions, electromechanical relays may
discrete components. be preferred. For complex, multi-functions microprocessor based relays may be preferred Ref. Fig.
- Use of digital techniques for measurements, instead of analogue techniques, used earlier; 38.3.
Thereby the to~erance of individual components will not influence measurement.
Table 38.4. Historical Trends in the Protection

and Control Technology
COMI BINED
Years Product description Remarks PROTECTION,CONTROL
& MONITORING
w SYSTEM
1880-1940 Electromechanical rnlays of various Used even today for simpler protection functions ll. IJ)
>
>
types for: and simpler control functions. I- fr-n'M-r~M""l"!"TM",...,...,n-M'TTI"l"F'l'"f±'~.
<(
...J
-- Protective functions :E w
a:
- Control functions UJ
1-
,..
IJ) ...J
<(
1940-1960 Static Relays with vacuum tubes for Lateran replaced by static relays with IJ) !::
carrier differential protection and semiconductors. z
C)
microwave protection of transmission 0 C

1-
lines u
w
l-
1960-1970 Static Relays (Analog) for protection of Analog relays may have a PCB and IC. o
a:
motors, generators, transformers, ll.
busbars transmission lines etc. D.,_~~~~~~~:t:=...-
1975 1985 1990 1995
1965--70 Digital static relays Used ND conversion and digital Electronics YEARS-
Techniques IC, LSIC's used. Fig. 38.1 (d). Application trends of the various alternative
1968-75 Digital computer based static protection On-line digital computer used for protection type types of protective relays over the years.
systems used for transmission systems prodar 70 installed by westinghouse USA (In 1975 the Static Relays were used only for complex functions such as a generator protec-
for main and backup protection. (Ref. Sec. 46.15) tion, ERV-line protection etc. Today Static Relays have replaced electromechanical relays in al-
Proved costly for simpler protective Used in Generating stations, substations control
functions. centres etc. (Ref. sec. 46.4) Electromechanical Relays. These are ideally suitable for simple protective functions of in-
Digital computer based sy$tems for Integral part of Network control dividual loads. They are least costly in such applications. However for complex protective systems
- Data Acquisition (Ref. Sec. 50.4). such as protection of transmission lines, protection of generators, protection of large motors etc.
-- Data monitoring electromechanical relays are techni~ally not preferred Several relays are necessary in the protection
- Data transmission system the cost of protection with electromechanical relays increases rapidly with the complexity
-- Data processing
- Data display.
of protection (in terms of speed, characteristic number of functions etc.)
Static Relays (Analog). These are suitable for more complex functions and are preferred for
1968-75 Various types of Digital computers - Large computers for load control centres. almost all protective systems. With the use of printed circuit boards (PCB) and single chip IC's the
installed in generating station control - Medium computers for Generating stations
room, substation control room and Load
cost of static relays has reduced rapidly and they are used for a wide range of applications.
and substations.
control centres for Network monitoring - Minicomputers for small substations. Digital Static Relays. The logic circuits and digital electronics are used in relay circuits in-
and Network Automation. (Ref. Sec. 46.9) volving several functions. Such relays are preferred for complex protective systems. The relays may
1975-85 Microprocessors introduced for power have PCB or IC having fixed circuit.
Each individual protective system or control
system control and power system system can have its own microprocessor. Programmable Relays with Microprocessors. These were developed during 1975-95 and
protection Proved cost effective and Becoming increasingly popular. have become extremely popular over a very wide range of applications. The microprocessor is
advantageous for protective relays and Ref. Ch. 43.B provided within the relay. The relay can therefore perform logical functions. The relays may be with
control.
fixed programme or variable programme. Cost of micrpprocessor based relays is much less than the
1985-95 Combined (Integrated) Protection, - For integrated substation control and earlier computer based protective relays.
Control and Monitoring systems based protection
on Digital Computers, Microprocessors. - For integrated generating station protection
Digital Computer based Protective System. These were developed during 1968 in USA.
and control. However they are costly and can be justified for very complex multifunction EMS and SCAD A sys-
- For system control from load control centres. tems. They are not preferred for individual protection systems.
1985-95 Introduction of SCADA systems AGC Supervisory control and Data Acquisition systems Combined Protection, Monitoring and Control Systems (CPMC). These are being used
Systems EMS system etc. (SCADA) are applied to AC Network. The for substation protection and protection in generating stations, protection of HVDC systems etc.
protection and control functions are sub-divided at They are generally microprocessor based. They simplify the entire protection and control system
various levels in and they prove less costly for more complex and remote unattended power stations/substations.
- Load control centre Fig. 38.1 (e) and 38.1 (f) illustrate the applications and cost aspects of the above types ofprotec- ·
- Generating station control room. tion devices.
- Substation control room. Combination of Static and Electromechanical Relays. At present both static and
- Major load centres etc.
electromagnetic units are used in protection systems. 'All-or-nothing' relays are generally
Ref. Fig. 38.1 (d) which gives the trends over the years. electromechanical type and measuring relays are either static or electromechanical. For simple
2 3
4 The basic overcurrent functional circuit or unit is used in respective static protection system for
achieving overcurrent function. In static relays a large number of protective functions can be com-
.5. STATIC•
bined in one relay unit. In static protective systems, several protective relay units can be combined
t on one protection panel.
The principles of basic protective functions, viz. overcurrent, differential, distance etc. and the
basic principles of protective zones main and back-up protection, desirable aspects of protective
STATIC DIGITAL(3)
relays with respect to speed, accuracy, selectivity, discrimination sensitivity, reliability, adequate-
STATIC(ANALOG) (2)
ness, characteristic CT and VT connections etc. described in Ch. 25 to 37 apply to static protection
UECTROMEC HANI CAL(_.1) systems. However, measurements in static relays is performed by electronic circuit and not by an
I -t-2-t--3 I"" 4--t-S
electromechanical unit.
The standard terms and definitions (Sec. 25.8) have been evolved based on electromechanical
COMPLEXITY OF _. relays and their protective systems. These terms are generally applicable to predominantly static
PROTECTION &. CONTROL relays with certain restructuring wherever necessary. Terms and definitions used with Digital Com-
1. Least complex : Electro-mechanical relays puters and Microprocessor (Sec. 46.2) are applicable in the terminologies for Microprocessor based
2. Slightly complex : Static (analogue) protective and control relays.
3. More complex : Static (digital) The following sections and Chapters have a reference to predominantly static relays.
4. Very complex : Static-Microprocessor based
5. Extremely complex : Static-Digital Computer Based.
38.10.TYPES OF MEASURING AND ALL-OR-NOTHING RELAY UNITS (Ref. Sec. 25.8.3)
Fig. 38.1 (e). Preference of type of relay system with
reference to cost and complexity. 1. Measuring Relay. The relay which responds to an electrical quantity (or one of its
parameters the name of which characteristics of the relay) and the response of the relay depends
protective measuring functions, electromechanical relays are preferred. For complex protective upon the measurement of the characteristics quantity and the response characteristics of the relay.
measuring functions, static relays are preferred. Hence, the electromechanical and static relays are 2. All-or-nothing Relays and Auxiliary Relays. All-or-nothing relay is an electrical relay
equally important. Electromechanical relays are not obsolete. which is intended to be energized by a quantity, whose value is either
- higher than that at which is picks up
38.8, MODULAR CONCEPT, BUILDING-BLOCK PRINCIPLE USED - or, lower than that at which it drops out.
IN PREDOMINANTLY STATIC PROTECTION SYSTEMS Note. The adjective 'All-or-nothing' can be deleted when no ambiguity will result. Auxiliary relays, latching
and time delay relays fall into the category of All-or-nothing relays.
Modern protective measuring relays, all-or-nothing relays and other auxiliary devices are 3. Latching Relay (Bistable Relay). It is an electrical relay which having responded to an
generally of plug-in-type. The required modules are plugged into terminal base. The terminal base input energizing quantity (or characteristic quantity) and having switched, remains in that condi-
fits into the switchboard cases and rackmounted frames. The required plug-in-devices are selected tion after that quantity has been removed.
to form the required protective and control systems. e.g. app. 50 cm x 20 cm panel space can ac-
commodate upto twenty relay modules with individual targets and 120 contacts. With plug-in type The position of a bistable relay can be controlled by two input circuits (A and B) or by two
modules, the ~ime requir:d for screwing is avoided. The wiring is also minimised. The required methods of connections of one input circuit (A)
electrorr_iechanical or static relay modules and other auxiliary devices are plugged in to form the - The A condition is that condition which corresponds to the energized condition related to A
protective and control system. input circuit.
- B condition corresponds to energized condition of B input circuit.
38.9. STATIC RELAY FUNCTIONAL CIRCUITS AND INDEX OF FUNCTIONS 4. Monostable Relay (Self-reset relay). A relay which having responded (to an input ener-
gizing quantity or characteristic quantity) and having changed its condition returns to its previous
The various functional requirements for measuring units, all-or-nothing units, auxiliary units condition when the quantity is removed.
and components are defined, standardised and each unit given certain index number. The index of 5. Timing Relay or Time Delay Relay. A time-delay relay that introduces a fixed or set-time
functions consists of over 300 identified and standard functions. delay into the operation of associated function. Non-specified-time relay has no accurate time.
T_he pre~ominantly static re~ay is formed by combining required protective and auxiliary relay 6. Static Relay. An electrical relay in which the response is developed by electronic, magnetic,
funct10ns with one or more static relay unit. optical or other components without mechanical motion.
. The basis protec~ive ~ncti~ns required for protection of Generators, Motors, Transformers Note. A relay which is composed of both static and electromechanical units and which is
Lin_es: bus_bars e:c.are identi~al ~ith those studied in earlier chapters. Only the range and charac-
designed to achieve the response by means of static units is also called a static relay. In static
relays the measuring relays are static. The all-or-nothing relays are either static or electromechani-
teristics differ with each application, e.g. consider overcurrent protective function which is used in cal.
generator protection, motor protection, transformer protection. The overcurrent protection may be 7. Starting Relay or Starting Unit (Element). The element (unit) or a protection system
further subclassified into :
which responds to faults or abnormal service conditions and initiates operation of other elements
- Instantaneous overcurrent - Definite time overcurrent (units) of protection system.
- Inverse time overcurrent - Under current 8. Polarisation. A term applied to input that provides reference for establishing the direction
- Directional overcurrent - Phase fault, Ground fault functions. of system phenomena (such as direction ofreal power, direction ofreactive power, direction of fault,
direction of disturbance).
9. Biased (Restraint) Static Relay. Bias (restraint) means the action of input quantity which current relay) are represented by equations. The analogue circuits are formed by resistance
when present results in increase in the threshold value of another input quantity or otherwise limits capacitance, inductances, and protective features are added by using comparators. The analogues
the operation of the relay. Biased Relay is a relay in which the operating value is modified by means quantities are compared in comparators and the comparator distinguishes between the healthy and
of additional electronic circuit which provides restraining rendency. abnormal condition in the protected circuit. The analogue circuits can be used for solution of dif-
10. Blocking Element (unit or relay). An element (unit or relay) of a protection which under ferential equations, for integrating current/voltage, for seating, for amplifying, for summing, for
certain conditions limits or prevents the operation of other elements. comparing and for obtaining more ·complex characteristics. Table 38.6 gives summary of important
analogue circuits used in protective relays.
11. Programme. A sequential instructions that direct a microprocessor or computer to perform
Table 38.6. Standard Analogue Electronic Circuits
desired arithmetic and logical operations to perform specific tasks. Programmes form the software. used in Static Relays
Programmable Relay: Flexible Relay, Microprocessor Based Relay.
Analogue circuit Remarks Reference
A relay which responds to electrical quantities in accordance with the programme. 1. Operational Amplifiers - Basic element in analogue computation. Sec. 38.21
A programmable relay (or system) has a microprocessor or a microcomputer its functional sys- - Represented by a triangle. Fig. 38.29
tem. The programmable relay (system) performs protection functions/control functions/data trans-
- Used in circuits for addition, subtraction,
mission functions/memory functions/self monitoring functions etc. by means of digital measuring integration, differentiation, and other combinations.
techniques, programmable logic. The type of characteristic (e.g. inverse, very inverse, extremely
- Available in the form ofIC, L.S.C. Table 38.3
inverse, definite time) can be selected directly of the relay in accordance with the changes in the
- Available in very wide range of specs.
network.
- Has limitations. Table 38.13
12. Real Time (On line). The actual time during which the relay/protective systems is in the
state such that it can respond in accordance with the programme. On line protective and control 2. Inverting Amplifiers R2
Vo=R V1 Sec. 38.24
system is a programmable system which takes into account the actual quantities on the line in real 1
time. 3. Analogue Addition Summer. Vo=-(V1 + Vz) Sec. 38.24
4. Analogue subtraction Vo=V2-V1
38.11. Al'lALOGUE AND DIGITAL SUB-SYSTEMS IN PROTECTIVE RELAYING (subtractor) Sec. 38.24
The hardware used in the protective relaying system can be divided in the following three major
classes :
5. Analogue Integrator
V--
1
o- RC -f Vd
s t Sec. 38.24
(1) Analogue (2) Digital (3) Hybrid 6. Analogue Differentiator dVS

V0 =-RC- Sec. 38.24
dt
All the three types of hardware are now commonly encountered in the power system protection,
monitoring, control and also in various branches of power system engineering. Whereas during 7. Analogue Level detector. V8 ==±V« Sec. 38.24
1960's analogue and digital computation hardware was not introduced in stand-alone functional 8. Analogue Comparator V8 > Vo: output V0 positive V 8 < Vo: output V0 negative
assemblies, the situation has changed rapidly during 1970's and 80's. The development of Large Alternatively Output V0 , V0 = 0 for (V2 - V1) Positive Sec. 38.24
Scale Integrated Circuits (LSI) technology has resulted in development ofbothAnalogue and Digital V 0 =Va for (V2 - V 1) Negative.
functional devices called 'Microchips'. (Ref. Sec. 38.9) 9. Function Generator Generator certain well defined forms of functions e.g.
The microchips (either Analogue or Digital) are functionally powerful (can perform several func- steps, ramps, square wave triangular wave, sine wave.
tions) and relatively cheap (as compared with earlier PCB circuits) (Ref. Sec. 38.9) Standard function generators are commercially available.
The protection/monitoring/control system has several functional systems (modules) 10. Multifunction convertors. Several standard combinations of available commercialiy
which provide a range of non-linear analogue functions
The functional modules can be either analogue or digital and in the form of: e.g. a typica.1 convertor may provide: Multiplication,
Table 38.5. Forms of Functional Modules division, square, square root, exponential, roots, sines,
- Discrete components connected by hardwire** . t an-1 (y/x), ✓~ 2 + y 2 , l og x etc.
cosme,
- Printed Circuit Board (PCB)** 11. Analogue computer. It comprises several operational amplifiers circuits such
- Integrated Circuits (ICs)** as summer, inverter etc. The analogue computers are
- Large Scale Integrated Circuits (LSis)** used for power system studies and in real time
- Microprocessor-based circuits* computing.
- Digital computer based circuits*. 12. Digital to Analogue Gives Analogue output V 0 proportional to the digital
Converters (DAC) input (V1).
38.12. ANALOGUE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 13. Analogue to Digital Gives Digital output V 0 proportional to analogue input
Convertor (DAC). Sec. 31.25
In the engineering practice, analogue electronic circuits are used universally. These may be in v•.
form of PCB's or IC's. The required relay characteristics with certain variables (e.g. I and t for over- 14. Analogue Multiplexers. Used for converting a number of Analogue signals to a
single ADC.
*These are Digital type fixed programme or may be programmable. 15. Hybrid circuits By use of ADC and DAC the analogue arid digital circuits
*" These are either analog or digital. are combined to get Hyb.
SWI'fCHGEAR AND PROTECTION INTRODUCTION TO STATIC RELAYS
718 719
38.13. LIMITATIONS OF ANALOGUE SYS'l'EMS 38.16. PROGRAMMABLE DIGITAL PROTECTlYE AND CONTROL SYSTEMS
- Analogue computation has lesser accuracy. The accuracy is limited by resolution with which . A digital protective and control system is called 'Programmable' if tho dat .· c ·
the chosen analogue quantity (e.g. current) can be measured. Analogue quantities are, in m the systems can follow a 'P . ~ , . h , . . ~ a processmg iunct10n
(Sec. 43.28) rogrumme i.e. t e sequential mstructrnns to perform specific tasks
principle, continuous and the limits of resolution are physical effects such as wire-to-wire
spacing of potentiometers, .random circuit noise etc.
Program~~a?le Digital system ~ncorporates a general purpose processing element (Micro-
- Operational amplifier have following limitations :
p~oc;~ofir ig1tal computer) to which a programme (instructions in particular required-fashion)
1. Voltage gain falls and phase shift is produced between input and output signals for frequen- me e · e programme has a .purpose to implement specific functions in predetermined way.
cies beyond the range.
2. The transient response to step functions in sluggish. c The c?ded instructions are normally stored in the memory part of the system and th
iorms an mtegral part of the system. e program
3. Output impedance is low.
The ability to define t},e di 't 1 f ,.. b ·
4. With feedback, operational instability may be introduced. th t It 1 • ~1 a .. unc(,wns y programming gives a significant 'flexibility' into
5. Logic operations are difficult to be obtained. e ?\~m. b as? enables a~ identical programmable hardware to be used for several different
app ica ions y usmg appropnate programmes.
- Digital and programmable operations are not possible. This presents a seniors limitation in
complex protective functions. Hence, analogue protective relays are used for less complex 38.17. FORMS OF DIGITAL ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
functions.
- Digital techniques are being used increasingly and are replacing analogue techniques for seve!~rt:g!;s~ ~ompt!ex fuTnhcti?ns, hard-wi~ed ~igital logic circuits are used extensively to perform
many protective functions and this trend with continue. a unc wns. e mtegrated Cll'cmts may be called :
- Small Scale Integrated Circuits (SSTC)
38.14. DIGITAL AND PROGRAMMABLE ELECTRONIC STATIC RELAYS - Medium Scale Integrated Circuits (MSIC)
Digital electronic circuits process the information by processing descrete electrical signals in - Large Scale Integrated Circuits (LSI)
digital form. They can perform simple logic and arithmetic operations and can therefore be used - Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits (VLSI)
to construct the basis functional circuits required for protective relaying system. The digital
electronic circuits can be used to hold and store discrete information by means of 'memory'. The 2. For complex functions where flexibility is required programmable devices are used.
ability to store the information or data and to process the data by logical and arithmatical means The programmes may be of following types :
is the inherent feature of digital data processing systems including microprocessor and digital com- - Microprocessor based for complex functions
puters.
- Digital computer based for very complex functions.
The protective relaying functions require sequential operations depending upon information
being processed. The digital protective relaying has ability to determine the sequence of operations The trend is toward · · · f ·
divid l t t d mcreasmg use o microprocessor based protection systems with each in
which are performed on the basis of the information or data being processed. A digital system can ua pro ec e system. ·
be classified by the wave in which the sequence of operation is to be implemented.
3B,l8.INTEGRi\.TION A CONTROL AND PROTECTION FOR HIGH VOLTAGE
Presently three forms of digital systems have become commercial successful :
AC SUBSTATION i
1. Hardwired logic is used extensively for performing combination and sequential logic opera-
tions. AC ~he modern AC Network~ are fo~med by interconnections two or more independently controlled
2. Microprocessor (2) R e~wo~f~ (teas). The h1erarch1cal levels of control include (1) National Load control centr
3. Very large scale Integrated devices (VLSI) (Sec. ~~ota- oa control Centr~s (3) Power Station Control Rooms (4) Substation Control Room:
tion contr~f~~~~~everal supervrnory, control and protection functions are performed from substa-
38.15. HARDWIRE DIGITAL SYS'rEMS
A digital system is called hard-wired if the sequence of operation is governed by physical in-
terconnections of the digital processing elements by means of solid conducting paths (hard-wires).
trad~f!~:~ ~~~~;.;~:~~·~!:~!\v:e:~;:~~~::r!;:r ~:~:;a~:~~ ~~8t:::te~)fro1~ ~ontrol functi~ns, ~ith
of pro~ec~ion ~yst~mi,: were limited to (1) Sensing faults and abnor:::~~~::~o;;ays, t~e.tuncbons
For example in a hard-wired logic system, physical interconnections of elements, determine the
route by which the data flow between processing elements. 'rhe physical interconnection (hard- (~) Tnppmg c1rcmt-bTeakers (4) Autoreclosing of Circuit-breakers. The substation (2) G1 ~mg ~-arm
wired) determine the sequence or processing operations performed on the data. Thus the hard-wired tions and control functions were independent of the above protective functions. supervisory unc-
digital protection and control system has fixed sequence of digital computation process and fixed Wit? the cie~e!opme~t of !'rogrammable Digital Systems i.e. Microprocessor Based s stems
sequence of operations.
This type of system is designed for specific protective or control function and is therefore in-
;~ie,entire ~upe1.v1sory funct10ns, control functions, protective functions can be combi:ed (in~
Mgr~te~). The m~croprocessor based or Microcomputer based Integrated or Combined Protection
0
flexible. If the processing function has changed and the sequence process of logical operation is to S :~or!ng an~ Control Systems (CPMC) have been introduced for ERV Substation and HVDC
be charged the processing elements and their interconnections (wiring) also need to be altered. u s .at10n during 1985-90 and are-capable of performing the following functions.
Introduction to Analogue and

Digital Static Relays
Semi-conducting Material - Semi-conducting Devices - Diode - Transistor - Thyristor - Zener
Diode - Thermistors - Logic Circuits - Digital Systems - Analogue Systems - Operational
Fig. 38.1 (f) Concept of combined Protection, Monitoring and Control System Amplifier and its Applications - Analogue/Digital Conversion - Auxiliary Voltage Supplies -
(CPMC) with modern microprocessor-based Digital Relays. Smoothing Circuits - Use of Zener - Timer Circuit - Transducers - Static Directional Units -
Logic Circuits - Negative Sequence Circuit - Summary
Table 38. 7. Functions of Combined Protection, Monitoring
and Control (CPML) in EHV-AC Substations Section 1. SOLID STATE DEVICES
Protective Functions Busbar protection, Transformer protection, Transmission line protection.
Automatic functions Synchronizing. 38.19. SEMICONDUCTING MATERIALS
Load switching, Sequential operations Tapchanging and voltage control. Load
Shedding System restoration The common semiconducting materials are germanium and silicon. The resistivity of semicon-
Supervision and Data collection ductors lies between that of insulators and good conductors. The electrical resistivity of semicon-
Monitoring Data logging ductors decreases with temperature. Both germanium and silicon belong to the 4th group of periodic
Fault annunciation table, thereby they exhibit inertness. These materials have covalent bonds amongst their atoms.
Sequential event recording
Measurnments If germanium or silicon crystals contain no impurities, the only current carries present are
Disturbance recording those produced by the thermal breakdown of the covalent bonds.
Remote control They are called intrinsic semiconductors. In general however the germanium crystals contain
Interlevel communications. Communication between two levels e.g. control centre and sub-station control some trivalent (such as iridium) and some pentavalent (such as Arsenic) impurities of the materials.
room. .The formation of covalent bonds with a pentavalent impurity still leaves an excess electron in the
Manmachine Interface Display,·instructions etc; outermost orbit of the atom thereby making the material behave as if it is an n-type material. It
Construction Principle. Most of the functions are performed by the substation CPMC system by means that the excess electron or negative change is available for conduction. Silicon is used in
means of Microprocessor or microcomputer in accordance with the stored Software (programme). The semiconductor devices now.
software in modularised to facilitate incorporation of new functions and to simplify future extension. In a similar way an addition of a trivalent impurity makes the material behave as ifit is P-type.
Building block principle is used. The total CPMC system is tailor-made with required plug-in modules This is because there are only three electrons in the outer-
inserted on a standard racks. Combined protection Control and Monitoring System prove economical for most orbit of the impurity atom which has to form a bond
p
complex protective tasks such as those for EHV-AC substations and HVDC substations. with the 4 electrons in the outermost orbit of the atom of the N
material, thereby giving a deficiency (hole) of an electron for HOLES---1--<1►
Summary stable covalent bond. ELECTRONS

As a result pentavalent impurity in the semiconducting
In static relays the mee.surement is performed by static circuits. The static relays have following material makes it ·behave negatively (surplus electrons) and
types: " trivalent impurity makes the materials positively (surplus
(1) Analogue relays (2) Digital Relays. The static relays are assembled by using Printed Circuit holes or unfilled electrons). For n-type materials, electrons
Boards (PCB) or Integrated Circuits (IC's). Earlier relays were fixed wire relays having certain are called major carriers holes being minor carriers. For p-
functional circuits. type materials it is vice-versa. Semiconducting materials
The recent generation of static relays are 'Programmable Relays'. Programmable static relays added with such impurities are called Extrinsic semiconduc-
are 'flexible'. Programmable static relays include 'Microprocessors' or 'digital' computers in their tors.
circuits, Most recent advances include Combined Protection Monitoring Control Systems incor- P.N. Junction
porating microprocessors or microcomputers.
With the developments in digital techniques and microprocessors, the static relays with When there is no external connection made to p-njunc-
microprocessors have become commercially acceptable. The static relays are preferred for almost tion there is tendency due to diffusion for the electron of the ANODE CATHODE
all protective functions and the use of electromechanical relays is now rapidly reducing to very n-region to cross in the p-region and vice;versa. 'I'his creates
simple protective functions and auxiliary relays. a potential barrier across the junction as •if an external
source of e.m.f. is connected. Fig. 38.2. Forward Bias of ap-n junction.
Semi-conductor Devices for Static Relays.
As regards, diodes and transistors, only silicon type are used today. Germanium is no more
used due to poor quality such as high temperature dependance. Avalanche type diodes are used in
circuits exposed to voltage transients. Avalanche diodes have better withstand against transient
overvoltages compared to other types. Regulating diodes (Zener diodes, current regulating diodes)
are used on static relays mainly to obtain stable reference voltage. In static relays circuits voltage
stability tends to be the best at 5-6 volts with very low temperature coefficient and hence zener
diodes with this zener voltage rating are widely used. Current regulating diodes are also called
upon to protect the sensitive components from voltage and current transients. Uni-junction tran-
sistors are mainly used in time circuits as voltage level sensor organs where they have proved to
be stable and have low temperature dependance. Thyristors are used in output stage in series with
7--------------- 0.2 V +V trip coil or tripping relay. A sudden rise in anode-cathode voltage can unduly trigger the thyristor.
i REVERSE
Hence triggering of transistor due to over-voltage transient should be prevented.
I VOLTAGE FORWARD
VOLTAGE---;...
REVERSE I 38.20.2. (B) Zener-Diodes (Voltage Regulating Diodes)
BREAK-DOWN I
Zener diode is used for voltage stabilization.
►: Zener diodes have been developed in range of from a few volts to several hundred volts and for
power-handling ability of over 100 Watts.
Some reverse biased junction diodes exhibit breakdown at a very low reverse voltage (about 5
volts) due to spontaneous pairs within the junction region from inner electron shells.
Fig. 38.3. Current voltage characteristic of p-n junction Diode. Zener diode can operate in reverse breakdown mode continuously without damage. Fig. 38.4
illustrates the characteristic of a zener diode. Under reverse breakdown condition, for a wide range
The majority carriers are now able to cross the junction constituting considerable currents. The
of current the voltage across the zener diode remains constant. This property is used in voltage
relation between current and voltage is shown in Fig. 38.3 p-njunction has rectifying characteristic.
regulator circuits.
When alternating voltage is applied to the p-n junction, large current flows for half cycles during Zener diodes are silicon diodes, having low reverse voltage and reverse current being very small,
which P is positive and N negative.
at a certain reverse voltage however the current increases very rapidly and is limited by external
impedance. The voltage across the zener diode remains fairly constant over a wide range of reverse
38.20. SOLID-STATE DEVICES : (BRIEF INTRODUCTION) currents. Hence, the voltage across the zener diode is held constant and the zener diode can be
Several solid-state devices have been developed during the last thirty five years and several used for stabilizing the voltage. The
new are being developed. A brief introduction to solid-state devices is given here for the sake of reverse voltage at which the sudden-
familiarity. ly increase current occurs is called z
38.20.1. Semiconductor Diode
A junction between n-type and p-type semiconducting materials is called p-n junction. Diode
Zener voltage or breakdown voltage.
No damage is done by operating
zener diode in reverse current condi-
3::w
0(!}
9~
::.:::
<Co
~>
_, !, ()
0
SYMBOL OF
ZENERDIODE
consists of a p-n junction and has two terminals. There are several types of diodes. The manufac- tion upto certain limit. Zener diodes co a:
turing methods include grown junction method, alloy junction method, diffused-junction method, are available with zener voltages
I
I ~
a:
combination method. Diodes are rated for peak inverse voltage (p.i.v.), i.e. maximum voltage be- from 3V to several hundred volts 50 I 0
LL
I
tween anode and cathode which the diode can withstand in reverse direction. While employing diode volts being quite common. -E-- REVERSE VOLTS
in a.c. circuits, the peak voltage of alternating voltage should not exceed peak inverse voltage of The voltage of Zener diode chan- -7 I -5 -3 -1 2 3 4
diode. Diode is used for rectification. Diode offers low resistance to current in forward direction and ges with temperature. Zener diodes
high resistance in reverse direction. The parameters of a diode include the p.i.v. maximum power below zener voltage above about 5 V FORWARD VOLTS
dissipation, maximum voltage ancl. current, operating temperature and storage temperature, (called avalanche diodes) have posi-
capacitance, recovery time, maximum forward and reverse current, time of application of voltage tive temperature coefficient. Below
surge, etc. Point contact diodes have high peak inverse voltage, high reverse resistance. They are this value the Zener diodes (called w cu
used in high frequency and fast switching applications. Current limiting diodes allow constant cur- field effects diodes) have negative w E
~
(/)~
rent for a wide range of voltage across them. They are used in bias circuits, differential amplifiers, a: 1-
temperature coefficient. A combina- w Z
>w
0
ramp ancf stair generators, over-current protection within the circuits, etc. Planer diodes are tion of forward connected diodes and > wa:
_ _ 1-
a: ::>
a:
amongst the integrated circuits. They have high reliability, reduced capacitance stable perfor- reverse connected zener diodes is z<( _ _ _ ()
mance, high switching speeds. Zener diodes have constant voltage across them for wide range of
reverse current. They are used for voltage s~abilization and voltage regulating circuits.
PN junction diodes can cong,uct only in one direction, i.e. in the direction of ~he arrow.
used to overcome temperature ef-
fects.
tiz
0
()
i
\ Zener diodes can be connected in
suitable series circuit along with volt- Fig. 38.4. Characteristic of Zener diode.
SWI'I'CHGEAR AND PROTECTION INTRODUCTION TO STATIC RELAYS 725
724
38.20.3. PNPN Devices and Thyristor Tripping Circuit
age grading parallel resistors for surge suppression.
PNPN devices consist of four regions arranged as shown in Fig. 38.8. We will briefly discuss
38,20.2, (C) Junction Transistor (Bipolar Transistor)
about silicon-controlled rectifier Silicon-controlled rectifier has two stable states, one in which the
Transistors are used in amplifiers, level detectors, switching circuits. resistance is very low (the conducting state) and the other in which the .resistance is very high
A junction transistor has two junctions and can be either PNP or NPN transistor ~s shown in (non-conducting state). The device can be switched from non-conducting to conducting state very
Fig. 38.5. In PNP transistor a N-type layer is sandwiched between two P-type layers [Fig. 38.5 (a)]. rapidly, and very little power is required to bring about
I
this change. Thus PNPN device exhibits a property
I similar to that of thyratron but is far more efficient. The
EMITTER COLLECTOR I EMITTER device is mainly used for switching and power control
·\4...---.---.---; I . e.g. controlled rectifier. In thyristor (SCR) a brief signal
I
p N p I N P N (positive-charges or holes) into the base P-gate causes
i current to flow. The action is self-sustaining and even
if the gate current is removed, the anode current con-
BASE BASE tinues to flow. In other words the thyristor is on. A Fig. 38.8. Schematic diagram of
reverse signal to the gate (negative) can make the PNPN, P-gate type.
thyristor off. Or if the circuit is interrupted by the
EMITTER COLLECTOR EMITTER COLLECTOR auxiliary switch of the circuit breaker, the original non-conducting state is reached.
Thyristor (Silicon Controlled Rectifier) is employed in the output stage of static relays as il-
lustrated in Fig. 38.9. The measuring circuit of relay sends a pulse to gate of thyristor when
threshold condition is reached. The thyristor triggers and the current from battery flows through
trip coil of the circuit breaker. The circuit breaker opens and the auxiliary switch also open as it
is interlocked with the circuit breaker and thereby the thyristor is turned off.
BASE BASE TRIP COIL
Fig. 38,5 PNP and NPNTransistors,

In NPN transistor a p-type layer is sandwiched, between two N-type layers [Fig. 38.5 (b )] ,
Fig. 38.6 (a and b) illustrates the circuit, symbol and Fig. 38.7 represents the characteristic of
a FET. There are several other combinations of connections. When drain voltage is increased, the.
l a AUXILIARY
SWITCH
GATE
drain current increases. The slope of ZN- VncVnc depends upon Vas (Gate to source voltage). -=- BATTERY I
I
SIGNAL FROM
+ G RELAY CIRCUIT
GATE
PTYPE
'
I
I
GATE
\ S = Source Terminai I
SOURCE I
t---_ _D_-<>+ DRAIN JG Vos G = Gate Terminal
s Go-----t---, j D = Drain Terminal
N TYPE CHANNEL
+\ Fig, 38,9, Schematic diagram of thyristor tripping circuit,
There are several types of thyristors such as :
VGS .__,.,s
(1) Reverse blocking thyristor (2) Bidirectional thyristor (3) Turn off Thyristor (4) P-Gate
Fig, 38.6 (a) Structure ofFET. Fig. 38.6 Symbol ofFET (Field Effect Transistor). Thyristor, etc. The following discussion pertains to P-gate thyristor only.
1. Application of positive voltage to gate with respect to cathode terminal.
t 2. Setting up a displacement current in P-type region, by means of a pulse-positive with respect

to cathode, to the gate. The second method is used in the output stage of static relays.
Thyristor can be used in several applications such as controlled rectifiers, motor control circuits,
temperature control devices a.c./d.c. ,switch circuits, inverters etc.
In typical thyristors, the range of rated forward current covers a few amperes to s.everal
hundred amperes. The thyristor can be triggered by a momentary pulse (4 µ sec) of a few mil-
liamperes gate current. When used in a.c. circuits, the gate current pulse can be timed so as to fire
Vos---1- the SCR at the desired angle with each positive half cycle, thereby producing phase control. .
Fig. 38.7. Cha;racteristics of'FET.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION' INTRODUCTION TO STATIC RELAYS
726 727
38.20A. Power Switching Techniques with "Thyristors" A new type of potentiometer called cemeto potentiometer is being widely used in static relays.
Conventional electromagnetic relayE and contactors have numerous disadvantages, the moving It consists of a semiconducting material.
parts wear out quickly when the rate of switching is high. There is ~lso a d~nger of a~cing acr?ss Carbon resistors are rarely used in static relays. Instead, metal-oxide resistors, metal film resis-
the contacts which demands flame proof enclosure if the contactor is to be mstalled m explosive tors and wire-wound resistors are used. .
atmosphere. Their efficiency can be adversely affected by dust and other air-born contaminants. 38.20.8. Capacitors
'Thyristors' have made possible solid state switching devices. These devices perform the operations
Capacitors are used in time circuits, integrating and differentiating circuits filter circuits
performed by electro-mechanical units but with few of their disadvantages. smoothing circuits, protective-circuits of static relays. The selection depends on de~ired quality. '
A.C. and D.C. Switching. A thyristor can be regarded as a conventional diode (rectifier)
In time circuits, high stability and low leakage currents are desired. Plastic dielectric capacitors
equipped with a third terminal through which a small pulse of current in injected to trigger it. are, therefore, preferred.
Unlike the conventional rectifier the thyristor blocks both negative and positive voltages until the
trigger signal is applied. Once triggered, the thyristor will pass current in one direction until the Polyc~rbonat~ capacitors are generally used where high stability (better than 1%) is needed.
end of half a cycle when the current drops to zero. If a second pulse is applied at the next half cycle, ~lect_rolytic ca~acitor~ are rarely used in static relays except in uncritical circuits such as smoothing
the action is repeated. In other words, if the potential across the thyristor is suitable, the thyristor circuits offeedmg devices. Tantal electrolytic capacitors are better as regards stability than common
electrolytic capacitors.
triggers when a pulse is applied to the gate
and it continuous to conduct till the poten- Capacitor Units
tial is suitable. Thyristors can be used for Separate plug-in modules of capacitor units are used in static protection systems. The standard
a.c. and d.c. switching application with units can be ordered and kept as spares. Capacitor units are available for
high reliability. Fig. 38.10 gives diagram of - Auxiliary relay pick-up and drop-out circuits
a single phase thyristor switch. ---11 OUTPUT - For impulse lengthening or shortening
The thyristor conducts for half the - For feeding trip coils upto 300 W, during interruption of auxiliary power. These units
cycle when forward biased, provided posi- capacitors of following type :
tive pulse is applied to its gate. At natural INPUT
(1) Aluminium-Electrolytic Capacitors (wet type)
current zero of the wave the thyristor auto-
- 16 V.220 µF to 63 V, 47 µF .
. matically turns off. The period of conduc- Fig. 38.10. Single phase thyristor switch.
tion in half cycle can be controlled by con- (2) Tantalum-Electrolytic capacitors :
trolling the phase of the pulse applied to gate. Two thyristors are necessary to get conduction for - 6 V, 330 µF to 350 V, 47 µF.
full-wave. In d.c. circuit, only a single thyristor of enough rating will be adequate instead of two
thyristors shown for a.c. circuit in Fig. 38.10. · 38,21. PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS WITH DISCRETE COMPONENTS
38.20.5. Triac . T~e task of_ connecting the discrete ( i.e. separate, individually identifiable), components was
The output element of a static relay can be a Triac. Triac is a further development of SCR. simplified by usmg Pre-printed Circuit Boards. Complete circuit is printed and etched on insulating
Thyristor (SCR) conducts only in one direction (DC) when a positive pulse is applied to its gate; board: and conducting material is filled into eached portion to provide electrical connection between
and conducts until the DC supply is interrupted. Triac is bi-directional device and passes current the discrete components (resistors, capacitors, discrete components are inserted in the cavities
in either direction (AC.) when triggered by either positive or negative gate signal: Once turned on, provided in the board and terminals are soldered. The PCB's can be plugged into a frame in a
the triac conducts till the load current falls to zero. In D.C. circuit load current should be switched modul~r fo~m to get a compact and simple standard assembly. The first generation of static relays
off by an auxiHary switch. In A.C. circuit load current reaches zero twice in a cycle. was wit,h di~crete components. The PBC circuits were much compact than the value circuits. The
With signal continuously present on the gate, the triac automatically turns on and off at the n:ianufact_urmg process was also more economical and faster. However the reliability was not en-
beginning and end of each half cycle. Thus the period of conduction is almost a complete cycle. tirely satisfactory one to large number of discrete components.
Since SCR and Triac cuts-off at current zero, there is no problem of switching over-voltages The second,generation of static relays was with integrated circuits (!C's). The static relays with
and radio-interference. IC's are most compact and have higher reliability.
38.20.6. Thermistors
38.22. STATIC RELAYS WITH INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
Thermistors are used for temperature measurement, temperature compensation circuits. The
types include negative-temperature coefficient thermistor and positive temperature coefficient ther- :he hybr~d !C's h~ve resistance, capacitance, and R-C circuits formed by depositing conducting,
mistor. The resistance of an n.t.c. thermistor decreases with the increase in temperature. semi-conductmg and msulating materials on a passive or a neutral base such as glass or ceramic,
38.20.7. Resistors by process of diffusion, printing/doping. These are not truly monolithic !C's but a step towards
!C's. '
Variable resistors are frequently used in static delays for continuously setting the operating
values, time delays etc. Potentiometers are weakers links in relay circuits as regards reliability. Truly monolithic IC has a basic electronic circuit (with its passive elements such as resistors
Hence. care should be taken in choosing the type of potentiometer for particular applications. Wire- ca~acitors and active elements such as diodes and transistors) in a single piece of silicon wafer
wound type is most common. The reliability of this type is high upto a few kilo-ohms value. Carb- (chip). The entire circuit is formed in a single manufacturing process.
on-potentiometers which are widely used in other electronic circuits are not suitable for static relays A single silicon wafer of about 25mm diameter can accommodate about ten to hundred IC's
as regards precision and stability. made simultaneously, the number depending upon the complexity and size of individual circuits.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION. INTRODUCTION TO STATIC RELAYS 729
728
The individual IC's are then separated. To give an idea, a complete IC comprising about 12 tran- In Reed Relay with normally
2 closed contacts, a permanent biasing
sistors and associated resistors can be accommodated on a 1.3 mm . The IC package containing magnet is placed near the tube. The
2
this circuit and terminals will be about 1.5 mm . reads remain closed due to magnetic REED
Such a circuit is known as Integrated Circuit (IC). Integrated Circuits for common functions are field of the magnet. When the coil is
manufactured on large scale as per international standards (IEC 147, 141). Standard IC's are commer- energised, it gives a magnetic field
cially available (Ref. Table 38.3). Integrated Circuits can be broadly divided in two categories. opposite to that of the permanent- GLASS
TUBE
- Analogue - Digital biasing magnet. Thereby the total
Analogue IC's operate on continuous signals and linear range. They are used mainly in opera- field is zero and reeds open. When
tional amplifiers, oscillators, regulators etc. (Ref. Table 38.3). They find application in carrier cur- the current in field coil is stopped, the
reeds come in closed position due to Fig. 38.11 (a) Reed relays operated by magnetic coil.
rent protection, and various static relay functional circuits. Digital IC's are principally used as
the field of the permanent magnet. Coil energised - relay closes Coil de-energised - relay opens.
switching units which perform on/off function. These I C's do not require precise components like
Analogue IC's. Hence Digital IC's are easier and cheaper to manufacture and are preferred in wide
FIELD OF MAGNET
range of applications such as binary logic circuits, switching gates, etc. (Ref. Table 38.3).
Table 38.3, Integrated Circuits
+
Digital Analogue (Linear) PERMANENT
MAGNET
Inverters Operational amplifiers Logic
Flip-flops
Monostable circuits
Pulse generators
Peramplifiers
A.F. amplifiers
Z.P. amplifiers
FIELD OF
COIL
--~
'!MAGNETIC FIELD
... s When
S closed = C open
S opened = C closed
Power amplifiers OF MAGNET
Emitter-coupled circuits
Schmitt triggers etc. Voltage regulators Fig. 38.11 (b) Reed relay with permanent magnet and magnetic coil.
NAND, NOR, AND, OR Gates Wideband amplifiers (iii) Typical Characteristic of a Reed Relay
Transistor-transistor circuits Level detectors etc.
Continuous Current rating 0.1 A to a few amperes
The digital systems are based on pulse and pulse chain inputs. They are used in logic circuits. (main contacts)
Logic circuits are being increasingly used in protective relaying. Operating time 1 ms.
Monolithic techniques are used to make ICs (Integrated Circuits). A monoli.thic circuits is con- Switching capacity Upto 50 W
tained within a single crystal. The advantages of integrated circuits compared with discrete cir- (main contracts) (recently)
cuits* (*circuits where various separate components are connected to form the circuit) include:
Number of operations 106
(a) Higher total reliability as number of soldered points is reduced.
Number of contact-pairs Upto 6
(b) Smaller dimensions. (c) Generally, lower price.
(d) High stability due to uniform temperature in the monolithic circuit. 38.23. STATIC DIRECTIONAL UNITS
(e) Design is simplified.
(i) ~all Gener~tor. Hall _generator consists of a semi-conductor flat crystals usually N-type
38.22.1. Reed Relays Germamum, placed m magnetic field created by voltage coils (Fig. 38.12). Current is passed through
(i) Application. Reed relays are not static devices. They are used in industrial control Circuits the crystal, from one edge to the other. A d.c.e.m.f. 'E' appears the mid-points of the other edges of
and Switching Circuits. Reed relays are sometimes used in between conventional input device and the crystal (Ref. Fig. 38.12).
solid state logic circuits. Reed relays are used in low voltage, low current circuits. The d.c.e.m.f.'E' depends upon the phase angle between the flux produced by voltage coil and
Conventional electromagnetic relays are used in majority of application. However, reed relays the current. This property is used to obtain the measurement of phase angle between V and J for
are used in logic circuits and where the contacts need the following : directional relays (Ref. Fig. 38.12).
(ii) Magneto-resistors. These devices have been recently developed. Their resistance depends
- Sealed construction to overcome problems of dust, humidity, corrosive fumes.
upon the surrounding magnetic field. This property is utilized in them in using directional units.
- Faster switching, repeat accuracy.
- Large number of switching cycles. - High repetition rate due to rapid response of the elements.
1
- Unaffected by shock and vibration.

(ii) Construction. (Ref. Fig. 38.11) The reed relays consists of a set of pairs contacts on two
long flat strips (Reeds) of ferromagnetic material. The other end of reeds are fused into glass tube - Require no maintenance of adjustment, space saving.
which is hermetically sealed and filled with inert gas like nitrogen. Contact tips are plated with Can be used in dusty, humid or corrosive atmosphere.
silver or gold for lowering contact resistance. Enables sequential control circuits to be arranged which memorize their information, even
The tube is surrounded by a coil. When current flows through the coil, the magnetic field causes in the case where the power supply is cut-off.
magnetisation of the reeds. The contact ends get opposite polarity. Thereby the contact get closed. Complete eliminating of race condition due to non-simultaneity in the operation of closing,
On removal of the magnetic field the reeds reach the original open state. opening and inversion of the different contacts of a relay.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION INTRODUCTION TO STATIC RELAYS 731
730
Each input and output line must be in one of the two possible states at any given time. For
instance a line may be 'on or off, i.e. 'conducting, or 'non-conducting'. The output of a logic circuit
is a function of its input. We will not bother about why the circuits behave that way, but only see
how they operate.
Switching circuits are made up of interconnection of basic 'logic blocks'. Five common functions
are performed by logic blocks used in static relays and computers, these are
AND OR NOT NAND MEMORY. Logic units can be used in all fields of "on and off' control.
MAGNETIC FIELD_ They are particularly suitable for the following applications : (Ref. Sec. 44.14)
PRODUCED BY -
VOLTAGE COILS
- Installations requiring fairly complicated sequences of operation; the use of static logic ele-
ments is particularly interesting in complex problems or in those which involve a large num-
ber of variables, e.g., Auto-reclosing schemes.
The term logic variable is used for a quantity which expressing these states, can only two dis-
tinct values, conventionally designated O or 1. This quantity can occur in the form of a voltage of
the terminals of a circuit, a current in the coil of a relay or electrovalve, illumination of a photo-
I electric cell, opening or closing of a relay contact or a limit switch stop etc.
These functions will be explained here with the diagram-symbol and the truth-table of each.
38.25. AND FUNCTION (Ref. Table 44.2 a)

The function is equal to 1 when all the variables are equal to 1.
The function is O when one or more varial is 0. Here 'l' and 'O' denote the two states such as
'------ V - - conducting, non-conducting or positive and negative.
(a) Hall generator.
Logic Truth Table
I
I A B C =A andB A
AMPLIFIER C
V HALL
GENERATOR
OUTPUT TRIP CIRCUIT
0
0
0
1
0
0
B AND
C =A andD
I )I,.
1 0 0
(b)Directional relays unit employing Hall generator. Fig. 38.14.
Fig. 38.12. Hall generator for Directional Protection. 1 1 1
Section II. DIGITAL CIRCUITS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
AND function is represented by the symbol A e.g., x Ay means x andy. [Symbols A,+ n are
IN PROTECTIVE RELAYING used for AND functions]. Consider two statements A and B.
38.24. LOGIC CIRCUITS* The entire statement can now be written as 'A and B' or 'A AB' where
Complex prqtective relays can be achieved by means oflogic approach. A switching circuit may Truth Table AND function
be though on in ,terms of the schematic Fig. 38.13. If A is true 1.
VARIABLES
A B AAB
FUNCTION
If A is false 0.
... 1 1 1
INPUTS - SWITCHING If B is true 1. 1 0 0
CIRCUIT ---➔ OUTPUTS
---+ 0 0 0
- . 0 1 0
Fig. 38.13. Schematic diagram of a logic circuit. If B is false 0.
AND Circuit. The output C is positive + if all the inputs are positive. Output is negative if
* Ref. Sec. 44.14, Table 44.2 for symbols. one or more in inputs are negative.
Voltage Truth Table 38.26. OR FUNCTION (Ref.Table 44.2 b)
j C=AAB
-IC
A B
Consider the two statements A and B.
:---11 Fig. 38.15

+
+
+
+ +
A= Mohan is an Engineer
B = Mohan is a Doctor
True= 1, False= 0
True = 1, False = 0
C = Mohan is an Engineer or a Doctor
A or Bis written in AV B,A uB
Fig. 38.16 illustrates a logic AND gate achieved by Diodes. It is called Diode Logic. This gate Logic Truth Table
can be achieved either by a discrete component circuit or by integrated circuit (IC). A B C=A orB
0 0 0
A
0 1 1 =AVB
1 0 1 -AORB
AND Circuit 1 1 C=AUB
1
Truth Table (Ref. Fig. 33.16)
A B C Fig. 38.18.
A-----ff-~~---► C Th~ function equals 1 if one or more variables equal 1. Conversely the function is zero if all
the variables are zero. ·
+
Or Circuit with Diode
+
+ + +
8 ------1...---- In Fig. 38.19 the output C is positive if inputs A ORB is positive. Otherwise C is negative.
A
:_ _ _--;[
_____:---,),,... C
B C
Truth Table
Fig. 38.16. AND circuit using diodes.
A B C=A ORB
The input terminals have one of the two states called.
high low + +
+ + +
1 0
+ + +
The output also has two states.
Consider the logic of the Fig. 38.16. When both VA AND Vb are high (+, 1) the two diodes are
reverse biased. Hence the current does not flow through resistor and the output C is at high (+ or
A
8 t OR 7
1). Fig. 38.19.
Hence when VA AND VB are+, the output Ve is+. This is AND function drops to low(-, 0) . !he OR op_eration is performed by contacts in parallel in conventional relay systems. Relay X
Fig. 38.17 illustrates AND gate employing contact a, b and contactor X. When a AND b are m Fig. 38.20 picks up and produces and output signal at its normally open contact X when of the
closed, contactor X closes contacts x. contacts a OR b is closed.
•
I -1
+ ,:=i)-, I
J.
a
0
1
0
1
b
0
0
1
1
X
0
0
0
1
a b
l
I :~
a
0
1
0
1
b
0
0
1
1
X
0
1
1
1
X I J.
X
Fx=a • b
Fig. 38.17, AND gate with conventional contacts a, band contactX. Fx=a+b
Fig. 38.20 OR circuit with conventional contacts a, b and contactor X
734
38.29. MEMORY FUNCTION (STORAGE FUNCTION)
38.27. NOT FUNCTION (Ref. Table 44.2 c)
The memory unit retains the binary signal for a definite or indefinite period of time. In con-
This function is negative e.g., Mohan is not a child. NOT function is signifies negation ventional relays, a self-holding contactor retains its
contacts in closed position retains the memory for SIGNAL K Qt--------0
A a short duration of time and a magnetically latched -~--'-----€---<IT
~A--~\ NOT li-----,4 0

1
1
0
NOT function contractor for an indefinite time. These are monos-
table or single short functions. Storage functions
have two states : 'set and cleared'. These states are
Qi--.-------Q
..__.,,,___,
Fig. 38.21 either of definite time or indefinite time.

Statement A = Mohan is a child. (i) Monostables. These have a single input
pulse. The 'monostable multivibrator' or 'single
A means not A. shot' (because it gives a single pulse). In conven-
-t5V
The function is equal to 1 when single variable is zero. tional relays, the definite time storage with a single
The function equals zero when single variable is to 1. Hence pulse is achieved by RC element. A single can be (a) Monostable Circuit.
NOT function signifies that the incoming signal and out- delayed by a RC network or a time-delay relay. If
put signal are inversed. In Fig. 33.22, when contact A of con- C' C a pulse is applied to the input of such a time an out-
ventional relay is closed, contact C of contactor C' is opened. put pulse having a limited period Tis produced. The
When A is open, C is closed. In other words C =A, i.e. C = NOT period of T is determined by the RC element. The lJ.._______..__,.;i__ _ _ __
output signal can be delayed by combining the -t
A. timer with other basic functions. Fig. 38.24 (a) il-
lustrates a typical circuit which generates a pulse
38.28. COMBINED FUNCTIONS (Table 44.2 j, k) .
About 75% logic operations can be achieved by logic gates
AND, NOT, OR. These are used on combinations:
Fig. 38.22. NOT Function with convention
relay contact A and contactor contact C. in response to a trigger pulse. The width W of the
output pulse is adjustable. This circuit can be called
as monostable or monostable multi-vibrator.
"\+--~ ---~
NAND = NOT AND NOR = NOR OR In Fig. 38.24, the output Q of the flip-flop is con-
nected to clear C through resistor R 1.
&I t -
'NAND' Function. NOT AND is shrinked to NAND. Its Boolean Symbol is I• For example
A I B or AB orA+B. Because of this connection this circuit has only 0
one stable state q = 1 and Q = 0. -t
II
A
Truth Table
B
+
C
+
+
If Q does becomes zero, the voltage Ve decays
towards zero until V10 stage is reached [Fig. 38.24
(b)]. At this instant, the flip-flop clears and Q goes
tl__.___.__
- Fw=J
8
I +
+ +
+ back to 1 and Q goes to zero.
Thus the state with Q = 1 and Q = 0 is unstable
and persists for a pulse with Wwhich depends upon
R1 C2 time constant.
(b)
-t
Wave forms of Monostable.
Fig. 38.24. Monostable.
Fig. 38.23
. In static relay circuits, monostables are used for a variety of timing application such as produc-
B C=AB=A+B tion of pulses of specified width, production of delayed waveforms etc. For example, the trigger T
A
given to a triggering circuit (Ref. Fig. 38.24) could be used
0 0 1 to produce a pulse of width Wrequired in a particular ap-
0 1 1 plication.
1 0 1
(ii) Flip-flop Bi-Stables. Two NAND gates can be
1 1 0 connected back-to-back in such a way that the output of
'NOR' Function, NOR is a combination of NOT OR. Boolean symbol is t e.g. At B • one element is connected to the other elem.ent and vice
A B B=.tB A B B=AtB verse.
In set-reset flip-flop (S-R flip flop). (Ref. Fig. 38.25)
0 0 1 +
If both Sand Rare held at 1, the Q and Q continue
1 0 0 + + their respective earlier state. If S is kept 1 and R is set
1 0 + to 0, Q will be forced to zero and Q will be forced to 1. If
0
1 1 + + R is returned to 1, without changing S.Jrom 1, the output
1
state remains indefinitely Q = 1 and Q = 0. Fig. 38.25. Set reset flip-flop using NAND gates.
736
Similarly if R is kepi__l while S is set zero output is forced to O while Q becomes 1. If S is gate .circuit is shown in Fig. 38.27. The circuit contains a Multi-emitter input transistor (which is
returned to 1 and Q = 0. Q = 1 persists. Thus by applying the correct pattern 1 - 0 to S-R inputs possible only in Integrated Circuit and not in discrete component), in which the collector currents
the desired state can be achieved at Q. The circuit retains that state until an appropriate input is is the sum of two emitter currents. The multi-emitter input transistor has behaviour similar to
single emitter transistor.
changed.
In other words, the flip-flop circuit retains the binary signal and has a memory. v+
(AUX.SUPPLY)
38.30. FAMILIES OF LOGIC CIRCUITS Zkll
The logic functions can be achieved by applying the following elements. Accordingly, the family Vx
or logic circuit is named. (INPUT) (OUTPUT)
NPN
- Diode-Transistor Logic DTL Va o-----'< NPN
incorporates diodes and transistors to achieve the logic function DOUBLE
- Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL) EMITTER
TRANSISTOR
incorporate Transistors.
- MOS Transistor Logic : Fig. 38.27. NAND gate with Tl'L (Transistor-Transistor Logic).
Employ metal oxide-semicon- Vt (5V)
- - - - - - - - - - - - 0 AUX. SUPPLY When either of Va and Vb is low (corresponding to 0) the transistor Q 1 will have a positive
d uctor (MOS) Logic employes
curtent i1, This will drive the transistor Q 2 into cut-off state and input Vx will rise to + 5 V (cor-
MOS transistor and diodes in- ,2 k .ll. responding to state). ·
stead of bipolar (junction) semi- (INPUT)
2k fl.
conductors. Va Vx (OUTPUT) When both Va and Vb are raised to 5 volts (i.e. 1 state) then the base collector part of Q 1 gets
---1,tt!il--,
(i) DLT Logic (Diode Tran- forward biased and base-emitter part of Q 2 gets reserve biased. This results in reversed operation
sistor). Fig. 38.26 illustrates a NPN of input transistor Q1, The current i 1 is reversed and becomes negative. Output transistor Q is
basic NAND gate circuit. Transis- V-=b---16'11-"-----' dri"~ren ii:ito saturation. (It conducts from collector to emitter much larger current and collecto: to
tor NPN conducts when base has emitter impedance drops down to a low value). Thereby output Vx drops to earth potential (state
positive polarity with respect to 20 k,.o. 0).
emitter when both inputs Va and V- The truth table of this gate corresponds to NANO operation.
Vb are(+) high, the current flows
Aux.Supply Truth Table of Gate in Fig 38.27:
through the circuit + V D1, D2
into base of transistor causing its . Fig. 38.26. NAND gate with DTL.
saturation. The transistor con- 1 1
ducts and voltage of terminal V:'\: is then close to ground potential. Thus the gate acti, according to 0 1
following logical function : / 1 0
. Va v\ 0 0
Vb
0 0 1 When Va and Vb is high, Vx is low
0 1 1 Va and Vb is not Vx
1 0 1 This is NANO function.
1 1 0
(iii) Metal Oxide Semiconductor Logic (MOS), In this family oflogic circuits, enhancement
Where V:'\: = 1 represents high potential or Vx and Vx = 0 represents· ground potential of the mode MOS transistors are used instead of junction transistors. (Ref. Section 38.9 b)
V:'I:• This is a NAND logic function. Diode D 1 and D 2 do not conduct till the voltage V1 does not IY!,O_S transistors can be used as ON-OFF switches. Low current part of MOS transistor char-
exceed 1.4 (0.7 + 0.7). This prevents wrong operation of the gate due to spurious signals. The a~tenst1e_s can be used as resistance. Thus it is possible to fabricate all resistor, switches and tran-
SIStors with MOS family.
propagation delay time of a typical DTL gate is 30 nenoseconds. It is moderately slo\:'i, but quite
adequate for protective relaying applications. DTL logic gates family includes AND, OR, NAND, MOS logic is slower than other logic families (TTUDTL).
NOR gates. These can be in form of Discrete Component Circuits or Integrated Circuits. Thereby However MOS logic has several advantages such as :
DTL family provides a vast scope to the designer of Logic circuit to design any logic sequence. Un- - it requires less power.
used input are either connected to ground or to 5 V (+). - it needs only a fraction of area required by other logic gates. This leads to large scale in-
(ii) TTL Logic (Transistor-Transistor Logic). Transistor-Transistor Logic Circuit family is tegration !C's. (LSI-IC's). In MOS-LSI integrated circuits a single chip may contain
exclusively of Integrated Circuits (I C's) and is not possible with discrete components. A basic TTL thousands of transi.stors.
sistors, registors and capacitors connected in suitably form and satisfies the following basic condi-
tions:
DRAIN. - very large Thevenin's Equivalent Input impedance (Ref. Sec. 19.13) and resistance.
lo + t - very small Thevenin's Equivalent Output impedance and resistance.
~
lo - Operates linearly over its working range as high gain voltage amplifier.
Operational amplifier is an Analogue circuit which operates on continuous input and.in linear
) Vos range.
~ Zeted Mode A basic operational amplifier is represented by a triangle having two input terminal and one
Gate Vos
output terminal. (D.C. supply is not indicated in the symbol).
The basic operational amplifier (the triangle) circuit is available in readily built modules (either
Source Vos - - discrete or IC's). Such modules can be connected with appropriate feedback circuit to achieve math-
ematical function such as :
(a) Symbol of MOS. (b) Characteristic of MOS
Fig. 38:28, Metal. Oxide Semiconductor (MOS). - addition, subtraction, - differentiation,
Pocket calculators with MOS-LSI circuit can perform computation, logic and control functions. - integration, - combination of the above.
COS/MOS logic gates (complementary symmetry MOS Logic) have bothp-type and n-type chan- Operational Amplifiers are widely used in analogue circuits to instrumentation, control on
nels. COM/MOS logic gates are available in NAND, NOR and many complex functions. Unused protective relaying. While studying application of Operational Amplifiers it is not essential to be
inputs are connected to positive or ·negative supply illustrate symbol and characteristic or a familiar with the internal circuit of the same (triangle). But the function of the operational amplifier
CO:M/MOS inverter. (triangle) with respect to the external terminals must be clearly ·
understood for understanding the application.
MOS logic is used in recent digital circuits for static relays.
38.33. SYMBOL OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
38.31. APPLICATIONS OF LOGIC CIRCUITS IN PROTECTIVE RELAYING OUTPUT
Logic functions AND, NOT, OR MEMORY INVERT, NAND, NOR etc., can be conveniently Fig. 38.29 gives the symbol of an operational amplifiers. Most
used for the following : operational amplifiers have several terminals in addition to those
NON-INV-
shown in the basic symbol. The addition terminals are for con- ERTING
- in measuring circuit of relay, in comparators. nection to external circuit to achieve near-ideal behaviour. Opera-
- in auxiliary systems for interlocking and control functions (To replace auxiliary and all or Fig. 38.29. Symbol of an
tional amplifier has two input terminals. The negative terminal Operational amplifier.
nothing relays) is called 'Inverting Input'. The positive terminal is called 'Output
- for starting and control of power consuming devices. Terminal'. Supply terminals (usually not shown in block diagrams) get d.c. supply from batteries
- for control of power plant and generating systems. or regulated power supply. Usually only one output terminal is indicated, the other terminal of
- in conjunction with digital computers for remote on-line monitoring of back-up protections load being earth (ground).
of system components.
Some of these applications have been covered in section IV. 38.34. CHARACTERISTICS OF IDEAL OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Consider auto-reclosure of a circuit-breaker. The sequence is as follows : An ideal operational amplifier has infinite input resistance, a zero output resistance and voltage
(Ref. Sec. 44.14, Fig. 44.11). characteristic illustrated in Fig. 38.33. Infinite input resistance results in zero input current. The
If fault has continued, open the circuit breaker. If fault has not continued, let it remain closed. ero output resistance means, the voltage drop in output stage is zero. The circuit model for ideal
So, the circuit breaker has two alternatives. (To REMAIN CLOSED) OR (TO OPEN) 1operational amplifier can be represented by Fig. 38.30 (a). .
The static auto-reclosure system suitable for auto-reclosure scheme can incorporate an OR gate,
alongwith other components. In linear range,
In static comparators, the two inputs to be compared can be fed into an NAND gate. The output V0 =A CV+-VJ
of the AND gate can be given to other circuit components. (Ref. Ch. 39) where A== voltage gain usually 10,000
In complex protection schemes, various logic gates are used.
V+ == inverting input
Section HI. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS AND ANALOGUE v_
== non-inverting input.
CIRCUITS
From Fig. 38.30 (b) it can be seen that in ideal operational amplifier a very small input voltage
brings a saturation. This draw-back is overcome by negative feedback.
38.32. DEFINITION AND APPLICATION
The term 'operational amplifier' is used widely to denote a circuit containing a high gain d.c. 'Ref. Fig. 38,52 (a), when VA+ VB ;t 0
amplifier with a feedback from output to input. The operational amplifier circuit comprises tran- Negative sequence current output of the filter, 1 2 ;; 0.
INTRODUCTION TO STATIC RELAYS 741
740
If R2 is infinite, V 0 tends to zero. IfR 2 is zero, V0 =V8
V0 tends to infinity.
(VOLTS)
(iii) Follower. (Fig. 38.33)
~ Vo
....J
Output terminal is connected to input nega- J1s
g POSITIVE tive. Input is connected positive through Rs.
f-
::) +Vee - - - - - SATURATION
CL
f-
The output voltage 'follows' input.
::) Fig. 38.33. Follower.
V-
0 SLOPE A> 10 000 (iv) Analogue Addition. (Fig. 38.34)
(V+ -V_) The waveforms V1 and V2 are .added by

means of addition circuit. (INPUTS)
INPUT
(MILLIVOLTS) If Rp, R 1, R 2 equal v,o--~M/1~
NEGATIVE OUTPUT
SATURATION Vo=-(V1 + V2)
Vo
(a) Circuit Representing ideal (b) Typical Transfer Characteristic of an Operational
Amplifier. (Output saturates at supply voltage. Linear
Vo=(!; Vi+~: v J V2 2
c>---$.--.r>
Operational Amplifier.
range input voltage is very small). If Rp, R1, R2 equal.Vo= - W1 + V2)
Vo =-(Vi+ Vz)
Fig. 38.30 (v) Analogue Subtraction. (Fig. forRi =R2=RF
38.35)
38.35. SOME APPLICATIONS OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS The waveform V1 and V2 can be sub- Fig. 38.34 Analogue Addition.
(i) Inverting Amplifier. (Fig. 38.31) tracted by a suitable circuit of operational R3
amplifier.
1; 3 ~4 )v2-[~~)v1
Vo=
24
[R 1R )[R R
Vo RF If R1, R 2 , R 3 , R4 are equal,
V0 =--V
· R, 1
V 0 = V2 - V1.
RF (vi) Analogue Zero Detector. Opera- Vo= V2- Vi
V0 =V for-= I
OPERATIONAL R, tional amplifier can be used as zero detector
AMPLIFIER
I
for Ri =R 2 =R 3 =Rs =R4
by a simple circuit illustrated in Fig. 38.36 (a)
when Vs touches zero, output V 0 swings from .,...
Fig. 38.31. Use of Operational Amplifier as an inverter. positive saturation (+ Vee) value to negative Fig. 38.35. Analogue Substration.
saturation value (- Vee) or vice versa. [Ref. Fig. 38.31 (b) also].
The output is fed back to negative input through a resistance Rp_ Vee
Rp
Vo=-R Vs
s
,_ Vt-
The effect of negative feedback is ::,
a.
- to reduce gain and make it independent of open circuit gain A. z
- to permit relatively large
input voltage Vs without
saturation. +Vee--·
V
- to produce an inverting 1-
R
,_~ o..,_
. _
closed loop gain Rp/Rs, ::, _.,__-+-------➔•-'4
(ii) Non-Inverting Amplifier. 0 t--

(Fig. 38.32) -Yee..._-J
Feedback is applied to negative
terminal through R 1. Input is sup- (a) Symbol (b) Characteristic
Fig. 38.36. Analogue zero detector.
plied to positive terminal through
Fig. 38.32. Non-inverting Amplifier.
Rs.
SWITCHGEAR ANO PROTECTION INTRODUCTION TO STATIC RELAYS 743
742
I t
38.35.1. Analogue Level Detector or Comparator (Fig. 38.37) V
Hence CVo=f dt
_3_
. An analogue comparator can be arranged to compare the instantaneous value with preset R
threshold value.
This is an integration of waveform. A switch is added to permit discharge of the capacitor reset-
ting the output to zero.
- - Vo
1--
-
(a) Symbol (b) Characteristic. Fig. 38.39. Analogue differentiator.
Fig. 38.37. Analogue level detector.
(iii) Analogue Differentiation by Operational Amplifier. Input current it does not flow
If V 8 is more than threshold value Vt, the output of comparator is positive (+ Vee). The output in input terminal. The input current is given by
v0 swings from+ Vee when the V 8 crosses V1 and becomes less than Vt, (Ref. Sec. 39.11). dV
(vii) Analogue Integrated by Operational Amplifier. An operational amp~ifier a~ong with
Cd/,
a resistor and capacitor can be arranged to integrate input voltage with respect to time (Fig. 38.38). The circuit is an inverting amplifier (Sec. 38.15.4) with a differential function added in input.
where i is the current flowing in capacitor. As flows through capacitor only (i = 0 due to infinite Hence
input impedance), dVs
Vo=-RC dt
and This is a differentiation of input voltage.
Reset Switch
38.35.2. Analogue/Digital Conversion
C (i) Signals processing systems. The static relay circuits incorporate signal processing sys-
tems. A signal processing system is an interconnection of components and devices that can accept
-1
Vo= RC f
0
t
Vsdt
an input signal or a group of input signals and act in such a way so as to extract or improve the
quality of the information and deliver the output information in the proper form at proper time.
Fig. 38.40 illustrates the basic blocks in Signal Processing System. The continuous signals
(derived from secondaries of CT's or PT's, transducers etc.) are called analogue signals as they are
similar or comparable to original entity. They are fed to the analogue signal processing block.
The digital signals received from digital computer, from digital protective relay circuit etc. are
fed into the Digital Signal Processing block.
Fig. 38.38. Analogue integrator. The analogue processing block and digital processing block are interconnected through AID
Q=CV and DIA conversion block. (AID= Analogue to digital and DIA= Digital to analogue).
t Consider a protective relaying system comprising analogue input derived from secondaries of
The charge on the capacitor C is given by J_ 00
i dt CT's, PT's or tranducers like thermocouple, pressure transducers. "Transducer" is a device which
converts physical variables (either electrical or mechanical) to any equivalent voltage or cur.rent
Total charge on capacitor signal. Some transducers require same form of electrical supply for excitation.
In analogue system the signals (waveforms) are processed continuously. Output of Analogue
Processing Block can be in many forms. It can be in analogue form such as measuring instrument,
-:--oo recorders, analogue black and with or coloured display on control boards, comparators/level detec-
but Q=-CV0 tors of protective relays.
744
38.35.3. Digital to Analogue Conversion
ANALOGUE INPUTS DIGITAL INPUTS The output of DIA convertor gives analogue signal proportional to the digital input,
FROM CT sfPT s & FROM DIGITAL
TRANSDUCERS COMPUTER, PRO· 38.35.4. Digital Multiplexers
TE CTI ON/CONTROL The primary function of combination logic is to produce an output which is combination function
SYSTEM
of input, variables. If the system has 'n' inputs, there will 2n combination of inputs and each com-
l
ANALOGUE SIGNAL ND & D/A
I
•
DIGITAL
bination will assign a specific value to the output. This type of operation is performed by digital
multiplexer .
Digital multiplexer is a multi-input, single output combination of logic circuit. In digital mul-
tiplexer, the logic signal from input is directed towards output as per the signal routing.
PROCESSING CONVERSION ~ SIGNAL
PROCESSING The signal routing action of the multiplexer is controlled by the external logic signals applied
to the selection control inputs which can be considered as the input variables for the device.
l i i l In practice the inputs are 2n numbers where n is limited to 2, 8 to 16. Multiplexers provide
general signal routing and its function is controllable externally.
DIGITAL OUTPUTS TO
ANALOGUE OUTPUTS DISPLAY BOARDS, Multiplexers are widely used as general purpose combination logic devices. A 2n to 1 multi-
TO DISPLAY BOARDS DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS,
INSTRUMENTS, plexer can be used to implement any logic function with n input variables using suitable direct
DIGITAL COMPUTER,
PROTECTION/CONTROL
PROTECTION,
mapping.
SYSTEM
CONTROL The truth table of a 4 input-output Multiplexer is given below :
Fig. 38.40. Interaction between analogue and digital systems Input Variables
in power system protection and control. Channel Selection control C1 Sum at output
Alternatively the analogue signals can be converted into representative digital sighals and X1 X2
fed to the digital computer, digital display devices, digital process control devices or Digital Protec- 0 0 0 0 1
tive Relaying Circuits. 1 0 1 0 1
In protective relaying systems, the input variables are compared in a 'comparator' the output 2 1 0 0 1
of comparator is given to 'level detector' the output of level detector is given to 'Amplifiers' and 1 1 0 1 0
finally, the output of amplifier is given to output (Tripping) stage. · 3 1 1 0 0
The protective relay system may be purely analogue system as in conventional electromagnetic 1 1 1 1
relays and many simple protection systems, However, in complex protective systems having several
A multiplexer's signal routing capability is an important feature in digital protection and con-
input variables and functional requirements, it becomes necessary to use digital systems and digital
computers. In such cases the input analogue signals are converted into representative digital sig- trol systems. The multiplexer's signal routing is used in microprocessor-based and digital computer
based protection and control systems to route the date from data bus structure to relevant func-
nals.
tional circuits via the communication bus. Multiplexers are commonly used in microprocessors and
The representative digital signals are supplied to digital measuring instruments, digital display digital computers to connect and route on common data highway or bus system and to apply time
boards, digital control units, digital circuits of protective systems. division multiplexing different classes of information along these bus systems.
(ii) Analogue to Digital Conversion, 38.35.5. Encoders and Decoders.
There are many methods of analogue to digi- CLOCK
Combination of circuits are usually necessary to produce more than one output from the given
tal conversion. The concept of.a simple
set of inputs variables.
scheme is illustrated in Fig. 38.41.
ANALOGUE An encoder generates n outputs from 2n inputs.
The input signals is given to + of opera- INPUT
tional amplifier, The output of the operation- UP/DOWN
...,__ _ _ _ COUNTER
A decoder generates 211 outputs for 'n' inputs .
al amplifier is connected to a up/down Decoders are used extensively in programmable static relay circuits and computers to enable
counter. addressing a specific device or element in the system.
This type of counter counts up when the DIGITAL TO For example a microprocessor (Central Processing Pnit) will communicate with a particular
control line is high and counts down when ANALOGUE 1 - - - - - . 1
device or element via bus structure with the help of address decoder.
CONVERTER
control line is low. The up and down counter
receives continuous pulses from a clock when 38.35.6. Programmable System
DiGITAL A digital system processes signals or data according to 'program'. The various functions include
the counter undergoes a cha~1ge of one up or OUTPUT
down count, the comparator (Ref, Ch. 39) out- data collection, data transfer, data storage, data processing by arithmatic means, given output etc.
put reverses in sign and the output of the AID These functions are performed internally in the digital system. These functions are performed by
Fig, 38.41. An analogue to digital converter.
converter becomes stable. appropriate configurations of combinational and sequential logic circuits including memory ele-
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION INTRODUCTION TO STATIC RELAYS
746 747
ments. In programmable systems, the configuration of the general purpose logic is flexible. The Most
bT static relays require
• -various
. . auxiliary d.c. voltage between 24 V and 240 d c Tb It
. . ,e vo age
hardware is controlled by a programme or sequence of instruction codes which defines the sequence sta _1 _1zers are used m the circuit of relays. The disadvantages of using station battery system for
of operations of processing functions. The instruction codes are sorted in the memory part of the auxiliary d.c. voltage supply to static relays are the following :
system. The function of programmable system can be changed by changing the programme. - Voltage transients are introduced by opening of inductive circuits connected to the same
38.35.7. Microprocessor [Refer Ch. 43-B] battery sup_PlY (trip ci~cuit for example). The voltage surges can damage the static relays.
The advances in digital electronics and computing systems have resulted in development of Hence special precaut10ns are taken to design the static relays to absorb such transients
(Ref. Ch. 43)
complete Central Pocessing Unit (CPU) of a computer on a single Integrated Circuit (IC) called a
chip. Such a CPU is called a microprocessor or processor and is designated as µp. Microprocessor - The battery_voltag_e is generally high, e.g. 250 V, this causes higher power loss in volt-ratio
is an advanced programmable logic device. In stati_c protection systems special microprocessor are boxes used m static relays to get the reduced voltage.
incorporated to perform specific functions. To avoid these difficulties, the d.c. to d.c. converter is used. The station battery voltage is con-
verted to a.c., then transformed and then rectified.
38.35.8. Microprocessor Module [Ref. Ch. 43-B]
The heart of a microprocessor-based protective relay is a microprocessor. For example in a
Programmable Distance Relay for protection of transmission line, a 16 bit microprocessor operating
at 10 MHz is used.
The microprocessor has a separately replaceable programme memory in the form of chips. The
subsystems also include read and write memory for working storage and nonvolatile RAM for stor- Fig. 38.42. Block-diagram of auxiliary d.c. voltage supply scheme.
ing settings and targets when the relay is de-energized. Included on the processor is the Analog to 1 - Input, d.c. voltage from station battery (d.c.)
Digital Conversion system and multiplexer. AC input quantities (4 currents and three voltages) 1 - Inverted; d.c. to a.c.
are analogue multiplexed to single sample/hold circuit. The sample/hold subsystem output is fed 2 - Step:~own transformer with required secondary voltages.
to an AID subsystem which yields 15 bits dynamic range. Each ac input is sampled 8 times per 3 - Rectifiers, voltage regulators and smoothing circuits.
0 - Output voltage for static relays (d.c.),
cycle (1/50 sec).
The single Microprocessor based protective relay described above can perform several on-line Fig. 38.42 illustrates the principle.
functions including : The d.c./a.c. converters are self-contained units. The voltages are converted generally from 220
- Overcurrent supervision - Loss of potential supervision V d.c. to about 50 V d.c. The converters are of enough ratings to supply the requirements of several
re 1ays.
- Power swing blocks - Fault type identification
- Time delay - Distance protection, etc. . t . In some _cases, ,nickel-cadmiu~ battery supplies are used for supplying static relays. These bat-
eries are tncle ~hanged from rectified a.c. source obtained from main potential transformers.
The digital programmable relays have several analogue, digital components and microproces·-
. thin ~olme stahtic rel~ys, normal ~.c. voltage is stepped down in the built-in auxiliary transformers
sor. Ref. Ch. 43-B for Microprocessor based Protection. m e ie ays, t e rectified, established and smoothed.
38.35.9. Hybrid of Analogue and Digital Systems
The static relay systems receive analogue signals from CTs, VTs and other tranducers. Also 38.37. FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER
from remote terminals (e.g. from other substation) digital signals are received. Hence, the inputs Fig. 38.43 illustrates the circuit of a full-
are digital and analogue. The functions within the relay include analogue multiplexing, analogue wave bridge rectifier having four diodes (1, 2
comparison etc. as well as digital logic, digital processing etc. Hence the protective system are 3, 4) and input auxiliary transformer (5)'.
'hybrid' systems of analogue and digital. When A is posi~ive with respect to B, current
The Analogue/Digital hybrid Systems can perform the functions by four different techniques. flows through d10des 1 and 4. When Bis posi- A.c.
tive with respect to A current flows through 2 INPUT D C
1. Continuous space, continuous time. 2. Discrete space, continuous time.
and 3. In both cases, C is positive with respect
3. Continuous space, discrete time. 4. Discrete space, discrete time. to D and full wave rectification is achieved.
Technique 1 is not suitable for analogue, digital and hybrid computation. The output contains ripple. To overcome this
problem, smoothing circuit is necessary in the 5
Techniques 2 and 3 require digital and analogue hybrid system. The digital subsystem hand-
les discrete variables and analogue subsystem handles the continuous variables. output.
Technique 4 works purely on discrete space and discrete time. Therefore it requires a digital· o.c.
computer within the protective system. (Sec. 46.15. Fig. 46.7). _OUTPUT
38.38. SMOOTHING CIRCUITS +
Section IV. ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS COMMONLY USED IN S~oothin~ circuit comprises· reservoir Fig. 38.43. Full-wave bridge rectifier.
STATIC RELAYS capacitors, resistors, inductors. These are con-
fhcted in output ~ide of the re?tifier. The process of charging the capacitors exponentially smooths
e output waveform. The resistance determines the time-constant RC.
38.3~. AUXILIARY VOLTAGE SUPPLY FOR STA'l'IC RELAYS
t' The voltage across th~ capacitor does not change instantaneously as capacitor requires finite
The static relays require auxiliary d.c. supply; which is generally obtained from station battery ime ~o get charged or discharged. Hence the voltage spikes or ripples get smoothened due to
system. The station battery system is also used for other purposes such as tripping, control etc. capacitor.
748 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION JNTRODUCTION TO STATIC RELAYS 749
-~----.,.-----◄ +
L
o.c.
OUTPUT SUPPLY
R
INPUT CONSTANT
VOLTA$E ~- V,
RECTIFIER
: _____c_T_,______:
Fig. 38.47. Zener diode for voltage stabilization Fig. 38.48. Time circuit.
of input circuit.
where T = Charging time of capacitor
(From V0 to V;)
V0 = Initial voltage across C
V; = Final voltage across C,
input voltage.
Fig. 38.44. Smoothing circuits in rectifier output side. Consider Fig. 38.48. The capacitor is charged by the voltage Vi
38.39. VOLTAGE STABILIZATION (REGULATION) BY ZENER DIODES
Zener diode is used for voltage stabilization. Fig. 38.45, illustrates the method of stabilizing The time is given by T=RC loge Vi ~iVo
the output voltage of a rectifier bridge by means of zener diode, zener diode is connected for reverse
current flow. An improved stabilization is obtained by cascade connection of zener diodes. Delay Circuit
The voltage across the zener diode remains constant over a wide range of current. To achieve a very short delay of the order of a few micro-seconds delay line is used in Fig.
38.49.
The bias of the input circuit (base-emitter) should be held constant. Zener diodes can be used
for this purpose.
R DELAYED
C
CONSTANT
0,C, VOI.TAGE
+
CONSTANT
D,C, VOLTAGE
INPUT
I I I I
Fig. 38.49. Equivalent diagram of delay circuit.
01/TPUT
Ill
Time Delay Relay. For achieving intentional time delay in protection system, time delay
relays are used. Time lags of 0.1 sec to several seconds can be adjusted in these (Details in Ch. 40).
ZENER DIODE
......... 38,41. FREQUENCY FILTERS
Fig. 38.45. Voltage stabilization by Zener diodes. Fig. 38.46. Use of two zener diodes. Filters are used for 'blocking' or attenuating certain frequencies and passing other frequencies.
38,40. TIME-DELAY CIRCUITS Resonant circuits (turned circuits) are for passing of blocking the frequencies.
Time delay circuits are necessary in electronic circuits of static protection. These employ Parallel Resonant LC Circuit. (Fig. 38.50). The circuit having Land C in parallel with supply
suitable combination of resistance and capacitance. The principle is as follows :
has a Resonant Frequency roo at ✓ic. At resonant frequency, the impedance of parallel LC com-
Q=CV
bination approaches zero. Thereby the voltage V2 acro8s output is reduced to zero. By judicious
V = Q/(Ref. sec 3.2)
selection of L and C, the circuit can alternate/block frequencies from appearing across output
= ~ f idt = R~ f V dt. Wo).
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION INTRODUCTION TO STATIC RELAYS
750 751
(i) Negative Sequence Current Filter. Negative sequence current filter is quite complex. Its
design is complicated and expensive as it incorporates a trans-reactor (also called transactor). This
Resonant Frequency is a special multi-winding CT having gapped core.
1
L C Vo (00=1LC The secondary leads of main CT's are connected to the various primary terminal of trans-reactor
(Transactor or Intermediate CT) is a required manner. The filtered output depends upon phase
sequence of input connections. (If two of the input connections are interchanged, the negative se-
quence filter becomes positive sequence filter).
(a) A simplified diagram of negative sequence filter is illustrated in Fig. 38.52 (a).
Vo N-.------..-----~-------;,--
Vo
0
R --j:ftf't::~4_ _ _ _--4_ _ _~1R~-...,
For W:/=-Wo For W=WO
0- Yr 0
(c)
8 --11:rft::.:.:.:.+-,~Is
LINE-CTS
Fig. 38.50. Pa;~llel LC circuit blocks resonant frequency Wo and passes other frequencies. (NEUTRAT NOT
TO BE EARTHEO)
Series Resonant Circuit (Fig. 38.51). It
has series, R, L, C. At resonant frequency
1
m - - ~ the impedance of LC resonant circuit ·
o- ✓LC'
becomes zero. The resonant frequency is passed
through the circuit. For other frequencies, the Vo
circuit offers higher impedance.
Band Pass Filter [Fig. 38.51 (a) and (b)]. A
simple RLC filters discussed above are called
passive filters. Fig. 38 _51 (a). Band pass filter with operational amplifier, Fig. 38.52 (a). Negative sequence current filter.
An active filter such as band pass filter con- and its frequency response. · - Circuit Diagram (Ref. Fig. 33.19, Sec. 33.11).
Fig. 38.52 (b) shows vector diagram for negative sequence condition (YRB) and Fig. 38.52 (c)
give vector diagram for condition when only positive sequence condition (RYE) prevails.
~ Vo
The flux produced in the gapped-core of the transreactor due current I~ and ly is proportional to
Resonant Frequency ~i .. i..
o---vvv~v- L·· · 7
fll1l1flf\ - • 1 - - - -
(00 =
1
1LC
Ii? -iB and IE -iy. The resultant voltages depend upon the phase relations between VA and VB,
.l.. c, /
I
Rs I
w- I
I
(b) (c) . I
Fig. 38.51. Series resonant circuit passes frequency Ola and block other frequencies. /
tains active element like operational amplifier and attenuates fre~uencies b~yond ~~s(i;o limits
and passes the frequencies within its band limits without,attenuat10n [Ref. Fig. 38.
38.42. SYMMETRICAL COMPONENT FILTERS

The three phase vectors of an unbalanced system can be derived by vector sum of three sets
of component balanced vector called positive sequence, negative sequence and zero sequence com-
ponents (Ref. Ch. 21). t t Jy- I
Symmetrical component filters are necessary to drive the symmet~ical component (from ~~ ~~ 'Fig. 38.52 (b). Vector diagram for positive sequence
of CT's or VT's) for feeding into the comparator/level detector of st~tic relay. For exa~ple over- Fig. 38.52 (c). Vector diagram for negative phase
condition of IR, [y, IB. VB is equal and opposite to VA. · sequence condition of Iy. IR. IB, VA+ VB at 0.
balance current protection, the negative phase sequence components 1s filtered and supplied t O
current relay (Ref. Sec. 31.7). * Ref. Fig. 38.52 (a), when VA+ VB at 0,
Negative sequence current output of the filter, 12 at 0.
752 . . .
se uence voltage filter is connected to the
(ii) Negative Sequence Voltage ~1lter. NegatC1ve q t (V) the circuit voltage and rejects
·d f VT' It passes Negative Sequence • omponen 2 .
secondary s1 e o s. . Th connected to the output side of negative
positive sequence and zero sequence components. ere1ay
sequence voltage filter respond to V2 only. t d t 1· 'd
. filter are connec e o me s1 e
Fo simplicity the three input terminals of negative sequence . )
r ' nent (Star connection without earthing
having no zero sequence compo . . L C t get the filtered negative sequence
There are many possible methods of connecting r, , o
output. Comparators and Level Detectors
R Static Relay - Functional Circuits - Comparators - Amplitude Comparators - Rectifier Bridge
V Comparators - Phase Comparators - Pulse and Squared Input - Direct and Integrating Type
Comparators - Integrating Amplitude Comparator - Hybrid Comparator Level Detectors - NPN
B 'I'ransistors - PNP Transistors - Operational Amplifier - Schmitt Trigger .
39.1. STATIC RELAY FUNCTIONAL CIRCUITS

V LINE VTS
The static relay unit comprises several functional circuits such as :
(NEUTRAL NOT
V EARTHED) R - input circuit with main CT's, Auxiliary CT's
0
- rectifiers smoothing circuits, filters - comparator
- level detector - amplifiers
8 - timer circuit - setting device
V - filter circuit - starting relay
R
- directional unit - output stage, etc. ·
The required functional circuits or units are connected in the final assembly.
Input stage
The input is derived from CT/PT. The output of C'r/PT is connected to the auxiliary CT/PT.
The input stage of a static relay comprise the following :
- CT's and or PT's. - Summation units.
- Auxiliary CT's or PT's. · - Filter.
Vz
Rectifier and Smoothing Circuit
Fig. 38.53. Negative sequence voltage filter. In single actuating quantity relays, the quantities are rectified in a single rectifier bridge. The
. , f . 1 oltage (phase sequence YRB output of the rectifier is smoothened to remove the ripple. The output is given to the level detector.
Consider Fig. 38.52 (a). For negative sequence condition o supp y v.
or when supply voltage contains negative sequence component) nega_tive seque J.
nee vol ta e V2 ap-
V When negative sequence component in line voltage 1s zero, the vo 1tage 2 is zero.
Single actuating quantity relays include overcurrent relay, under voltage relay etc.
In double actuating quantity rectifier relay there are generally two rectifier bridges. The output
pears across P , • . . u l terminals. of these bridges is compared. The output of the comparator is given to the measuring unit (level
The same circuit can be used as a positive sequence filter by mterchangmg s PP Y detector) after smoothing.
Comparator
Comparators receive the rectified inputs. After comparison the comparator output is given to
the measuring unit.
There are several types of comparators such as amplitude comparator, phase comparator,
hybrid comparators.
These are either direct (instantaneous) or integrating type.
Level Detector or Measuring Unit
This unit comprises a multi-stage feedback amplifier. The feedback ensure that for values of
unit above a certain level, the output power increases in a step. Hence for input below threshold
value, the level detector has no output. For input above threshold value, the output is obtained.
The measuring unit comprises logic circuits, amplifiers and level detector circuit. The logic ele-
ments determine the conditions of various input quantities for which output is obtained.
754 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION COMPARATORS Al'\lD LEVEL DE'rECTORS
755
Amplifiers RECTIFIER TRIP OEVIC!:
The output of level detector is further amplified by amplifier. The amplifier strengthens the BRIDGE SENSITIVE
weaker signal. The output of the amplifier is given to the starting relay or output device. ♦ r, Ia POLAR/SEO RELAY
Time-delay Element · ~ ~
The time-delay element is introduced between level detector and the amplifier. The time-delay
can be adjusted by changing R-C combinations.
Output Stage
The output stage of static relay may have one of the following :
- electromagnetic relay such as permanent magnet moving coil relay.
- thyristor in series with trip coil and auxiliary switch.
The operation of the complete relay is a team-work of these functional blocks. The manufac-
turers supply variety of relays oft.he same type but having certain modifications to suit particular OPERATE RESTRAIN
applications by putting together required functional blocks. For example, a time-delay unit is added
to get time delay; volt-ratio box may be added to permit selection of auxiliary supply voltage; output
stage may have an electromagnetic relay or a thyristorized trip, Hence, the relay assembly is built
up of various blocks, each serving certain specific function. Such blocks are called functional com-
ponents of static relays. The study of static relays is simplified by studying these functional com-
ponents first and then the block-diagram of various relays. INPUT I
Each functional component is built up from discrete components such as resistors, diodes, tran-
sistors, capacitors, etc. Some of the components, are soldered on a printed circuit of glass-fibre rein-
forced expoxi-laminate or the functional component is made up of an integrated circuit. The printed Fig. 39.1. Amplitude comparator circulating current circuit with two inputs.
circuit card (or integrated circuit with its connections) together with other components of the relay Multi-inpu~ comparators are either single phase or poly-phase, can employ either amplitude
such as transformers, switches potentiometers, etc. are mounted on a relay base plate. ?r phase comparis?n ~r both. In general case of multiple operating inputs and multiple restraining
Alternatively each functional component may be an IC or a group of functional components mputs, the operat10n is governed by an equation.
may be formed on a single IC.
. j~o1j jS02j jSoaj .... jsr1j jSrzj
+ + > + + ...
PART I. COMPARATORS where lef~ hand side gives total operating input and right hand side gives total restraining input.
Hybnd type comparator combines the amplitude comparator and phase comparator.
39.2. COMPARATORS
39.3. AMPLITUDE COMPARATORS
In double actuating quantity relays, two quantities are compared.
For example in circulating current differential protection (Ref. Ch. 28) the current entering in h Amplitude comparator compares the magnitude of the two (or more) input quantities The
the protected zone (I1) and current leaving the protected zone (12) are compared. In phase com- P ase angle between the two (or more) inputs is not recognised or noticed by the' amplitude ·com-
parison type carrier current protection type carrier current protection (Ch. 30) the phase angle be- parator. ·
tween signals from sending end and receiving end are compared. In distance relays the ratio of
vector V and vector I are compared. These are some examples of comparison studied earlier. Consider two vec~ors A-an.dB~ It compares the magnitude of these inputs i.e., IA I and I BI•
Table 39.1 ;~tedcom?aralAtorl receives two mputs and gives output is the algebraic difference between mag-
I u es, i.e. - IBI .
COMPARATORS
The function of amplitude comparator is illustrated in Fig. 39.2.
Symbol IA! denotes the magnitude of complex function A.
AMPLITUDE HYBRID PHASE
The output IA! - IBI of comparator is : A
DIRECT I
INTEGRATio~b \7 DTR"fi:(; I
INTEGRAT~ON Positive if IAI > IBI
INPUTS A
INPUTS
Negative if IAI < IBI AMPLITUDE AMPLITUDE
Zero if IAI == IBI
DIRECT INTEGRATION COMPARATOR COMPARATOR
Comparator is a part of relays which receives two or more inputs to be compared and gives In some c.ases the comparator compares IA/ -/Bl IA//IBI
the two magnitudes by 'Ratio'. The output of
output based on their comparison.
the comparator IA I/ IBI is : OUTPUT
Comparators can be broadly classified as - (1) Amplitude comparator (2) Phase comparator OUTPUT
(3) Hybrid comparator.
greater than 1 if IA I > IB I /A/-(.B/
less than 1 if IA I < IB I IAI/IB/
Comparators are either direct (instantaneous) type or integrating type. In integrating type coin- Fig. 39.2. Function of amplitude comparators.
parator the output of the comparator is integrated with respect to time. (Ref. Table 39.1.). zero IAI ==0.
756 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTEC'l'IO.N
COMPARATORS AND LEVEL DETECTORS 757
The amplitude comparators are
generally in the form of :
Rectifier Bridge Comparators. The
input quantities to static relays is either in
the form of sinusoidal current derived from
LJ AUX
er
main CT or sinusoidal voltage derived from
·f•J -. ,._
PT. CT or PT give analogous output, faithful
to the main circuit quantity. OUTPUT OF (a) Input waveforms (Analogue) at phase angle qi= 90°.
Each input quantity is given to one full- COMPARATOR
~j;Bnf<-~
wave rectifier bridge.
'--v----' '--v--' '-----v---'
Two full-wave rectifier bridges are con- FULL WAVE FULL WAVE SMOOT/1/NG
RECTFIER CIRCUIT
nected in opposition and the output relay is RECTIFIER 8RID6E-Jl.
BR/D6E-I
connected in parallel to the two rectifier I
bridges. The output of the rectifier bridge J. / tl11-/12 I / (b) Converted into equivalent rectangular waveforms.
comparator is received by the output stage
continuously.
CTTTJ1ii ~
~~T ct
t
::r;:i:=I:=i.'=.I::.I.:::r.
Fig. 38.3 (a) illustrates the configura-

tion and Fig. 39.3 (b) illustrates the Fig. 39.3. Amplitude comparator formed by rectifier bridges.
waveforms. The output stage receives con-
tinuously a direct current equivalent to II1 I - 112 1-
The output stage is rectifier bridge comparators can have one of the following devices :
- Permanent Magnet Moving Cost Relay
_:_ Sensitive Polarised Relay
- Static Integrator.
When IJ1I - II 2 I exceeds the threshold value, the stage acts and the relay picks-up.
ff,AJ-tBJ I
39.4. PHASE COMPARATORS

t-..;i,..
Phase comparators compare the two (or more) input quantities vectorially. The phase com-
(d) Pulses of I [A) - [BJ I for qi= 90°.
parators recognised the vector (both magnitude/phase) relationship between the inputs. A vector
Fig. 39.4. Use ofrectangular inputs in phase comparators.
A has magnitude IA I and phase angle say, a. There are two kinds of phase comparators.
(i).Phase comparator which recognises only phase angle between input waveforms. For, = 0 I [A]+[B] I = I [AJ - [B] I
< 90°
<j> I [AJ+[BJ I > I [AJ - [BJ I
If <j> is phase angle between vector A and B, the output of phase comparator depends on angle
<j> and the relay responds to the phase angle <j> between the two inputs.
<l> > 90° I [A]+[B] I < I [A] - [BJ 1.
Thus, if the comparator circuit is arranged to measure the difference
(ii) Phase comparator which recognises the vector product (or division) between two (or more)
input quantities. I [A] + [B] - I [Al - [BJ I l
the phase angle between A and B can be predicted.
Thus a phase comparator has output A, B or AIB. The output of the phase comparator is in terms of magnitude.
39.5. PHASE COMPARATOR BASED ON RECTANGULAR (OR SQUARED) PULSES . The o~he.r possib~liti~s of phase c?mparators adopting other techniques (such as phase split
mp.uts; co~nc1dance cll'cmts) are descnbed later. Such comparators can bed readily adopted with
Ref. Fig. 39.4. Suppose the sinusoidal analogous input waveforms A and B are converted into logic c1rcmts and are useful in modern relays.
rectangular waveforms [AJ and [BJ before feeding to Phase Comparator.
The magnitude of the input waveform may be disregarded and the comparator recognises only 39.6, PHASE COMPARATORS BASED ON VECTOR PRODUCT DEVICES
phase angle <j> in this type of phase comparator. '£'.he vector product devices (such as Hall Effect Generator Ref. Sec. 38.12). Have an output
T~e rectangular waveform [AJ is in phase with sinusoidal waveform A. Similarly [BJ in phase (e0 ) given by, say, ·
with B. e0 =AB sin <j>
The comparator receives the rectangular waveforms [AJ and [BJ. The resultant waveforms of where A = r.m.s.
value of input 1,
[Al + [BJ and [AJ -: [B] are illustrated in Fig. 39.4 (c) and (d) B = r.m.s. value of input 2
= phase angle between 1, 2.
COMPARATORS AND LEVEL DETECTORS 759
758
This phase comparator is basically analogue device and cannot be readily adopted in logic cir-
cuits.
39.7. DIRECT (INSTANTANEOUS) AND INTEGRATING TYPE COMPARATORS

Comparators (Phase or Amplitude) can be either Direct Type of Integrating Type.
In Direct Comparator the 'period' or 'time' of comparison is not recognised. Hence time aspect
is not international. ('rhe comparator may have inherent response time).
The output of comparator corresponds to the comparison of inputs at every instant.· B
In integrating type comparator, the quantity (generally output) of the comparator is integra~ed Comp-
with respect to time. When the integrated output reaches a threshold value the output device r>ator
operates.
Input
Ref. Fig. 39.5. Two rectangular equivalent inputs are given to comparator. Comparator output ~/11 Shaper
[(A) - (B)J is given to integrator.
OUTPUT
rit Inte-
INPUT gX'qtox,
nq
.]7-:..J
Level
Dete-
OR
(a) Function of integrator.

Fig. 39.6.
[ I I I (c). These pulses are given to integrator. The integrator output depends upon duration and mag-
I nitu?e of input square pulses. At the beginning of every pulse, the capacitor in the integrator starts
I
gettmg charged. When A> B (as shown in II), the triangular output of integrator (d) increases above
I the setting of the level detector (L).
I
-1- When A < B, the level detector does not give any output [I-e].
1THR
1VAL
I When A> B, the level detector gives output [II-e] and trip current flows.
t-
OUTPUT 39.9. OPERATING TIME
OUTPUT OF IHTEGRA TOR DEVICE
OPERATES Suppose A== B as shown in Fig. 39.6-I, before fault in main circuit (not shown). At t = 0 fault
(b) Detailici of waveform of integrator input and output. ?e:el~ps in ~ai11; circuit and A > B (Fig. 39.6-II). The time required for trip current to start t1'owing
Fig. 39.5. Integrating Comparator. is md1cated m Fig. 39.6-II f by t0 • It is the time required by integrator to charge its capacitor. It is
(Ref. Sec. 38.24). The integrator generally has a capacitor which gets charged as shown in Fig. of the order of 5 ms. Further time of about 2 ms is required for operation of output stage. Hence
39.5 (b). The voltage across the capacitor increases with positive pulse and its duration and the relay time can be minimised to 10 ms± 3, i.e. !2 cycle.
decreases with negative pulse and duration. The settings are such that under normal conditions
in main circuit, the positive pulses and negative pulses received by the integrator are su~h that its 39.10. COINCIDENCE TECHNIQUES IN PHASE COMPARATORS
output does not reach the threshold value. Hence output relay remains open. When the mtegrator
output reaches threshold value, the output device operates. Fig. 39.7 illustrates the principle of a phase comparator based on coincidence of sinusoidal in-
?uts. Coincidence denotes overlapping of the two signals. Referring to Fig. 39. 7 (a), the sinusoidal
In Fig. 39.5, square inputs are illustrated. In some other comparators, input are be sinusoidal
mputs A and B overlap during the period 4>. The hatched portion in Fig. (a) indicates coincidence.
or triangular. The coincidence circuit has output during this period 4>. This output is converted into squares in
the squaring circuit. The output of squaring circuit is supplied to integrator. The output of the in-
39.8. INTEGRATING AMPLITUDE COMPARATOR tegrator is given to level detector with setting L. The pulse are integrated in integrator. When the
Fig. 39.6 illustrates the integrating type of amplitude comparator. output of integrator Fig. 39.7(c) exceeds level detector setting L, the level detector gives signal to
The .two sinusoidal inputs A and B are given to the input of comparator (a). The output output stage. The thyristor in output stage is thereby triggered.
·. IA - BI waveform (b) is supplied to the shaper. The shaper converts into equivalent square pulses
760 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION COMPARATORS AND LEVEL DETECTORS 761
The spikes and blocks are supplied to an AND gate [Fig. 39.8 (c)]. The AND gates gives output
when both the rectangular block and the spike coincide.
39,12. PHASE COMPARATOR WITH PHASE SPLITTING TECHNIQUE

Fig. 39.9 illustrates this method in which both the inputs A and B ar.e split into two components
A,A and B, B L45°. Thus totally four input signals are received by the comparator. The comparator
is an AND gate which gives output when all the four inputs are simultaneously positive or negative.
A B
room
.,._TR{PPING
PUL5£S
..,_BLOC/UNG
I PULSES A BL45°
1
I (b) ourPUT OF SQ UA1IN6 CIRCUIT
-J-.---+-~----1--:---- '~-
' I l l
I I I I l•TRIP
Output of integrator touches l I
LEV£L
Level l, when p = 90 (balance) COMPARATOR
Tip occurs for ~ = 90°. AND
(C) OUTPUT OF INTEGRATOR
Fig. 39.7. Phase comparator based on coincidence of sine inputs.
If period of coincidence between A and B is

(i) less than 90°, relay does not operate as the output of integrator always remains below L.
(ii) more than 90°, relay operates as the output of the integrator exceeds L.
39.11. SPIKES AND BLOCK COINCIDENCE TECHNIQUE IN PHASE COMPARATOR

Ref. Fig. 39.8. Inputs A and B are sinusoidal. Input A is converted into a spike in a pulsing"
~+
TRIGGER
Fig. 39.9. Coincidence phase comparator with phase splitting technique.

device. Input B is converted into rectangular blocks in squaring circuit. The converted pulses are
shown in Fig. 39.8 (b). The coincidence of all four signals is possible when.the phase angle between A and B satisfies
the condition.
goo> < - goo
39.13. HYBRID COMPARATOR

Hybrid comparator compares both magnitude and phase of the input quantities. It is a Hybrid
(mixed version) of amplitude and phase types.
Ref. Fig. 39.10. The inputs are given to a phase comparator. The output of phase comparator
(a) is given to Amplitude Comparator. The output stage follows.
COMPARATOR V PHASE
ANO RECTIFIER.
COMPARATOR
I AMPLITUDE LEVEL OUTPU
B ii COMPARATO DETECTOR
Ail aj OUTPUT V RECTIFIER'
t- Fig. 39.10. Hybrid comparator (incorporating phase comparator

and amplitude comparator) used in a distance relay.
(b) (c)
(Spike and block not coincident, the output of AND is zero, relay; does not operate) The static impedance relays which compare Vand I are generally hybrid comparators. Variety
Fig. '39.8. Coincidence phase comparator with spike and block technique.
of impedance diagrams (rectangular elliptical) etc. are possible with Hybrid Comparators.
762 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION COMPARATORS AND LEVEL DETECTORS 763
Section II. LEVEL DETECTORS to emitter voltage (negative) should exceed the positive bias. When the base voltage Vb reaches
level L determined by the bias, the transistor is turned on. The current i6 flows from battery B
39.14. LEVEL DETECTOR through emitter, collector, auxiliary permanent magnet moving coil relay. When base to emitter
A level detector is a functional circuit in a protective relay which determine the level of its voltage Vb is below threshold level (0.6 V silicon transistor) current ic is zero.
inputs with reference to a predetermined setting. Ref. 39.11. When the inputs(/) exceed the level
(L) the output (0) of the level detector exceeds and the output stage of the relay gets a triggering 39,16, NPN TRANSISTOR AS LEVEL DETECTOR
signal via an amplifier.
Consider the common emitter connection ofa NPN transistor (Fig. 39.13). When base to emitter
LEVEL voltage is negative or less than the threshold value no substantial emitter current can flow. When
DETECTOR 0
AMPLIFIER OUTPUT
I the base to emitter voltage is positive and exceeds the threshold value the transistor is turned on,
;
I --1>-o ·lf- current ic flows through collector (and load). le is of the order of milliamperes.
i 4MPL!F!ER OUTPUT
1
yfE;L~vel) TRIP t'1-
t
L, the output O increases).
When input (/) is below a certain level, the output is negligibly small.
'
Fig. 39.11. Explaining level detector (when input l exceeds level
An Analogue Level detector with operational Amplifier has been described in Sec. 38.15.10,
Some other simple circuits are described here.
INPUT
39.15. LEVEL DETECTOR BY PNP TRANSISTOR

Referring to Fig. 39.12, the input to level detector Vi should have desired level to make the
o-----...., .-+'--____________,
BIAS
PNP transistor conducting. The base should be negative with respect to emitter. Therefore, base Fig. 39.13. NPN Transistor as level detector.
RL AUX/L!ARV 39.17. SCHMITT TRIGGER WITH OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
RELAY
Ref. Sec 38.24 for application of operational amplifier as a level detector. The circuits shown
COLLECTOR in Figs. 38.36 and 38.37 are with negative feedback. (Feedback applied to negative terminal of
operational amplifier) Negative feedback is generally necessary in feedback control systems for
PNP stabilization. However in protective relays negative feedback is generally not necessary and positive
feedback is preferred.
(MITTER In positive feedback, the output is applied to the positive terminal of the operational amplifier.
When the operational amplifier is turned into ON state, it remains in ON state till the operating
quantity is reduced to below reset level.
o~------a,8r--/A_S_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___
Ref. Fig. 39.14, since feedback is positive, the output Vo is either equal to+ Vee or - Vee
Fig. 39.12 (a). Simple level detector with PNP transistor. depending upon the history of the waveform (Hysteresis). Follow the waveform of input in Fig. 39.14
(When Base of PNP transistor gets a negative voltage with respect (c). When input reaches+ Vee/2, the output changes its state from+ Vee to - Vee and remains
to collector, the transistor is turned on).
at that level till Vi reaches - V ee/2.
A sinusoidal input Vi gives a square wave output V O Schmitt Trigger can be used as a level
LEVEL ,L- DETERMINED
BY BIAS, TO TURN ON detector. When inp~t reaches Vee, the output changes its state.
, --------- ---v0 ==0perating vi
t REsEi ; ' ·voltage
Vo
R2
VJor (R 1 =R 2)
t -- VR =Resetting + Vee Vs<RRVcc Vs< Vccl2

1+ 2
voltage R2
-Vee Vs>RRVce Vs> - Vccl2
1+ 2
Fig. 39.12 (b), Operation of transistor in Fig, 39.12 (a).
764 COMPARATORS AND LEVEL DETECTORS 765
When Vi reaches threshold value (High) and is positive, Q1 is turned ON. Current diverts to
Q1 · Q1 is saturated thereby potential of B 2 is dropped below reset value.
Q 2 stops conducting. Thereby the output voltage V 0 increases to Vs.
When Vi becomes low (0.6 V for silicon) Q1 stops conducting and Q2 starts conducting and driven
into saturation. The voltage Vs gets divided across R 4 , R 5, and V 0 reduces to low value.
INPUT 0,A
Vt OUTPU7 QUESTIONS
v,, 1. State the various functional circuits in a static relay with the help of block diagrams. Explain the
Vo function of various blocks.
+ Vcc
2. Describe the functions of Amplitude Comparator and Phase Comparator. Explain the difference be-
tween Direct and Integrating type Amplitude Comparators with the aid of illustrated waveforms ..
3. Explain the circuit of an integrating type of phase comparator by means of block diagram and
t- waveforms.
-"cc ····------1 4. Explain the phase comparison technique based on (1) spike and block inputs (2) phase splitting. Il-
lustrate with the help of block diagrams and waveforms.
Fig. 39.14 (b). Schmitt Trigger with 0.A. ·1Fig. 39.14 (c). Waveforms ofV; and Vo for R1 = R2. 5. Explain the following :
39.18. SCHMITT TRIGGER WITH TWO NPN TRANSISTOR - phase splitting technique used in Integrating Type Phase Comparator.
- use of AND gate in phase comparators.
Ref. Fig. 39.15. Transistor Q1 is normally not-conducting and Q 2 conducting. The potential of 6. Explain the function of Rectifier Bridge comparator used as amplitude comparator.
base B2 of transistor Q2 is determined by the supply voltage V8 and values of resistors R 1, R 2 , R 3 . 7. Illustrate block diagram of an integrating type amplitude comparator having two current inputs
Because voltage Vs across supply and ground gets divided across R 1, R 2 , R 3 in proportion to their having phase difference <j>.
resistances. 8. State the function of level detector. Explain the use of Schmitt Trigger circuit as a level Detector.
What is the advantage of positive feedback?
9. Write short notes on any two :
1. Schmitt Trigger with Transistors Level Detector.
2. Integrating Type phase comparators.
3. PNP as Level Detector.
4. Schmitt Trigger with Operational Amplifiers as Level Detector.
5. Rectifier Bridge comparator Relay.
Fig. 39.15 (a). Schmitt trigger circuit with two NPN transistors.
+
v::
' HIG/-1
LOW.~-+.:...=:..==..=:....=.=~--
f~
t_:,_,,...
Fig. 39.15 (b). Waveform of(a).
STATIC OVERCURRENT RELAYS 767
FROM INPUT RECTIFIER LEVEL AMPLIFIER
Jr!: ~
+
CT DETECTOR
1--. f-----. -[>-
I
AUX CT. RECTIFIER
SELECTOR SMOOTHNER
FILTER
Fig. 40.1. Simplified block-diagram of a single actuating quantity.
Static Overcurrent Relays The secondaries of CT's are connected to a summation circuit (not shown). The output of the
Advantages - Single Actuating Quantity Relays, Double Actuating Quantity Relays_ - Instantaneous summation circuit is given to the intermediate current transformer. The output of the current trans-
Overcurrent Relays - Timing Circuit - Time Delay Overcurrent Relays - Directional Overcurrent former is supplied to full wave rectifier bridge. The rectified output is given to measuring element
Relays - Block Diagrams - Summary. (level detector). The measuring element determines whether the quantity has reached the threshold
value or not. The measuring element detects the level of the input signal. The measuring element
40.1. INTRODUCTION TO STATIC OVERCURRENT RELAYS can be one of the following three types :
The applications of conventional electromagnetic overcurrent relays have been discuss~d in Ch. - moving coil permanent magnet relay - polarised moving iron relay
27. The conventional electromagnetic overcurrent relays are at present commonly used m many - static relay
applications. However, static overcurrent relays offer several advantages such as :
- Reduced VA consumption (7 m VA to 100 m VA) as compared with electromagnetic relays In some cases the output of the rectifier is amplified and fed to electromechanical relay.
(1000 m VA to 3000 m VA). Therefore the performance of CT under short-circuit condition The static measuring element comprises d.c. amplifiers with transistors. The amplifier is single
is improved. The size of CT core is also reduced. stage, two-stage or three stage and is usually feedback type. The feedback ensures progressive rise
- Static relays are compact. The size of a single three phase overcurrent relay may be about of output power when the input to the measuring unit reaches a certain level.
one-fourth of three electromagnetic relays. When input to measuring unit is less than threshold input, the output of the level detector is
- Static overcurrent relay is not affected by vibrations. zero. For an overcurrent relay,
- The static relays can have more accurate time-current characteristic. for lin < Ith, lout = 0
- Static overcurrent relays can be of following types.
for Iin > Ith, lout= Present
Overcurrent relay without time lag.
where, Jin= Input to measuring unit
Overcurrent relay with time lag.
lout = Output of measuring unit.
Directional overcurrent relay with time lag.
Ith = Threshold value of input.
The applications of these relays have been discussed in Ch. 27.
'l'he static overcurrent relay has generally the following functional blocks. (Ref. Sec. 391.1) In an actual, relay, Ith can be adjusted.
- input circuit comprising Main C'l', auxiliary CT, current setting switch RC Filter. After operation of the measuring element (level detector) the output of the level-detector is
- rectifier with smoothing circuit (Ref. Ch. 39) ·amplified by amplifier.
- level detector (Ref. Ch. 39) The amplified output is given to the output device. The. trip coil of the circuit-breaker is con-
- amplifier (Ref. Ch. 38) nected in the output stage.
- tripping relay (Ref. Ch. 38) If time-delay is desired, a timing circuit is introduced before the level detector.
In overcurrent time delay relays a time delay circuit is added between the rectifier and level
Smoothing circuit (Ref. Sec. 34.13) and filters are introduced in the output of the rectifier.
detector to achieve desired time characteristic:
'I'he overcurrent relays without directional feature are as a rule single actuating quantity The above mentioned description applies to a static overcurrent relay. The protection operates
relays. The directional overcurrent relays are as a rule double actuating quantity relays, the direc- if fin> Ith with a set time delay. Static overcurrent relay is made in form of a single unit in which
tion of power flow is sensed by sensing the phase angle between current and voltage. transistors, diodes, resistors, capacitors etc. are arranged on printed board and are bolted with
The various functional blocks mentioned above are standardised by the manufacturer. Depend- epoxy resin.
ing upon the type of relay, the required functional blocks are connected in the final assembly.
40.3, DOUBLE ACTUATING QUANTITY RELAYS (Ref, Sec, 26,14)
40.2. SINGLE ACTUATING QUANTITY RELAYS
In distance relays, differential relays, directional relays, etc. two quantities are fed into the
A brief description of rectifier relays has been given in Sec. 26.14.
measuring unit. Fig. 40.2 gives a block diagram of a double actuating quantity rectifier relay.
The protective relays at either single actuating quantity relays such as overcurrent, under-volt-
age, earth fault relay or double actuating quantity relays such as distance relay, differential relay. The outputs of CTI PT are fed.to summation units. The output of summation unit is rectified
Fig. 40.1 given a simplified block diagram of a single actuating quantity rectified current relay. and fed to comparator. When the output of comparator increases to a certain value the output of
level detector is initiated.
' 768
SWI'rCHGEAR AND PROTECT! ATIC OVERCURRENT RELAYS 769
RECTIFIER-I
In time overcurrent relay, the rectifier output is supplied to level detector (I) and a timing cir-
+
INPUT it is added in between the level detector (J) and level detector (II). Route 1. Fig. 40.3.
I
The output of level detector is amplified in Amplifier. The output of amplifier is given to output
INPUT RECTIFIER-II
COMPARATOR _J
l
0
~1);'UT
T
I~ of static relay. The amplifier amplifies the signals from level detector.
The output of static overcurrent relay may be any of the following :
+
~------l
II II - moving coil permanent magnet d.c. relay.
- thyristor in series with trip coil (Ref. Sec. 38.7.5.).
SUMMATION
FILTER The auxiliary d.c. supply is necessary for level detectors, amplifiers output stage of static relay.
[ig. 4 i·!·
Block diagram of a double actuating quantity relay
eve1 e ector and amplifier not shown Refer (Fig. 40.1 above).
In single actuating quantity relay, comparators are generally not necessary.
In Fig. 40.2, Level detector and Am l'fi b 40,5, TIME CHARACTERISTIC

shown for simplicity. . p I ier locks (between comparator and output) are not We will recall that the time characteristic of a protective overcurrent relay is plotted with
operating quantity (current) on x-axis and operating time on y-axis. (Ref. Sec. 27.4, Fig. 27.2) the
40.4. _BASIC PRINCIPLE OF STATIC OVERCURRENT RELAYS details described in this section may please be referred).
Figs. 40.1, and 40.3 illustrate simplified fu t' . . The general equation for time characteristic is given by
overcurrent relays. The blocks diagr f nc rnna1 blocks m a smgle actuating quantity static rt=K
Ref. Fig 40 3 Th d ams o complete relay are given in Fig. sec. 40.8 and 40.9,
. . . . . . e secon ary current of line CT is where I = Current sensed by relay
genei.ally not smtable for static relay operations It . , h. h k = Constant
Th~ hne CT may be selecte~ with a suitable hi~he~s c~;re:t LINEcT t = Time of operation
rat10 (such as 4000/5).The mtermediate CT (Auxiliar CT) n = Characteristic index of relay
reduces the current further to 1 Amp so that 1't . !t bl I
cuR~~~~ ~:~E~\oR
In conventional electromagnetic relays, n can vary from 2 to 8. Let us consider three pos-
for static rel · ·t Th · IS SUI a e FILTERs, sPIKE •
. ay circm s. e input Functional BI I ~-.-----l suPPREssoRs
sibilities on n.
prises the following : oc c com-
- Auxiliary CT (Ref. 35.15) (i) With n =0
- Current detector RECTIFIER, l°t=K
SMOOTHER
AUXILIARY t=K
- Fil:er for suppressing harmonics (Ref. sec. 38.31) O.C. SUPPLY OR (2)
- Spike suppressor for protecting static relays f

(1) The characteristic is a straight line parallel to current axis.
LEVEL DETECTOR
over-voltage spikes which are harmful to the r:f m It is known. as definite characteristic.
components. ay I (1)
(ii) With n=1
The desired current range can be selected b . It=K
tap;~ desi~: position. The alternating current ~e::!!~ir:i: TIME CIRCUIT
aux1 iary may contain harmonics t' I I The characteristic is called inverse characteristic.
short-circuit condition. The high volt:are I~u _ar y .under f'----.
APPLIED
'
waveform are harmful to the semi-conducto~ de;/ke~ mt t~e VOLTAGE
rela!s. Hence, filters and spike suppressors are ces 11: s a _1c
the iriput stage of the static relay. provided m
LEVEL DETECTOR
I II!J
LEVEL DETECTOR
I
EXTREMELY INVERSE J4t=k
INVERESE It=k
t E __ / --------
The current rectified in fullwave rectif' d . DEFINITE TIME I"t=k

s~oothene~ (Ref. Sec. 38.27 and Sec. 38.28) ins ier ~n _is
cu~t co~l'.'.nsing resistors and capacitor. The
cmt ehmmates the ripple in the output
s:::°ot~mgc~r-
fioo mg cir-
AMPLIFIER
y INVERSE DEFINITE
Time Deloy
Due to Timing
Circuit
MIN/MU/vi TIME (IDMT)
rectifier Th t t f wave orm of the
. . . e ou pu o rectifier is proportional to th t=-rc TIME-
value of mput a.c. waveform. . e r.m.s. LEVEL LEVEL
DETECTOR ( I) DETECTOR (II)
The output of rectifier is supplied to level <let t (R f l06I- ACTS ACTS
Sec. 39.13 to Sec. 39.l 6). ec or e . Fig. 40.4, 'rime characteristics of overcurrent relays. Fig. 40.5. Characteristics of time circuit.
Fig. 40.3. Block diagram of static
In instantaneous overcurrent relay with t , t . overcurrent relay (1) with time delay. (iii) With n =8, the characteristic becomes extremely inverse.
time delay, (Ref. Definition in Sec 25 8 ) t· odul In ent1~nal (2) without time delay bloc:i:.
I bl I · · · ime e ay funct10n- Instantaneous characteristic with conventional electromagnetic relays can have approximate
a oc c IS not necessary. In instantaneou I· h time of the order of 0.1 second. However in static overcurrent relays instantaneous over'current
and then to amplifier (Route 2 Fig. 40.3). s re ays, t e output of rectifier is given to level detector
relays can be with half cycle or one cycle operating time. (10 to 20 ms).
770 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION ·. STATIC OVERCURRENT RELAYS 771
I 2 3 4
The general expression for operating time of a time-circuit relays can also be expressed as, R£CTIF'IER LEVEL TIMING LEVEL
DETECTOR CIRCUIT DETECTOR
t= KM FROM m (U) TO
~
AUX.
~
rn _ 1ti AMPLIFIER
I= Tap current multiplier

p CT
I T I
• i
(a) Block Diagram ;
where IP= Multiple of tap current at which pick-occurs.
K = Design constant of the relay. +~+
M = Time Multiple setting.
In the above expression if the relay picks up at tap-current, i.e. IP= 1, then
t <O~E=O
t=O,E CT
~j_ .. I_
Vc=E(l-e
o/'r
)
KM
r-1
-t~------1-
(b) Timing circuit of Block 3.
T:RC
The static overcurrent time relays can have the following typical characteristics : Fig. 40.6. Function of timing circuit in overcurrent time relay.
(Ref. Fig. 40.5).
IDMT standard inverse :
t= 0.15 Hence time delay given by the time delay circuit is given by the above expression. By varying
fJ-20 _ l values of R, C the time can be varied without difficulties. The basic R, C circuit can be also arranged
in several series parallel combinations to charge equivalent value R and 't.
Vary inverse : t= 14 - 1 Non-linear resistors are used to get other time characteristics mef. Fig. 40. 7).
I
' T' r
L
Extremely inverse : t = ----1S}_
12 - 1
The same relay can be given different characteristics by changing its components. +' ~ •I
40.6, TIMING CIRCUIT
When d.c. e.m.f. (E) is applied to a capacitor, the voltage across the capacitor (V) does not in-
-o-~T_ _l-
crease instantaneously. Initially it is zero. The voltage increases exponentially, given by (a) Timing circuit with non-linear resistor. (b) Timing circuit with diode.
Ve= E ( 1 - e- Rc)
1
... (40.3)'
Fig. 40.7. Some forms of timing circuits.
where E = d.c.e.m.f. Instantaneous Characteristic

Ve= Voltage across capacitor The time delay circuit containing C is omitted from the block diagram. Such a circuit would
need only one level detector. As there is no moving parts operating times of the order of 1 cycle can
RC= 't = Time constant of RC circuit where R is Thevenins equivalent resistance be achieved in static relays.
viewed from capacitance. (Ref. Fig. 40.6) Applications
at t = 0, when e.m.f. is applied.
Time delay overcurrent relays are used in overcurrent protection of utility equipment, distribu-
Ve=E(l-e- 0 )=0 tion circuits, protection of generators, motors, transformers etc. Instantaneous overcurrent relays
at t = 't, time constant are used for short circuit protection of large equipment.
Instantaneous overcurrent relays are also useful in other protective relay systems. (Ref. Ch. 27).
Ve =E (l-e- 1)
=E(~) 40. 7. DIRECTIONAL OVERCURRENT RELAY

(Please Ref. Sec. 27.11 -Directional overcurrent protection.)
The charging time ~rom t = 0 at Ve =0 to t =Tc at Ve =Vt is given by Directional relay senses direction of power flow by means of phase angle between V and I. When
this angle exceeds certain predetermined value, the directional relay operates with a condition that
. Tc= RC loge [ E ~Vt] ... (40.4)
the current is above in pick-up vafoe. Hence directional.relay is a double actuating quantity relay
Consider timing circuit (Fig. 40.6). When the output of rectifier reaches a threshold value, the (Fig. 40.2) with one input as current I from CT and the other input as voltage V from VT.
level detector (l) gives output ray E · (at t = 0). Before t = 0, the output oflevel detector (1) zero and With the electromagnetic directional overcurrent relays, discrimination is affected when voltage
/ there is no input to timer. As the level detector (2) acts voltage Eis applied to timer. The capacitor
starts getting charged. The voltage Ve increases exponentially. Suppose VT is the threshold value
drops down (under fault condition) for faults very close to the location of VT. With static directional
overcurrent relays, this voltage drop does not cause a problem.
of the. level detector (4). Time required to reach this voltage depends upon time for charging the Because the static comparators used in directional overcurrent relay can be made sensitive to
capacitor C given by,
voltage and static directional overcurrent relays can give reliable performance upto 1% of system
... (40.5) voltage. ·
772 STA'rIC OVERCURRENT RELAYS 773
Block Diagram 40,8, STATIC INSTANTANEOUS A.C. MEASURING RELAYS
Ref. Fig. 40.8. The directional overcurrent relay has two inputs (J and V). The inputs are sup- Courtesy : ASEA, Sweden.
plied to phase comparator. A phase shifter is added in voltage input circuit before supplying it to
phase comparator to achieve maximum output of phase comparators under phase faults/earth fault (A) General
condition. Static instantaneous a.c. measuring relays include instantaneous overcurrent relay instan-
The output of phase comparator is given to level detector and then to amplifier. taneous under-current, instantaneous over-voltage relay and instantaneous under-volta~e relay.
The application include high-set instantaneous over-current protection of motors, transformers,
If time delay is necessary, a timer is added in the block diagram. feeders, distribution lines; under-voltage protection ofbusbars feeding several motors, etc. Instan-
LINE CT taneous protection is provided where time-lag is not desirable and differential protection is not jus-
(l}f) tified economically. Static instantaneous a.c. relays have the following important features :
- Measuring circuits built-up of static components.
INPUT 1 INPUT V - Setting of maximum and minimum values (over/under) in the same relay.
AUX. CT, PHASE SHIFT - Wide scale range, with ratio 1 : 3
SELECTOR AUX. VT
- Stepless setting of operating values
- High resetting ratio.
:2-: 95% for maximum operation
PHASE Vcos(/!
COM PARTOR :2-: 105% for minimum operation
1/ Vcoscp - Low power consumption, current relay : 0.3 m VA
AUXILIARY
D.C.5UPPLY Voltage relay : 20 m VA
- Standard current relay completely insensitive to d.c. components.
LEVEL DETECTOR
f - - - - TIMER, LEVEL - High resistance of shocks and vibrations due to absence of moving parts.
0£:TECTOR,
AMPLIFIER - Auxiliary voltage stabilization provided with the relay.
- Compact.
(B) Principle of Operation
OUTPUT The block-diagram Fig. 40.9 explains the functional arrangement in a static current-under-cur-
rent relay. The auxiliary-input transformer shown in the figure, is connected to the secondary of
main current transformer (not shown). The input transformer has an air gap (except those for ex-
Fig. 40.8. Simplified block diagram of static directional overcurrent relay. tremely low power consumption). The functions of various static components are described in Ch.
34. The relay can be fed from auxiliary voltage such as 24 V, 48-60 V, 110-125 V, 220-250 V d.c.
Directional Units for Directional Overcurrent Relays Resistor ratio box is provided internally.
The choice of directional unit depends upon the type of comparator. (Ref. Ch. 39). The com-
parator used in directional overcurrent relay may be one of the following :
INPUT LEVEL'
1. Hall Effect generator (Ref. Sec. 38.12).
i TRANSFORM{R Ri;CT/FIER DETECTOR AHPLJFIER
OUTPUT
RELAY I:
_j_ ][ -
2. Rectifier bridge comparator (Ref. Sec. 38.12, 39.2).
3. Instantaneous coincidence comparator (Ref. Sec. 39.9). 1
!
*
,-
I [> ,__
w W-+
i
I
4. Integrating coincidence phase comparator (Ref. Sec. 39.10).
Block Diagram Development
I i
! 5ETTIN6
DEVKE
4UXILJARY
VOLTAGE i
With the earlier background we can develop the Block Diagram for the following. It will be an 1 j
interesting and useful exercise. I -¢- ,__
~
AIIX/LIARY VOLT4r.E
i
Example 40.1. Develop Block Diagrams of following relays indicating the functional blocks j STABILIZER
I
from input to output stages. Describe the/unction of each block and the basic principle of its circuit.
I !
Indicate the auxiliary d.c. supply, line CT and VT. Fig. 40.9. Block diagram of static instantaneous
1. Static overcurrent relay -0vercurrent/under-current relay.
2. Static overcurrent time delay relay. The rectified input is compared with a quantity derived from stabilized auxiliary reference volt-
3. Static directional overcurrent relay without time delay. age. The difference is fed to the level detector. When the input quantity reaches a certain threshold
4. Static directional overcurrent relay with time delay. condition, the level detector detects the condition and gives output. The same is amplified so as to
The student may compare his block diagrams with some of the following diagrams. operate the auxiliary relay in the output stage.
STATIC OVERCURRENT RELAYS 775
(C) Technical Data on Static Instantaneous Current Relay and STABI-

UZING
TIME
SETTING
Instantaneous Voltage Relay AUXILARY VOLTAGE SUPPLY
_.'... Maximum voltage between line 500 V a.c.

- Rated frequency : 50 to 60 Hz
- Power consumption at lowest setting TRIPPING
Current relay : Measuring circuit : 7 m VA to 100 m VA auxiliary voltage circuit : 2 to 4 W RElAY
Voltage relay: Measuring circuit: 20 m VA auxiliary voltage circuit: 2 to 4 W

- Temperatures permitted: ~_5°C to+ 50°C
w
- Impules test: according to BEAMA 219
- Power frequency test : 2000 V, 50 Hz, 1 sec. INSTANTANE
-OLIS
LEVEL
DETECTO
SETTING
- Operating time : 30 to 55 m sec.
40.9. STATIC TIME-LAG OVER-CURRENT RELAYS

(A) Applications AMPLIFIER STARTING
RELAY
Static over-current time-lag relays can be used for

short circuit protection of generators, transformers,
motors and also in simple supply networks at medium-
distribution voltages. When combined with directional Fig. 40.11. Block diagram of static-time lag-overcurrent relay.
relays the over-current relays can be used for directional [Courtesy : ASEA, Sweden.)
overcurrent protection of simple inter-connected systems. Instantaneous operation is obtained through part of the voltage rectified from the transformer, .
They can also be used as starting elements, in conjunc- being compared with reference voltage and when the latter is exceeded, an operational impulse is
tion with longitudinal differential relays for protection of given to the tripping relay. Inductor flags are provided for both starting and tripping relays and
lines. The designs, include both inverse time-lag and in- are actuated by armature on corresponding output relay.
dependent time lag design, for use in single phai;;e of
three phase systems. (C) Current Setting
(B) Design and Principle of Operation The current setting is selected by turning a knob in the front of the relays thereby selecting
[Courtesy: ASEA, Sweden] the tap on secondary of input transformer. Typical example : Current scale for current setting
graduated at 0.5, 0.6, 0.75, 1, 1.25, 1.5, 2, which multiplied by scale constant 1, 2, 4 or 8 A gives
The block diagram (Fig. 40.11) explains the circuit of four current ranges 0.5 - 2, 1 - 4, 2 - 8, 4 - 16 A.
a time-lag overcurrent relay developed and marketed by
ASEA, Sweden. The applications of the relay are men- (D) Time Setting
tioned above. The relay has a built-in input current- The knob for time setting gives time multipliers. Thus if the time required from the graph or
transformer with several taps on secondary. Current table is say 4 seconds for time multiplier of 1, then time will be 0.8 x 4 = 3.2 seconds for time setting
setting can be obtained by selecting the tap. of'0.8.
From the switch for setting the operating current, a
(E) Instantaneous Operation
voltage connection is taken across resistor. The voltage
is rectified, smoothed ahd compared with reference volt- Instantaneous operation is independent of d.c. component in short circuit current.
age. When the former voltage exceeds the reference volt- (F) Starting Operation
age, the starting relay picks-up. At the same time, the Fig. 40.10. Time-lag-over current relay.
RC circuit starts charging up. The contacts of starting relay can be utilized for :
Instantaneous tripping following by high speed auto-reclosure and delayed tripping.
The method of charging depends upon the type of relay. The charging in case of independ~nt
time lag relay is done from stabilized voltage. For a relay with inverse time lag characteristics, the Blocking of other relays in the event of overcurrents.
charging is done by voltage proportional to current. Blocking protection of radial fed busbars, transformers, cables.
The inverse characteristics, in case of inverse-time-lag relays are obtained through combination Operating counters for recording number of faults which have not led to tripping.
of zener diodes, resistor employed in RC circuits. Actuating separate indicating devices.
When the capacitor in RC circuit charges up to a certain voltage level, the tripping relay pick-
(G) Maintenance
up.
In three phase design, the measuring circuit acquires voltage proportional to the largest of the Under normal condition, the relay requires no special maintenance. Burnt contacts on output
three-currents. · relay should be carefully dressed with diamond file or extremely fine file.
776 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION STATIC OVERCURRENT RELAYS 777
Characteristics Abbreviations
U - = D.C. voltage
The basic relay types offer variety of characteristics mentioned below :
U _ = A.C. voltage
- Extremely Inverse : BS 142 : 1966
Un= Rated voltage
- Very Inverse : "
- Normally Inverse: " ls = Set current
- Independent time lag : 0.2 - 2 s. I= Current supplied to the relay
- Independent time lag : 0.6 - 6 s. a = Characteristic angle of the relay
Voltage Ratings <j> = Angle between current and voltage to the relay
Auxiliary d.c. voltages for various types : 24 V, 36, 48-55, 110, 125, 220, 250 V d.c. p = Angle between the phase voltage to which the current is related and that voltage
supplied to the relay.
Current Ratings <l>1t = Angle between current and voltage to the relay at short-circuits.
1 A in scale 0.2 02A P.F. = Power factor
2 A in scale 1 - 4 A P = Active power
5 A in scale 2 - 8 A Q = Reactive power.
Frequency : 50-60 Hz. Functional Circuit of a Directional Relay
Some Technical Data The relay mainly comprised one current and one voltage transformer, a potentiometer, a con-
Instantaneous operation, time : 50ms. verter, a smoothing circuit, a level detector with an amplifier and an electro-magnetic output relay,
see Fig. 40.12. The current and voltage transformers, the potentiometer and the output relay are
Starting operation, time : 20 ms. mounted individually, whilst the other components are on a printed-circuit board. The components
Overshoot time : < 60 ms. together form a plug-in unit which occupies four relay seats in the plug-in system. The characteristic
Power Consumption of Measuring Circuit angles - 30° and - 90° are obtained by a capacitor in the voltage circuit, the angle + 65° being ob-
tained by a capacitor in both the voltage and the current circuit.
Rated current Power consumption at rated current
As is apparent from Fig. 40.12 the current and voltage are fed via a phase shifting capacitor
lA 0.02 - 0.07 VA and transformers to a converter. The converter consists of two rectifier bridges and a resistor across
2 0.03-0.0 VA which an average voltage value is extracted and supplied to the smoothing capacitor and the level
detector.
5 0.05 - 0.13 VA
The rectifier bridges are connected to the voltage transformer and the current transformer in
such a manner that they pass conductive alternatively. In this way, a current is· allowed to form
40.10. STATIC DIRECTIONAL RELAY
the centre tapping of the current transformer through the resistor and rectifier bridge which is
[('ourtesy: ASEA, Sweden] conductive at the time.
(A) General ~-----,
0 L
I I
Directional relay is double actuating quantity relay and senses phase angle between the two
actuating quantities.
Let the phase angle between the current and voltage supplied to the relay be <j> whilst the char-
acteristic angle he a. When <j> is equal to a, the relay has maximum sensitivity. This means that
~4t: n1 PHASE t
: SHIFTING I
1 DEVICE :
VOLTAGE
TRANSFO
-RMER
SETTING
DEVICE
STABI-
LIZING
r--A_u_x_,LA_R_v__
VOLTAGE, U-
the relay operates when the supplied current I is as large as the set value ls on the scale. For other ~- - - - _I
values ofls the relay operates when I, cos (<l> - a) 2 [8 • The angles are used in the formula with·their
signs and accordingly the angle <l> is then negative for a capacitive phase displacement.
In three-phase systems, the operation of the relay is also determined by an angle p which is ~-----,
that angle between the phase voltage to which the current is related and that voltage supplied to ,_ I I
the relay. Since the angle is positive when the current lags the phase voltage, the relay operates
when I cos ( - a+ P) 2 ls. ][ l/41 7
-1
:~! I
I
I
I
I
[> w
I I
CURRENT CONVER· SMOOTH- 1 INVERSE I LEVEL AMPL~ OUTPUT
When the relay is connected for 60° and goo angles of phase displacement connection will mean TRANS- TER ING : TIME· I DETECT- FIER RELAY
FORMER I LAG I OR WITHINDI
that cos ( a+~)= 1 when the angle= 60° or go 0 , the relay thus obtaining maximum sensitivity. ~ :>:v~c_: _: -CATION
The reactive_power Q has a phase-displacement of90° in relationship to the active power P. It Fig. 40.12. Block diagram of a static directional relay.
leads P when the phase displacement is inductive and is, therefore, positive. [Courtesy: ASEA, Sweden.)
When cj> = a at the current flows through the resistor in the same direction the whole time and
the average value of the voltage across the resistor, which is proportional to I cos (cj> - a), thus
provides maximum sensitivity, i.e. the relay operates for a current of the same value as the set
value 18 •
The larger the difference between cj> and a the smaller the average value of the voltage through
the resistance will be at a constant current I. For a 0° difference, the average value will be zero
1
irrespective of the value of the current.
The voltage over the resistor is smoothed fed to a transistorized level detector provided with
an amplifier. By increasing the time constant in the smoothing circuit, it is possible to obtain a Static Differential Protection
delayed operation with an inverse characteristic. The auxiliary voltage for the level detector and
thus the operating value .of the relay set by means of a potentiometer at the front of the relay. of Power Transformers
When operating, the amplifier feeds a voltage to the output relay which pick up, the indicating flag
then becomes visible. Introduction - Merits - Differential Protection of two winding Transformers - Three Winding
Transfo~mer - Inrush Proof Quantities - Technical Data - Summary
Summary
41.1. INTRODUCTION
Static overcurrent relays have less burden compared electromagnet relays. They are compact
and can give wide range of characteristics. The principle of differential protection was described in Ch. 28. Their application to protection
Basic static overcurrent relay has following functional blocks : of power transformer generator.and station bus was covered in Ch. 32, 33 and 34. We will recall
that the differential protection responds to vector difference between two or more similar electrical
Input, Rectifier, Level detector, Amplifier, Output (Tripping). quantities. In differential protection, current
INPUT/ INPUT/I
In case of time lag overcurrent relay, an additional Time Delay Block is necessary. transformer secondaries are connected in COMPARATOR
Directional overcurrent relay, is basically double actuating quantity relay. It receives current such a way that under internal fault condi-
input from CT and voltage input from VT. The rectified inputs are supplied to comparator. The tion, the out of balance secondary current VECTOR DIFFERANCE
comparator output is given to integrator or time delay circuit. The directional overcurrent relay flows through the operating coil of the relay. /•II
can be instantaneous type of integrating type. ·· 'Bias'or 'Restraint' is provided to prevent

Static overcurrent relay circuit comprises the required functional blocks. maloperation during external faults and in- AMPLIFIER
. rush currents. This principle is applicable
QUESTIONS even for static differential relays. In static
1. With the help of neat block diagram, explain the functioning of a static overcurrent relay without differential relays the two (or nwre) similar
time delay. Explain function of each block. input quantities are compared in static com-
2. Describe the circuit of a Directional Overcurrent Relay. Explain with the help of waveforms and block parators, usually the rectifier bridge com-
TRIP DEVICE
diagrams the use of integrating type coincidence phase comparator for directional overcurrent relay. parators. This gives wider flexibility in relay
3. (a) Explain the principle of RC time delay circuit. design regarding characteristic ~nd range.
Describe the use of such time delay circuit in a overcurrent time delay relay with the help of block This differential relay measures the-vec- D.C.
SUPPLY
TRIP COIL
diagram. · tor difference between two similar electrical
(b) Explain the terms Inverse IDMT, Instantaneous overcurrent characteristics. quantities say voltage/voltage or cur- Fig. 41.1. Static differential relays principle.
4. In a static relay, when the level detector operates, a voltage of 100 V DC applied across RC circuit rent/cur.rent. (Simplified block diagram)
having R= 12 kQ, C = 1 µF .. Calculate time taken for the voltage across capacitor to reach threshold Rectifier bridge comparator can be used
value of 60 V after operation of the level-detector. conveniently in static differential relay. Block diagram is such a relay is given in Fig. 4Ll.
(Hint. Ref. Eqn. 39.5)
Merits of Static Differential Protection
5. With the help of neat block diagram, explain the functioning of static evercurrent directional time
delay relay. · · (Courtesy : Brown Boveri, Switzerland)
6. Write short notes on any three : - Three phase relay set with small dimensions.
- Time delay circuits in static relay - Directional overcurrent relay - Absolute stability for heavy through faults, hence ideally preferred for large transformers,
- Time characteristics of static relays - Instantaneous overcurrent relay. generators ..
7. Write short note on merits of static overcurrent relay compared with electromagnetic overcurrent
relay.
- High sensitivity for internal fau 1ts.
- Extremely short tripping times regardless of magnitude of auxiliary voltage (e.g. 20-50 ms).
- Accurate and absolutely stable tripping characteristic even for asymmetrical faults as each
phase can have its own relay.
- Inrush-proof, even during high-starting currents, inrush currents.
$TATIC DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION OF POWER TRANSFORMERS 781
where 10 == Operating current in forward direction in tripping device.
- Low consumption (VA burden on CT's , VT's)
IA = Output of rectifier A in the forward direction.
- Easy selection of auxiliary voltage.
Applications IH = Output of rectifier B in reverse directional.
- Protection of generators. 10 exceeds the pick-up value, the relay operates.
- Protection of generators-transformer units. The tripping relay is generally permanent magnet moving coil relay.
- Protection of two winding transformers.
- Protection of three winding transformers. 41.3, DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION OF THREE WINDING TRANSFORMER
For The principle of the differential protection of three winding transformer is the same as described
- Two and three phase faults. for two-winding transformers.
To protect three-winding transformer additional components are needed. A reliable differential
- Earth faults in transformers with solidly grounded neutral or low resistance grounded
neutral. measurement is only guaranteed under all possible operating conditions when a separate restraint
circuit is also provided for the third winding. The circuitry is illustrated in Fig. 41.3, and Fig. 41.4.
- Earth faults in generators with solidly grounded neutral or low resistance grounded neutral.
- Inter-turn faults.
41.2. DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION OF TWO-WINDING TRANSFORMER

(Please Ref. Sec. 28.3, 32.5, 33.3)
Refer Fig. 41.2, which illustrates static differential protection of a two winding power trans-
former.
The differential relay is connected to ..!4,.
the current transformers on either sides of --i11111111111111t-----r(\\l------•-- %]
the object (generator/transformer) to be ~ ht
protected. The incoming and outgoing cur- [Ws 13
--),, -<---
1A=ot
rents are compared by the differential cir-
cuit.
---►z,_
.....
1--,..
When there is an internal fault in the

protected zone, the differential current
(Id) increases. When the differential cur-
Q
1
2
- HK{
:: QJ ------.J~w,
rent (Id) exceeds the picking level (usually T Transformer protected

Wy Restraining current transformer (Ref. Fig. 41.2)
0.5 IN) the relay operates. Il + I:Jd = Operating (differential current)
WR Additional restraining current transformer
The pick-up value depends on ratio of (
- - = Restraining current Ws Blocking transformer for stabilisation circuit
2
differential current (Id) and through cur- = Tripping Relay W. Differential current transformer
11 12 Wd = Auxiliary CT for operating current Id ➔ I 1, I 2 , I 3 Currents during normal service.
rent ( ; ) The relay is thus biased or Wh = Auxiliary CT for restraining current (I1 + I 2)/2. ➔ I 1, I 2 , I 3 Currents during fault inside the protected zone.
A= Rectifier for forward (operating) current II!. Differential current
compensated to take care of through fault H = Rectifier for restraining current.
currents. I8 Restraining current
Fig. 4.2. Differential protection of two winding transformer HK Restraining circuit.
In static differential relay circuit, an by static differential relay.
auxiliary CT (Wd) is connected in operat- Fig. 41.3. Principle of measurement of differential protection
for a three winding transformer.
ing current (Id) circuit and another auxiliary CT (Wh) is connected in restraining (bias) circuit. (Ref.
Fig. 41.2) The secondaries of these auxiliary CT's are connected to rectifier bridge comparator (Ref. By connecting the two restraint circuits WH and Wy in parallel on the d.c. side, restraint is
Ch. 39) assured in the event of a through fault, even ifit flows through the third transformer winding into
The output of operating auxiliary CT Wd is given to rectifier bridge A, whose output gives for- the part of the system connected to it. ·
ward current to the tripping device Q. The restraining action of two circuits WH and Wy is equally strong when the through currents
The output of restraining auxiliary CT is given to rectifier bridge H, whose output gives are equal (11 ==12 = 13), as the drcuits are so designed that IH =½(11 + 12 ) through WH produces the
restraining current to the tripping device Q. The tripping device receives the forward current which same restraining effect in the relay as ly = 13 through Wy. When the currents are different
is a difference of IA and IH. (11 =t.12 =t.13), restraint in the relay is governed by the highest value, i.e. either IH==l (11 +12) or
2
ly== 13, depending on which is larger. The smaller is not taken into accounts.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION 'STATIC DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION OF POWER TRANSFORMERS 783
782
N
18
R,<>----4<~-+----':_ lH,
~ti---!' I
r
PHASE T
220V
-r<>------.
0 50 100 150H2
f~
Fig. 41.5. Oscillogram on inrush current Fig. 41.6. Frequency characteristic of harmonic filter
of transformer. for three magnitudes of inrush current.
16 the secondary circuit of the blocking transformer W8 • (Ref. Fig. 41.3). The frequency characteristics
-o--<-------------------- of the filter are shown in Fig. 41.6 for three different currents.
1. Restraining current transformer WH 2. Tripping current transformer WH Since this blocking action is only sensitive to the second harmonic _which of course is charac-
3. Blocking transformer WH (Air gap transformer) teristics for inrush surge of power transformers the relay is certain to distinguish between an inrush
4. Restraining current rectifier bridge. 5. Difference current rectifier bridge. and a short circuit in the protected object.
6. Blocking. current rectifier bridge. 7. Resistance for bias setting. Ref. Fig. 41.4. The blocking current is diverted through diode 11 so that it does not have to
8. 'Zener' diode 9. Non-linear resistance flow through the resistor 7 used for setting the bias or the rectifier bridge 4 for the restraining
10. Blocking current limiting diodes. 11. Diodes current. By this means the blocking properties are quite independent of the bias.
12. Plug-in blocking element 13. Resistance for basic setting
14. Moving coil-relay· 15. Annunciator
16. Reset button 17. Tripping contractor 41.5. REQUIREMENTS TO BE FULFILLED BY THE MAIN CT
18. Automatic shorting links 19. Restraining circuit resistance
R 1, R 2 Input terminali;, of the phase R Although the relay, on account of the restraining action described is fairly insensitive to C.T.
N Ne.;_tral of current transformer sets.
saturation, the main C.T. used should not reach the.saturation point at the .connected burden and
-at the maximum fault current experienced. It has proved advantageous in practice to allow for an
Fig. 41.4. Circuit diagram of three-phase differential relay in Fig. 41.3 overcurrent factor of at least 10. The corresponding C.T. class is 5P10, i.e. between 0.33. and 10
(Courtesy: Brown Boveri, Switzerland) IN the current error is less than 5% and the angular error less than 300. The C.T. load in this case
The circuit di~gram of the R phase of three phase differential relay is illustrated in Fig. 41.4. consists of all connected loads, such as the leads, auxiliary C.T., the differential relay and any other
The auxiliary tripping c. t. W Ll, restraining c. t. WHand blocking transformer W8 correspond to those elements connected, ~he consumption being referred to the rated current of the C. T. If the C. T. is
loaded below its rated burden, the overcurrent factor rises in the ratio of the actual load plus C.T.
shown in Fig. 41.3. consumption to the rated output plus C.T. consumption. ·
On account of the very short tripping ti111e of the relay, allowance has to be made for dynalllW--
41,4. INRUSH-PROOF QUALITIES . . phenomena in the transformation of the short circuit. It is therefore advisable to make the secon-
When a transformer is switched on, a cu\rent surge is produced which eventually reverts to dary time constants of the circuits on either side of the relay nearly equal as possible, e.g., by lJSing
auxiliary transformers on either side of the relay. In the case of three-winding transformers or unit-
the charging current of the transformer. ~t ~nly occurs on the closed side and is therefore ex- connected generators and transformer with feeders to the units auxiliaries, C.T. ratios which relate
perienced by the relay as a difference current. Difference currents of similar shape but shorter dura- to very different powers should be avoided. In other words, the ratios of the differential protection
tion can also be produced in the differential protection of generators by current surges resulting cores of all main C.T. should be based on the same power i.e .. the highest.
from momentary differences i:r\ the behaviour of the current transformers.
The oscillogram in Fig. 41.5 shows the inrush current with severely distorted waveforms 41.6. AUXILIARY C.T.
produced when a transformer is switched on. Analysis of this curve indicates the presence ofa large
These C.T. have to perform various duties, including :
amount of the second harmonic. To make the relay inrush proof this 2nd harmonic component of
the difference current is employed, in that this current, after resonance amplification is fed to the 1. Restoration of the phase shift between the currents on the primary and secondary sides of
moving-coil relay in the blocking direction. The resonance amplification is performed by a filter in a power transformer, caused by the connection of the windings.
2. Ensuring that when the same power is being carried by the two transformer windings, the
same flows to the relay from both sides and that, at the full power of the winding, the current
flowing to the relay is at least 0.7 times the relay current.
3. Filtration of zero-sequence currents when the transformer neutral is earthed, or in auto-
transformers. For this purpose the auxiliary C.T. shall be connected in star/delta on that side of
the transformer which has its neutral earthed.
4. Auxiliary C.T. should never be employed on only one side. With an asymmetrical arrange-
ment the different transient response of the two circuits in the event of through short circuits can
give rise to considerable difference currents which could cause the extremely rapid relay to operate. Static Distance Relays and Distance
In order to keep the burden on the auxiliary C.T. as small as possible, they should be mounted
as close to the relay as can be permitted. Protection of EHV Lines
Apart from individually matched auxiliary c.t., it is also possible to supply universal c.t. which
are suitable for use in the majority of cases. · Introduction - Static distance relays - Comparator combinations - Voltage comparator - Current
comparator multi-input comparator Elliptical and quadrangular impedance characteristic - Errors
in distance measurement - Performance under power swing conditions - Distance protection oflines
Summary with series capacitors - Parallel lines - Ted line - Distance protection as back-up - Compensation
Static differential relays are preferred for protection oflarge generators and transformers. The in distance relays - Setting of distance relays - Static distance relay.
principle is similar to that of conventional differential protection. Additional auxiliary transformers
are used in secondary circuit of main CT's. The output of operating auxiliary CT and restraining 42.1. INTRODUCTION
auxiliary CT is supplied to rectifier bridge comparator. A permanent magnet moving coil relay is The principles of distance protection are discussed in Ch. 29 and distance protection of trans-
used as tripping device. mission lines is described in section 30-B. The principles of carrier aided distance protection have
been briefly mentioned in sec. 30.14.
QUESTIONS This chapter deals with advanced topics in distance protection of HV and EHV lines with par-
1. Describe the circuit of static differential relay for protection of two winding transformer. ticular reference to static distance relays.
2. Describe the circuit of a stati.c differential relay for three winding transformer. The principle of measurement of impedance (distance) is the same in both electromagnetic
3. Write short notes on any two : relays and static relays (Ref. Sec. 29). However static distance relays offer several advantages.
- use of rectifier comparator in static differential protection of two winding transformers Merits of Static Distance Relays.
- advantages of static differential protection - no moving parts in measuring circuit, hence no effect of vibrations, shocks, dust.
- inrush proofing in static differential protection of power transformers. - faster operation 20 ms, 40 ms, 60 ms
4. Describe the difficulties in conventional differential protection of power transformers. State the merits
- less burden e.g., burden of CT : 0.9 VA to 4.2 VA during normal and short circuit conditions
of static protection. Explain c~early the additional features in static protection schemes.
respectively. Burden on VT: 2.2 to 12 VA during normal and short-curcuit condition respec-
5. Describe the rectifier bridge comparator used in static differential protection of power transformer.
tively. This results in more economical CT's, VT's and better accuracy.
Illustrate the provision of blocking during inrush currents.
- comparator with elliptical or quadrangular impedance characteristics on R -X plane can be
6. Explain the requirements of main and auxiliary CT's (irttermediate CT's) in static differential relays:
used. Such characteristics are not possible by electromagnetic distance relays whose char-
acteristics are limited to sectors of circles on R-X plane.
greater adaptability due to large range of adjustments and characteristics.
- Versatile range of relays available for various specific applications.
- better stability under power swing conditions.
suitable for long heavily loaded lines, cables, even distribution lines.
cover all types of faults selectively, e.g., single line to ground, line to line, three phase.
can have .distance time step characteristic with four independently adjustable time steps
and impedance zones.
lower impedance setting possible
- fast tripping of first step - selector switches for
- under reach and over-reach
- rapid auto-reclosure or delayed reclosure
- programmed auto-reclosure
- provision of contacts for remote annunciation of kind of fault, step of operation, tripping
-- possibility of temporary reversal of measurement direction of second or second and thrid
zones.
786 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION STATIC DISTANCE RELAYS AND DISTANCE PROTECTION
787
- compact size (450 x 750 x 200 mm) ofa three phase, four step relay and less weight (50 kg) FILTERS
VOLTAGE STABILIZER
compared with several electromagnetic relays accommodated on a complete separate panel AUXILIARY
to perform similar functions. CT
- No wonder, static distance relays with their several merits are rapidly replacing their FROM CT
electromagnetic competitors. There are two distinct applications of these relays.
-,- medium high voltage (12 kV, 36 kV, 72.5 kV) distribution lines where multistage distance TRIP
relays are now replacing usual overcurrent time delay relays. By distance schemes it is pos- CIRCUIT
sible to have greater selectivity, shorter interruption times. FROM PT
- EI-IV transmission line (145kV, 245kV, 420 kV) in conjunction with carrier signals. The main
advantage of carrier aided distance protection schemes is that only tripping or blocking com- AUXILIARY CONVERSION
mand is transmitted over transmission line. Transmission of pure command (not derived TO VOLTAGE
,DC.SUPPLY
from main current) in digital values, provides greater security in transmission to the con- Fig. 42.2. Distance relay based on current comparison principle.
dition. [Courtesy : Brown Boveri, Switzerland.)
Section 1. COMPARATOR COMBINATIONS IN DISTANCE RELAYS Current Comparator

Altern~tively i:1 current comparator, a current is derived from CT and the voltage from VT is
42.2. VOLTAGE COMPARATOR AND CURRENT COMPARATOR converted mto e~mvalent current VIZ by connecting a replica impedance (impedance which is a
small scale vers10n of line impedance) in series in VT secondary (Fig. 42.3).
As described earlier, the distance •relay compares the ratio 7. It is set to an impedance 7
= Z,
such that for a fault at a certain distance from relay location the relay operates if the impedance
of the line, upto the fault point is less than the above relay setting Z.
The versatile family of distance relays includes impedance relay, Reactance relay, Mho relay I =Cu:r>rien t
discussed earlier. The measurement of impedance, reactance or admittance is done by comparison U=VoUage
of input combinations of current and voltage. Hence distance relays have input current and voltage.
In static comparators the two quantities to be compared must be similar, e.g. current/current or
voltage/voltage. h
Voltage Comparator h=TO THE MOVING
.COIL OR ELECTRONIC
Current I is converted into equivalent voltage VA by producing a voltage drop in an impedance RELAY
Z. The voltage drop is then compared with other voltage (Fig. 42.1).
Fig. 42.3. Distance relay based on current comparison principle.
[Courtesy : Brown Boveri, Switzerland.) ·
OUTPUT
The current is secondary of VT corresponds to VIZ which is compared with I.
ro . Th~ use ofreplica (ima~e) impedance per:11its faster tripping as it eliminates errors due to tran-
INTEGRATOR
sients m faul_t current. This needs explanat10n. The transient d.c. component of current passing
through lme 1mpedan_ce produces a faith~ul voltage waveform which is derived from line VT. The
ft~ndary cu~rent ofh:1e VT (V/Z)_has faithful transient. The comparator compares V,,z and I, both
a vmg identical transient (assummg faithful reproduction). Hence the effect of transient is can-
ce11ed out from Impedance Measurement.
The 1;1se of replica impedance reduces the influence of harmonic and transient d.c. components
substantially. .
. The rectifier brf d~e ~urrent comparator (Fig. 42.4) receives two current inputs, say operating
mput Ia and restrammg1nput IR, The output of comparator is applied to a permanent magnet coil
Fig. 42.1. Distance relay based on voltage comparison principle. relay or a static level detector. .
Block Diagram of a Static Distance Relay In distance relays, Io and IR may be supplied either by the current transformer by a voltage
A block diagram of a static distance relay is given in Fig. 42.2. The line PT secondary is con- transfo,:mer t~rough a series impedance (Fig. 42.3) or by both sources in a particular combination
nected to auxiliary PT. The output of VT is converted into current. This is compared with the output to obtain particular relay characteristic.
ofVT. (i) Impedance Relay
Let us come back to Fig. 42.1. In voltage comparator, the current is converted into voltage by If restraining current IR is supplied by voltage transformer, and operat'ing current/a is supplied
passing it through impedance Z < 0 which is a replica of the protected line section on a secondary by current transformer (Ref. Fig. 42.4), the relay operates when the ratio VII is less than a certain
basis. It means thf::l IZ drop given to the rectifier bridge is compared with to line voltage V. value ZN and is therefore a minimum Impedance Relay.
·.)
STATIC DISTANCE RELAYS AND DISTANCE PROTECTION
789
TRIP
z
COIL
lo
Fig. 42.4. Comparator used in an impedance relay. 1 MIXING TRANSFORMER

[Courtesy : A Reyrolle and Co. Ltd., England.]
+
(ii) Directional Impedance Relay RELAY OPERATES WHEN V/l<ZN
WITH CURRENT REVERSED RELAY
If IR is supplied by current transformer and also by voltage transformer (IR = K 11 - K2 V) and MOVING-COIL OPERATES WHEN V/l<KZN
Io is supplied by curren~ transformer and voltage transformer (lo= Kif -KzV), the relay operates RELAY
when ·
ZN IS IMPEDANCE
Io >IR SETTING OF RELAY
K IS THE PROPORTION OF OFFSET
i.e. Kil +K2V>Kif-K2V
Fig. 42.6, Comparator used as an offset Mho relay.
With this characteristic, the relay operates for a particular phase relation between V and I, [Courtesy : A Reyroll _and Co. Ltd., England.]
restrains for some other.
teristic if such a relay (Fig. 42. 7) is called off-set Mho'. On R-X l · · • .
In other words the relay has Directional Characteristic. ference encloses the origin and is slightly offset. p ane, it is a circle whose c1rcum-
Here directional characteristic has been obtained by a particular combination of inputs to the
comparator. (Ref. Fig. 42.5) through auxiliary mixing transformer.
LINE-FAULTS IN FORWARD
CIRCUIT DIRECTION BEYOND REACH
BUSBAR BREAKER CURRENT VOLTAGE LINE
TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER IMPEDENCE FAULT OF RELAY
u11~x I
SOURCE □= TRIP
IMPEDENCE : COIL
~II V
9 LINE-FAULTS IN
FORWARD DIRECTION
l
WITHIN REACH OF
+lo IR
RELAY
MOVING -COIL
RELAY
I
I 75,,
RESISTANCE
0 4
Fig. 42.5. Comparator used as a directional relay.

LINE-FAULTS IN REVERSE DIRECTION
By use of auxiliary mixing transformer, combination of inputs, replica impedances, dummy im- WITHIN REACH OF RELAY
pedances input to comparators, a variety of characteristics can be achieved. These are called Mho, Fig. 42.7. Circle characteristic ofoffset mho rel
off-set mho, elliptical quadrilateral characteristics. Courtesy : A Reyroll & Co. Ltd., England. ay.
(iii) Offset Mhq Relay Multi Input Comparators
Fig. 42.6 illustrates use of comparator as an off-set Mho Relay. The comparator receives inputs The basic principles of amplitude and phase comparators d • •
through mixing transformer. The circuit is designed such that the relay operates when V and I have we studied comparators having two input. were escr1bed m Ch. 39. In sec. 42.2,
phase angle within certain limits (Directional feature) and ratio VII is less than a certain value
Zw However, if direction of power flow is reversed, the phase angle between J_and V changes and Distance relays can be either single phase or ·polyphase and e 1 •,
Such multi-input comparators are either integrating or inst t mp oy multi-mput comparators.
thenithe relay operates when ratio V and I is less than KZn, \which is less th~n unity. The charac- amplitude or phase or both. an aneous type and compare either
STATIC DISTANCE RELAYS AND DISTANCE PROTECTION 791
The locus of the arrow head of vector Z measured by relay traces a curve on R-X plane by
The characteristic of conventional double input comparators is in form of circles or sectors of obeying Eq. (42.4).
circles on R-X plane. Multi-input comparators can have elliptical, conical or quadrilateral charac-
teristic on R-X plane. Obviously the locus will depend on selected values of K, R and Z'.
Suppose, K= z 1
-KZ'I ... (42.5)
42.3. THREE-INPUT AMPLITUDE COMPARATOR l
R·
Fig. 42.8 illustrates a current comparator with three inputs. It is an amplitude comparator. It Substituting in Eqn. (42.4) reduces to
comprises three rectifier-bridges. I Z - Z' I + I Z - KZ' I - I Z' - KZ' I = 0 ... (42.6)
Z-Z'=O.
V-KZ'l
-n- Kl Which is a plain impedance characteristic, 'With a circle having centre at origin and radius as
Z'
Relay I z'=kz' I
Suppose k < R ,
Substituting in Eq. (42.4)

I z - Z' I + I z - kZ' I < I Z' - kZ' I ... (42.7)
The impedance characteristic of Eq. (42.7) is illustrated in Fig. 42.9.
+jX OPERATING
~ REGION
I (INSIDE ELLIPSE)
Fig. 42.8, Current amplitude comparator with three inputs
giving characteristic Fig, 42.9,
The three bridges get the inputs derived from output VT, CT and mixing transformer. The volt-
age should be converted into current (Ref, Fig. 42.3). The ultimate characteristic of a particular
bridge comparator will depend upon the combination of input circuits. In the circuit under-con- LOCUS OF POWER SWING
sideration, the three-inputs are ~

V-IZ' V-KIZ'
-R-' R and KI.
-~~~~~---..,....~*R
where Z and KZ are replica impedances of same phase angle as that of protected line. The Fig. 42.9, Characteristic of three-input comparator with equation 42.7.
amplitudes currents compared by the bridge are It is an ellipse passing through origin of R-X diagram. The first two terms are distance of foci
V-IZ'I from the curve and the term on right side is the major diameter.
R , 1V-KIZ'I
R and 1KIi,
I We will recall that when VII measured by relay is beyond the characteristic, the relay does
the polarity of the bridge of JU being opposite of the other two. not operate. During power swings, the elliptical characteristic with narrow coverage across R axis
In balance condition, the comparator output is zero, is less liable for tripping than circular into characteristic.
V-IZ' V-KJZ'
R + R =IU ... (42.1) 42.4. HYBRID COMPARATOR
where Z~ is replica impedance in the relay, The hybrid comparator compares amplitude and phase. It is a combination of amplitude com-
K is the constant to be selected. parator and phase comparator.
Dividing by I, and multiplying by R. The hybrid comparators are generally multi-input comparators. The three (or more) inputs are
X - Z' + yI =KZ' =KR ... (42.2) derived from output of CT and VT by means of replica impedances, mixing transformers, auxiliary
I CT's and VT's (Ref. Fig. 42.8 for example)
But VII is the impedance ofline section measured by the distance relay call it Z Two of the inputs are supplied to an amplitude comparator. The output is compared with third
(Z -Z') + (Z-KZ') =KR input in a phase comparator. Alternatively, two inputs are phase compared and output is amplitude
compared with third input.
In impedance diagram on R - X plane, Z is the line impedance V/1 measured by relay plotted Refer Fig. 42.10. The phase comparator receives sinusoidal input Vand squared input IZ'. The
as a characteristic. Whereas Z' is constant replica impedance used in the relay and Kand R are amplitude comparator receives three inputs V, IZ and output of phase comparator [(V, I, L$)],
constants for a particular setting The characteristic of Hybrid comparator depends upon the three inputs.
Z - Z' is 0, as seen later in Eqn. 42.6 The Fig. 42.10 describes instantaneous relay. There is no integrator in the block diagram.
rewriting Eqn. 42.3, we get · Example for Practice : Develop a block diagram of a integrating hybrid comparator
(Z - Z') + (Z - KZ') = KR = 0 V and I input. Describe the functioning of the relay. 1
/This is a general equation of the three-input distance relay shown in Fig. 42.8.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION STATIC DISTANCE RELAYS AND DISTANCE PROTECTION 793
792
These problems and their solutions will be discussed in this section.
OUTPUT
FROM ~-~
RECT/FIER,t---_ _ _V_d_.c _ _ _ _ _ _ _~
Distance Measurement: Impedance as seen by the Distance Relay.
L±
VT
V
42,7, INFLUENCE OF POWER SWINGS ON DISTANCE PROTECTION
42.7.1. Power Swings, What are they?
V
As we know, a sudden change in the load ofa synchronous generator or motor cause oscillations
I REPLICA CONVERSION
of the power angle about its new equilibrium position, a similar phenomenon occurs in the power
OUTPUT
IMPEDANCE
~z• ~/-9:f-
f------+I
~-<t)--.,
transmission through line interconnecting two sources when subjected to a sudden change in the
FROM ~-~ ~---'· load transfer.
CT
Fig. 42.10. Block diagram of a hybrid comparator used in a The power transferred through an interconnecting line is given by
Static Distance Relay (Instantaneous Type) E1 -E 2 sin 8
Poc-----·
42.5. FOUR INPUT PHASE COMPARATOR WITH QUADRANGULAR CHARACTERISTIC X
Ideally, the characteristic of distance relay should overlap the fault area [Fig. 42.ll(c)]. In cir- where P power transfer in watts
cular characteristic, offered by conventional distance relays, extra area is unnecessarily covered. Ei,E 2 internal voltages of synchronous machines at sending end and receiving end
This makes the relay vulnerable to operate under power swings. With static relays with four-input 8 phase angle between Ei, E 2 •
comparators. It is possible to achieve quadrangular (quadrilateral) characteristic [Fig. 42.11 (b)].
The four-inputs required for quadrangular characteristics are say, Ref. sec. 44.2 ; the sudden change in loading causes a sudden change in angle 8. Then vectors
, '
Ei, E 2 the oscillate between their new equilibrium positions. Thereby, the current vectors at send-
IZ - V ............ ,.......... (Sinusoidal)
ing end and receiving end also oscillate between their new equilibrium positions. Thus the oscilla-
IX .............................. (Pulse) tions are set-up in the voltage and current at sending end and receiving end.
IR ............................. (Sinusoidal)
The power transferred through the transmission line is given by
V .............................. (Sinusoidal)
P == V12 112 cos 0
These are given to AND gate ·
V12 vector difference between sending end voltage and receiving end voltage.
The interaction between IX and Vis eliminated by converting one of them into pulses. The delay
unit ensures that comparison of all into satisfy the AND condition for the period decided by the / 12 current transferred through the line
delay unit. 0 phase angle between V 12, I 12
TIME RELAY P will be positive at sending end and negative at receiving end.
As the load suddenly changes, vectors Ei, E 2 and vectors V1, V2 oscillate, vector Y12 and lrt.
r I·~ lrl:=D-~
&
AIX
also oscillate about their respective final equilibrium positions.
"'IR :=[)--o This produces power swings which lead _to flow of heavy equalizing currents 112 between the
-v
two ends. Such power swings are more severe when a sudden short-circuit occurs in the sending
end station/receiving end station or in transmission line and the circuit-breakers are opened and
(b-1) Block-Diagram. +jX
FAULT AREA reclosed. Power swings can occur by disconnection of a large load (one of the outgoing lines or gen-
erators).
--RELAY
During power swings, the measurement of VI I performed by distance relays at sending end and
CHARACTERISTIC receiving end is affected. The distance relay may operate even when there is no fault.
This disturbance at the station busbars affects the neighbouring system and a large zone of
+ R + R the system is subjected to power swings. In Interconnected system where a large proportion of
Fl.,::e primary protection is by distance relays, this may lead to indiscriminate tripping at various points
(a) ZL = Line Impedance (b--2) Quadrangular Characteristic
in the system, resulting in cascade tripping and a total black-out. Hence the performance of distance
(b) Four-input phase comparator
RF= Fault Resistance relays and remedial measures under power swing conditions need careful attention.
Fault Area on R-X plane
42.7.2. Effect of Power Swing on the Starting Elements in Distance Schemes.
Fig. 42.11. (Ref. Sec. 30.10, 30.11, 30.13)
42.6. ERRORS IN DISTANCE MEASUREMENT The starting elements in distance schemes (Ref. Sec. 30.10) usually respond to either overcur-
rent or under-impedance.
Distance measuri:iment is affected adversely by the following :
Overcurrent relays respond to increased current. During power swing conditions, there is a
- fault resistance (Ref. Sec. 29.3) - bilateral infeed in the protected line ~eavy flow of equalizing currents in the transmission Jines. Since the phenomenon of power swings
- power swings, hunting - series capacitors for compensation 1s symmetrical, the equalizing currents flow equally)n all three phased and cause over-current
- double circuit lines - T'eed lines starting relays of all three phases to pick-up. .
I
794 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION STATIC DISTANCE RELAYS AND DISTANCE PROTECTION 795
The minimum impedance starting relays (Ref. Sec. 30.10) measures VI I. When VI I drops below
the setting Z', the starting relay operates. During power swing condition, voltage "'." drops a ce:rtain +
point of network, equalizing currents increase. Hence minimum impedance startmg relays m all jX
three phases operate and remain operates till the power condition persists.
42.7.3. Effect of Power Swing on the Measuring elements in Distance Schemes. S'
Ref. Sec. 30 .10. The starting ele,:nent also called fault detector acts first and switches measuring
element to appropriate input quantity. During power swings, starting elements gets actuated and
picked-up as described above and appropriate input quantities are now applied to the measuring
elements. · s
The measuring element should distinguish whether the power swing condition is persisting or
not. It should also distinguish whether reduced VI I is due to power swing or a real fault. Usually
there is a provision 'blocking'. Blocking refers to making the protection scheme in-operative under
certain conditions. The measuring elements get blocked during power swings within permissible
limits and tripps during faults. In one of the blocking schemes, the measuring element has low
output during power swing condition but higher output during fault condition. In another conven-
tional blocking scheme, the blocking unit opens the trip circuit during power-swing conditions.
42.7.4. Representation of Power Swing on R-X diagram
Fig. 42.13 (b) represents the source and line impedance on R-X plane. R+
The conditions of a power swing can be represented on a impedance diagram, as shown in Fig.
42.12. For the simplified case of two generators G1 and G2 connected by a tie-line impedance Zi,
c,
G1
..:.JX
Fig. 42.13. Conditions of a power swing on an impedance
· diagram. (R-XPlane) (Ref. Fig. 42.18).
A Relay point of near busbars A
(a) Two machine system with interconnector AB. AB Line impedance ZL
A,B Bus bars
.,. Gi, G2 Sources in two machine system
jX I SOURCE IMPEDANCE PS, P'S', P" S" Locuses of power swing (apparent impedance Z 0 )
G1 A,G2 B Source impedance
M Mid of line AB
ZL Line impedance
Zr Total impedance
za Impedance seen by relay at A.
LOCUS POWER
SWING Za the source reactances of the generators and the impedance of the line can be represented on this
diagram by the lines G 1 A, G2 B and AB. The point at which relaying is being considered is taken
as A, the origin of the diagram. The total impedance Z,. between the generated voltages
E1 and E2 is represented by line G1 G2 .
Ref. Fig. 42.13. AG 1 andAG 2 represent generator internal reactances on R-X diagram. Since
generator is predominantly inductive, its resistance is neglected and line AG 1, BG 2 are parallel to
\
CHARACTERISTIC Z OF MINIMUM- X axis. Line AB represents impedance of the transmission line on RX plane. Line AG 1 and AG2 is
IMPEDENCE MEASURING ELEMENT
(OPERATES-INSIDE. CIRCLE the total impedance affecting the power swing. The locus of apparent impedance measured by the
RESTRAINS-OUTSIDE CIRCLE) measuring element during power swing condition is by line PS approximately perpendicular to line
(b) Representation of source line impedance, apparent impedance AG 1 andAG 2 (Ref. Figs. 42.12 and 42.13).
on R - X plane (Impedance Diagram)
Before the power swing VI I measured by the relay is in area L, far away from the circle Z.
P 8 Locus of power swing (apparent impedance Z 0 During the power swing the apparent impedance seen by .the measuring element Za varies along
Gi, G2 Generating/Motoring sources in two machine system.
with the swing and its locus is along line PS.
a 2 , b2 Distance relays A, B Busbars near a 2 , b2
When the vector Za comes inside the characteristic circle-Z, the measuring element operates
G 1 A, G2 B Source impedance' AB Line impedance
L Load impedance Z0 Apparent impedance and relay gets tripped [Fig. 42.12 (b)].
Z Characteristic of impedance relay, (Circle). Now let us apply the above method of analysis to get the locus Za for various ratios of generated
Fig, 42.12. Explaining power swings. voltages. ·
A B
Remedial Measures to Prevent Operation of Distance Relays under Moderate Power a,
Swing conditions .
Under power swing conditions, the point Za (apparent impedance seen by the relay at stat10n.
A) moves from right to left along line PS though there is no fault.
The blocking relay (out-of step relay) operates as the point Za touches its circular characteristic;,.
The blocking relay blocks the circuit of the measuring relay for moderate ~ower swing (s~y angle
. between Ei, E 2 upto 260°). As a result, for moderate power swings the distance protection does
not operate.
For excessive power swings (say angle <j> between E 1, E 2 more than 260°). The system is surely C
going to fall out-of step. In such case the blocking relay unblocks the main measuring relay. If the Fig. 42.15. Explaining effect of intermediate current source on distance measurement.
impedance seen by the main relay is less than the reach impedance, the relay operates. A,B,C,D Busbars in different station
av b2 , c3 , ds Distance Relays near A, B, C, D respectively
42.8. PROTECTION OF TEED LINES BY DISTANCE RELAYS Fi, F2 Faults
In recent networks the intermediate switching stations (Ref. Fig. 1.1) are being replaced by ZA Impedance between A, T
Teed Lines (T-off or lin;s with intermediate current source). The Teed Line with intermediate cur- Zs Impedance between T, F
rent feed from the T-offpresents a problem in distance measurement. Zc Impedance between C, T
T Point of Tee-off.
Refer Fig. 42.15. Consider impedance seen by distance relay a 1 near busbar A The true im-
pedance seen by relay a 1 is the impedance between A 1, F 1 i.e. ZA + Zn, In absence of intermediate For a faultF2 between B, D; b4 gives primary protection and relay a 1 gives back up. If breaker
line Tc, the relay a 1 with measure this impedance. of b4 fails to clear, breaker of a 1 should clear as a back-up. With intermediate infeed from C, the
setting of relay a1 for relay b4 is a problem similar to that discussed in Sec. 42.10.
With intermediate current infeed I 2 , the situation changes. The apparent impedance seen by
relay a 1 becomes The fault F2 should be normally in the second or third step of relay a 1 and first step of relay b4 .
However, with the intermediate infeed from C, the fault F 2 is seen by relay b4 as farther away and
12
ZT=ZA +Zn+ Ii Zn, also by relay a1 as farther away to.wards or beyond D. In extreme cases the apparent impedance
seen by relay a 1 for fault F 2 may be beyond its third step and relay a 1 may not be sense the fault
This being more than true impedance (ZA + Zn) the fault appears to be farther away from actual F2 (Refer Fig. 30.12). Hence back-up protection by distance protection needs readjustment for lines
location because of the mutual impedance effect due to current 12 , given by the third term on right with intermediate infeeds.
hand side. One solution to this problem is 'reversed third zone' by mho type distance relay with directional
When current 12 flows in intermediate Teed Line, the relay at station A will under-reach, i.e. comparison type carrier current pilot relaying (Refer Sec. 30.14.2).
protect less length ofline that desired. (Since distance relay operates when Zr is less than the relay
setting ZA and the Teed Line increases Zr). 42.10. COMPENSATION OR COMPOUNDING IN DISTANCE RELAYS
Because of the int~rmediate current in feed .through Teed Line the distance relay from A does Refer Sec. 30.10. Distance scheme has several measuring elements and starting elements. The
not protect the original length of line, for condition without the intermediate infeed. response of the starting elements must be as fast as that of measuring elements so the speed of
measuring elements is fully exploited. The minimum impedance relays (relays which operates for
Suppose, the high speed distance relays at a 1 is set to protect 80% of line AB. Suppose fault value of Z below its setting) operate when VI I measured by the relay is less than its setting.
Fis at 80% length of line AB, the relay a1 will clear it when 12 is zero but will not clear it if 12 is
The voltage V seen by the relay from the secondary side of VT is influenced by several aspects
present. such as
Hence the setting of relay at station A should be done by considering effect of intermediate - type of fault, e.g.. L-G, L-L, 2L-G.
infeed J2 . It is practice to adjust the distance relays to operate as desired on the basis of no inter- - location of fault, whether near the measuring point or far away.
mediate current infeed. The fault F at the boundary of the first zone (say 80% of, AB) will not be - VT connection with the relay.
seen by the first zone ofrelay a1 but will be within the second zone ofrelay a1, Second zone of relay
The minimum impedance relays operate for reduced value of V and increased value of I. In
a 1 covers complete AB plus part of line beyond AB but takes more time corresponding to the second ERV systems, particularly for single line to ground fault at the end of the line, these conditions
step (Ref. Sec. 30.12) are often not satisfied. In such case the relay does not operate and compensation or compounding
is necessary compensation can be voltage compensation or current compensated.
42,9. BACK-UP PROTECTION WITH INTERMEDIATE INFEED "Compensation refers to feeding an additional input quantity in addition to main input quantity
· Consider back-up protection in distance protection scheme. This was described in Sec. 30.12 for the purpose of correction in performance characteristjc. The additional input quantity supple-
and Fig. 30.12 ..Now refer Fig. 42.15. ments the main input quantity and provides compensation for measurement errors.
798 SWITCHGEAR Ai'l'D PROTECTION STATIC DISTANCE RELAYS AND DISTANCE PROTECTION 799
Consider voltage compensation (Ref. Fig. 42.8). The voltage comparator is supplied with phase (a) Plot line characteristic on R-X plane referred to secondary side.
voltage at its location and also phase voltage of the same phase compounded to about 70% of the (b) Plot characteristic of minimum impedance relay to protect 80% of the line length on same
line length. This compensation may be in the form of an replica impedance in voltage circuit of R-X plane neglecting arc resistance.
comparator to prevent input being effective until the desired value is reached.
(c) Plot characteristic or mho relay having 45° maximum torque angle, to protect 80% of the line
For example the relay may operate with vector products of the two voltages (main and com- length, indicate the regions of operation and non-operation on the R - x diagram.
pensation) is less than the set value. When fault occurs at the remote end of line, the drop in only Solution
main voltage may not cause operation but the combined drop o~ main and compensating voltages
(a) Plain Impedance Relay (Refer Fig. 42.16)
may be enough.
Compensation may also obtained by introducing compensating current to the comparator of Line Impedance (given)
relay (Ref. Fig. 42.5). With current compensation, the relay may operate for lesser voltage (VI I = 2.5 +}5 (Primary)
remaining same). However, this compensation may not be preferred as it has to operate for very i.e. ZLPrimary = 5.6 L'.63.5° (Primary)
low voltages where accuracy is affected by other stray disturbances. Line impedance seen by relay through CT and VT is given by the equation.
Section III. EXAMPLES ON SETTING OF DISTANCE RELAYS CT ratio
ZL secondary= Z1primary X VT ratio
42.11. SETTING OF DISTANCE RELAYS 400 X 110

= 5.6 X = 7.47 .Q Secondary
33000
We will now study the setting of impedance relay and mho relay for given line parameters. '
The R-X diagram is a powerful tool for analysis. The line characteristic and relay characteristic Draw on X-R plane line AB equal to 7.47 ohms at an angle 0 = 63.5° with reference.
are drawn on the same R-X diagram. The setting of distance relay is such that it protects 80% of the line. Mark point R on line
We will recall that the line impedance is on the primary side of CT and VT, whereas the distance AB such that
relay is on secondary side. To superimpose the line characteristic on relay characteristic both should AR should be reach of plain impedance relay. Hence setting of plain
. impedance relay Z s is given by
be referred to the same side, preferably the secondary side. The following are the. guidelines : 80 80
1. System quantities V and I should refer to the same phase corresponding the relay of that As =ABX lOO = 7.47 X lOO = 5.98, ohms.
phase, e.g., for earth fault protection of phase R, the voltage and current of phase R will be sensed Characteristic of impedance relay is a circle with origin O at A, radius AR = 5.98 ohms.
by relay.
2. Voltage and current should be considered from the location of VT and CT. The relay operates for fault on transmission line between A - .R which lie within the circle.
3. Co-ordinates of R-X diagram. must be in the same units (ohms).
4. Per unit system is preferred for large systems. Direct ohmic method may be used in simple +jX I
problems. I
lB
5. Phase angles are important. OPERATING / NON- OPERATING
REGION R REGION
6. Both line characteristic and relay characteristic is referred to secondary sides and plotted
on the same R-X diagram. P=----"<--"{
Conversion from Primary to Secondary Side
Line impedance on primary side is seen by the relay through CT and VT. The actual ohms of
primary side should be converted to secondary side as seen by distance relay. This conversion is
by means of a simple expression given below.
r-------~
+R
z 8
= z x CT ratio AO 1 ~6 7
P VTratio
ZL = 7.47 ohms
where Z 8 = Impedance as referred to secondary side of 9T and VT (secondary)
and as seen by relay, ohms. Z 8 = 5.98 ohms
Zp = Line/system impedance in ohms. (secondary)
ZF = 2.43 ohms
The same expression applies to R and X. (secondary)
42.12. SOLVED EXAMPLES ON DISTANCE RELAY SETTING

Example 42.1. Given. Line Impedance AB line impedance ZL seen from A AR impedance of 60% length from A
ZL = 2.5 + }5.0 0 angle of line impedance O origin of impedance circle coincides with A
AF line impedance of 80% length from A, (Ex. 42.2) ·
CT Ratio = 400/1
VT Ratio = 33,000/llo Fig. 42.16. (Example 42.1 a) Line characteristic and plain impedance
relay setting on R-X plane.
800
Refer Fig. 42.16 and Fig. 42.17.
(b) Mho-relay (Refer Fig. 42.17) From Fig. 42.16, the point Xis outside the circle. Hence plain impedance relay does not operate.
Draw line AB and point R as in case a. The mho characteristic is different from im~edan~e (Under-reach : reads less impedance).
characteristic. mho characteristic is a circle passing through the centre of R-X plane and with axis From Fig. 42.17, the point Xis inside the circle. Hence Mho type distance relay operates.
along line of maximum torque.
Conclusion
+jX 1. The mho characteristic provides margin for the arc resistance than the plane impedance char-
acteristic.
2. The area of mho characteristic being less than the impedance characteristic, the mho char-
acteristic gives better stability.
Example 42.3. Setting of a Distance Relay. A 110 kV of 35 km length is protected by Im-
NON OPERATING pedance Relay. The first stage of' distance relay prot~cts 90% of the line. Calculate the setting of im-
;--REGION pedance relay and draw the characteristic of line and the relay on R-X plane. Neglect the influence
of arc resistance.
OPERATfNG The line impedance is 0.24 + j 0.41 ohms per conductor per km.
REGION AR
Note: (0-qi) = - CT ratio is 300/ 1 A and VT ratio is 100 kV/l00V:
AD
Solution. Line impedance
= 0.24 +j0.41 ohm/km.
Line angle (Refer Fig. 42.16)
FX Fault resistance (secondary) AB line impedance ZL seen from A
(Assumed the same for phase faults and earth fault).
AR impedance of 80% length of line from A 0° line angle 63.5°
qi maximum torque angle of Mho relay = 45° AD relay setting CT ratio = 300/1 = 300
0 origin of Mho-circle mho circle Pll:sses through A. VT ratio = 100,000/100 = 1000
Fig. 42.17 (Example 42.1 b). Line characteristic and Mho-relay setting on R-X plane. Step 1. Calculate line impedance referred to secondary
Draw line AD, line of maximum torque at angle qi equal to 45° (given). z -z x CT Ratio
s- P VT Ratio
Draw a circle passing through points A, R with AD as axis. Point D is fixed as follows :
AR For 90% line of 35 km length,
cos (0-qi) = - Zp = 0.9 X 35 X (0,24 + j0.41).
AD
AD - AR = 5.98 = 5.98 =6.32 ohms. = 7.56 + j12.9 ohms per conductor
- cos (0 - qi) cos (63.5° - 45°) 0.948
Hence setting AD of mho relay= 6.32 ohms. The circle of mho characteristic with this setting
3
Z 8 = (7.56 +j12.9) X
10 0 0
°°
passes through A and R (Refer Fig. 42.17). == 2.268 + j3.87 ohm secondary.
Example 42.2. Effect of Fault Resistance. Consider the plain impedance relay and mho relay Step 2. Impedance Diagram (Refer Fig. 42.16 for guidance). Draw a line AB at an angle
as set in Example 42.1 for protection 80% of' line AB. Given a symmetrical ph~se to phase _fault at 0 = 60° to R axis. Plot point R at R = 2.268 and jX = 3.87.
Fat a distance 60% from A. Fault resistance is 20 ohms. Indicate the fault point on R-X diagrams Draw a circle with centre O at A and radius AR =- ✓r(-2-.2-6_8_)2,_--+-(-3-.8-7-)+
2 . This circle represents
and state whether the relays operate or not.
characteristic of a plain impedance relay to protect 90% of the line.
Solution. Convert fault resistance for secondary side.
. . CT Ratio
Fault Resistance Secondary= Fault Resistance Primary x VT Ratio
QUESTIONS
400 110 1. With the help of neat sketches describe the principle of lJ. current comparator and a voltage comparator
= Z.O X -1- X 33,000 used in distance protection.
8 2. Discuss the use of multi-output comparators in static distance protection. Explain how oval and quad-
= 3 _0 = 2.6 ohm (Secondary) rilateral characteristics can be obtained on R-X plane.
Indicate point P on line AB at 60% of AB 3. With the help of a block diagram explain the functioning of a static distance relay.
4. In a distance protection scheme, the line CT has a ratio of3OO/1 A, the line VT has a ratio of33,OOO/11O
60
AF=
100
x 7.47 = 4.49 = 4.5 n. V. The line impedance is 0.24. + JO.41 ohm per conductor per km. Length of line is 25 km.
Draw R-X diagram indicating the line characteristic with reference to secondary.
Draw FX parallel to R axis. Indicate the circle of plain impedance characteristic to protect 80% length ofline (Neglect fault resis-
Fx = 2.6 ohms (Fault Resistance) tance). ·
802
5, Indicate on an R-X diagram, the following (select suitable scale, point A at (0, J 0).
(a) Point R = 1 O.jX = + 3
(b) Point R = 1,jX = - 1
(c) Line impedance AB= 2 +}4
(d) Fault resistance at the end of line AB equalto two ohms.
(e) Mho characteristic with maximum torque angle 53° and radius 3 ohms.
(f) Plain impedance characteristic to protect 80% of line AB
Explain the advantages of Mho-characteristic over the plain impedance characteristic. Quantities
given refer to secondary side.
6. Power-Swings, Explain with the help of neat sketches the phenomenon of power swings in trans-
mission system with particular reference to its influence on distance measurement. Important Assorted Topics and
Describe the blocking features adopted in distance relays to offer selective blocking under power swing
conditions. Static Protection Schemes
7, Lines with series Capacitor, State the function of serie; capacitors in long transmission lines. Dis-
cuss the difficulties in distance measurement with application of series capacitors. Explain the effect Insulation, Reliability, Testing
of series capacitor on impedance characteristic drawn on R-X plane. Explain the remedial features Electrical Noise - Shielding - Guards - Grounding - Over-voltages - Protection - Reliability
- Tests for reliability.
provided in distance relay schemes to protect such lines. Static Protection Schemes
8, Explain the following (any two) Static protection of Medium Motors and Large Motors - Static Protection of Bus bars - Disconnection
(i) carrier acceleration of Mains Supply by Static Schemes.
(ii) canier blocking Back-up protection, Centrally Coordinated Back-up, protection Signalling
(iii) mho characteristics
Breaker Back-up - Use of Microprocessor - Computer based centrally coordinated Back-up
Programmable Equipment for relaying, protection and control - Principle of centralized back-up -
(iv) directional mho characteristics
Post fault control - Communication Links for protection signalling - Digital Message System --
9. Discuss the errors in distance measurement in double-in-feed lines. State the remedial measures in Fibre Optic Data Transmission.
distance protection schemes for such lines.
10. Explain the requirements of distance protection schemes of long ERV transmission lines. State the INSTALLATION, RELIABILITY AND
merits of static distance relays. Illustrate the features of any static distance relay by means of TESTING OF STATIC RELAYS
simplified block-diagram.
11. Explain effect of intermediate infeed from a Teed line on the distance measurement of transmissiol).
43.1. COMBATING ELECTRICAL NOISE AND INTERFERENCES
line.
Any disturbing signal which interferes or disturbs the electronic measurement/sig-
nal/parameters is electrical noise. All electronic circuits and their installations should be with the
noise below acceptable level. This is very important for accurate functioning and reliability of static
relay functioning. Conventional electromagnetic relays do not have such a problem. Relaying and
control installations for static devices should be designed with particular attention to noise and
transient over voltages. The effect of noise and transient over-voltages is two-fold.
(i) error in measurements (ii) maloperation.
The noise can be caused by the following :
- Interfering external signals in the form of electromagnetic radiation or waves, e.g. solar
waves, radio waves from transmitting stations, electromagnetic waves caused by sudden
current changes in a remote electrical circuit, a passing electrical locomotive may cause an
error in electrical measurement, a radio voice is distorted by interference from neighbouring
station, switching of high voltage line sends a electromagnetic radiation, sparking or corona
discharge at a remote point causes disturbance in sensitive voltage measurement.
Lightning and Switching Surges on primary side ofCT's and VT's get reflected on secondary
in form of voltage spikes.
Drifts in electronic apparatus beyond their limit of stability.
Imperfect connections of fixed wires or connectors leading to minute sparking. Cor-
rosion/wear/imperfection of working joints.
Device noise depending upon characteristic of resistors, capacitors, semi-conductors as af~
fected by temperature, humidity, loading.
---~------------------------.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION IMPORTANT ASSORTED TOPICS AND STATIC PROTECTION SCHEMES 805
804
The noise tends to spread throughout an electronic system because of electrical relationship 2. Transient overvoltages generated in control equipment due to breaking of inductive currents
between circuit conductors, enclosures, chassis and ground connections through conductive, capaci- in relay circuit, trip circuits etc.
tive and inductive couplings. Electromagnetic radiation causes voltage gradient between two con- 3. Transient OVfa'Voltages generated within static relays.
ductors although not connected physically.
The transient overvoltages of category (1) above, are due to operation of circuit-breakers and
Adjacent conductors are coupled electrostatically. An inherent capacitance e~ist~ between, isolators. In EHV systems, these overvoltages predominate overvoltages due to lightning. During
ground, conductors and chassis, shields, enclosures. Thus the voltage change occurrmg m one con- every switching operation overvoltage occur. The worst cases being operation of unloaded lines by
ductor causes a change in other conductor, proportional to the capacitance between them and length slow operating isolators. The amplitude of such overvoltages can be between 10 kV to 20 kV peak,
of conductors in parallel. measured between cable core and earth, when cable is laid on earth and connected to capacitor
Every conductor has a resistance. Change in current produces change in voltage drop, type voltage transformer. Screened cable or shielded cables, with shield grounded at both the ends
electromagnetic field from parallel conductor induces current and subse_que~t volta_ge ~rop. A sud- are used to reduce to transient voltage to the extent of a few per cent of their prospective value
den change in current in neighbouring conductor produces a voltage spike m the circmt. (value, without shields). The frequency of damped sinusoidal oscillations varies widely between 50
Shielding refers to enclosing the conductors or apparatus in enclosure almost co~plet?ly, kHz to 1 MHz. The source impedance have values between 200 to 300 ohms. The design of circuit-
Shielding reduces the capacitance between the circuit and outside space. The _mo~t effectiv~ shield breakers and isolators affect such voltages. A 'train of transients' occurs during the arcing time
is continuous metalized plastic solid shielding is more effective than braided shieldmg. Effectiveness while opening as well as closing the breaker. The train comprises pulses in the range of 350-400
of shielding increases with the thickness of the shield and conductivity. So~id copper or silver ~r pulses/second in many cases. .
aluminium or similar non-magnetic material is effective against a electrostatic and electromagnetic The group (2), mentioned above give transient having steep wave front. Most of the transient
interference. The shield should be insulated from the equipment and equipped with a drain wire overvoltages originating within the control equipment is due to breaking of small inductive currents
for single points grounding. such as those in auxiliary relays. Such transients have high amplitude and high frequency. A num-
Grouping several signal conductors within one shield is permissible, if all the signals have same ber of restrikes may occur between switching contacts. Transient voltages generated within the
relay (group 3 above) have relatively low amplitude and energy. However, they can destroy or dis-
ground point and capacitance between them is acceptable. When several shielded conductors are
turb certain sensitive components in the static relays.
combined in a cable, each should be covered with insulation.
A usual transistor can be damaged by energy of 10- 5 to 10- 3 watts, integrated circuit by energy
Placing shielded cable within a metallic conduit is useful. The conduit of good conductivity and
of 10- 4 to 10- 8 watts. Transient overvoltages also arise due to rapid changes in current in wire-
thickness is preferable. wound resistors.
Grounding means connecting to earth by a conducting path. The characteristic of transient voltages include the following :
- Equipment Grounding : Connecting non-current carrying conductor to earth. (i) frequency, rate of rise (ii) amplitude
- Chassis Grounding : Chassis is used as a reference earth. Chassis may not be connected to. (iii) energy content (iv) source impedance
earth. (v) repeat frequency
- Floating Ground is a reference ground which is not earthed. Fig. 43.1 to 43.5 - Comparison of Shielding, Grounding and Twisting Techniques
- Signal Ground is a point within the circuit to which all signals within the circuit are ref-
SS = Signal source,
erenced. A = Apparatus,
- Uniground or Sirigle point ground. Single point of electrical system connected to earth to G=Ground,
eliminate noise currents. N =Noise Signal,
S = Shield.
Signal cables may usually run near each other without interference. However wires carrying N ...,___ _
a.c. or d.c. power should be separated by at least 10 cable diameters. Also twisting a pair of leads
reduces both inductive and capacitive coupling and interference (Fig. 43.6.) .,,.
Fig. 43.1. Bad method of connection :
43.2. TRANSIENT OVERVOLTAGES IN STATIC RELAYS Ground return earthed at apparatus end and signal end.
During the early period of use of static relays in protection ofEHV networks (1960-70), a large Signal lead and return lead parallel.
number of failures and maloperations of static relays were reported. After investigation, the cause Electromagnetic radiation and closed loops cause maximum interference.
was attributed to high transient overvoltages in relays circuits. The transient overvoltages were
measured. Their magnitude was observed to be even of the order of 12 kV, 20 kV peak, on secondary
side i.e. in relay circuit. After such investigation, necessary research was conducted to rind the
causes and remedies of transient over-voltages in secondary circuits. These aspects are discussed
below:
1. Source of Transient Overvoltages in Static Relay Circuits
There are following three origins of transient overvoltages in static relays circuits connected
to the secondaries of CT's and PT's in EHV systems :
- . : r..L__ _
1. Transient overvoltages reflected from transient overvoltages in the primary circuits of CT's
and VT's. In primary circuits, the overvoltages occur due to lightning, switching, sudden change in Fig. 43.2. Using single shielded signal lead. Retur:u path Fig. 43 .3. Use of twisted pair of signal lead and
by shield grounded at both ends. Shield capacitively return lead improves radiated noise but ground
circuit conditions, etc. These get reflected to the secondary side. coupled to lead, hence can give noise. loop capacitive coupling continues.
806 An effective termination that reduces the input impedance at high frequency and has little ef-
fect at 50 Hz or on d.c. is a small capacitor. It neither forces a higher input energy nor produces
heat of its own. A widely used capacitor is a 0.5 mF, 1,500 V d.c. oil-filled type. It limits a 2,500
V, I-megacycle surge with 150-ohm source to less that 35 V. Short leads to the capacitor imperative.
ss When sup_:1ressing transients shielding methods, a signal lead shielding with one or more
grounds has the effect of increasing the capacitance to ground of the signal lead.
ss Grounding a shield at both ends allow shield current to flow. Shield current resulting from
magnetic induction will tend to cancel the flux that created the shield current. The net ·effect of the
'el'"
Fig. 43.5. Use of twisted pair ofsign~l lead and return shield on the signal lead is to reduce the noise level. An exception to this is that current flowing
Fig. 43.4. Twisted pair of signal lead and in shields not produced by flux linking the signal lead will cause the surge or noise voltage on the
lead connecting the shield to low side of apparatus
floating apparatus input gives considerable
noise immunity.
floatlng input reduces shield to lead capacitors. This signal lead to be higher than it would be if there were no shield.
method is recommended.
"Twisting" for surge suppression is achieved by measures that cause the "signal" and "return"
leads to occupy essentially the same space, thereby minimizing the effect of differential-mode cou-
43.3. PROTECTION OF STATIC RELAY CIRCUIT pling. Shielded twisted-pair conductors are required for low-energy level circuits routed outside a
Extensive investigations and analysis of data and experience on electric system circuits sho.w panel.
that relay control circuits can be effectively protected against transient and surges by several dif- As regards radial routing of control cables for surge protection, circuits routed into the
ferent methods or techniques. switchyard from the control house should not be looped from one piece of apparatus to another in
(i) Separation (ii) Suppression at source the switchyard with the return conductor in another cable. All supply and return conductors should,
(iii) Suppression by termination (iv) Suppression by shielding in other words, be in a common cable. This is to avoid the large electromagnetic induction possible
· (v) Suppression by twisting (vi) Radial Routing of control cables because of the very large flux loop such an arrangement would produce.
(vii) Buffers. Another effective measure applied to show and desensitize a circuit is a buffer. This buffer can
Circuit protection by separation refers to both physical and elect.rical techniq_u~s. P~ysi?al accommodate a test source operating at 1 Mhz having 150 ohm source impedance placed directly
separation between quiet and noisy circuits is an effective m~ans ;of n01s~ control_ critical circm_ts. across the input (differential mode) and having 2,500 V (open circuit) first peak, decaying to 1,250
Though mutual capacitance and mutual inductance are logarithmic functions o~ dis~ance small in- Vin six microsec or more, without the transistor turning on or any element being damaged. It can,
creases in distance may produce substantial decreases in interaction between circmts. with the same results, stand a sustained 7 V d.c. input, or high-level d.c. input voltage of sufficient
Routing of control circuits perpendicular to noisy circuits is another effective _physical precau- duration to produce a 4,000 microsec-V product-for example 200 V for 20 ms.
tion. An example of this would be placing a cable duct run perpendicular to a hig?-voltages ~us. Adequate buffering of low-energy-level circuits greatly decreases the susceptibility of static
This places any parallel runs between the control circuit and the bus at the maximum practical relays to surge damage or misoperation and, in general, eliminates the n~ed for shielding of circuits
realizable distance. inside a relaying panel.
Another effective measure in surge control is the grouping of circuits that have comparable
sensitivities. Low-energy-level circuits should be grouped together and physically displaced as far 43.4. RECOMMENDED PROTECTION PRACTICES FOR STATIC RELAYING
as practical from power circuits. EQUIPMENT*
Electrical separation is another useful principle in segregating circ1;1its. In_surge control, this The recommendations are as follows : They apply particularly to HV and ERV stations utilising
appears in the form of inductance discriminatory applied to block conduction ofhigh-frequency tran- static relaying.
sient into protected regions. 1. All current, potential and exposed D.C. leads entering a panel or cabinet shall be terminated
Another form of electrical separation is provided by zener diode. It allows conduction, but blocks by 0.5 microfarad capacitors keeping total capacitor loop lead length as short as possible. A total
the flow of current in the other (below the zener voltages level). Also, transformer isolation·is an loop length of 1.8 inches may be used as a guideline. Thyristor trip circuits must be equipped with
effective method of providing a common mode barrier between segments of a system. TP-2 components (2 winding reactor and zener) or suitable substitutes and a 0.5 microfarad
To support transients of surges at the source, either resistor switching or parallel clamping capacitor must be connected between the negative side of the zener and ground.
techniques are used. 2. Where low impedance (such as that offered by a zener (diode) exists between an exposed
Isolators and circuit breakers can be equipped with resistors that are inserted during op~ration lead and a surge protective capacitor applied to another lead, the capacitor may be omitted from
of the device to limit the transient voltages to comparatively low values. Economy may occasionally the exposed lead.
dictate this as a means ofrestricating the surge level in a sub-station as opposed to other methods. 3. Circuits entering the panel that are not subject to direct switchyard exposure but are in close
The surge associated with coil interruption can virtually be eliminated _by_ pa:all_eling the coil proximity to extremely noisy circuits in a cable tray for example, must be treated carefully if they
with a zener diode. This extends the release time, however, and where this is sigmficant t~ the supply low energy level inputs in the panel. The circuit external outgoing and return circuits. The
application, a varistor may be used instead of the zener diode. The surge permitted by the varistor shield should be grounded at both ends.
is higher than that for the zener diode, but its limiting action is satisfactory. 4. Circuits entering the panel that are subject to direct switchyard exposure that cannot ac-
The surge associated with extreme a.c. saturation of a current transformer can also be reduce_d commodate the 0.5 microfarad capacitor because of the time delay introduced, or for any other
by a voltage-limiting device across tl)e secondary. Silicon carbide devices have been used for this
* Courtesy : Westinghouse Electric Corporation, U.S.A.
protective function. · · ·
808 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION IMPORTANT ASSORTED TOPICS AND STATIC PROTECTION SCHEMES 809
reason, must their surge voltage be controlled by special cable routing or surge generation must 2. An input having a volt-time product of at least 4000 microsecond 0 volts may be applied be-
be limited at the source to help the surge leveis at the panel terminal blocks to the limits stated tween energize<:l logic inputs and negative (or positive) without operation (operation being defined
under (D) below. as any change of state). An example of this input is 40 volts D.C. applied for 200 microseconds at
higher voltages, no less than 65 microseconds' duration is permissible.
5. All cables entering the static relay panel from the switchyard or connected to circuits entering
the switchyard shall 3. Surge withstand capability test for 1 MHz applied by a surge generator having an open cir-
cuited voltage of 2500 to 3000 volts first peak, decaying to 50% of first peak in 6 microseconds. The
(a) be shielded (with metallic shield or sheath)
surge generator has 150 ohms internal impedance. The surge is applied common mode between
(b) have sufficient cross-section in the shield (or metallic sheath) to sustain the maximum signal, current, voltage or power supply leads and chassis. It is also applied differential mode be-
60 hertz current to which it will be subjected to ground fault conditions. tween input logic, output logic or power supply leads and common. The surge is applied at least 50
(c) have the shield grounded to the common ground mat at both ends of the cable and times per second for not less than 2 seconds without failure, operation or change of calibration.
preferably at intermediate points also. If a common ground mat does not exist between 4. 7 volts positive D.C. sustained between logic circuits inputs arid negative witho.llt operation,
two ends, then means should be taken to assure a low impedance connection between Tests 2, 3 and 4 are applied with the relay energized at 100% voltage and with 75% ofnominalCT
the two ends of the cable. This may be accomplished by connecting the separate mats current.
with one or more cables having sufficient cross-section to handle resulting fault and
surge currents.
43,6. RELIABILITY, DEPENDABILITY, SECURITY
(d) have conductors in pair (outgoing and return conductors) in the same cable. While tri-
axial cable affords distinct theoretical advantage for the circuit between a carrier set Reliability of a product is related with its quality during the total working life. It is usually
and tuner (carrier return circuit is grounded at only one point and is eliminated as a expressed in terms of the failure rate of individual components of Mean Time Between Failures
possible conduction path for interfering surges), it is felt that its use is not mandatory (MTBF) of the equipment and installation. The ability of protection equipment to operate can be
in EHV stations. disrupted in three ways :
6. Coils of all electromechanical auxiliaries used on the panel must be equipped with a varistor -:- Maloperation i.e. false tripping in absence of primary fault.
or equivalent surge suppressing means in parallel with the soil. - Incorrect separation or undesirable tripping during a primary fault, e.g. back-up protection
7. It should be emphasized tha.t the relay designs themselves include zener diodes, capacitors, operates first and trips a circuit-breaker which should not have been tripped. This leads to
winding isolation etc. to minimize susceptibility of a static relay to surge damage or misoperation. power failure affecting larger areas.
- Failure to operate (i.e. does· not trip even on fault when it was supposed to). The back-up
8. The fundamental protection philosophy is to (1) provide a low impedance path to ground for
protection is provided for this possibility.
high frequency current flow caused by voltages appearing on exposed leads and (2) to minimize the
magnitude of these voltages by proper treatment of the loads. The reliability is further expressed in terms of Dependability and Security.
9. The practices outlines here related to static relaying panels and the leads connected to them Dependability (Trust worthiness) assures that the protection equipment will operate correctly
but apply equally to isolated static devices where surge exposure exists. in the event of a primary fault (trip selectively).
10. Laying of Control, Protectio_n and Measuring Cables. Security assures that the equipment will not operate unless there is a primary ·fault.
The main current in the control cable conductors beintlow, these cables may be laid in a com- In general the reliability depends on a Design of Protection Scheme, relay and also quality of
mon duct, without separation. However they should be separated from power cables. components, manufacturing technique.
Highly sensitive measuring cables are sometimes laid in separate steel pipes totally away from· Design Reliability includes apart from the design of the relay itself, the design of complete
other cables. scheme, other relays, the circuit which form the protection system. The equipment reliability is ex-
pressed as a probability which can be determined by careful evaluation of the circuit in relation
11. Grounding of Cable Trays, Ducts.
I with failure rates of components.
All the cable trays, racks and metallic ducts should be grounded by connecting at each end to
Technical Reliability is subject to external influences and generally declines with time.
station earth-mat. The adjacent cable trays should be bridged by copper jumpers, to retain con-
tinuity of earthing. Ensuring Higher Design Reliability
A complete protection scheme should be considered. This includes
43.5. TESTING OF STATIC RELAYS WITH REGARD TO OVER-VOLTAGE TRANSIENTS - CT's, VT's
The IEEE Power system Relaying Committee has proposed certain tests on static relays as - Batteries, auxiliary supplies, battery chargers, overload trips.
regards their sensitivity to overvoltage transients. British Electric and Allied Manufacturers' As- - All wiring between measuring devices, auxiliary sources, relay and circuit-breaker, auto
sociation Ltd. (BEMA), England has issued a publication (No. 219) titled "Recommended Transient reclosure and auxiliary relays.
Voltage Tests Applicable to Transistorised Relays", proposing an i'rnpulse test with limited sources - All main and auxiliary relays.
energy. The test consists of subjecting the relay an impulse voltage of 5 kV (1.5 kV) with 1/50 µs
wave and energy 0.5 W both in common and transverse modes. Three positive and three negative - All terminals
pulses are applied. Source impedance of impulse generator is 500 ohms. Communication Channel (PLC ot Pilot wires)
Static relays should withstand the following design tests : Trip circuit
1. 1500 volts RMS, 60 hertz of 2000 volts d.c. applied between ground and a common point to Circuit-breaker, its operating mechanism and control circuit, main current circuit, insulation.
which all terminals are connected for 1 minute without failure.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION IMPORTANT ASSOR:J'Eb TOPICS AND STATIC PROTECTION SCHEMES 811
810
Table 43.1
The Application Engineer and Station Designer should have overall concept of the requirements Tests on Components, Sub-assemblies, Complete Relays
of various components. Each component should be reliable to ensure overall reliability.
Component Sub-assembly (Modules) Complete Relay
Factors affecting the Design Reliability of Complete Protection System
- choice of suitable CT's and VT's with reference to transient conditions Altitude
Dew point * *
- behaviour of CVT's during transient condition for application to high speed distance relays
- behaviour of d.c. supply unit in protection equipment during battery voltage dip Flammability * * *
- behaviour of the protection in the presence of overvoltages, noise, interference, etc. Moisture resistance * *
- behaviour of protection during transients on measuring and control wiring Resistance to solvents *
- behaviour of protection during overages Salt atmosphere * *
- arrangements, shielding arrangements. *
Salt spray
For most of these influences IEC recommendations are available. The internal voltages in relay * *
Seal, gross leak
are limited by appropriate design features in the relay.
Soldering heat * *
The external factors-are taken care of by Station Designer. The induced voltages in secondary
circuits must be within specified limits and IEC test voltages. Terminal Strength
Acceleration * * *
Ensuring Higher Technical Reliability
Mechanical shock * *
The following aspects are considered to ensure technical reliability (which does not depend on
Vibration, fatigue * *
design but depends on quality of components as affected by external influences.)
Vibration, noise * * *
- environmental and operating conditions
- material and components used in the circuit Vibration, variable * *
- failure analysis Frequency * * *
- manufacture, testing, quality control Seal, fine leak *
- operating experience. X-Ray, film *
Environmental and Operating Condition Tests X-Ray, Real Time *
These include the following : Insulation Tests * * *
- Temperature Tests, Climatic Tests, Thermal shock Tests (- 185°C to 200°C), temperature Maloperation Tests * *
cycling tests (- 185°C to 300°C) carried out as type tests on components, sub-assemblies, Development Tests * * *
complete relay. * *
Type Tests
- Environmental tests : salt atmosphere or spray (25°C to 71 °C) performed as type tests.
Routine Tests * * *
- \)bration Tests, shock tests.
Choice of Components Section II. SOME STATIC PROTECTION SCHEMES
The rigorous acceptance testing of active components of static relays includes 100% acceptance
tests on active components (diodes, transistors, IC's) and random testing on other components. 43.7. STATIC RELAY FOR MOTOR PROTECTION
Some tests on electronic components are mentioned in Table 43.1. The introduction of static relay using integrated circuits now allows compact, combined protec-
Rigorous Tests of Complete Relay* tion relays. A single unit can coinbine about six functions of motor protection. This results in
reduced space, reduced installation time, lower total cost. The relay also gives better characteristic
These include design tests, reliability tests, type tests and routine tests, maintenance and site and reduces burden on CT's.
tests.
Motor Protection Relay
Automatic On-line Testing of Protection Scheme (Courtesy : Brown Boveri, Switzerland)
The testing of protection schemes (such as generator protection). comprises the checks on all The relay of this type protects three phase induction motors against interphase short-circuits,
relays in the protection schemes viz. voltage, current, frequency, directional, differential, etc. In prolonged starting, locked rotor, ov.erloads, unbalance and earth faults. Similar type of relays are
each case, the pick-up value of each relay for each phase should be measured. Automatic test sets available for protection of over-current and overload protection of transformers and cables. These
have been developed for static protection schemes. The test equipment measures the pick-up values relays have following features :
regardless of service current and these values are displayed and printed out digitally. The printed ,- Only two or three phase currents needed as measurement inputs.
values can be relaxed to control centre for monitoring. Modern microprocessor based static relays - Good match for all kinds of motors due to wide range of adjustments.
have self-checking feature (watch dog).
- Separate indication for individual function (local and/or remote).
IMPORTANT ASSORTED TOPICS AND STATIC PROTECTION SCHEMES 813
812 SWITCH GE~ AND PROTECTION
bridge (4).The output ofrectifiers is given to the measuring circuit comprising following sub-circuits
-Two-stage overload protection with thermal facsimile which is retained even if the auxiliary depending upon requirements.
supply fails.
- short circuit I») circuit without time delay
- Can be flush mounted on switchgear or protection panel ; or can be arranged on separate
racks. - prolonged starting (I> ta) circuit with time delay
Ref. Fig. 43.6 giving the block diagram of static motor protection relay for medium, medium - Overload circuits 01 • 02 with warning and tripping stages. The characteristic corresponds
large motor. The core balance CT CE W) slip over current transformer (Refer Sec. 27 .9) is for giving to motor heating curve.
output in terms of zero sequence current (3[0 =IR+ Is+ Ir), This output 310 is useful for sensing - negative phase sequence circuit (12 ) for unbalanced loading
earth fault. Due to lower burden of static relay ; cross-section of core of core-balance CT is com- - zercr-sequence circuit (l0 ) connected to core-balance (slip-over) CT.
paratively less and a compact core balance CT can be used with bett.er accuracy and sensitivity of
Light emitting diodes (LED) are provided for local indication of each function (or floating poten-
earth-fault protection (Ref. Sec, 31.7). The two phase CTs (Wph) are installed in the supply con- tial contact with remote indication) ·
neqtions (generally inside the control panel or switchgear unit). Their secondaries are connected to
the input intermediate CT (1) of the Static Relay. The output of intermediate CT's given to rectifier The warning signal closes contactor K 8 sounding a local/remote alarm. The tripping is initiated
by closing of contractor Ka.
Block diagram of a static relay for large high voltage motor protection is given Fig. 43.7. This
incorporates
- Differential relay (1)
- combined overcurrents (> >), overload(> )1 unbalance(> 12 ), a earth fault (> [ 0 ) relay
- directional earth fault relay(~)
All these functions are provided in a single relay unit. Units for several motors can be arranged
on one single rack.
BUS
VT
10 = Zero sequence prot. S = Motor circuit-breaker Wph = Phase current transformer

LW = Core balance Z.S. CT (Ref. sec. 27.9) M = Asynchronous motor
1 = Input current transformer 2 = Burden of CT adjustable in ten steps k = Setting factor
3 = Selector switch 4 = Rectifier I> > = Short-circuit protection
I> = Protection against prolonged overload
L\0 = Overload protection ti0 1 = Warning-stage of overload protection
ti02 = Tripping stage of overload protection
T = Interactor of Thermal Facsimile (Replica)
ta = Time lag
12 = Squaring Element
1.
w
Differential Relay
12 = Unbalance (negative sequence) Protection h 1 » h 2 etc.= Visual signals 2. Combined overcurrent, overloa.d, unbalance, earth-fault Relay
K = Setting K8 = Indicator Contactor (Overload Warning) 3. Undervoltage Relay
4. Directional Earth-fault Relay
Ka = Tripping Contactor L = Level Detector and Trigger.
5. Circuit-breaker and other symbols as in Fig. 43.2.
Fig. 43.6. Circuit and Functional Diagram of a Motor Protection Relay
Courtesy, : Brown Boveri.
Fig. 43. 7. Functional Block Diagram of a large high-voltage
Induction Motor Protection Scheme.
43.8. STATIC BUSBAR PROTECTION BASED ON DIRECTIONAL COMPARISON --·-·-
We will recall, the busbar protection can be based on different principles such as l!n:,1D ll!11W = :mn lj111Q
:lU:JW:!!3 Al![:!~= :!UrJ 10p-4s11a
- Busbar Protection by Over•current Relays. This can be adopted for networks where the in.
feed is not clearly defined and where the outgoing feeders to loads are not subject to reverse
feed.
~
~-~~J
- Busbar Protection by Distance Relays of incoming lines
- Busbar protection by Differential Relays N
<t
- Busbar Protection by Directional Interlock
The static Busbar Protection schemes have following advantages :
- Modular design. Required modules can be plugged-in accordance with the protection
scheme. Hence the design is simple and easy to operate.
- Low burden on Main CT's. Hence problems arising out of CT saturation are reduced.
- Measurement can be independent of CT saturation.
- Intermediate CT's can be decentralised (provided in a separate module with each relay).
Ref. Fig. 43.8, giving functional block-diagram of static busbar protection based on directional
comparison.
The direction of currents in all outgoing feeders (11 1, II2) is compared with the directional of
differential current. During internal busbar fault (SC), all these currents flow in the same direction
(Towards Busbar in Primary).
If this condition persists for a definite period (or the order of milliseconds) the internal short- I
circuit is confirmed and the relay trips. Additional conditions for tripping include magnitude of
feeder current and their sum. These conditions increase the security of protection. -.J
Ref. Fig. 43.8, the pulse shaper D converts sinusoidal signals into rectangular pulses-DP con-
verts only positive half cycles and DN converts only negative half cycles (into rectangular pulses)..
FP and Fn are NOR gates for positive half rectangular pulses and negative half rectangular
pulses respectively. The three recta·ngular signals received by Fn comprise negative half-wave pul-
I= Busbars G = OR Gate (combination of Fp and F,.)
ses from three DN elements. These are for out-going feeder II1 outgoing feeder II2 and difference
Ili, II2 = Outgoing Feeders H = Inverters
between lfi and II2 as can be observed from the
figure. Let us make truth table for the logic of III= Circuit-breakers J = Integrator (5 ms)
NOR gate Fn, X being output of Fn- A 1 = Main CT. K = Trigger
A 2 = Intermediate CT L = Drop-out Prolongation (Delay Circuit)
II1 II2 (lfi - Il2) X B = Common Burden M = Tripping Line
1 Ll = Direction of Normal Current N = AND Gate
0 0 0 Ll = Direction of Intend fault Current 0 1, 0 2 = Tripping Inter-locks
0 1 0 0 C = Shunt P = Amplifier
0 0 1 0 D = Pulse shaper Q = Tripping Contactor
0 DP= Shaper of Positive half wave q = Trip Indication
0 0 1 DN= Shaper of Negative Half wave R = Trip Release
From the truth table, NOR gate F n gives output (x = 1) when three inputs II 1, II 2 and (II - II2) E =·Central Unit_Directional Comparison S = Digital Signal Directional Comparison
1 F = NOR Gate for the positive half Sc= Short-circuit
are (0). i.e. when three negative half pulses are simultaneously absent (conditions 0).
F 11 = NOR Gate for the negative half U = Feeder Measuring Elements.
Similarly NOR Gate Fp gives output (Y = 1) when three input positive half, pulses
(ll1,IJ2, II1 -112) are simultaneously absent (condition 0) · x y h' h ( - 1 or y - 1) the output is high (Z = 1). When positive
~:l~nc;~~so~!~fv~nJ~;~m l:ede~r:ur~~nt: ;nd diff;reu'ce in feeder curre~ts a[e siu;lt~n~oufy
The output X of Fn and Y of Fp is given to OR gate G. The truth table of G is as follows : present, the control unit of directional comparison E gives output to trip re ease vza ee er
X y z measuring unit U. . .
AND Gates o 1 and o 2 provide additional interlock conditions via measurmg element U for tnp
1 0 1
0 1
release R.
1
0 0 0
816 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION IMPORTANT ASSORTED 'l'OPICS AND STATIC PRO'I'ECTION SCHEMES 817
43.9. DISCONNECTION OF MAINS SUPPLY FROM INPLANT AUXILIARY SUPPLY 1
DURING SYSTEM FAULTS
(Courtesy : Brown Boveri, Switzerland)
Many industrial plants have their inplant generating station and need uninterrupted power
for the industrial process. The power is taken from Mains Network as well as inplant auxiliary
generator (generally driven by gas turbine). The segregation of essential loads and non-essential
loads is illustrated in Fig. 43.9. During system faults (say F 1). The voltage of bus-bars 2 and 3 5
drops down and the supply of essential loads and non-essential loads is disturbed. Hence, it becomes ITI ~,-::_-==,--<-
necessary to disconnect the mains supply very quickly during fault on mains (F1) by opening cir-
cuit-breaker (7) and bus-coupler (4). --
----
Rp
Fi, F 2 , F 3 = Possible Faults

For F 1 ➔ Trip (7} and (4)
r For F 2 ➔ Trip (8) only
For F3 ➔ Trip (9) only
X = Switchgear
7
6
2--..._--,.,..,.._ _ _ _--.-___________ RP= Reverse power element
> I= Overcurrent element
< U = Undervoltage element, connected to VT
009
< f = Under-frequency element, connected to VT
All elements in single relay unit E.
Fig. 43.10. Protection scheme for system disconnection for Fig. 43.9 symbols as in Fig. 43.9.
1--6..--o--*0-k
- Enough power should be available from generator G when mains supply is disconnected.
- Enough power should be available from mains, when generator G is disconnected.
The protection scheme has several relays, the main component being a directional power (RP).
3~e
It is a highly sensitive static relay.
The directional power relay RP receives input reference voltage from VT via rectifier bridge and
::,~m
AUXILIARY
inpnt current from CT via another rectifier bridge. The measuring angle of the relay is 60°. This
angle gives the best results for short-circuit conditions considering the d.c. component.
GENERATOR
The phase angle between rectified outputs of current and voltage are made in positive and nega-
1 = Mains 3 = Bus bar for essential loads tive half waves which makes the measurement very rapid and reliable. Two phase comparison is
2 = Bus bar for non essential loads 4 = Bus coupler made per cycle. At 50 Hz the maximum resolution of reed relay contacts is 10 to 15 ms.
Fig. 43.9. Scheme of mains supply and inplant auxiliary supply for industrial plant. The protection also incorporates overcurrents element > I, under-voltage element < U and
under-frequency element < f These elements are housed in a single relay (E).
During a fault (F2) in generating plant, breaker (8) should trip and (7) should remain closed.
During a short-circuit within the plant (F3) only faulty part is disconnected without interrupt- Section III. BACK-UP PROTECTION, CENTRALLY CO-ORDINATED BACK-UP
ing the mains supply or generator supply. AND PROTECTION SIGNALLING
A protection scheme for quick disconnection of mains supply in the event of fault (F1 ) is
43.10. BREAKER BACK-UP LOCAL BACK-UP
described here.
The breaker back-up and centrally co-ordinated back,up will be described further in this sec-
Non-essential loads are connected to busbar 2 and essential loads to 3.
tion,
1
The following conditions must be satisfied by the installation: I

Breaker back-qp protection is employed in installations, where the failure to interrupt a short-
- Busbar system must be equipped with switchgear and protection for quick disconnection of circuit, due to breaker failure, could cause serious damage or disturb the stability of the nehvork.
mains supply which responds to critical conditions in the plant and trips buscoupler. Back-up protection provides a safeguar<;l against failure of primary protection. In brealler back-up
818 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIO pORTANT ASSORTED TOPICS AND STATIC PROTECTION SCHEMES 819
protection if faults is not cleared by the circuit-breaker or primary protection, it will cleared by the C BUSBAR
C
additional back-up circuit-breaker provided in the same station.
In EHV systems it is now a common practice to provide two different types of protections, one
main and other back-up. The cost ofEHV circuit-breakers being very high (Rs. 5-15 lakhs per 245- ISOLATOR
400 kV breaker), it is generally uneconomical to provide a duplicate breaker. Hence more attention,
is paid to protection scheme. · F
BREAKER
The protection scheme (generally provided in conjunction with busbar protection) based on local
back-up protection, provided with features such that if the circuit-breaker of main protection fails
to clear, the protection scheme senses the breaker failure and sends tripping command to another
adjacent circuit breaker.
MAIN CT
Th: protection scheme comprises primary protection element, (A) and additional back-up
protect10n element (B) and complex logic system (Refer Fig. 43.11). '!'he choice of the scheme varies
with every application. Accordingly, the wiring of the relay is made for specific application or ap-
propriate relay elements are plugged in to form the complete sy:stem. 1
If both the breakers in the station (for primary and back-up) fails to operate, then breaker of
remote back-up provided in other stations may operate and clear the fault.
The breaker back-up protection scheme is generally provided with the bus-bar protection 8 FEEDER
scheme. The principle of protection is that the command is given to the main circuit-breaker and
a time lag relay for check. The time lag check relays checks whether the circuit-breaker of main
protection has interrupted the current in a period of about 50 to 100 ms. (Time of primary protection
say 20 ms to 40 ms and total break-time of circuit breaker 40 to 60 ms.)
If primary protection has been successful (as can be sensed by sensing current through circuit- I K
breaker and CT primary) the back-up breaker does not get tripping command from breaker-back N
up protection relay. In case the main protection circuit-breaker has failed to interrupt (current has H G
continued to flow), the breaker-back protection sends tripping command (after 50 to 100 ms) to ,.____________
M ___. I L -_ _ _ _ _..,
back-up breaker. ·
I
I
The breaker back-up protection scheme with bus-bar system comprise the following items per
breaker : (incorporated in block B in Fig. 43.11).
x-----'
A = Primary protection element, one for each feeder
3 high speed single-phase current relay elements. B = Breaker back-up protection element, one for each feeder
C = Busbars D = Tripping line Allocated busbars
1 or more starting elements. E = Blocking or release line F = Breaker trip coil
1 or more time lag elements. G = Logic for release H = Monitoring module (with fault location facility)
1 or 2 tripping relays. I= Tripping line monitor J =Tripping contactor
K = Connection between starting contactor and G
. Thes~ elements a~e sui_tab~y arranged to form a complete back-up protection scheme. Logic rela- L = Monitoring connections between each module and H
twn_s. decide as to which circmt-breaker should be tripped. These logic circuit derive inputs from M = Logic connection between I and G N = Blocking connection
0 = Signal module (output unit for internal and external signal)
aux1hary CT's in series with the circuit-breaker of primary protection. P = Signal line
Ref. Fig. 43.11 Block B contains three adjustable over-currents relays, starting relays for each Q = Isolator replica generates logic signals at electronic level, which correspond to position offaolators.
phase and all three phases, two adjustable timing elements, two outputs for energing the tripping Fig. 43.11. Schematic diagram of static breaker back-up protection scheme.
relays. The protective system also contains facility for signalling, monitoring units, intermediate (Courtesy : Brown Boveri, Switzerbnd).
CT, input filters for starting relays and tripping relays besides the main blocks illustrated in the in protection scheme which will operate and clear the fault by tripping the adjacent breaker in case
figure.
of failure of the breaker main protection to trip.
The fault detector devices in the protecti@ scheme are normally simple instantaneous over-
43.11. USE OF MICRO PROCESSOR FOR LOCAL BACK-UP
current relays but complex logic circuits are associated with these to ensure that correct breakers
I! is now _a common practice to have two forms of primary protection for transmission lines are tripped under all system operating conditions and provide the necessary security against wrong
workmg on different principles (e.g. distance and over-current). It is assumed that at least one tripping.
protection system will operate on occurrence of a fault. The cost of high voltage circuit-breakers Microprocessors or minicomputers (Ref. Ch. 43-C) are used to advantage for this function to
b~ing ver~ hi~?, it may not ~e econ<~mical to duplicate the high voltage circuit breaker even though replace the present hard wire logic system. The minicomputer is loaded with a program which takes
higher rehab1hty can be achieved by back-up breaker. More attention is being paid to the provision into consideration various system requirements.
The advantages of programmable processors are the following : The present trend in power system protection, measurement and control is to use Program-
- considerable saving in relay panel Gpace. mable equipment instead of Hard-wired equipment. The use of programmable equipment incor-
porating micro-processor and static digital/analog devices reduces the complexity of the entire
- reduction in panel wiring at site.
protection scheme.
- reduction in number of multi-core required between plant items and the control room.
- greater ease to change logic to current initial mistakes or to suit subsequent system changes. The protection scheme has to perform several complex functions. This includes
- reduction in amount of information which has to be transferred from one department to - to sense abnormal condition/fault.
another during the design and manufacturing stages of logic system - to decide whether to give an alarm or trip command.
- reduction in overall cost du~ to reduction in the number of stages and thus time required - to decide which main circuit-breakers (primary or main protection) should be tripped.
to provide working system. - to decide whether to trip back-up breakers or not? Which back-up breakers can be tripped
Remote Back-up Protection with least disturbance ?
- in which sequence Autoreclosure should be carried out ?
The remote back-up refers to back-up protection given by protection system in the adjacent
station. - whether breaker should be reclosed or not ?
- how much abnormal condition (say power swings) are permissible that breaker should not
trip?
43.12. COMPUTER BASED CENTRALLY COORDINATED BACK-UP
- what are the conditions at remote station bus ?
Opening of a back-up breaker generally causes loss of power to a larger area and also system - whether remote breakers should be tripped or blocked ?
disturbance. In centrally co-ordinated back-up protection, the Grid Control .Centre (Ref. Ch. 46) - what is a sequence of switching in the network?
receives information from various sub stations that a fault has not been cleared.
0
- synchronising checks before reclosing ?
The computer aided control centre takes into account the system conditions at the time of fault - Monitoring: checking at periodic intervals, the auxiliary circuits, relay-breaker-CT-VT and
land decides which back-up breakers should be opened to clear the fault with minimum system other devices to check their operational readiness and health.
disturbance. - Required fault clearing time of main and back-up breakers.
In order to achieve correct back-up breaker operation, it is necessary to transmit a large amount These complex and multifarious funct~ons are possible with programmable protection schemes
of data from and to individual sub-station if all the analysis of the fault conditions is to be done by in conjunction with static relays and digital logic circuits.
the central computer. This would be too complex and prohibitively costly. Instead of sending all
the information (Ref. Sec. 46.5) the data which can be processed locally in the sub-station is The variables in main primary circuit (current, voltage, power factor, frequency) are given to
processed (by the micro-processor based mini-computer) in the sub-station itself and only essential · measurement/protection/control scheme via CT/VT/tranducers. Some signals are converted to Digi-
information (data) is telemetered (transmitted to a remote) Grid Control Centre. This information tal form in Analogue to Digital converters (AID)
(data) is compared with data received from other sub-station and the program is such that the The entire system has at its centre a large scale integrated circuit (LSI) microprocessor. The
decision as to which back circuit-breakers should be tripped is taken by computer based Grid Con- microprocessor processes the information by means of built-in static logic circuits, memory and
trol Centre. This decision is then conveyed to respective sub-station in the form of coded telemetric other modules.
signal. On receiving these instructions the appropriate back-up breakers are opened. The sequence
The processing is performed by means of programmable microcomputer. 'fhe programmes are
of tripping of back-up breakers is in accordance with a pre-arranged program.
prepared to cater for specific application. These programmes can be prepared to suit local system
Smaller mini-computer with their micro-processor (central processing units) is used in in- conditions.
dividual sub-stations to determine which part of the sub-stations is faulty. The back-up protection
scheme (B) in that station (generally incorporated in the busbar protection scheme) has a provision 43.14. PRINCIPLE OF CENTRALIZED BACK-UP PROTECTION (CBP)
to determine as to which feeder is faulty and to send signal that a particular breaker has not cleared
the fault though main protection (A) had instructed that breaker to open. These signals are A real-time on-line computer system is necessary for centralized computer aided back-up protec-
processed by the mini-computer in that sub-station and relevant data is transmitted to Grid Control tion and post-fault control the basic approach is to substitute logic for measurement.
Centre. The grid control centre determines which adjacent circuits should be disconnected to clear The faulty circuit in power system is distinguished from healthy circuit by the fact that fault
the fault with least overall disturbance to the system, and also which circuits should be blocked circuit alone has an inflow of fault power at one or more terminations and no out-flow at any ter-
(negative tripping) in order to maintain system stability). mination (Ref. Fig. 43.12).
The central computer is supplied with the data on the directions of (fault) power flow from all
43.13. PROGRAMMABLE EQUIPMENT FOR PROTECTIVE RELAYING MEASURE
circuit-terminations. The computer programme is such that it can determine the faulty circuit by
MENTS AND CONTROL (PPRMC) very fast able look-up and then decide which back-up circuit-breakers should be tripped for back-up
In Hard-Wired electromechanical or static relays described earlier, the components of the clearance if one or more of the circuit-breakers of primary (main) protection fail to clear the fault
protection system are physically interconnected and are usually for specific purpose (i.e. over-cur- condition within c;lesired time.
rent relay protects against over-current and is wired according to its scheme). Hardwire logic is
essentially unalterable. Hard-wired relay is set for certain pick-up condition and has certain specific
characteristic. '
-- F
--- --- Central computer can examine several possible post fault conditions before the breaker clears
the fault and :letermines what action may be required to keep system stability with minimum out-
age. The actions must be pre-programmed on the basis of recent analysis of the system.
--- The central computer is pre-programmed with tables of specific loads to be shed or switches to
be opened corresponding to specific generation/load inbalances. For other aspects, a periodic system
security assessment programme is simulates successively all possible contingencies and checks
overloads and stability limits, which is pre-assessed off-line. This programme is run periodically or
whenever a significant load change occurs, or whenever there is a change in power system con-
--- figuration. A pre-requisite for this function is that, additionally to the information required by the
back-up protection programme, the central computer needs information on busbar voltages, genera-
(a)
--
Direction of power flow at teminations
,,
_...,..
--
of various circuits for line fault.
tion levels, circuits watts/VARs flow, etc. These data are scanned at regular intervals
(second/minutes) by an existing data loggers and elementary system.
43,16. COMMUNICATION LINKS FOR PROTECTION SIGNALLING :!
f
- - --- The communication links for protection signalling between out-station and central control sta-
tion can be one of the following types :
- Pilot wires specially for protection/communication signalling
- --- - Telephone wires
- -
- High frequency carrier channel
- Radio/Microwave channels of very high ultra high frequencies.
- Satellite communication
(b) Direction of power flow at terminations of various circuits for busbar fault.
Fig. 43.12. Explaining CBP. The communication channel between out-station and central control forms a part of back-up
protection scheme.
Note, During a fault in a circuit the direction of power flow at the terminations of that circuit is towards
the fault F. Digital Message System
Generally, back-up clearance will involve tripping of a section of busbar as only one circuH Signals are physical representation of a message, and therefore carries the information to be
breaker is provided per feeder for economic reasons. The central computer will then wait for the processed. The Binary signals can assume only two values either '0' or 'l', the '0' value represents
total break-time of the slowest circuit-breaker in the system plus a suitable safety margin, to service not present and 'l' value represents present. The logic operations AND, NAND, NOR OR, and the
the circuit-breaker trip signals (signal that the circuit-breaker has tripped and cleared the fault). combinations thereof manipulate logic functions in form of binary language of '0' , 'l'. A change of
If all such signals arrive, the back-up protection programme will stop; if one or more such signals signal state of a binary device represents in its message content elementary decision between two
do not arrive, appropriate trip command will be issued to the relevant out-station. possible values 0, 1. In technical terminology, it contain the 'unitbit' called binary digit.
The trip-command (if any) from central control will be checked for compatibility with the local When a varying analogue quantity is to be converted into digital message, it should be con-
situ(:ltion as seen by the out-station before the tripping of back-up circuit-breaker is initiated. The verted into digital form in AID conversion device.
purpose of this check is to prevent false tripping of back-up breaker due to false command from A code is the assignment between individual values of the quantity and the signal states of
central back-up control station (Grid Control Centre). Generally,, outstation can determine/only several binary positions by means of which these values are to be digitally represented.
check whether the particular circuit may be faulty or is faulty; and not that it is faulty. The last The analogue circuit quantities or messages are converted into digital messages. These digital
function is determined by central back-up protection. (Protection in outstation might have failed messages are in form of 0-1 pulses having certain code. The frequency of signals may be voice fre-
and cannot be relied upon for back-up). quency or high radio frequency.
. The central computer tables must be continually updated with any change in circuit configura-
43.17. FIBRE OPTIC DATA TRANSMISSION
tion. Thus the outstation must inform central computer of any circuit-breaker of isolated change
of status as a low priority interrupt. This technique is being used for machine-tool control or plant process control and power system
protection.
43.15. POST-FAULTY CONTROL (PFC) BY DIGITAL COMPUTERS The conventional electronic signals are communicated through shielded copper wires of good
conductivity. The electrical noise, electromagnetic field disturbances tend to disturb the signals.
Post fault control is necessary after opening of main and back-up circuit-breaker to keep the One method of overcoming this problem is to employ fibre-optic cable for transmitting the control
power system in satisfactory operating condition. Possible actions to be taken include signals fibre 0 optic cable consists of specially developed glass cable. The light signals can be trans-
- load shedding mitted through such cable very efficiently and the effect of electrical noise on transmission is com-
- generation readjustment pletely eliminated.
The transmitter at sending end converts the electrical pulses into light pulses. These light pul-
- switching-in of available standby feeders of transformers ses are transmitted through the FO cable. At the receiving end the light signals are converted into
-,- .system islanding (splitting)
electrical signals.
824 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION IMPORTANT ASSORTED TOPICS AND STATIC PROTECTION SCHE:MES 825
At present silica clad silica optical cables have been developed for working lengths of 40 km Whether the main breaker has cleared the fault or not is detected. by 'an instantaneous over
before repeaters are necessary. They can handle data rates in excess of 100 M bit/sec. current relay followed by a definite time relay' which together find out whether the main current
is still flowing after the tripping signal to trip coils of main circuit-breaker of the faulty feeder.
Development of optical sensors and integrated optics has made a major impact on protection
signalling in early 1980's.
43,19. UNIN1.'ERRUPTED POWER SUPPLY (UPS)
Experimental optical link current transformers have been developed the scheme incorporates
auxiliary CT's mounted on hollow insulator. The output of auxiliary CT's is given to pulse frequency Complex, critical electrical and electronic systems need uninterrupted power supply. Examples
modulated transmitter. Optoelectric techniques are used for controlling HVDC thyristor valves. of such critical loads include process computers; process control instruments, communication links,
'l'he transmitter drives a gellium-arsenide light emitting diode (LED). Light pulses from the relay, boiler flame supply, boiler control, furnace supply, protection circuits, critical alarms etc. For
diodes are transmitted through fibre-optical cable to relay room. In this room the light signals some loads, voltage dips/frequency variations are not allowed. UPS systems provide uninterrupted
received from FO cable are converted into electrical pulses by receivers. The electrical signals are a.c. power supply to such critical applications.
supplied to static relays. Thus the optical system forms a link between outdoor CT and indoor static There are two types of UPS
relay. (A) UPS with some delay of several cycles.
(B) UPS with time delay less than a fraction of a cycle.
43.18. LOCAL BREAKER BACK-UP PROTECTION: BREAKER FAIL PROTECTION; In type A above, for a time delay of 4 to 8 cycles, mechanical switches can be used for trans-
STUCK-BREAKER PROTECTION ferring supply from main to the sta:nd-by generating source.
This form of protecti~n has other titles like Local Breaker Backup Protection, Breaker Fail In type B above, there should not be any delay or interruption; hence a continuous or float type
Protection ; Back-up Tripping Protection. If a circuit breaker fails to open or clear the fault; the UPS system have been illustrated in Figs. 43.15 and 43.16.
back-up breaker should be operated either 'locally' or 'remote'. The local back-up breaker operates BATTERY
in the same sub-station. The method of a~hieving local breaker back-up operation is called 'Breaker -111,,,,,, 1/f-
Fall Protection' of 'Breaker Stuck protection' or 'Back-up Tripping Protection'.
Basic Scheme of Breaker Fall protection is illustrated in Fig. 43.13. As the main protection RECTIFIER·i----+---=---1 INVERTER,_____ _ ____.
operates; the breaker fall protection is also initiated. If the main breaker falls to clear the fault, a ~/= DC =/~ AC
time delay relay is arranged to operate the required back up breakers so as to clear the fault. The LOAD
total time required for fault clearance by the back-up breakers depends mainly on the setting of BUS
the time delay relay.
INITIATE
BREAKER
RESET
BREAKER
MAINS
SUPPLY
BYPASS
SWITCH
(OPTIONAL)
BEFORE FAILURE
[\
*
--
Vv~
AFTER FAILURE
t\ I\ I
TRIP FAIL SCHEME

Fig. 43.15. Un-Interruption Power Supply (UPS).
TRANSFER
INITIATE WAIT FOR TRIP SWITCH
NORMAL
OPERATION BREAKER FAULT BACK-UP
FAIL SCHEME CLEARANCE BREAKERS : AC RECTIFIER = INVERTER 1----4 LOAD
Fig. 43.13. Basic flow diagram of local back-up protection.

$ ~/= DC =/ ~ AC BUS
1
Courtesy : GEC measurements, U.K. I
1_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
I
I -
Fig. 43.14 illustrates the total time required for clearance by back-up breaker.
Refer Fig. 43.14. The setting of time delay relay in the breaker fail scheme must be longer than
the total break time (Circuit breaker time) of the main protection breaker plus reset time of the
MAINS
SUPPLY
#b
STAND BY DIESEL ENGINE
BYPASS
SWITCH
fault detector relay so that back-up breakers do not operate if the fault detector relay has already GENERATOR SET
reset (i.e. the main circuit-breaker has successfully cleared the fault). Fig. 43.16. A typical high power UPS with standby generator set.
A solid state UPS is basically composed of the following :
MAIN
PROTECTION C.B.
TRIP TIME
I DE~~~~OR
RESET TIME
I TIMER RELAY
ERRORS
I ~RGIN ►I (a) Solid State rectifier battery charger.
TIME (b) D.C. Storage Battery.
BREAKER FAILURE
TIMING RELAY OPERATING B.U.BREAKER (c) Solid State inverter.
TIME · TRIP TIME
(d) Solid State (Static) Switch (Optional)
1
- - - - - - - - - TOTLE B.U. CLEARANCE TIME
During the normal operation, the a.c. input feeds the rectifier. The rectifier converts a.c. into
Fig. 43.14. Time components in local breaker back-up. d.c, and charges the battery. Simultaneously, the rectified supply is inverted to a.c. by the inverter.
Courtesy: GEC measurements U.K.
826
When a.c. supply fails, the battery supply provides the alternative _power to t~e inverter and The DWR has two modes of operation.
the continuous uninterrupted a.c. supply is available on the a.c. load side. For a time _of 10 to 60 1. The independent mode determines whether the fault is internal or external by direction and
minutes battery can be arranged. For longer power supply duration or for higher capa~ity s~rd~y level setting. It is independent of the communication channel and provides ultra high-speed tripping
supply; diesel generator sets or gas-turbin~ driven generator sets are used. These are roug m 0 for nearby faults.
circuit automatically when main supply fails. 2. The more sensitive dependent mode requires information from the remote terminal to es-
tablish whether the fault is internal or external in the usual manner of directional comparison and
43.20. DIRECTIONAL WAVE RELAYS FOR FAULT DETECTION AND PROTECTION carrier acceleration principles used in distance protection schemes.
OF OVERHEAD LINES In Fig. 43.17, for fault Fi, the DWR at A will detect the internal fault in independent mode
The Directional Wave Relays are ultra-fast (2-5 ms) and have been developed during l980's and will take tripping decision within 2 to 5 ms. For fault F 2 the DWR at A will remain inoperative,
for protection of overhead lines of any length against phase to phase faults and ph_ase to gro~nd and the DWR at remote terminal B will depend on the carrier acceleration or carrier blocking signal
faults. Directional wave relays are also used in conjunction with distance relays for lme protectrnn. from terminal A. For a fault F 2 very near terminal 'A' the DWR at B cannot precisely determine
whether the fault is internal or external. Hence it has to take help of the usual techniques used in
The Directional wave relay (DWR) uses the directional wave de_tection P_ri_nci?le which detects carried aided distance protection of long lines. By such combination of the two modes the DWR
the direction from which the travelling waves originate. If the pomt o~ ongm ~s exter~al to the along with carrier aided distance protection scheme provides fast and selective protection of 100%
protected line section the protection _blocks and if internal, the protect10n provides a high speed length of overhead transmission line.
tripping output which is phase selective. The DWR relay incorporated in Distance protection scheme uses both steady state (50 Hz
This principle is illustrated in Fig. 43.17 in terms of the di_rection of motion of tra~elling waves waves)_ and transient variations (within milliseconds) but the setting are based on 50 Hz quantities.
generated by a change in the electrical state of the network (i.e. fault breaker operation etc.) Testing : The Directional Wave Relays can be tested by means of special test kit for Dynamic
Testing. The tests can be performed on DWR and Distance Protection Scheme.
e ~ ?I
TRA. VELING
WAVES
~ 0 QUESTIONS
1. Explain the causes of electrical noise in static relays and necessary precautions in installation to
eliminate th.e same.
TIME TIME 2. Write short notes on -
- shielding and earthing - overvoltages in static relays
B - uninterrupted power supply (UPS) - noise in static relays
. . . . . . ~----+-:---@ - fibre optical link for data transmission
3. State the merits of static motor protection. Describe a typical static motor protection scheme with the
help of a heat block diagram. Describe function of each functional block.
4. Describe principle of a static bus protection based on directional comparison principle.
Fz A B
5. Explain the need for back-protection. Explain principle of breaker back-up protection scheme.
Fi Internal fault for section AA F2 External fault for section BB 6. Explain the role of centrally co-ordinated .breaker back-up in a large power system. Describe the
Fig. 43.17. Principle of Directional Wave Relay (DWR). scheme of centrally co-ordinated breaker back-up employing a digital computer.
7. Explain the need of post fault cor,trol from central control station. What are the main functions of the
Consider protection section A.B. post fault control.
For internal Fault F 1 the direction of travelling waves originating in F1 will be F1A and
F 1 B.
The external fault (F2) the direction of travelling waves will be F :0- and F 2B ·
The direction of wave at Point A has reversed·.
At point B, the time taken by the wave F2 B_is mush lesser than that taken by wave FzB.
The Directional Wave Relay senses the following: ·
1. Direction of Wave with respect to the protected section relay location.
2. Amplitude of the Wave with respect to setting.
In DWR the steady state currents and voltage are suppressedin_Jl_ctive and pass_iv~ filters a nd
only sudden changes are detected. The direction to the fault is established by determmi~? the rela-
tive polarity of the sudden changes in voltage !::..U and current Af. F~r externa_l co1:ditwns t?~se
have the same polarity and for internal conditions the opposite polan~y. The ~ire~ti~nal decision
is made in the first 2 to 5 ms after fault incidence and all subsequent \nformation is ignored.
MICROPROCESSOR BASED RELAYS 829
Digital protective relays, monitoring and control devices in these three levels are in communica-
tion by means of power line carrier communication channels (PLCC). (1980-1990)
Changing Scene
With the availability of microprocessor based relays, digital techniques, data transmission
facilities microcomputer etc. the functions of supervision, control and protection can be made com-
plementary rather than independent. Functional modules can be incorporated in Combined Protec-
tion Control and Monitoring System (CPCM).
In the modular concept of protective and control systems, the required modules are plugged-in
to form the desired protection cum control system. The individual level (e.g. unit level) has an in-
terface with the next level (e.g. substation level) and also has man machine interface. The telecom-
Digital Relays, Microprocessors Based munication system is used between different hierarchical levels.
This chapter describes the basic components of Digital Relays and Microprocessor based Relays.
Relays, Fault Recorders and The Combined Protection Control and Monitoring and Control Systems (CPCM).
Fault Locators PART I
Three levels : Control centre, Substation, Unit. Functions at each level- Components of Digital Relay,
DIGITAL RELAYS
Components of Microprocessor based relays. . . . .
Part I Digital Relays. Block diagram - functions of each block - basic processes m Digital Data 43.22. BLOCK DIAGRAM AND COMPONEN'fS OF A DIGITAL RELAY*
Processing- Binary system, Word, bits, components. .
Part II - Microprocessor based Relay. . . There are two families of digital relays.
Block diagram - functions - Microprocessor - Microcomputer - Funct10nal parts, Architecture, 1. Hardwired digital relays incorporating AID convertors and Digital processing circuits.
Block diagram or a Distance Relay. . .
Chapter 43-C Microprocessor Based Substation Control and Protect10n 2. Programmable digit relays incorporating microprocessors or minicomputer.
Basic components and processes involved in a digital protective relay are illustrated in Block
43.21. ENTER MICROPROCESSORS IN PROTECTION TECHNOLOGY Diagram Fig. 43.19 (a) described here as an example.
Power Engineers need understanding of basic principles and apf!lications of microprocessor The three phase AC inputs derived from CTs and VTs are fed to Block 2. Block 2 comprises
based protection control system in addition to the conventional protection systems. analog processing compensating circuits, In this block, the measured currents and voltages are
developed into a set of quantities required for measurement processing and operation of the relay.
The microprocessor based protection and control at follow-
ing hierarchical levels (Fig. 43.18). In Block 4 AID Conversion the phase informations contained in these quantities are converted
from the analog signals to representative square wave digital signals.
Control centre level : Load Control Centre
Substation Level/ : Control rooms of Substation, The equivalent digital signals from Block 4 are fed Block '7 for digital processing. Block 7 con-
Plant Level Generating Station, Load Centres. sists ofphase comparators, logic gates and other digital circuits required for signalprocessing. Bloch
7 also receives other external digital signals from Block 3. These include external data regarding
Unit Level : Individual 'Units' in the substation/
generating station/Load centres e.g.
back up breaker and other circuits which have an interface with the protective relay.
transformer, busbar, motor The digital processing carried out in Block 7 is controlled by current and voltage supervision
transmission line. functions carried out in Block 5. In Microprocessor Based Relays functions of Block 7 and Bloch 5
These levels are linked by Power Line Carrier Communica- are performed by a Microprocessor.
tion channels (PLCC)* and microwave communication chan- Block 8 provides an interface between the relay and the circuit-breaker trip coils Block 9 gives
nel. The data flows from unit level tQ.upper levels and from indication display on the front face of the relay and is called Man-Machine Interface. In the event
upper levels to unit levels via the Data Bus. Each level has of power system disturbance, for which the relay reacts, the events are displayed on Block 9. Sig-
certain protective, Supervisory/monitoring and control func- nalling contacts enable communication with the peripheral devices like sequence of event recorders,
tions. reclosing relays etc. With digital relays there is a provision of fault recorder, fault locator etc.
Before 1980's the protective functions were independent Block 1 (D.C./D.C. convertor) provides a galvanic separation between the station auxiliary DC
of control and monitoring functions. Monitoring Functions and system and the protective relay. The time lag relays in Block 6 determine the operating time of
Control Functions were performed by different systems. The the back-up function of the relay and are therefore linked with the Block 7.
functions of protective relays was limited to sensing the Referring to Fig. 43.19 the functions and description of electronic components in a digital relay
fault/abnormal operating condition and arrange tripping of Fig. 43.18. Three levels in microprocessor are summarised in Table 43.2.
based Protection, Control Monitoring
circuit breaker under main protection and if necessary back- (PCM) system. [In microprocessor based relay Blocks 7 and 5 are within a microprocessor of the relay]
up breakers. The automatic control included Synchronising Courtesy : ASEA, Sweden.
checks, auto reclosing duty etc.
* Refer Sec. 46.9 Terms and Definitions. * The Blocks in Digital Relays, Microprocessor based relays have similarity.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION MICROPROCESSOR BASED RELAYS 831
830
DIGITAL INPUTS Block in Fig. 43,19 Functions Description
AUXILIARY POWER INPUTS AC INPUTS
7. Digital processing To process the digital signals received Comprises
block from AID converter (4) and the Digital
RELAY
OC/DC 2 3 Input interface (3) as per required
CONVERTER
I NT ER FACE
relay logic. · - Logic circuits for relay operation,
- Multiplexers
5 - Encoders, decoders
4
CURRENT AND - Memory circuits and other digital
VOLTAGE
SUPERVISION
electronic circuits.
8. Tripping output. The trip-command to circuit breakers The tripping output is generally fed to
is given by this block. appropriate auxiliary relay.
9, Indication and To indicate whether the relay has In addition, the functions may include
TIME signalling operated. To provide signals to remote display Disturbance recording, Fault
LAG terminals. recording etc.
RELAYS
43.23. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF DIGITAL RELAYS

Ref. Fig. 43.19. The protective relays receive analog inputs from the CT's and VT's connected
in the protected circuit (Block 2). These analog signals are processed in Analog processing unit
(Block 2). The processed analog signals are fed to the analog to digital convertor (Al D converter)
Fig. 43.19. Block diagram of a digital relay. (Block 4).
Courtesy : ASEA, Sweden. Digital Signals
Table 43.2 Analog signals have continuous faithful wave forms e.g. Secondary voltage of a VT, secondary
Summary of Components in a digital protective relays
current of a CT.
Block in Fig. 43.19 Functions Description
Digital signals are in form of coded square pulses which represent discrete elements of infor-
1. D.C./D.C. convertor Galvanic separation between mation (data). In digital system, the signals are in 'binary' form i.e. only two discrete values referred
Auxiliary D.C. supply (Station battery to as binary coefficients O and 1 or logical values true and false.
system) and the static relay.
· 1 d S d Include different processes required
The number of binary digits needed to encode the various discrete elements of information
2. Analog processing, 3. phase AC inputs me u e econ ary (data) has a significant influence on the design of a digital system.
compensating and current of CT, Secondary voltage of for relay measurement e.g.
setting circuits. VT. The digital system generally operate on groups of 8 or 16 or 32 bits of information atonce. The
- Amplitude comparison range of the digital system of encoding the information by an bit group is 2n. Hence digital systems
- Zero crossing detection with larger bit operating group can process a wider range of concoded information.
- Phase comparison in sequential The earlier digital relays used microprocessors of 8 bit groups. Some recent digital relays
logic circuit. are with 16 bit microprocessor.
- Measurements e.g. current or Representation of Digital Information.
voltage or impedance or direction.
- Supervision and control The information to be processed may be :
functions by amplitude - Textual e.g. status of a plant viz normal or emergency.
comparators.
- Numerical e.g. value ofcurrent, voltage, power etc.
- Filtering. - Logical e.g. logical conditions imposed on a relay to operate.
3. Relay Interface with To receive external digital inputs and External digital inputs may include The information usually takes from a sequence of alphabetic characters, punctuating symbols,
external Digital Signals feed to the digital processing block 7. signals from remote term~al, signals
regarding back-up protection etc. decimal digits and symbols representing arithmetic operations, logical values and logical operators.
These signals' are subsequently fed The information also includes the spaces which mark the boundaries between various words or
7 AID converter To convertor analog signals into
digital square wave signals to the digital processing block 7. quantities.
May be included in Block 7 in a This form of information is represented in a digital system by codes of binary digits. Since the
5. Current and voltage To control digital processes in block 7.
Microprocessor. information must be fed into the input unit, processed in the processor unit and given out by output
supervision
To determine operating time of unit in coded form, there should be possibility of 'encoding' and 'decoding'. Each element of infor-
6. Time-lag relay block.
back-up relays through block 7. mation must have unique representation.
MICROPROCESSOR BASED RELAYS
833
Binary Number System.
Boolean Algebra provides a method and a set of rules for logic operations. Basic logic opera-
Binary digit can take two values (0 or 1) corresponding to ('open'. or 'close') and is
tions NOT, AND, OR and their combinations NAND, NOR etc. are used as building blocks for form-
said to be base 2. Binary numbers are formed by successive powers ofbmary ba~e. Whole
ing systematic logic circuits. By using Boolean algebra the logical circuits are manipulated and
numbers and fractions can be formed by using binary system. For example a decimal num- designed, simplified with mathematical accuracy.
ber 86 is represented by a binary number 1 0 1 0 110 as follows :
The logic circuits is formed on the basis of rules from Boolean Algebra and mathematical
1 O 1 0 1 1 o, simplification.
1 X 26 + 1 X 25 + 1 X 24 + Q X 23 + Q X 22 + 1 X 21 + Q X 2° = 86 Combination Logic
645 + 0 + 16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 0 = 86 Digital protective systems have built-in-digital signal processing circuits. The analog inputs
To represent 86, binary series requires seven positions, bu~ only two digits 0, 1. The valancy are received from secondaries of CT, VTs. Digital signal inputs are received from RTU (Remote
Terminals Units) and from other contacts.
of individual binary position of dual number is obtained by fallmg powers of base 2.
A Binary number ( 1 0 1 0 11 0) Other textual signals are received from the man-machine interface. These data are either in
I1o1o1 1 oI textual numerical or logical. Each discrete information is first converted into digital form to
B 'A' as a relay combination, A equivalent code in terms of 'O' and 1.
1 = close O = Open B In st_atic relay~, the digital sig17:al 1:1rocessing system (Block 7 to Fig. 43.19) is required to produce
C 'A' as an amount of binary counter output signals which are fed to tripping outputs (Block 8) and indication, display signalling unit
This can be represented by modern hardware by relay C"""""1>---1.___r1:► -1...rv- (Bloc~ 9). The signal processing involves logical combinatinns of input signals. The combination logic
combination and binary counter is shown in Fig. 43.20. The o 21 22 . 2J functzons (Boolean Functions) are implemented using network logic gates in which the signal paths
2 do not (arm feedback loops. The absence of feed back loops ensures that the output of logic circuit is
number 86 is represented by binary code (A) by (B) and (C).
Fig. 43.20. Dial (Binary) number system. determined only by logic function of the circuit is determined only by logic function of the circuit
Conversion binary to decimal and vice versa
and the present set of inputs. Such a circuit is called 'Combinational logic circuits'.
Simplest method consists of repeated halving of decimal number. Each halving produces a new
dual digit which is equal to the remainder which can be O or 1 (even or odd number) Combinational logic is used extensively in digital protective relays as illustrated in Fig. 43.19,
Static Busbar Protection, Static Distance Protection. It provides many of the logical and arithmetic
Example Conversion Decimal to Binary functions used in digital signal processing and computing systems.
Example : 56 ➔ 111000 Truth Table
56 : 2 = 28 remainder 0
The function of Combinational logic circuits in protective relays can be specified as a Boolean
28: 2 = 14 remainder 0
Equation in which the output variable is expressed as a function of input variable. This equation
14: 2 = 7 remainder O !Dual number 111000 de~ncs the valu~ of output for each combination ofinput variables. The complete set of inputs and
7 : 2 = 3 remainder 1 their correspondmg output are generally represented in the truth table.
3 : 2 = 1 remainder 1 Arithmetic Operations
1 : 2 = 0 remainder 1 Arithmetic operations of fundamental nature are performed in
Dual number is converted in decimal number by taking highest bi~ary di~it and d_oubl~ng it, - digital processing systems (Block 7, Fig. 43.19)
adding to second highest binary digit to the result, doubling it aga.in, addmg to this the third highest
binary digit and so on. -- .AJ:ithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) within the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer or a
microprocessor.
Example : Binary to digital conversion
111000= Combination cflogic gates can be used to implement arithmetic operations on binary numbers.
lx2 +1 =3 Arithmetic addition is the most fundamental operation in binary digital system.
3x2 !· l = 7
7x2 +0 == 14
14 X 2 +0
28 X 2 +0
= 28
=56
~----
RESULT
z
0
1::i~'---------~~-
TRANSISTOR
;: 6 0 t----------=~----~,,,-e::..___
<(
Processing Binary InformHtion u
:::; 40
Each element of information within digital protection and control sys~em is ~epre- Q.
Q.
sented as a binary code and is stored, transmitted, processed as a set of bm~r;r s1gna!s <( 20
'O' - '1' series. Within the digital cir~uits, the binary signals ~re l?rocesse~ by di~tal log~c
circuits which route the binary signals through appropriate combmation of logic gates. Each log~c 0
gate implements primitive binary logic which is described. 11:athem_atically by_Boole3:n ~lgebra Log~c 1970 1980 1990
corresponds directly between ~ogical opera~ors ai:d t~e d1gita~ l?gic gates. ~wes prmc1ples of Logic
Fig. 43.21. Three generations of technology in components
circuits. Described logic funct10ns and their applications to digital protective relays.
of Static Protection Systems and Control Circuits.
834 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION MICROPROCESSOR BASED RELAYS 835
Table 43.4. Digital Circuits and their Functions
Digital Multiplexers. To produce an output which is a combinational function of input variables. 1. Protected unit
Encoder and Decoder If number of inputs is greater than the number of outputs, the combinational logic 2. Blocking input
circuit is called encoder. If the number of inputs is lesser than the number of outputs
the combinational logic circuit is called decoder. Encoders and Dec?ders are used 3. Aux. supply 26 to 312 Vdc
in form ofMSI, LSI, VLSL. They are used in CPU of computers and microprocessors. or 80 to 242 Vac
Sequential Logic Digital sequential logic circuits and programmable system incorporate these types 4. Aux. signalling relays
Asynchronous and of logics. 5. Aux. tripping relays
Synchronous In synchronous sequential logic, synchronising signal is used to control the instant 6. Keypad
at which transition occurs in the state of system. 7. Display
In Asynchronous sequential logic, the state is determine~ _by t~e fu~ctin of the I I I
8. Software matrix
circuit and the value of the logic signal. External synchromsmg signal 1s not used. I I I 2 E3
9. Watch dog
'--,---'
E21'-"'t-t::::.__i
Clocked Flip-Flop. Basic elements in synchronous sequential circuits is Flip-Flop. 10. Microprocessor
Memory function Memory elements are essential in sequential systems and digital signal processing. JE20~
E19~ 11. ND Converter.
Semiconductor read and write memory is very widely used.
It should be possible to uniquely address the memory device that stores a binary
tb__,, ______ - - - - - - ---~
Memory device.
digit. . .. Fig. 43.22, Block-diagram of a Microprocessor based overcurrent
It should be possible to read the state of every stored bmary digit. relay/overload relay for Motor Protection.
(Courtesy: Brown Boveri)
- ROM Read Only Memory. It is not. possible to change the state of binary
digits in the ROM. It is nonvolate. · The microprocessor (10) performs the digital signal processing.
- RAM Random Access Memory. In this, we can read/write in to the memory.
Protective Functions ·
Memory is denoted by number of bits e.g. 8 bit memory Large arrays of ROM and
RAM are used in programmable systems counters. In the motor protection relay under description, several conditions are analysed by the
microprocessor (11) and the software martix (8). The protective functions in this relay include :
It is a sequential circuit which can go through specific sequence of s_tates and which perform (i) Earth fault protection
a state of transition on each occurrence of input. A counter can be used directly to count a number
of occurrances of input by converting the series of inputs into a prescribed sequence of states such (ii) Negative phase sequence protection (12)
that at any point the current state or current may be output or read. Counter can also be used to (iii) Short circuit protection (I» 2)
form a coded sequential output.
(iv) Overcurren t protection (I >)
PART II (v) Protection against low loads (I<)
MICROPROCESSOR BASED PROTECTIVE RELAYS (vi) Thermal overload protection (~8)
(vii) Motor starting protection (I-START)
43.24. MICROPROCE~SOR BASED RELAYS
The protective relay has to decide logically the conditions under which the tripping signals are
The microprocessor based relays have become commercially acceptable. They are preferred for to be given via auxiliary tripping relays (4).
complex protection and control systems. In 1!1icroprocessor based relays the digit~l proc.essing u:1it
is a Microprocessor. Most recent protective relays for overcurrent protect10n, differential Signalling and trips by Software Martix ·
protection, distance protection and Substation Protection etc. are with 8 bit or 16 bit Refer Fig. 43.23. The signalling and tripping logic is provided in the software matrix (Block 8)
microprocessors. . which gives command to auxiliary tripping relays (4), and auxiliary signalling relays (5).
The basic principles of Digital Relays described with the help of Fig. 43.19 are applicable to
microprocessor based relays also. . The software tripping matrix has been shown in Fig. 43.23.
Microprocessor is now used for Protection, fault recording, fault locating, data monitoring and The user is able to freely select those starting and tripping signals that are significant for his
several other functions which were earlier performed by analog or digital systems. plant and can allocate them freely to the various auxiliary relays by means of the software tripping
matrix (Fig. 43.23).
43.25. DESCRIPTION OF A MICROPROCESSOR BASED PROTECTIVE RELAY FOR
MOTOR PROTECTION* (Courtesy: Brown Boveri, Switzerland.) Two signalling and two tripping relays are provided. For each relay a number can be used to
select one of the four following modes of operation for each protective functions.
Fig. 43.22 gives a block diagran1.
- No action (0) Condition A
The CTs feed current to AID converter ( 11 ). AID converter gives digital signals to the
- Signalling a start Condition B
microprocessor (µP - INT - 0) and software matrix block 8.
- Signalling a trip (2) Condition C
* The description is for pinpointing the various special provisions available with a typical microprocessor based
- Signalling a trip with Condition D
protective relays.
self retention (3)
836 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION MICROPROCESSOR BASED RELAYS 837
VALUE For the parameters of the MCX 91 relays there are two memories.
PQG QDISPLAY - Background memory (non volatile, NOVRAM) in it the valid parameters are memorized,
/ I \ ',
i.e. the protective relay always operates only with the settings memorized in NOVRAM.
- Foreground memory (volatile)
- when the auxiliary supply is switched on, or with a special command, the parameters from
the NOVRAM are copied in the foreground memory. There they can be altered as desired
I I I I with the "vary" key. The displayed value is always the value in the foreground memory.
-,--i---,-7
-----1- - ' - -i- - - -j- - -l
1 I I I 43,26. ADVANTAGES OF AND SPECIAL FEATURES OF MICROPROCESSOR BASED
-t- - J.._ -1- - -I
PROTECTIVE RELAYS
t----+-- J_ - ...l1 - - L - --.j
I
-T-1--,-----i
I . 1
Compared to the earlier hard wired analog and digital relays, the programmable microprocessor
based relays have superior features which include the following :
I 1 __ I _ 1
1. Ability to Combin.e a large number of protective and monitoring functions in a single relay
unit. e.g. in Fig. 43.22 the relay unit combines 7 main and 3 auxiliary function.
In the protection schemes of earlier generation separate relay units were necessary for each
main function resulting iri more number of units, more wiring, lesser reliability.
2. Measured values o(variables ate processed digitally by microprocessor. The digital process-
ing by microprocessor gives several abilities to the protective relay. These abilities include
a no output b aux. signalling relay I or II - Combinational.logic
c aux. tripping relay I or II d aux. tripping relay I or II with latching ·
- Use of on-line processing of variables
* This allocation is possible for all protection functions excepting
603 andlbLR - Programmable feature, etc.
Fig. 43.23. Software tripping matrix in Block 8 of Fig. 43.22. 3. High level of Flexibility. Various protective functions can be freely selected and allocated
to the various auxiliary relays by means of software tripping matrix (e.g. Fig. 43.23). The same
Signalling of a start : Persists until the particular setting is exceeded. relay can give tripping signals, blocking signals, starting signals, signals to fault recorders etc. The
relay meets the most complex protective and monitoring requirements.
Signalling of a trip : Appears when the time-lag belonging to the particular protective fum;-
tion has expired or as soon as a set temperature rise or a set number of 4. The memory of the relay enables the relay to retain the values of variables responsible for
permissible starts by the motor has been exceeded. Exception : if trip- tripping, time taken by relay to operate etc.
ping with self-retention is selected, the trip annunciators only drop out The values can be displayed on demand by the operator. Thereby the nature of fault, fault cur-
when the reset button has been pressed. rent etc., are precisely known.
Memory of Tripping value and time run 5. The relay can digitally display values of on the current, voltage etc. by pressing appropriate
The memory for the tripping value and time run contains the v:;tlue of the current and the time- button on the face. Thereby need of each instrument is eliminated. Microprocessor design provides
lag of the particular function at the instant the last trip took place. If no trip takes place, the last precise measurement and compact panel.
time run of the particular function will be memorized. The memory for tripping value and time-run 6. Comprehensive self monitoring self checking feature. The relay with self monitoring feature
is volatile, i.e. in the event of failure of the auxiliary supply, its contents are lost. can monitor its own circuits continuously and if any internal component has failed, indication is
Self Monitoring obtained. The relay also indicates functional readiness to operate. In relay with self checking
property, the performance can be checked by the operator during periodic maintenance.
The microprocessor based relay Fig. 43,22 is provided with self monitoring (watchdog) (8). The
7. Increased Reliability due to self-checking
relay is continuously and comprehensively monitored by the watchdog and test software, any faults
which do occur (e.g. failure of components) are detected at once. Thus, without adversely affecting Recent Microprocessor based digital relays provide digital sensing and logic Processing. The
the availability, it is largest possible to dispense with periodical testing of the relay. microprocessor checks itself, the peripheral circuitry, RAM, NOVRAM, EPROM memories and the
power supply, In addition, it monitors the AC inputs using AID converter calibration check inputs.
Testing Facilities
It also monitors LOP (Loss of Potential) and LOI (Loss of Current). The self checking feature im-
For periodical testing of the relay one of the test sets may be used. For testing, the active part proves the reliability of microprocessor based digital relays.
is withdrawn from its casing and inserted in a test casing wired to the test set. It is also possible
8, Data Interface Access - Increased Communication ability
to test the relay in its built in state.
Microprocessor based digital relays can have interface with (communicate with (1) Other Relays
Settings and Memories
(2) Protected equipment (3) Control and protection devices in the substation. By means via Relay
Settings can be made quickly and at any time i.e. even where the relay is in operation. Once Interface Unit (Fig. 43.19, Block 3). The data and control commands can be exchanged. The sequence
values haVfi been set and memorized, they are retained even if the auxiliary supply should fail of software events which occur in the processing unit (Fig. 43.19, Block 7) cm;i be stored in the
(memorizing in NOVRAM = Non-/volatile Random Access Memory)
838
memory and subsequently displayed and obtained in th,e form of printed output. The periodic main- Included on the processor board is the AID conversion system (Block 4) and a Multiplexer (Block
3). The AC input quantities (Block 2) of 4 currents and 3 voltages are analogue multiplexed to a
tenance requirements are reduced.
sing.le sample~old circuit. The sample/hold output is fed to an AID subsystem (Block 4) which yields
9. User friendly yet highly capable in bits dynamic range. Each AC input is sampled 8 times per power cycle. (1/60 sec for 60 Hz)
Microprocessor based relays are easy to apply, operate and use. Yet they are highly capable The ~l~er :modul~ (Blo~k 3) contains seven low pass filters which provide anti-aliasing functions
e.g. a modern microprocessor relay for transmission line protection has two four digit alphanumeri- and condit10nmg of mcommg AC currents and voltages.
cal displays that show up 62 separate settings, seven LEDs and it is easy to access stored data and
. The _interc?nnect module (Block 3) is used for interconnecting with other modules electrically.
easy to input new-data. Located m the mterconnecting module are optical isolatops (52A, 52B). External Reset Pilot Enable
10. Relay provides Fault designations and informations. The metering display shows three Receiver 1, Receiver 2 Inputs) '
phase voltages, current, load angle. The data is accessible through front panel display. Pre~fault
voltage, current and load angle are also displayed when desired. The relays can be hooked to a Block 1 _is DC/DC convertor power supply for the communications interface and alarm relays.
Power supply provides isolation from station battery system and includes overcurrent and under-
microprocessor based fault recorder and fault location indicator.
voltage prot~ction. A failure alarm relay monitors status and provides loss of power indication. The
11. High Speed. High speed relays Minimum tripping time of 12 millisecond and maximum alarm relay is normally picked up, but will drop when the processor defects a problem on upon loss
of 32 millisecond are available for line protection. A typical microprocessor based relay for line of DC. The power supply (Block 1) generates DC voltages of- 24, + 5, -12, +12 V DC. These are
protection takes 20 millisec. made available for various circuit .
. Test s-;itches between Block 2 and 3 provide high quality test and isolation functions and per-
43.27. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A MICROPROCESSOR BASED DISTANCE RELAY FOR mi~ convement entry of current and voltage quantities trip circuits are also wired out through these
PROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION LINE switches to provide for cut out of trip circuits.
Refer Fig. 43.24. The Microprocessor.(Block 7) is the 'heart' of the protective system. It is a Measurement and Range
Intel 80 C/96 Microprocessor with a 16 bit microcounter operating at 10 MHz. The program memory
(Block 7-1) is in separate easily replaceable EPROM chips. The subsystem (Block 7-2, 7-3) also in- The rel.ay provides three zone distance measurement with optional pilots for additional zones.
cludes volatile Read-Write memory (RAM) for working storage and Nonvolatile RAM (NOVRAM). The operatmg characteristic for each zone is variable mho characteristic for all types of faults.
11
for storing the settings and targets when the relay is deenergized. A single Relay weighing 16 kg and size 19 wide 7 high and 14 deep can pe,form several
11 11
functions as mentioned in sec. 43-26 the table.

ISOLATION
TRANSFORMERS
&
2
SURGE
PROTECTION
ANTI ALIASING
FILTERS 3 s PART III
TEST
SWIC ES
VAO
OPERATOR
PANEL
MICROPROCESSOR
Microprocessor and Microcomputer
TRIP
VeG M CURRENT
SENSING
A m~croprocessor (µP) is a single package containing logic circuits of Central Processing Unit
u TEST
plus various amounts of 'depositary and conduit' logic which surround a central processing unit
7 8
Ve G
,T "
A /O
MICRO
SWICHES
TRIP 1
TRIP 2
(CPU). '.fhus. the word 'microprocessor' means a specific electronic logic and packaging. The
el~ctromc logic must be equivalent to the central processing unit. The package must be a single
SUB Pl LOT START KEY
IA p SYSTEM
PROCESSOR
PILOT STOP KEV
chip, pa~ka~ed .as a Dual Line in package (DIP). A chip in electronic language means microscopic
BFI , electromc cir~mts created on a tiny silicone piece. The chip is mounted in a Dual In-line package
(DIP). The microprocessor has a single chip in a DIP.
I B
E
X
7-1
PROGRAM
OUTPUT
RELAYS
BFI. 2
RI , . In. contrast a microcomputer has specific electronic logic incorporated in a variety of packages
E RI 2
MEMORY
I C
R
RB 1
mcludmg several DIPs and additional electronic circuits.
RB2
Microcomputer is a product which contains all the functions found in a digital computer.
RAM TRIP ALARM
Jlo Microcomputer may have one of the following configurations.
FAILURE ALARM
NOV RAM
1. One chip microcomputer _has a single chip packaged in a single DIP and other electronic
3
ISOLATED
DC/DC
circuits, Such a microcomputer is called single chip Microcomputer.
SETTING,
POWER
52a TARGET ,DATA
SUPPLY 2. Multi-chip microcomputer has two or more chips and other electronic circuits.
52b
PILOT RCVR1 CONTACT G 9 Microcomputer must have a central processing unit.
Pl LOT RCVR 2 INPUT TELEPHONE IN COM/LAN
EXT. RESET ISOLATION INTERFACE INTERFACE 10 A Microprocessor is remarkably like a Central Processing Unit of minicomputer. Hence, .it is
PILOT ENABLE
generally called Central Processing Unit. However though there is a remarkable similarity between
Fig. 43.24. Microprocessor Base Distance Relay. the Microprocessor and a CPU, they are different products.
(Courtesy: Westinghouse, USA)
840
Microprocessor is a single package containing the processing logic. Adding the memory, inter- EPROM means Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory.
face circuitry and other external devices converts the microprocessor into a microcomputer. By inserting required EPROM chips, special information that EPROM is to hold is inserted
The advanced manufacturing techniques of microelectronics and digital sciences have resulted into the micro processor based relay.
in the development of microprocessors. The complete 'central processing unit' of a minicomputer is An EPROM like PROM holds the information indefinitely once it has been programmed, One
constructed on a single integrated circuit (chip) and is put inside a single package called a can read contents of an EPROM again and again.
microprocessor. The earlier microprocessor built during 1970's were without incorporation of
memory in the same chip. Further advances of VLSI (Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits) have RAM (Randon Access Memory) is for working storage. It is generally understood to mean a
resulted in I Cs containing CPU and memory units which form the heart of a single chip microproces- memory with both read and wrife capability in which the location can be accessed in any random
sequenc_e. In a very simple case, in a 8 bit microprocessor, 8 RAM chips may implement 8-bit
sor/microcomputer.
read/write memory words with each chip contributing to a word.
Microprocessor is an advanced programmable logic device designed to carry out specific process-
ing function, Microprocessors are used in digital protection systems for processing the digital in- RAM chip memory size is commonly described as 'M x N' chip, where Mis number of accessible
units on a memory chip and N is the number of bits in each addressable unit.
formation.
A Microprocessor has minimum number of components. Once developed, a microprocessor Non-volatile RAM (NOVRAM). Non-volatile RAM.(NOVRAM) is used for storing settings and
based relay is manufactured into several tens of thousands of units. Therefore extra items are targets when relay is de-energised.
avoided.
43.28. ARCHITECTURE OF A MICROPROCESSOR
Memory Size
Fig. 43.25 gives a block diagram of a Microprocessor Based Minicomputer.
The binary digits are combined to form a code which can represent a number. The primary
level' at which binary digits are grouped within the processor is the most important design charac- Mi_croprocessor and Microcomputers are programmable and they perform the digital processing
teristic of a microprocessor/minicomputer/computer and is referred as 'word size' An 8-bit operat10ns as per the program.
microprocessor processes the binary data in eight binary digit units. The memory is organised into
8 bit units.
r--------------------------- i
1 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
The memory organised into 8-bit units is visualised as follows : I ,---,---------, I
1 .---------1 ACCUMULATOR I
By common convention the bits of a word are numbered from right (0) for the low order bit) to AND
I CPU REGISTERS I
left (7 for the high order bit).
II ,--------~ II
The following table gives the distinction betwe~n microprocessor, minicomputer and computer. I
I
------' STATUS
REGISTER
1<11------. I/
Table 43.5
: L,.r--~ ,----""-...I--~ r--~ I
Type of processor Word size -bits I_N_P_U_T__,_~ INPUT I OUTPUT
SELECT AL.LI
Microprocessor and Microcomputer 4, 6, 8·, 12, 16* I
I
Minicomputers 6, 12, 16® 18, 24 32 64 CONTROL AND I
CLOCK
TIMING UNIT I
Large Computers 4, 16, 18, 24, ··32® 64®
* Most common for digital protection systems. INSTRUCTION

@ Most common for Digital computers, DECODE
Byte INSTRUCTION
REGISTER
An 8-bit data unit is called a byte, A byte is most universally used data unit in computer ter- J
minology. It is used when there is no 8-bit data word. ; MEMORY_______ ------- - 7
A 16-bit microprocessor will often have memory words interpreted as two bytes. I UNIT r~iiRAM
Memory Addresses I MEMORY

I
There are subtle differences between the use of memory in a microprocessor and in minicom- I DATA
I MEMORY
puter. In a minicomputer memory is simply a sequence of individually addressable RAM words, I
with address beginning at O and ending at some large number which depends on the size of com- L- - - - - - - - - - - -· - - - - - - - - - _J
puter memory. Fig, 43.25. Block diagram of a Microprocessor based Minicomputer. The central
In microprocessor based product for example a microprocessor based relay, program memory Processing Unit corresponds to a microprocessor. Refer Fig. 46.5.
is in a separate replaceable EPROM chips.
842
Central processing unit (CPU) shown in Fig 43.25 is the microprocessor. CPU .contains ALU,
OPERATION MODE CONTROL
RESET, STANDBV,INTERRUPT PS/ FRT, PWM,SC1
PB/ ANALOG INPUT control and Timing Unit, number of important Registers and Timing clocks etc.
A microprocessor may lack some of the peripherals, but it must have a CPU. The logic of each
microprocessor differs widely from the other.
! \L__
@c.!>
INTERRUPT CONTROLLER
DATA TRANSFER-
~ ~~~~~~A~~ECRO~~~g~LER
PORT
'---------
9
I dgN~ 1
rn
P_O_R_T_B_~I
P7fFRT
Program are instruction codes which are inpu_t to the CPU as means of the sequential opera-
tions to be performed. Program is stored in the memory.
W ~---------7[ CPU Registers fetch the stored data from the memory. The registers are also called ac-
il
~a. SCI :R~fu~ ~a. . TMR
~,W_AT_C_H-DO_G_.T-,-M-ER-\l (BCH) cumulators. An 8 bit microprocessor has 8 bit accumulator. CPU usually operates on the data
16-BIT
contained in register rather than accessing memory words directly.
l Cp u IB·BIT TIMER(TMRj ~~~~ING
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit). The actual data manipulation within the CPU is handled by
w· I
_ TIMER "' PG/A 16~A 19
~ L---------- IPWM TIMER(3CH) (3 CH)(FRT) o-
the collective logic called ALU. The ALU processes binary data. A 8-bit microprocessor has a ALU
1 RAM (1,024 BYTES .\ PROM (32 KBVTE) J [ which will operate on a 8 binary digits. ALU performs the following functions.
(i) Boolean addition (ii) Boolean operations
l PORT 3
II PORT 4
Il PORT 5 ] (iii) Complement a data (iv) Shift a data word one bit, etc.
CPU is built up to perform more complex processing of data.
CGP Control Unit (CPU). The sequence oflogic operations of the ALU is determined by the control
PS/ AB,-,A15
unit. The CU is in turn is driven by the contents of the instruction register.
P3/DO,.,D7 P4/AO~A7
Control and Timing Unit.
Fig. 43.26. Block diagram of a 16-bit Microprocessor.
Courtesy: Hitachi, Japan. The basic operations of the ALU
of the microprocessor or CPU SERIAL DIGITAL
Table 43.6 • DATA
are governed by the control unit
Specifications of a 16-Bit Microprocessor
(CU) and Timing Unit (TU). The PARALLEL DIGITAL
(Type HS/532 Hitachi) CPU ROM RAM DATA
control and Timing Unit gets
CPU 16-bit HS/500 CPU reference timing signals from CLOCK ANALOGUE DATA
external clock and CPU.
ROM 32 kbytes (PROM/Mask ROM)
1,024 bytes [The data from data lines is
RAM
8-bit free running timer: 3 channels placed by RAM is addressed CONTROL eus
(3 input capture registers, 6 output compare registers) memory word. RAM is able to . . . . .
Fig. 43.27. Architecture of System Buses ma Microprocessor based system.
Timers 8-bit ·timer : 1 channel (2 compare registers) ext rac t th e d a t a from a dd resse d
PWM timer : 3 channels memory word and place it on ex- CPU= Central Processing Unit (Microprocessor)
Watchdog timer: 1 channel . ROM= Read Only Memory
ternal system bus data line]• RAM= Random Access Memory (Called Read and Write Memory)
SCI 1 channel (Asynchronous mode/Synchronous mode) Bus lines are classified into
AID Resolution : 10 bits, 8 channels (Single mode/scan four categories (Fig. 43.27)
mode) · (i) Address bus
3 external interrupts (ii) Data bus SOME SYSTEM
INTC 19 internal interrupts (iii) Control bus BUS LINES
Priority : 8 levels
(iv) Clock, power, ground
DTC On-chip data transfer controller I
Bus buffer. Usually the

WSC ON-chip wait-state controller "STRONG" SI GNALS
output signals are boosted by
1/0 ports 57 input/output ports appropriate buffer amplifiers I OUTPUT B Y BUFFER
Package
8 input ports
84-pin PLCC
84-pin windowed ICC
before connecting to the system
bus lines. Buffer stores the in- l BUFFER
j I
80-pin OFP formation temporarily during

the data transfer. (Fig. 43.28) "WEAK"
Process CMOS 1.3 µM
Address Bus. One system SIG.NALS
PWM : Pulse width modulation WHICH
SCI : Serial communication interface bus line is provided to every ad-
BUFFER
PLCC : Plastic leaded chip carrier dress. Normally more address
WILL
QFP : Quad flat plastic package. bus lines are provided than the BOOST
requirement, some for future re-
•Ref.Fig. 43.26 for Block diagram of this Processor. quirement. Fig. 43.28. Buffer amplifier weak signals before feeding to bus lines.
844
~ig. 43.27 illustrates a single RAM Dual-In-Line package (DIP) and Fig. 43.26 shows the con-
Data Bus. System bus line is provided for each data bit of the largest word. More data bus
nect10ns of an RAM, ROM and CPU by means of system buses.
lines are provided, some for future requirement.
Read Only Memory (ROM) A ROM device requires following input signals :
Control lines. Separate control line is provided to every control signal that may be output by
1. Address of memory words being accessed
or input to any device.
Clock, Power , Ground. There will be generally more than one clock signal on a system bus. 2. A read control signal that asks the ROM c.levice when to return the contents of the addressed
memory words. .
Also a number of power lines are provided for the various devices.
Random Access Memory (RAM). (Fig. 43.29-A) It is often called read and write memory. A 3. Power and ground.
RAM takes off data from data lines of the external system bus and places this data in an addressed Only output signals of an ROM device are 8 data lines for an 8 bit word through which the
memory word. In addition a RAM must be able to extract data from the addressed memory word contents of the addressed memory word are transferred back to CPU.
and places this data on external system data bus lines. Reii.d/write memory is usually implemented ROM devices is built in the form of a Dual-In,Line package (DIP)
a number of RAM chips, with each chip supplying one bit of the data word. Generators control Fig. 43.30 shows connections of the ROM and Microprocessor with the bus-lines.
signals necessary to operate various logic systems.
<t :J cp OTHER
POWER & { Vee AO zm
__, 1/) {
CO-C N CONTROL LINES
CURRENT A1 0:: ::r WRITE
GND ROM WW
DO A2 ....... READ
>< ~ DO· D7 DATA BUS
POWER 0. { Vee AO D1 A3 w 1/) AO· A15 ADDRESS BUS
GROUND GND Al
A2
D2
...
A4
ADDRESS /H, I 8 's 1,10 ts
DATA
READ
WRITE
D
R
w RAM
A3
A4
ADDRESS
DATA D3
D4
D5
m
.
"'><
AS
AG
A7
-- I Vee
-
GND
oo
Dl
D2
--
Vee
GND
DO
AO
Al
A2
~ -
..,__
IA10·A15
SELECT
LOGIC l
SELECT s AS D6 ~
AS - D3 Dl A3 ~
....,_
ADDRESS{
A9
Al0
AG
A7
D7
N
0
~ A9
s
AD
Al
A2
a:
0
D4
D5
06
D2 ~
D3 0
D4 a:
A4
A5
AG ---
A3 D7 D5 A7
--
1/)
All All A4 1/)
w D6 AS
IJJ
D7 A9 .,.__..,
Fig. 43.29-A. RAM- Random Access Memory. Fig. 43.29-B. A Read Only Memory.
A5
A6
A7
u
0
a:
R
-
,__
-- s ,__
Also called Read Write Memory (RWM). A8 Q. .__
A9 0
a:
,___
AlO u ....._
The control unit (CU) is separated from Timing Unit in some microprocessor. All i --
The control and timing unit controls the main operational cycle of the processor and is called A12
Al3 <P
the 'Instruction cycle'. The instructl.on cycle has two phases (1) Instruction fetch and (2) Instruction A14 XI -
A15 X2 -
execution. During the instruction fetch the address of the next instruction is obtained from the
program counter unit and transferred to the memory address register. Fig. 43.30. Connections of ROM, Microprocessor with Data Bus,
Address Bus, Control lines.
At the end of instruction fetch the CPU unit will have all the information required to control
the instruction execution. Input/Output. (Fig. 43.31 A, B) The transfer of analog data digital data between the
External Bus System CPU/R_AMIROM within the microcomputer and the external system beyond the mi~rocomputer is
Fig. 43.27 illustrates bus oriented architecture of a microcomputer system. A bus denotes a called mput/output and is designated as I/0.
channel along with data is transferred. It refers to the physical connection of data path. The ar- The interface between the microcomputer system and the external logic must be clearly defined.
chitecture shown in Fig. 43.26 is preferred in many systems because it provides flexibility and easy It must have provision to transfer the data and also control signals that identify the events as
expansion. they occur.
The Microprocessor (CPU), Read only Memory CROM) and Read-Write Memory (Random Access There are many ways by which the data transfer at I/0 state takes place between the external
Memory - RAM) Clock and many other devices each connect to a group of parallel signal lines which system and the microcomputer. .
are collectively called as an external bus system. 1. ~ro~~mmed I/O. In this case the data transfer between the microcomputer and line ex-
Physically, the bus system consists of a number of parallel conductors. In todays microcom- ternal c1:cmt 1s completely controlled by the microprocessor, or more precisely by the program fed
puters, these conductors are in the form of metal lines etched on a printed circuit card (PCC) e.g. to the m1erocomputer.
There may be 100 parallel lines in. an external bus circuit. These lines are assigned to different
. The microcomp1;1ter system requir~s input p~ogram based on which it waits for external logic
signals arbitrarity. The buses are not standard and each manufacturer has his own method ofrout-
mput_to place data m some predetermmed locat10n. I/0 communicates with the operator via.Man
ing and naming to the bus system .. Machme Interface (MMI).
ROM in a Dual-in-package pins and signals ROM may have eight data lines for 8 bit word via
Fixe~ Functio~ Progr~mmed Systems. Fixed Function Programmed Systems has a fixed
which the contents of the addressed wemory are transferred back to CPU. program mput and 1s constramed to perform a prescribed and fixed sequence of instructions. This
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION .MICROPROCESSOR BASED RELAYS 847
846
3. Direct Memory Access. The form of data transfer at I/O stage allows data to move b.etween
DO
0 the microcomputer memory and the external logic without the microprocessor in the data transfer.
01
0
02 High Performance IC Memories.
03 DAT-\ LINES Microprocessor Unit with high performance are built with fast integrated circuit (IC) memories
0
i:>4
1 of following types :
1 --- 05
06
1 DRAM Dynamic Random Access Memory
07
0
L.._.c.. --
0
1/0 Pl NS
0
SRAM
EPROM
Static Random Access Memory
Electrically Programmable Read Only
'---
'--- 0 0 Memory
.__
1
.__ SAM Serial Access Memory
FROM
0 0
1
- EXTERNAL
LOGIC
The microprocessors operated at 20 MHz has memories with access time in the range at 15 ns
''--- to 85 ns.
1
.__
1
..__ 43.29. PROGRAMMING OF MICROPROCESSORS BASED RELAYS
0 0
....._
- J/0 PO RT BUFFER Microprocessor based relays are supplied by the manufacturers for specific applications e.g.
Fig. 43.31. (A). Input/Output, Port Buffer and Data Buses. - Microprocessor based relay for motor protection
- Microprocessor based relay for transmission line protection
cp
CO·CN
WRITE
N }.....
CONTROL
LINES
- Microprocessor based relay for generator protection
- Microprocessor system for substation protection and control
- Microprocessor based fault recorder, etc.
READ
The manufacturer furnishes guidelines for selection of the relay with appropriate built-in
8 DATA LINES
DO-D7 software for the microprocessor.
16 ADDRESS
AO·A15 A single microprocessor relay has provided several possible combinations of protective functions
LINES
with a wide range of setting for each function.
The desired protective function and range can be selected by means of 'Mode Selector'. Mode
selector is in several steps. The settings cari be made easily in 'User friendly' manner. The
a:: programms.are provided within the microprocessor by means of the programms module. The mode
w
u. selection by the operator result in selection of protective function via the software matrix built in
u.
=>
(D
the relay (e.g. blocked, start, trip, signal, self retention etc. illustrated in Fig. 43.21. Block 6.
-.....
0 Disturbance detector detects disturbance in protected circuit and the trip output is possible
only if the Microprocessor monitoring interface and Disturbance detector have ensured the presence
of fault. Tripping due to malfunction of relay components is prevented.
In some more complex relays the programm is in the form of a separate chip on a EPROM
Fig. 43.31 (B). Various bus lines to which I/0 Buffer is connected. memory. The manufacturer inserts the appropriate program in the relay. In case the application
type of system does not have a capability of software control to select between two alternative _se- is changed, the program chip is changed.
quences of instruction. The applications function of such system can be altered only by changing
the program.
43.30. SELF-CHECKING AND/OR SELF MONITORING IN MICROPROCESSOR
In microprocessor based relays, the fixed programmed system is preferred. BASED RELAY
Program Memory is in separate easily replaced EPROM chips. The program memory chip is The microprocessor based relays are designed for continuous self monitoring and/or automatic
selected for using the relay for a specific application. self checking.
A fixed function programmable relay is forced to execute fixed sequence on instructions based By self checking/monitoring function the relay is in a position to report locally and remote, the
on the programmed logic. likely malfunctioning/failing of internal component.
2. Interrupt I/0. Interrupts are a means for external logic to force the microcompute~ system Fig. 43.32 illustrates the circuit of continuous monitoring subsystem in a microprocessor based
to suspend whatever it is currently doing in order to attend the needs of exte_rnal logic. Most relay. The vital component is a disturbance detector. This detects the disturbance in the protected
microprocessors have control signals via external logic which can dema~d the microprocessor at~ circuit (transmission line) by measurement of negative sequence currents.
tention. This signal is referred to as. an interrupt request. The external lo~c asks_ the microprocessor
to interrupt whatever it is currently doing in order to service the more 1mmed1ate task.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION M;JCROPROCESSOR BASED RELAYS 849
848
43,31. ON LINE MICROPROCESSOR BASED FAULT MONITORING
DISTURBANCE During recent years, fault monitoring systems are being incorporated along with the protective
DETECTOR !-+---------~-----, relays. Fig, 43.34 shows a block diagram of a Microprocessor based on line fault monitoring system.
It provides for on line fault recording, which means that oscillograms are printed out immediately,
MEAS URI NC SCHEME ,\.-_ __._TRIP OUTPUT on occurrence of a fault with.out restriction. ANALOGINPUTS BINARY EVENT INPUTS
FUNCTIONS LOGIC
1lrl-+-l-~-1---4,;8 1 • .. 8 9 • .. 16
Analog inputs are currents and voltages.
MON ITO RING POINTS
These are multiplexed in the multiplexer and
r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - --------------7 then converted into digital signals in ND con-
I
I I verter. The digital signals pass through selec-
I TRIP LOCAL I tion logic which mixes in 16 binary events units
I I
I DATA I before the information reaches the memory.
I
I A microprocessor controls the operating se-
I quence. It does not contribute data flow. Data
MONITOR SERIAL I
DATA DATA LINKI flow is handled by systems hard wired logic.
Microprocessor helps in comprehens~ve operat- OPERATION
'--1------------~ ALARM ing functions, automatic fault diagonals, record-

ing and operating unit status.
SEQUENTIAL CONTROL
.___ _....,..,.BLOCK TRIP Fig. 43.34. On-line Fai.ilt Recorder .
If fault situation arises, the microproces- (Courtesy: Siemens)
COORDINATION
DELAY TIMERS sor activities the chart rotor motor and con-
, MICROPROCESSOR MONITORING INTERFACE
trols the recording sequence without interrupting the fault monitoring function.
L _- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -· - - - - - - - - - - - __J
The control system continuously scans all the elements for the inputs of commands (switches
Fig. 43.32. Interface of self-checking of Microprocessor based relay with Disturbance Detector. and keys) and enable program selection and parameter input by the user. A clock circuit (not shown
If the relay attempts to trip falsely because of malfunction within the r~lay, but the distu:ba_nce in Fig. 43.24) is with a permanent lithium battery backup which provides the microprocessor with
detector sees no disturbance in the protected line, the tripping is bl?cke_d. Fig._ 43.33 shows prmciple current time and data and also memory space for storing operating parameters in the event of power
of self checking in a microprocessor based relay. The important c1rcmts which should be checked failure.
have been indicated. Metalized paper aluminium impregnated paper with a speed of 500 mm/sis used for recording.
+ 24 V The current pulses are given by electrodes in 5 µs duration. There are 500 electrodes of 0.2 mm
dia. Selected electrodes are activated in a sequence. Pulse sequence ensures recording of sinusoidal
VOLTAGE REFERENCE LEVEL- OET ECTOR functions.
AT LEVEL-DETECTION VOLTAGE REFERENCE
MONITORlNG CIRCUIT ALARM
MODULE
CIRCUIT 43.32. MICROPROCESSOR BASED FAULT LOCATORS
LEVEL DETECTOR ANO LnEL DETECTOR AND
COMPARATOR CLOCK COMPARATOR CI.OCK The distance protective relays for transmission line protects the transmission line from phase
PULSE GENERATOR MONITORING C!Rl".:UI:'
faults and ground faults. For permanent fault, the lines-men should reach the fault location and
VOLT AGE TRANSFORMER
_J carry out the repair work (e.g. replacing procelains, faulty conductor, fallen tower, tree branch, etc.).
To carry out these operations quickly the exact location of fault should be known from the terminal
SUPERVISION MODULE
SCHEME LOGIC
MICROCOMPUTER
substations.
+12V SUPPLY R ... LI.
+ 5V MONITORl>H' Fault Locator. It is an essential complement to distance protective relay for transmission lines
-12v CIRCUII' MICROCOMPUTER
CLOCK and fault recorder. Fault locators are installed along with distance protection scheme and fault
SELF-CHECKING
SIGNALS
recorders. Fault locator measures and indicates accurately the distance between the substation and
COMPARATORS
the point of fault.
Fault Recorder can also be combined with a fault recorder and printer for recorq.i.pg the distance
Fig. 43.33. Block diagram of self checking of critical comprents to the fault and fundamental component of fault current wior to and after the fault.
and circuits in a microprocessor based relay,
Fault locator is connected to the secondary CTs and VTs of the line.
Digital relays are designed for continuous self monitoring or automatic self che~king or bo:.h.
Under normal conditions, the fault locator monitors three phase currents and the ground cur-
There is a considerable difference between the manufacturers and the users regardmg the choice
rent, voltage input signals continuously. The operation of the fault locator is with following steps
between self monitoring and self checking feature. (1) Data Collection (2) Starting of fault locator (3) Sorting of Measured Instantaneous values (4)
Analog signals pass through the internal measuring-circuit _selector ~nd the AID converter to Filtering of Measured signals (5) Determination of type of fault (6) Solution of fault equation (7)
the selection logic, together with the 16 units of binary event mformati_on added ?ere, the ~ata Prelocation of results.
when passes to the memory, wh~re it is decoded in "l out of 512" form m a decodmg and driver
stage.
MICROPROCESSOR BASED RELAYS 851
The input analog signals are converted into digital signals in ND converter and are stored in Table 43,7. Functions of the Blocks of Fault Locator
memory for every six cycles continuously. Block Title of Fig. 43.35 Function
When a fault occurs, trip circuit from the protective relay initiates the fault locator's calculation No.
program. The prefault sample values and during fault sample values are used for calculating the 1. Relay Input - To receive starting signal from distance relay.
distance of the fault. The calculation of distance is based on the principle of distance relays. The - Receive signal regarding faulty phases from distance relay
fault distance is shown as percentage of total line length on two digital front mounted LED display, - To give starting input to fault locator
Fig. 43.35. illustrates the block diagram of the microprocessor based fault locator. 2. Input Unit To receive signals from CT, VT and to feed to ND converter via Filters.
3. Low pass Filter To filter the analog signals
INPUT SIGNALS FROM
LINE PROTECTION MEASURING TRANS FORMER

4. Multiplexer To send the signals sequencially to A/C convertor.
TRIP PHASE SELECTION CURRENTS VOLTAGES 5. Hold
,.....,.._, ,-----A-----, ~ ~ To hold the signal for a brief time period before.sending to ND converter.
6. ND Converter To convert analog signal s to digital signals.
7. Microprocessor Processing of measured digital signals and calculate the fault distance. Feed
2
output to printer, telemeter and LED indicator.
8. Data and Program - To store data for pr.ocessing
Memory.
3 - To store programme in memory for instructions to microprocessor
9. Interface adapter. Connections between microprocessor and peripherals.
10. LED Indicator Indicates Fault Location and percentage of line length ..
11. Telemeter output Give output data to Remote terminal unit via telecommuncation line.
12. Printer output - Presents results on printed paper indicating the following :
COLLECTION OF 1,
1. Values of current, voltage in faulted line prior to and during fault
IN PARALLEL LINES 1
2. Timing of fault. ·
'-------~ I
I
ANALOG/DIGITAL 6
CONVERTER
I
I
The Microprocessor (Block 9) executes the following control and calculating functions :
I - Collection of measured values. .
7 8 I
~O-AT~A-A...;:N'-0-PR_O., : - Processes the measured values and calculates the distance between the CTNT and the fault
MICRO PROCESSOR ·GRAM MEMORY : (proportional, to calculated ZL) ·
I
I
- Present the percentage fault distance on the indicator.
I
9 10 I - Feeds out calculated distance to the fault on an indicator.
PARAMETER .I - Returns to normal measuring mode after a line fault.
PERIPHERAL INTERFACE ADAPTER
SETTING :
I - Determines the type of a fault when a built in phase selector is used Block 8 constitutes
- - - - - - - - - - - - - __ J the following Memories of the Fault Locator (FL).
1
- PROM Programmable Read· Only Memory : for the control and calculation programs.
LED·INOICAT
- RAM (~a?dom Access Memory) for storing measured data and apart result during distance
)1 determmmg sequence.
Fig. 43.35. Block diagram of a fault locator. (Courtesy ; ASEA, Sweden) The ~esu_lts are available to the.operator in the form of alphanumerical printed output (13) and
LED Ind1cati~n (11) .. Results can also be transmitted by means of telemeter output (Block 12) to
Block 1 receives input signals from Line protection viz Line trip signals for first and parallel Remote Termmal Umt (RTU). Table 43.4 summarise the functions of various blocks within the fault
line, phase selection signals which identify the type and faulty phase. The receipt of tripping signal locator. .
constitutes the starting signal for the fault locator. The measured values received by block 2 from
cycles immediately prior to and during the fault are stored in the memory.
43.33. PRINCIPLE OF FAULT DETECTION IN ON LINE DIGITAL RELAYS, FAULT
Block 2 receive line currents and line voltages from secondaries of CTs and VTs. Block 3 filters LOCATORS AND FAULT RECORDERS
the input signals. Block 4 is a Multiplexer which is successive order transmits the signals (measured
values) to Block (6) ND convertor via hold circuit (Block 5). The function of the hold circuit is to . The 'On Line' protection control and monitoring system is connected to the power system via
retain signals for the period of time required by ND. Converter to converter, the signals to digital mput Module and CTSNTs.
form. The rate of measurement is chosen such that 24 measurements are made per cycle on each The current and voltage in the power line are continuously monitored by the CPM system cycle
current and each voltage signal. by cycle.. '
The measured digital values are routed through the microprocessor (Block 7) to the correct Measured signals stored in memory and the relationship between different time periods is il-
addresses in the memory capsules (Block·8). In these the values measured during the previous 9 lustrat~d. When a starting signal is transmitted to the relay, 9 cycles of information is already
cycles are stored. stored m the me~ory. About 2 cycles are stored after receipt of starting signal.
852 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION MICROPROCESSOR BASED RELAYS
853
The microprocessor based device (Relay/Re- - Inter-turn faults in transformer windings
zP I
corder/Locator) performs the one-line function as I L OA D ~ If~ u LT
ff-
- External symmetrical & asymmetrical short-circuits
follows.
Input signals are received from secondaries
of CTs and VTs. These are converted in digital
form in the ND module.
ht\
~~v J\f\ f,p7 -
-
-
-
Pole slipping conditions
Negative phase sequence currents
Over-loading of stator windings
Over-loading of rotor windings
Sample measurements. Sample measure- t. 1 l2 · - Breaker failure
ments are taken for each measured quantity for 0,1 TO 0, 6 P '._____J;i 2 P
every cycle of the waveform continuously (e.g 24 - Over-voltage/under voltage conditions
TOTAL MEMORY 9P
samples per cycle) Each sample is compared with - Sudden energisation of the machine when standstill
the corresponding sample of previous cycle (Fig. Fig. 43.36. Memory storage in a fault recorders and - Insulation leakage at HV/LV terminals of Generator Transformers
various microprocessor based relays.
43.36). When the power line is healthy sample S 2 - Ground fault in generator excitation circuit
of next cycle will have the same vaJue as the pre- - Loss of excitation
vious sample S1, - Asynchronous condition of.generators
If a fault occurs in the power line during the period S 1 to S2 , the measured value of the sample - Under frequency conditions
(S 2 ) will differ from corresponding value of previous cycle S 1. - Reverse power flow conditions
If the difference S 2-S 1 is in excess of permitted tolerance, the presence of fault is detected. - Transformer over fluxing
Thereby the PCM system follows the sub-routine corresponding to a faulty condition immediately - Incepient 'fransformer faults
and the following actions are takeli. - High oil & winding temperatures.
1. Protective relay initiates tripping and autoreclosing actions.
(b) st ation Auxiliary, Unit Auxiliary & Excitation transformers
2. Fault recorder gets starting signal from the protective relay and performs the 1:ecording of
curl'ents and voltages of approximately 9 cycles, which include 2 p1:;riods prior to the fault - High temperature of windings
Fp. - Over-load
3. Fault locator is also initiated and indicates the location of fault in terms of percentage of - Multiphase faults in windings & at terminals
the length (e.g. 40% L). - Earth faults .
- Under voltage
In the normal conditions, the memory keeps information about currents and voltages for every
9 cycles continuously in the event of a fault the record of 9 cycles is derived from memory by the (c) HV, Switchgear
microprocessor and given to the printer output, telemeter output.
Multi phase and earth faults in buses & bus-coupler
Application of Protection Relays - Mal-operation of circuit breakers
We now know that the main objectives of Relay Protections are: - Multi phase and earth faults in bus-coupler
- To ensure protection of the apparatus & equipment connected to the system (d) Shunt Reactor (Where ever Connected)
- Protection of persons and property - Multi phase and earth faults in windings and at terminals
- To separate the faulty system immediately from rest of the system so as to facilitate the - Mal-operation of circuit breaker
continued operation of the healthy part of the system. - Oil Level low
So far, in previous sections, we have studied the various types of relays & their functions. We - High Winding temperature
shall now give an example of its application in a power plant. (e) HV Cables
Protecti~n Requirements of a Power Plant - Multi phase and earth faults
The generator, transformer, Switchgear, feeders & other equipment are provided with protec- ({) Feeders (Transmission lines)
tions against all possible electrical faults usual for such networks, the main objectives being to avoid
damage to the equipment as well as to avoid unwarranted trippings. - Multi phase and earth faults
- Over voltage conditions
The fault possibilities/abnormal conditions which are normally encountered during the opera-
tion of such equipment or system are :- - Mal-operation of circuit breakers
(a) Generator-Transformer Units sel T?e protecti?n system shall identify the above abnormal condition/faults and ensure a fast and
- Earth faults in stator and rotor C ~ftive PJote~t10n of generators, generator transformers, 420 kV Switchgear equipment Feeders
co:dts rnfi l~t ~r co~nect_ed equipm~nt/switchgear with a fast separatiqn of the faulty ~art & ac~
Multi-phase faults in stator windings & transformer windings close to terminals ng Y O owmg e ectncal protections are provided for each equipment.
- Single phase ground fault in transformer windings & its terminals
854
Summary
Generator & Transformer
Microprocessor comprises a Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a digital Computer. A microprocessor
87G Generator Differential is housed in a DIP.
64Gl/64G2 95% & 100% Stator Earth Fault
64R* Rotor Earth-Fault Microprocessor performs digita} data processing functim;S in protective relays. Microprocessor 1
46G Negative Phase Sequence Current based relays are being increasingly used for busbar proteition, line protection, motor protection
37G Generator Reverse Power etc.
49S Stator Thermal Over-load Special features of microprocessor based relays are their self-checking properties,
21G Generator Back-up Distance Protection for external faults multi-function capabilities, memories, facilities for disturbance recording, fault locating,
40G Loss of excitation external communication interface, etc.
78G Pole slipping
Generator Over-voltage Microprocessor based relays are becoming commercially successful and they are replacing ear-
59G lier analog relays.
81 U/O Under/Over Frequency Protection
27/50G Dead Machine
60Gl, 60G2 Voltage Balance Scheme for VT circuit failure QUESTIONS
87T Generator Transformer Differential 1. Describe by means ofa block diagram the various essential components in a Digital Relay (Ref. 43.19).
51GT IDMT O/C Protection for Gen. transformer 2. Explain how a decimal number is representl)d in a Dual (Binary) Code (Fig. 43.20).
64RT REF Protection for Gen. transformer 3. State the various component~ in a Microprocessor based Microcomputer (Fig. 43.25a).
51NGT Gen. Transformer Neutral Grounding Back-up Protection (IDMT O/C relay)
4. Explain the term 'Microprocessor' and State its functions.
99GT Generator Transformer Over fluxing
98T Monitoring of Insulation of HV bushing for Gen. Transformer 5. Explain the bus system in a Microprocessor based minicomputer (Fig. 43.26). State the functions of
59T Monitoring of~nsulation ofLV bushing for Gen. Transformer (i) CPU (ii) ROM
87GT Overall Differential Protection for Gen. and Gen. Transformer (iii) RAM (iv) Interface
50U/51U Instantaneous and IDMT OiC Protection for UAT. 6. State the functions of following components in a Microprocessor based relays.
64RU* Restricted E/F Protection for UAT (i) Buffer (ii) Program Memory
51NGU* O/C & E/F/Neutral Back up Protection for UAT {iii) Data Memory (iv) ALU
·50E/51E* Instantaneous & IDMT O/C Protection for Excitation Transformer. (v) Register (vi) Clock
50EI/51EI* Instantaneous & IDMT O/C Protection for Independent Excitation system (vii) Control and Timing Unit .
50S/51S Instantaneous & IDMT O/C Protection for SAT 7. State and Explain the special features in a Digital Relays as compared with analog relays.
64RS* Restricted E/F Protection for SAT 8. Explain the function of Self checking/Monitoring feature in a Microprocessor based Relay.
51NGS* O/C & E/F/Neutral Back-up Protection for SAT 9. Explain the function offault by recorder by means of a block diagram.
50Z Local Breaker Backup Protection
63T* Buchholz Relay for Gen. Transformer
, 95G Split Phase Protection for inter-turn fault
Protections for HV Buses
87 AB Differential main & stand by Protection for each bus bar (High impedance or
low impedance)
50Z Local Breaker Back-up Protection (for bus coupler)
Protections for Shunt Reactor
87R Differential Protection
50Z Local Breaker.Back Up Protection
64RR Restricted Earth Fault Protection
21R Reactor Back Up Distance Protection
Protections for HV Cables for each feeder
85 Differential Protection
67/67(N) Directional Over current and earth fault back-up protection
Protections for Transmission line
21Ll Line Distance Protection Main-I
21L2 Line Distance Protection Main-II
59Ll Over Voitage Protectl.on
59L2 Over Voltage Protection
79L Auto Reclose Relay
50Z Local Breaker Backup Protection ·
MODERN PROTECTION SYSTEM -A SUMMARY 857
of such a protection is negative sequence current function. This protection is designed to operate
above a particular limit of unbalance in the load connected to a generator. The negative sequence
currents resul.t in heating of the rotor of the generator. The analog circuit for this protection requires
120° phase shifting network, which requires sinusoidal currents. In a numerical relay, the negative
sequence current is calculated by summing sampled ofR, Y and B taken at 0°, 240° and 120° in-
-C tervals respectively. From this summing, the I~ value is calculated. This value is zero even for non-
sinusoidal currents as the three phase currents for the same amplitude to wave shape and also
they are phase displaced by 120°.
Advantages of numerical relays
- The output of one current transformer can be used as input to many protection functions.
Modern Protection System - A Summary - The burden on current transformers is substantially reduced due to a very low burden im-
posed by digital circuits.
43.34. INTRODUCTION - As many functions are done by one numerical relay, a lot of space is saved by eliminating
Electrical Relays made the operation and performance of any electrica~ installation safe_& to.a independent relays for each of the functions.
large extent hazard free. The first generation electro-mechanical relays or devices pe~formed their m~m - The settings can be done from a remote computer or the local MMC.
functions of alarm or trip effectively. However, their utility was limited to those fun~tions only for whrnh - The service and faulted values of the relays can be accessed either from a remote computer
they were intended i.e. trip & alarm to. It also involved lot of hard wire connect10ns ; Subsequen,tly or from the local MMC.
with the passage of time, Static relays & integrated circuits were introduced for to most of the protective - Selection from a variety of characteristics is possible. This will be useful if one feels the
functions. necessity to alter the originally selected curve/characteristics based on operation experience.
These static & integrated circuits could were successful in combining few protective relay func- - Some of the latest numerical relays share the same hardware for protection of different
tions but it did help much in reducing the quantum of cables or in information exchange from the electrical equipment such as generator, transformer and transmission line. Only the spe-
relay to the operator the control room. . cialized software required for carrying out these protection functions needs to be changed.
The advent of technology has now made it possible to talk to the relays, this has become possible This helps in reduction of inventory, as most of the modules are interchangeable among the
through modern numerical relays. These relays not only perform protection func~io~s, but ~l~~ pro- different numerical relays. ·
vide auto-closing, measurements, disturbance recording & above all commumca~10n facilities. & - The software can be programmed/modified at site to change the tripping logics such as in-
software programmable through standard functions and algorithms. They can be mtegrated with clusion of timer, changing of tripping sequence etc. Due to self-supervision feature, internal
Modern Supervisory & Data Acquisition (SCADA) System. faults in the relays are detected as and when they occur and as such, there is no necessity
of periodical testing of these relays.
43.35. NUMERICAL RELAYS - Due to reduction of number of components and also due to the fact that circuits are provided
Numerical relays are digital devices designated to carry out protection fun~tions of various with built in control to prevent mal-functioning, the numerical relays will also increase the
. electrical equipment such as generator, transformer, transmission lines, motor etc. As opposed to security compared to the static relays .
-r the electro mechanical and static relays which take the inputs from the current and voltage trans-
- Recursive algorithms can be achieved easily on a numerical relay. But, precise tuning is
formers directly, the digital relays/numerical relays take the transduced form of the current and required in case of analog circuits.
voltage outputs from the current and voltage transformers normally in t~e.r~nge of 0-20 mA_ or However, with all the above advantages & convenience they offered, the numerical relays, suf-
4-20 mA. The analog signals so taken as inputs are filtered squared and digitized. The protect10n fered from one major draw back i.e. not understanding & interpreting the language of.other relay,
algorithms take these digitized inputs to perform the calculations necessary to achieve the protec- if the vendor is different. This problem is referred to as Protocol matching. This problem arised
tion functions for which that particular numerical relay is designed. because now a days, the majority of the protection and control equipment is available with vendor
Numerical relays are being used for electrical protection functions such as: specific hard ware-oriented solutions which has given rise to a large number of manufacturer
- Differential protection - Restricted earth fault protection oriented communication Protocols making it in convenient & costlier to make the two systems of
different manufacturers to communicate with each other:, even devices belonging to different
- Overvoltage protection - Over current protection
generations from the same manufacturer cannot communicate with each other & to make them do
- Stator earth fault protection - Thermal overload protection so involved an appreciable expenditure.
- Negative sequence protection - Loss of excitation protection
- Distance protection - Over excitation protection etc. 43.36. TRADITIONALLY SEPARATE NETWORKS
All the protection functions which can be achieved with the static protection relays are achieved
Over the years, networks have been developed to respond to the different information flows
by the numerical relays also with the same or better accuracy. The numerical relay achieves a lot
and control requirements involved in different processes. The usual corporate IT network supports
many functions such as man-machine communication, connectivity to remote computers, network-
traditional administrative functions and corporate applications, such as human resources, account-
ing etc. ing, and procurement. This network is usually based on the Ethernet standard.
In addition to the above, there are some protection functions, which are achieved with a lot of
difficulties using static circuits, and still the final outcome is not quite satisfactory. One example
- - -- --------------------
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION MODERN PROTECTION SYSTEM -A SUMMARY 859
858
The industrial world is now catching onto Ethernet as a supplement to existing field buses. In
The control-level network connects control and momtoring devices_, in_cluding pr(~:rr;:!e an Industrial Ethernet network, field bus-specific information that is used to control I/0 4evices
logic controllers, PC-based controllers, I/0 equipment, and human-m_achm_e mterfaces s· s and other manufacturing components are embedded into Ethernet frames. Industrial Ethernet
network, which has not been Ethernet in the past, requires a router or, 11:1 most cas?s, a gat_eway usually requires more robust equipment and a very high level of traffic promotization as compared
to translate application-specific protocols to Ethernet-based protocols. This transla~1on lets mf?_r-
to traditional Ethernet networks in a corporate data network.
mation pass between the control network from the field and the corporate network mfrastructure.
Ethernet is achieving more acceptance in the industrial automation world, but Ethernet in itself
The device-level network links the field I/0 devices, sensors, transducers a_nd actuators, etc.
is just a physical layer standard and various type of application layer protocols can be used 9n this
Inter-connectivity between these d~vices was traditionally achie:ved with a variety of field bu_ses medium. ·
such as Device Net, Profibus, and Modbus. Each field bus has spe~1fic power, cable, a~d c~mm~mc~-
tion requirements, depending on the application it supports. This has lead to a re~hcation mu - ° 43.38. THE IEC's INITIATIVE
tiple networks in the same space_ an~ the need to have multiple sets of spares, skills, and support
programs withi~. the same orgamzation. ·- . . . , Currently IEC too has the following three distinct standards for network access, prot~tion
Instead of using multiple networks architectures, Industrial Ether?et can umte ~ organisations equipment and tele-control :
administrative, control-level, and device-level networks to run over. a s1?gle_ networ~ mfraS t r:1cture as - IEC 60870-5-101 Companion standard for basic tele-control tasks.
· Fi 43 39 In an Industrial Ethernet networks field bus-specific mformation that is used to - IEC 60870-5-103 Companion standard for the informative interface of protection equipment.
sh own m g. • • ' • h t fr B
control I/0 devices and other manufacturing components is embedded mto Et erne runes .. _ecause - IEC 60870-5-104 Network access for IEC 60870-5-101 using standard transport profiles.
the technology is based on industry standards rather than on custom or proprietary standards, it is more
IEC,60870-5-103 standard is generally in the monitoring direction for protective equipment but
interoperable with other network equipment and networks. various manufacturers use the private range of the standard through a few extensions defined by
the so-called German VDEW-recommendations for implementing some of the control functions
Plant
l Plant Plant through IEC 60870-5-103. The nonuniformity of using the private range by various manufacturers
in their own way makes the products non inter-operable with the products with IEC 60870-5-103
t
standard.
Control Control Control
With a goal to provide uniform standard for inter control center communication and substation
to control center communications, a.new international standard called IEC 61850- "Communication
Device
Yesterday
i Device
Today
n• Device
Within 2 years
~t Networks and systems in substations" has been developed. This will provide inter operability &
free allocations functions between the electronic devices (IEDs) for protection, monitoring, metering,
control and automation in substations ; This new standard is expected to provide optimally designed
systems in terms of functional performance, cost, availability, expandability and maintenance.
Technology ~ e t ~ IEC 61850 divides the data into logical groups, viz., protection data, switchgear d,ata (status
Ethernet Control Bus Device Bus data), measurement data, supervisory control, power transformer, etc. All the functiopt1 performed
Fig. 43.39. Growth of Ethernet to device level. in a substation are split into small entities, which communicate with each other. These entities or
objects called Logical Nodes contain all the function related data and their attributes to be com-
43.37. ETHERNET JUST A PHYSICAL LAYER STANDARD municated. All the Logical Nodes of a common application are grouped in Logical Devices. This
Ethernet has been successfully used i~ the office automation for many years. It was origi?~lly function model has to be a complemented by a physical device model, which describes the common
invented by Robert Metcalf at Xerox in 1973 and patented in 1976 and further promoted by Digital properties of the device. On occurrence of any change of state, IED multicasts a highspeed message
and Intel. It is typically used in office local area networks that later evolved into the IEEE 802.3 called Generic Object Oriented Substation Event (GOOSE) message.
specification. Today this technology.can deliver performance fro~ 10 Mbps (10 BASE-T) to 10 Gbps The data model including its services is mapped to a mainstream communicatiqb'. stack ~Tb
(10 gigabit Ethernet) on twisted pair copper cables to fibre optics. sisting of MMS, TCP/IP, and Ethernet. ..
The IEC 61850 standard is now near its completion. Utilities and manufacturer~ have b@en
Transceiver involved in the standardisation work since the beginning, and have taken part in pilot prc,jects and
C interoperability tests, which have been positive. . · ' .. · _ .
• ., - ,1 •
Interlace Cable
Tap
IEC61850 is a single, global and future-proof standard for substation communicfttions wh~
safeguards the investment of the end user because the development of the communication network
is independent of the development of applications. Besides it provides the benefit of the latest com-
munication technologies (o~ enhancing the performance of the controls and protection system.
L9 99-
Details of IEC 61850 are described separately.
IEC 61850 • Concept, benefits & design
1. Concept
T"mi,atoc
The . The main goal of IEC 61850 is Interoperability, i.e. the ability oflntelligent Electronic Devices
Ether (IEDs) from one or several manufacturers to exchange information and to use it to perform the
Fig. 43.40. The famous original concept drawing of Ethernet by it's inventor.
MODERN PROTECTION SYSTEM -A SUMMARY 861
860 The underlying Ethernet layer facilitates the design process through the use of mainstream
functions in an automation system. The approach of IEC 6185? is to ~ubdivide functions into ~he communication technology. For example, Ethernet switches possessing properties such as collision
smallest possible objects called Logical Nodes which communicate with ea_ch other. l~~ch lo~ical avoidance, optimisation of the messages being transmitted, priority management, are readily avail-
node has its own set of data. The data are exchanged following the rules ":'hie~ are ca e ser~i~es. able and need no further detailed design, except any additional precautions in the electronics-hostile
These eneric data and services are mapped to a mainstream commumcation stack compnsmg substation environment. Re-using an existing Ethernet infrastructure also means little new design
Manuf!cturing Message Specification (MMS), Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol work. Transferring both real-time data, settings and disturbance files on a common 100 Mbit/s net-
(TCP/IP), and Ethernet. . . . work means fewer systems to deal with. Note that the co-existence of critical and non-critical data
Operational information and configuration information are transferred m c~ient-se_rv.~f m;de. on a common network running on other protocols such as RS485 at 64 kbit/s, is impossible without
Operational information such as status and control, is standardised and of me~rn~ pnon y. on- compromising one type of data or another.
figuration information, ;uch as file transfer and changi1_1g settin~s: is of low pnonty. rrv;. 0
f~r!~er Allowing fast peer-to-peer data transfers by means of the multicast messages, Ethernet
t es of message are exchanged under stringent real-time conditions. The fi 7st _typ~ 0 . m ~ ge
tt
eliminates physical wiring between devices of most suppliers in substations, for instance, for inter-
c~~tains one or a few bits of information and is mostly fo~ blocking, r~lease, tnppmg, i~di~ati~n locking and co-ordination of disturbance recorders. This reduces the amount of hardware and also
position of switchgear· in automatic sequences, interlockmg, protect~on a_s well _as fo~ ~t be~ a permits adjusting the system easily in the future. For example, changing a database is much
exchanges between peer devices. This type of message is called Genen_c ObJect-Onente u s a rnn simpler than adding wires which sometimes need take voltage insulation into consideration. New
Event (GOOSE). The other type is for Sampled Values, used for sendmg streams of analogue data automation schemes can be accommodated and would incur little design work.
such as current and voltage samples. To attain proper performance, both ~yp~s of messa~e are The availability, or reliability, of master-slave systems from most suppliers depends largely on
mapped directly to the Ethernet; the second layer of the seven-layer commumcation stack, without the availability of the master device. IEC 61850 systems have no master devices. Client-server com-
going through MMS or TCP/IP. . . munication enables redundancy to be built in easily. It improves the flexibility of the system. A
The Abstract Communication Services Interface facilitates the mappmg of the generic da ta ~nd new client such as a permanent local voltage regulator for several transformers or a temporary
services to the communication stack. The applications and the stack are thus separa_ted,_ al1owi~g remote monitoring device of a transformer, can be added to the initial design of the system through
the communication technology to be upgraded and the existing databases of the apphcatrnns to e the same software. Client-server·communication leads to better performance, as data are spon-
left intact. This feature makes the standard IEC 61850 future-proof. . taneously sent to the client•without the polling from a master device. Data transmission may be
IEC 61850 also states the engineering process and makes available the Subs~atrnn Configu~·a- initiated by the change in the data value, and the change criteria may be adjusted from remote.
tion description Language (SCL). The precise descriptions of the IEDs, the s~bstat~on configur~t10; 4. Installation and commissioning
and other configuration related information can be read by any tool compatible with t~~ stan ar · The installation and commissioning stage aims at testing the system to make sure it works
The standard also defines conformance testing of products so that interoperability may be according to the specifications.
checked, ensuring the successful integration of devices from a variety of manufacturers to form a The Ethernet network can be checked by means of standard tools. The Internet Protocol (IP)
.seamless system. v enables messages to be routed to a remote location where commissioning personnel can view system
2. Benefits status and give expert advice. When the system under test spreads over an entire substation, test-
Compared to IEC 60870-5-103, DNP3 or proprietary communicati~n protocol~, IEC 61850 offers ing staff can plug the Human Machine Interface to any Ethernet switch close to the equipment
much more benefits to the utilities. Some of these benefits are immediately tangible on the subS t a- under test and see simultaneously all the alarms, control points, etc. Likewise, a simulator can be
tion automation systems. Other benefits will take time to transpire because: connected to the Ethernet to check the automation functions when the corresponding devices are
still not available.
Getting the full value of the standard requires . . .
_ accepting new designs e.g. moving away from master-slave to client-server commumcatwn, Some built-in features of the standard also directly facilitate commissioning. For instance, when
a sensor is not yet in service, the Substitute function can be used to emulate the data it would have
- using process bus, given to the IED corresponding to the sensor. The management of the function mode i.e. the
- new ways of managing assets. . . capability to remotely set a function 'in' or 'off service, together with the client-server communica-
_ While the technology starts best on greenfield sites, a large proportion of the proJects_mvolve tion, offers the opportunity to progressively commission the system. This means the commissioning
mixing legacy existing devices with new ones, and the benefits due to the new devices can of a substation automation system can start before all the equipment is delivered to site.
only show themselves to a limited extent. . 5. Operation and maintenance
Staff often have a natural reluctance in accepting a new technology. The operation and maintenance stage aims at identifying the possible faults and failures, and
- Not all the advantages of interoperability can be appreciated at the start. at expanding the automation system in accordance with the overall business strategy of the utilities.
IEC 61850 is applicable within a substation. Work is in progress to extend this method of stand- Independent of system operations, security can be built easily on communication level into the
ardising communication up to the control centres, aiming at seamless data-fl?ws from the proce~ses substation automation system with the aid of commercially available firewalls and routers which
in the switchyard to the highest control level. The substation data-model is alre~dy ~arm?mzed hide IP addresses. Operational information can be grouped and access limited to only designated
with the Common Information Model from IEC 61970. The result of this standardisat10n will fur- personnel.
ther simplify the specification of substation automation systems. A substation automation system compliant with IEC 61850 can be easily extended to include
new automation devices, primary equipment, bays or new voltage levels.
3. Design . . Although the management and the rules are yet to be defined, version numbers are mandatory
The design stage aims at defining the data flow and infrastructure of the substatrnn automatrnn in the SCL and the logical parts of an IED. Being able to keep track of versions of IEDs is vital to
system. the long-term maintenance of the system, and this feature is unavailable in other communication
standards.
G. Migration
General. Products compliant with IEC 61850 are available from 2004 onwards, and utilities
wishing to
- safeguard investment
- seek a cost-optimised solution over the life-time of the substation
- improve the availability of the substation
are incorporating these products into their systems. The products are mostly introduced into the
market step by step. For new substations which can be served by the available IEC 61850 compliant
products, only IEC 61850 solutions are expected to be used and in this case, migration is largely
irrelevant.
Some new substations may still need to be equipped with rion-IEC 61850 devices. Utilities may
also integrate IEC 61850 devices into existing substations through gradual replacement of old
equipment or the addition of new bays. In these substations, equipment based on other communica-
tion standards/protocols needs to function together with IEC 61850 devices until.
Upgrading Devices. If supported by the original design, a device can be upgraded directly,
for instance by adding a communication board and upgrading the software to some extent. The
parameters would need to be adjusted. This looks attractive but would generally need relatively
recent devices. The replacement of the communication system is beneficial only ifretrofit or upgrad-
ing at the station level is also carried out, and this means some additional engineering work.
For this migration strategy, two options are possible. One option is upgrading all the devices
in the substation. The other option is upgrading the devices step-by-step in groups, for example,
according to bays. For the second option, the old and new devices would need to function together.
Existing Systems side-by-side with IEC 61850 System. Many existing automation systems
already support a number of protocols. The IEC 61850 devices are brought in initially as adding
an additional protocol. The IEC 61850 system is gradually expanded and the other non-IEC 61850
devices are phased out. In general, there is a central point to which systems running on different
protocols are connected and where protocol conversions take place. To keep the migration costs low,
it is important that the protocol conversions are performed only at this point. Special attention
shall be paid to distributed automation with real-time constraints because many legacy protocols - central processing unit
are unsuitable for handling time-critical data. - power supply unit
In a substation with merely a few devices running on another protocol, the newly incorporated
IEC 61850 system would be the dominant system. The existing system would be considered as a _:.._ housing with connection terminals.
subsystem, i.e. a data server of the IEC 61850 system. It may support some standard protocols Fibre optlca.1 connections for line differential
such as DNP3 or IEC 60870-5-101. The existing system is connected to the IEC 61850 system via protection and binary sl911al transmission
a gateway that carries out the protocol conversion between the legacy protocol and IEC 61850.
In general, these migration paths are suitable for the following three scenarios:
- The automation system is replaced step by step.
- The substation is extended with additional bays.
. . "-- 1n~vidual devices are upgraded step by step in groups .
.tS.fl&A. Nibnerical Control & Protect-ion Unit
'The nJtnerical control unit (REC 316*4) is a compact multi-functional unit belonging to
PANORAMA. It is designed for the control, metering, monitoring, automation and protection func-
tions of MV and HV transmission systems. Simply programmable standard functions from a com-
prehensive software library and a powerful and last function block language make the unit a scs
user-friendly and extremely flexible terminal. SMS
The control of switching objects is performed with the highest possible supervision and safety.
A large selection of protection functions reduces the number of necessary devices in HV bays
through the combination of control and backup protection functions in one unit. The integrated
autoreclosure function can be utilized by both main protection devices.
The .closure of the circuit breaker can be supervised by a synchrocheck function. Motor busbars
can' be switched on with phase synchronization by a fast switch-over function.
Fig. 43.40~. Hardware platform ove~iew.
· SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
864
In the analog input unit an input transformer provides the electrical and _static isol1;1-tion be-
tween the analogue input variables and the internal electronic circuits and adJusts ~he signals. to
a suitable level for processing. The input transformer unit can accommodate a maximum of nme
input transformers (voltage, protection current or measuring transformer). . .
Every analog variable is passed thr_ouf?:h a first order RIC low pass ~lter on the ma11; CPU Ul}it
to eliminate what is referred to as the ahasmg effect and to suppress HF mter ferences (Fi&'· 13.40B).
They are then sampled 12 times per period and converted to digital signals. The analog/digital con-
version is performed by a 16 Bit converter. . .
A DSP ·carries out part of the digital filtering and makes sure that the data for the protection
algorithms are available in the memory to the main processor. . .
The processor core essentially comprises the main microprocessor for the protection algorithn:is
Microprocessor Based Substation
and dual-ported memories (DPMs) for communicat~on betw~en the AID converters and the mam
processor. The main processor performs the protection algorithms and controls the local HMI and
Protection Control and Monitoring
the interfaces to the station control system. Binary signals from the main processor are relaye~ to
the corresponding inputs of the I/0 unit and thus control the auxiliary output relays a!1d ~he hght Introduction to Microprocessor based Control, Protection and Monitoring - Two hierachical levels -
emitting diode (LED) signals. The main processor unit is equipped with an RS232C serial mterface Substation level, Unit Level, Functions in substation level, Functions in Unit levels - Integrated
communication - Summary.
via which among other things the protection settings are made, events are read and the data from
the disturbance recorder memory are transferred to a local or remote PC. '
On this main processor unit there are two PCC slots and one RS232C interface. Thes_e serial 43.39. INTRODUCTION
interfaces provide remote communication to the station monitoring system (SMS) and station con- The basic variable related with the Substation protection, Control and Monitoring include the
trol system (SCS) as well as to the remote I/O's. . following:
It has one to four binary I/0 units each. These units are available in three versions :
(a) two auxiliary relays with two heavy-duty contacts each, 8 optocoupler inputs and 6 signall- (i) Current (ii) Voltage,
ing relays. . . (iii) Frequency (iv) Time,
(b) two auxiliary relays with two heavy-duty contacts each, 4 optocoupler inputs and 10 sig- (v) Power Factor, Reactive Power, Real Power, Temperature.
nalling relays. · The electrical energy is transferred from large generating station to distant load centres via
(c) 14 optocoupler inputs and 8 signalling relays. the various s_ubstations. In every supstation certain measurements, supervision, control and protec-
According to whether one or two I/0 units are fitted, there are either 8 LED's or 16 LED's tion functions are necessary. Every substation has a control room. The relay and protection 1panels
visible on the front of the terminal. and control panels are installed in the control room. The various circuit breakers, tap changes and
Both analogue and binary input signals are conditioned before being processed by the m_ain other devices are controlled by corresponding control-relay panels. In a small independent substa-
processor. As described under hardware above, the analogue .signals pass through the sequence tion, the supervision and operation for normal service can be carried out by the operator with the
input transformers, shunt, low-pass filter (anti-aliasing filter), mul-tipl~xer and A(D converter aid of analog and digital control systems in the plant. The breakers can be operated by ;·emote
stages and DSP. In their digital. form th~y are then separated by nun:ierical ~lters mto real and control from the control room. During faults and abnormal conditions, the breakers are 'operated
apparent components before bemg applied to the mam processor. 1?mary sign_als fro_m th(,) ?P· by protective relays automatically. Thus the primary control in substation is of two categories:
tocoupler inputs go straight to the main processor. The actual processmg of the signals m relation
to the protection algorithms and logic then-takes place. 1. Normal routine operation by operators command.
2. Au.tomatic op/eration by action of protective relay and control systems.
Analog to
Traditionally, the protective system comprising of relays and circuit-breakers was almost in-
1
digital
dependent of control system for tap-changer control, voltage control, data logging, data monitoring
conversion and routine operations. This concept is shown in Fig. 26.1 for Circuit-breaker control and Fig. 25.1
for Protective Zone. In traditional substation control the three functions (1) Protection (2) Control
--------~111""\coM\ ...... HMI Numerical
signal
(3) Monitoring are not integrated fully. In modern interconnected systems, the functions are inter-
linked by means of digital processing devices and power carrier communication links (Fig. 43.1).
□ ...,.....SCSI
processing
t=~1 □
43.40. EQUIPMENT TO AUTOMATIC CONTROL SUBSTATIONS
SMS
The following equipment (either fixed-wired or/and programmable) is used for various tasks in
etc. ...,___,►,,_
.... f¥-- ,
Trip 1 ' Network Automation.
I
Binary
·(i) data collection equipment (ii) data transmission telemetric equipment
signal
B/t'• etc. (iii) data monitoring equipment (iv) data processing equipment
processing
(v) man/machine interface.
Fig. 43.40B. Signal data flow.

866 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION MICROPROCESSOR BASED SUBSTATION PROTECTION CONTROL AND MONITORING 867
The data (information) regarding various power-system variable is necessary for effective su- From ~he low~r (~n_it) le~el, the lines, transformers etc. are controlled and supervised. The equipment
pervision, operation and control. This data can be broadly classified as : ?n unit level is divided into a number of independent units, each controlling one unit. This division
(i) data regarding generating plants and power station improves the operating reliability and simplifies future extensions such as additional lines.
(ii) data regarding transmitting stations (sub-station) 1. Upper level (substation control level)
(iii) data regarding conditions of supply region, receiving stations. 2. Unit level (Equipment level Transformer, line, busbar, reactor etc.) Also included are
The equipment for protection, control and automation are installed in control rooms of : 3. Inter level communication ,
(i) Load Control Centres (ii) Transmission substations 4. Man-machine interface
(iii) Distribution substations (iv) Generatihg Stations. 5. Interface with load control centre.
These control rooms are in communication via Power Line carrier communication system
SERIAL
(PLCC). OATA BUS
In traditional hard wired systems are relays and circuit breaker operate during abnormal
operating conditions. The routine and emergency control functions are performed at individual
SUBSTATION
'Unit' level systems with the held of substation equipment such as circuit-breaker, tap chargers LEVEL
etc. Control and monitoring functions are performed by separate equipment installed on respective COMPUTER
1. Remote control adaption
panels. Each substation control room operated almost independently all instructions are received 2
2. Man machine communication
from Control Centre via Power Line carrier telephone communication link. supervision, (Automatic contr~l)
With the present trend and availability of powerful microprocessors a low price, the 3. Synchronising equipment
protection, control and monitoring system in substations have undergone a radical 4. General Unit
change. The system architecture now includes, microcomputer based digital system con- 5. Disturbance recorder
3 6.. Busbar protection
trol protection and monitoring systems installed in (1) load control centres (2) Substati9n
control Room (3) Generating station control room. The control and protection systems 4
are integrated and there is interaction and information transfer by means of communica-
tion channels. ~~
43.41. TWO SUBSYSTEMS IN SUBSTATIONS I 6 I==
□ INCLUDED IN THE
The protection control equipment in a substation are to be CONTROL BUILDfNG SWITCH YARD COMPUTER SYSTEM
treated as two sub-systems : Fig. 43.42. Functions i~ substation level.

1. Control System 2 .. Protective System. (Most functions are stored in substation level computer.)
For many reasons, it is desirable to have two separate sys- 43.43. SUBSTATION LEVEL (UPPER LEVEL)
tems as above.
The relay protection system should acquire the data inde- f ~he following ma~n functions ~re ~rranged in substation level. Automatic functions, supervisory
pendently, process it, evaluate it and take action to perform unct10ns. Man-machme commumcat10n, Busbar protection.
protective tasks (tripping). (i) Ordinary man-machine communication system of the substation.
The different events are reported to the control system as (ii) Remote control inter-face.
well as protective system. Both the systems must, therefore, (iii) Synchronising
co-operate closely with one another.
In modern substation, these functions are realised with (iv) Disconnector Inter-locking
relays, static processing devices and micro-computers. (v) Bus bar Protection (Relay Protection) System
The tasks of protective systems include sensing abnormal (vi) Fault annunciation
condition, annunciation of'abnormal condition alarm, automat- (vii) Automatic Network restoration
ic tripping, back-up protection protective signalling etc. Fig. 43.41. Configuration of protection
(viii) Automatic Switching sequences
The tasks of control and monitoring system in a substation and control in a substation in two levels.
include data collection, scanning event reporting and record- 1. Substation Level 2. Unit Level (ix) Load Shedding/Load re-connection
ing; voltage control, power control, frequency control, other (x) Voltage control
automatic and semi-automatic control etc. (xi) Compiling of energy and other reports
The two systems work in close co-operation. (xii) Disturbance recording
(xiii) Sequential events recording.
43.42. TWO HIERARCHICAL LEVELS IN A SUBSTATION
Most _of these function~ are in_tegrat~~ as softw~r.es in the sub-station level computer. This
Two protection and control equipment mentioned above are generally arranged it two hierar- software i~ of modular-design, which facilitates addition of new functions. Table 43.8 gives the
chical levels. From the higher (substation) level, the entire substation is controlled and supervised. categoryw1se classification.
f/"1-------

MICROPROCESSOR BASED SUBSTATION PROTECTION CONTROL Af{D MONITORING 869
Table 43.8
Classification of Function at Substation Level (Upper Level) Table 43.9
Classification of functions of Unit Level
Protection Busbar protection
Protection Line protection, transformer protection, breaker-failure protection, reactor protection etc.
Automatic functions Synchronising voltage regulation load, switching, power system
restoration sequential operations etc. Automation Auto-reclosing, synchronising checks.
Supervision Fault annunciation, sequential events recording disturbance Supervision Supervision of position of Circuit-breakers, disconnectors, recording of events, energy
recording, energy reports, self supervision of the electronic system, metering, self,.supe~on of electronic system fault location on line etc.
fault statistics. lnteface Switchgear interface, electronic system interface.
Man--machine Communication. Operations and indications, interlocking of disconnectors adaption to
remote control facilities etc. Functions which refer to a particular unit are located at unit level. Units are mostly inde-
pendent of each other. Fault occurring in one unit does not influence other unit control and protec-
PROTECTIVE RELAYS
tion Equipment for each unit is located in a cubicle for that unit.
UNIT-1
43.43.2. Inter-level Communication
2 Information is transferred between the two control levels primarily via a serial data bus, where
z
0 ·u-=----=-:- the substation level computer controls the traffic by cyclic boiling the other units connected to the
I ~o ~ 3
5 =~===== ; ... ! bus. The substation oriented acquisition signals and the serial transmission of information, between
the control levels reduces the amount of cabling and terminal blocks.
l1 P~
,UNIT-2
4
--------
- · - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---~
IQ
.., Ill
=-_-.___ ~
Auto-reclosing
Table 43.10
Automatic Control Functions in Substations
Single phase or three phase auto-reclosing of line circuit-breakers.
. SIMILAR TO UNIT-1 ____ _ j Automatic Synchronising Check phase sequence, frequency, voltage levels Coincidence of phase
UNIT-3 _ _ _ _ - - - - · - - - · - - - · , . voltages and close the circuit-breaker.
SIMILAR TO UNIT-1 Automatic Voltage regulation Regulate bus voltage by tap-changing and shunt compensation.
~---·---- ---------.....1 Automatic Power restoration Make attempt for restoration after unsuccessful autoreclosing and after
IJ INCLUDED IN THE COMPVTER SYST£M
substation blackout.
Fig. 43.43. Line Unit Level. Functions stored in programs of unit level microcomputer. Sequential operations .Predetermined switching sequences e.g. load transfer from one bus to
1. Unit level microcomputer, control, supervision of circuit breakers, disconnectors, time-tagging events another.
auto-reclosing etc.
Load shedding To shed predetermined load when frequency falls. Check for voltage
2. Protective Relays 3. Energy Metering 4. Synchronising checks 5. Switchgear Interface rise. ·
Most of the functions are stored in the substation level computer in the form of software. The Table 43.11
software is modularised to facilitate the incorporation of new functions and to simplify future ex- Protective function in a substation
tension of the station. Because of the considerable amount of data to be processed disturbances are
registered in a separate unit. 1. Deti:iction or'fault at the earliest
43.43.1. Unit Level 2. Prevent or minimise damage
The entire substation is divided into certain 'Units' (Similar to protective zones) which 3. Disconnect faulty line
include one or two major equipment such as line, sub-bar section, transformer, etc. 4. Detect phase to phase faults and phase to ground fault
The functions relating to particular unit include the following : 5. Overloading protection
- Line Protection, Breaker Failure Protection, etc. 6. Overheating prevention

- Auto reclosing 7. Overcurrents prevention
Synchronising check 8. Abnormal voltage prevention.
- Energy metering
- Acquisition and time tagging of events Requirements of Protection and Control Equipment in Substations
- Acquisition of position indication and measured values The various protection and control functions in a substation have to fulfil certain requirements
- Executipn of commands from substation-level computer originating from the power system and the high voltage equipment in the station but they also
- Back-up control. must fulfil network operation and stability requirements. From the protection and control architec-
ture point of view these m~in requirements are :
Table 43.9 gives categorywise classification. \
1. Dependability, Th~, dependability of a function is the probability that the function will be
executed correctly wl).en wanted.
I
- -------------------------
MICROPROCESSOR BASED SUBSTATION PROTECTION CONTROL AND MONITORING 871
870
Non Emergency Control functions
2. Security. The security of a function is the probability that the function will not be per-
This group includes all functions for operation during non-system faults and safe status con-
formed when unwanted. ditions. Both manual and automaticfunctions are included for the optimization of operation, voltage
3. Degradation withstand capability .. Degr_adation is the_percentage of individual functions and frequency control changing at operation mode as well as other functions related to the non-
that will be inoperative by a single failure m the protect10n and control system. disturbed operation of the network and station. In this group, manual and automatic functions for
4. Back up Protection. Principally, the fault clearing ab_ility can _not be allowed to be lo_st. restoration of the operation after a disturbance are also included.
The required degree of dependability in the fault clearmg funct10n can be met only with Acquisition of information for analysis.
back-up functions. These can be of two types; remote or local.
This group contains functions for acquisition, storage, transmission and presentation of infor-
Remote back-up functions will of then be necessary 'locally' in a stati~n. The transformer over- mation to enable the analysis of network and equipment performance and behaviour both during
current protection is often the back-up for th? line protection in c~se of hne fault. The totally per- non-system and system fault conditions. Energy management and measuring functions are also
formed remote back-up requires a separat10n of the two functions, so that both are not lost included.
simultaneously at a single fault in the protection of control equipment.
Man/machine communication for service and maintenance.
43.44. FUNCTIONS PERFORMED BY PROTECTION AND CONTROL EQUIPMENT This group includes the functions that enable supervision testing maintenance of the protection
and control equipment as well as functions for the modification of control and protection function
The different functions performed by the protection and control equipmen~ in a subst~tion or and setting values.
power station have to be grouped for analysis of the architecture. This ~oupmg of the differ~nt
functions is not associated directly with a physical separation of the eqmpment and the functrnn 43.45. PROTECTION AND CONTROL CONFIGURATION
groups will be used only to identify factors that influence the realization of the structure.
Integrated or modularized (decentralised) systems
The function groups below are used in a typical architecture :
Regardless of the high voltage scheme of a substation, the station can be divided into a number
(i) Fault clearing functions stib 1
of separately controllable units such as line feeders transformers, busbars operated breakers and
(ii) Fault clearing functions sub 2 isolators. The normal protection and control structure practice is to establish two hierarchical levels
(iii) Emergency control functions for the protection, supervision and control to be provided in a substation.
(iv) Non-emergency control functions Integrated equipment (centralised)
(v) Acquisition of information for analysis Measuring data from distributed measuring transducers are brought to a central computers
(vi) Man/machine communication for service and maintenance. . via high-speed communication links. The central computer can perform integrated relaying and
The function group above are defined as strict groups offunctions. T~us, th~ group will include control functions.
all components to perform the function. A specific component can be asso~iated wit_h more one group. Modularized equipment (decentralized of Centralized)
For the following, discussion we have to strictly associate the groups with funct10ns and level out Protection and control devices, in principle according to current practice. However with in-
aspects concerning realization and component specification. -creased capability of information transfer via the communication system. With a modularized ap-
An abnormal condition will after a time develop into a main component fault if no preventive proach a__hierarchy with a unit level and station level is normally adopted. -
measure is taken. This preventive measure can either restore normal operation or result in a safe Unit level
status where a part of the system is out of operation. The unit level is related to each unit such as a line transformer, busbar, etc and is at present
The fault clearing will separate the faulty part from the system and thus change the status mainly attributed to protection functions. The protection devices are modularized and normally
from power system fault condition to a safe condition. The required function for a specific type of placed so that they can be physically identified as belonging to a specific unit.
station will not be discussed, only their association with the function groups. Station level
Fault clearing functions sub 1 The control functions, either manual or automatic normally handle functions that concern the
Fault clearing functions sub 2 overall operation of the substation and handle the communication with remote control centres.
The fault clearing function include all functions for automatic fault clearing power syste~ faults There are functions which can not be clearly allocated to unit or station level, depending on
in the group clearing of line and power system apparatus faults as well as net-:7ork pr~tect10n. The the systeiiulesign, type of equipment, functional requirements, etc. In practice some of the functions
group 'fault clearing' include basically the function performed by the protect10n eq_mpment. The will contain a less well defined structure with a combination of unit and station level functions.
fault clearing functions have to be divided into two groups in cases ofredundant (~uphcate?) protec~ When taking the basic requirements into account, with reference to the required degree of de-
tions, which are completely separated. These groups are designated 'Fault clearmg funct10n sub 1 pendability, security and degradation, a modularized approach is advantageous. The consequence
and 'Fault clearing function sub 2'. of communication speed requirements and interference withstaud capability should also naturally
Emergency control functions be modularized approach to decrease the information flow with the station and to isolate more sen-
This group includes the functions that manually of automatically perform actions to _Prevent sitive equipment further back in the control system from interference. All functions that can be
abnormal power system conditions from developing into a main component ~~ult. The group mcludes performeaat unit level should be kept at this level.
prdte~tion, alarm, metering anq other functions to detect abnormal conditions as well as ma?ual
and automatic control to perform the preventive measures. In case of remotely controlled statwns,
naturally, a part of the remote control equipment can be associated to this group.
SECTIONV
POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS,
INTERCONNECTION AND POWER SYSTEM
CONTROL SCADA SYSTEMS
Power System Stability, Auto-Reclosing
Schemes, Methods of Analysis and
Improvement of Transient Stability
Introduction
Part A : Concept of Power System Stability.
Part B : Swing Equation and Swing Curve; Critical Clearing Angle, Equal
Areas Criterion.
Part C : Rapid Fault Clearing and Fast Auto-reclosing of Circuit- Breakers
for Improved Transient Stability.
Part D : Auto-reclosing Schemes for Transmission Line Protection.
Part E : Modern Definitions of Power System, Stability, Disturbance.
Part F : Methods of Improvement of Steady State and Trailsient Stability.
Part G : Solved Examples on Stability Studies.
PART A: CONCEPT OF POWER SYSTEM
44.1. POWER SYSTEM STABILITY

Power System Stability has been the area of study from early days of electrical power genera-
tion and transmission. The subject has gained more importance in today's interconnected power
system having high capacity generating stations and Network of long EHV/HVDC transmission
lines. The term Power System Stability refers to ability of the power system and the synchronous
machines to run in synchronism. This applies to A C system.
The tendency to loose synchronism is called Unstable condition. Thus the subject matter of
'Power System Stability' refers to maintaining synchronism of synchronous generators, generating
stations, Regional Grids and the National Grid.
Steady State Stability refers to the conditions of stability in response to small and gradual
changes of load.
Transient Stability refers to the conditions of stability in response to sudden changes of load
oflarge magnitude. Steady state stability limit is simple for analysis and can be calculated accurate-
ly. Transient stability limit is lesser than the steady stability limit and is, therefore, the deciding
factor for normal power transfer.
The loading of a generator gene.rating station, transmission line, Regional Grids and National
Grid is based on respective Transient Stability Limits. By adopting appropriate protection schemes,
auto-reclosing schemes and automatic fast excitation systems ; HVDC links, etc., the transient
stability limit can be increased. Thereby the same installed capacity can deliver higher power.
The generation should match the load to maintain constant frequency. (Refer Ch. 45). The volt-
age should be maintained within specified limits. The synchronous machines and generating sta-
tions should maintain synchronism with the grid. Synchronism should be maintained between the
Regional Grids connected together by the tie-lines or interconnectors. These tasks are covered under
stability studies.
POWER SYSTEM STABILITY, AUTO-RECLOSING SCHEMES 877
- Asynchronous HVDC Links for transmission of bulk power or for Tie Lines. (HVDC tie lines
In traditional stability studies, the reactive power flow (Q), load power factor (cos <j>) and bus provide a link between two a.c. systems which need not be in synchronism, since they are
voltage variation is ignored. These factors are very important and are covered separately under connected by HVDC link).
the topic 'Voltage Stability' - Ch. 45-C. - Using rapid-response excitation system for synchronous generators. (Ch. 45-D)
The following two unique cases are usually analysed as representative cases for stability studies : - HVDC transmission with damping control.
1. Single synchronous machine operating against Infinite Bus. (Single Machine System). - Increasing steady state voltage stability and transient voltage stability of transmission links
and faster voltage control ofload-buses. (Ch. 45-C)
2. Two synchronous Machines connected by a Tie-line (Two Machine System).
Power System Stability is a common objective of the power system engineers from the view point
Both these systems have a similar set of equations and similar behaviour. The basic equation of electrical machines, transmission of power, Switchgear, Protection and Automation and voltage
of power system stability applied to a tie-line is control. This chapter explains the principles and applications of various aspects of Power System
IV1 I. IV2 I . Stability in a simple and up-to-date manner. The most recent Definitionf/ by IEEE have been men-
P= X sm 8 tioned. Ch. 45-C Covers Voltage Stability.
where IV1 I and I V2 I are sending end and receiving end voltage-magnitudes of transmission line, In A.C. system, the generation should be continuously adjusted to match with the load require-
Xis the series reactance of transmission line ; angle 8 is called power angle, i.e. the angle between ments. If this condition is not satisfied, the frequency of the system goes beyond targeted limits.
V1 and V2 vectors ; Pis the power transfer. The problem of load-frequency control ; load shedding and Network islanding is discussed in Ch.
45, Autoreclosing of circuit-breakers has been described in Sec. 2.12. In this chapter, the protection
Similar equation applied to a synchronous machine connected to Infinite Bus is and stability aspects regarding auto-reclosing have been covered.
p = IV I . I E I sin 8
X 44.2. CONCEPT OF POWER SYSTEM STABILITY
where I E I is the e.m.f. magnitude, IV I is the terminal voltage-magnitude, Xis the synchronous
The term stability is closely related with synchronism. Synchronous generators (alternators)
reactance, 8 is the angle between V and E vectors, Pis the power transfer.
and synchronous motors have a tendency to remain in synchronism or in step with each other.
Power angle diagram is a curve of power transfer (P) versus power angle (8). It is a sine- During system disturbance such as sudden increase in load, sudden switching, power swings etc.,
curve. the synchronous machines experience oscillations of torque angle about the mean position. How-
Swing curve is a graph of angle (8) versus time (t). If the angle 8 reduces after attaining maxima ever, the synchronous machines have inherent tendency or maintaining synchronism. Loss of
corresponding to d8/dt = 0; the condition indicates stability. synchronism is called loss of stability.
Alternatively, Equal Area Criterion is a graphical method of determining transient stability Ability of synchronous machine or part of a system to develop restoring forces equal to more
from Power Angle Diagram. than disturbing forces so as to remain in synchronism is called stability.
For study of Voltage Stability, graph of receiving end voltage IVR I versus power transfer Pis The disturbance may be sudden or the change in load may be very gradual. Accordingly/there
drawn. The point of maximum power Pm is reached at dV/dP= 0. This is covered in Ch. 45-C. are two distinct terms called transient stability and steady state stability. 1
Swing Equation of a synchronous machine is, The term steady state stability refers to ability of a system or its part to respond to small,
gradual change in power at a given point of the system. Steady state stability limit is the maximum
j 28
M--2 =Ps-Pe possible power that can be transferred at a given point of the system without loss of synchronism,
dt . with very gradual increase in power.
where Mis angular Momentum, P8 is' mechanical shaft power and Pe is electrical power given by The term transient stability limit refers to the maximum power that can be transferred at a
VE sin 8/X. Solution of swing equation (step by step method) gives values of 8 for various values given point of the system without loss of synchronism for given sudden large change in power.
of time t. The concept of stability can well be explained by means of two machine system. The system is
Power System Stability is closely associated with Switchgear and Protection. Today's power used as a conceptual aid. The system comprises a synchronous machine A connected with B by
system are large interconnected grids having high fault levels at station buses. Transient Stability means of interconnector having reactance X.
Limit of a transmission system or the network' can be increased by following means : Referring to Fig. 44.1 (a), power transfer P between buses A and Bis given by
- Rapid fault clearing by circuit-breakers at both ends of the faulty transmission lines. IV1 I'X IV2 I sm
. 8
- Fast and selective protection, stable during the conditions of power swings. P= ... (44.1)
- Autoreclosing of circuit-breakers for transmission lines. The transient stability can be in- where I Vs I = Sending end voltage magnitude
creased by automatic reclosing of circuit-breakers which have opened under temporary fault
condition. IVR I = Receiving end voltage magnitude
- Single Pole Tripping for Single-line to ground faults. Single Pole auto-reclosing. X = Reactance of interconnector
- Higher transmission voltages and better voltage control. 8 = Power angle: Angle between Vs and VR
- Faster protection by static relays and carrier aided distance protection of transmission lines. The resistance of interconnection is neglected. The voltages are assumed to be constant. Reac-
Other methods of improving transient stability limits include : tive power flow is neglected. The effect of voltage drop on stability is a sub-topic of stability studies
- Reducing series. reactance of the tie-lines by using series capacitors or by adding parallel covered under title "Voltage Stability". (Ch. 45-C).
lines. "
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION pOWER SYSTEM STABILITY, AUTO-RECLOSING SCHEMES 879
878
. Transient Stability. The maximum value of power that can be transmitted after a given large
Consider the power transfer being very sudden change in the system is cal.led the transient limit. When the system experiences faults and
gradually affe~ted by increasing angle by increasing u__L:- the relays switch off affected circuits, the system goes from an initial power-angle operating point
the load at receiving end and maintaining mag-
nitudes IVs I and IVR I constant. The variation in
.Ac_r· to a final operating point, and in between a swing condition exists where the power-angle relation-
ship still holds, but these quantities can vary with time over a wide range.
p given by Eq. 44.1 is plotted in Fig. 44.l(b). For Fig. 44.1 (a). Two-machine system (a.c.).
values of delta above 90°, increase in 8 does not (Refer Fig. 44.2). Let the power transferred through a part of the system shown in Fig. 44.2
result in increase in power-transfer. On the con- be P 1 and corresponding angle be 81 . Now a sudden large incremental load 11P is added at receiving
end. As a result, the sending end generator slows down and angle' increases. The angle should get
0 = Power angle in degree electrical \settled to a new value 82 corresp~nding to power P2: However, due to i~ertia of rotors, to ~otor
tp
P = Power trannfer
p = P max at o·= 90°
X = Resistance of interconnector
~vershoots to angle 83 correspondmg to power P 3 • This power transfer bemg more than reqmred,
tlle angle starts reducing. Thus the angle swings about the value 2, between the limits 1 and 3
resulting in power-swings.
A, B = Equivalent synchronous machine.
If the power transferred P 1 and sudden increment of load P are above certain value, the value
of increases beyond 90°. In this region, the increase in results in reduction in power transferred.
Thereby the angle further increases and power transferred is further reduced. The result is loss of
0 J- stability. The transient stability limits refer to the maximum possible flow of power through a point
Fig. 44.1 (b). Power-angle diagram. of the system without loss of stability when a sudden disturbance occurs. (The value given by initial
trary, the power t;~nsferred is reduced, this. ~au~es further reduction in,!'· ~h~s for values of P load plus increment).
above p max corresponding to 8 = 90° the stability is lost. Hence P max at 8 - 90 , i.e.
IVs 1 • IVR I
Pmax= X
-m+"''"'"'+c.=:"\ P=PMAX sin li·
is called steady state stability limit. ·I /'
I •
Example 44.1. A 115 kV, 3 phase AC line has per phase series reactance o( (J7) ohms between I
I
sending end and receiving end. The sending end and receiving end voltages of lm~ a_re 1~5 kV rms. I
Phase to phase. Calculate maximum possible power transfer through the transmission line (steady
state stability limit of the line).
Solution. P88 -- Pmax IVs I.X IVR I MW per phase
where IVsl and IVR I are phase to n~~t~;l kV ;ms, Xis series reactance per phase., o~m and
Pss =Pmax, is steady state stability limit, i.e. maximum power per phase, MW. Substitutmg the 0 o, 02 03 180' . o 6, 62 63 1ao 0
given values : POW/iR ANGLE S POWER ANGLE a

IVs I = I Vr I = 115/~ = 66.4 kV rms, ph. to neutral Fig. 44.2. Explaining Transient Stability. Fig. 44.3. Explaining Transient Stability.
(66 4) 2 The transient stability is analysed by means of swing equation; network analyser, digital com-
Pmax per phase=
7 = 629.76 MW per phase puter. However, Equal Area Criterion is a good conceptual aid. It is a graphical method of equat-
ing areas of segments on the power angle vs. power transferred diagram.
3 phase P max = Steady State Stability Limit
= 629. 7ox. 3 = 1889.29 MW Ans. Referring to Fig. 44.1 (a)
Example 44.2. Without Neglecting Line R~sistance. A 115 ~ ~ 3 phase AC line has per phase 82 · f03 (P3-P2)d8
series impedance of (4 + )7) ohms between sending end and receiving end.
The sending end and receiving end voltages of line are 115 kV rms, phase to P.h~se .. Ca:lculate
A1= J81 (P2-P1)d8;A2=
82
maximum possible power transfer through the transmission line (steady state stability limit of the AreaA 1 is above the curve P and below P 2 •
lin~. . Area A2 is below the curve P and above P2,
Solution. Without Neglecting Resistance, the Power Equation gets modified as:
Area A 1 = A 2 , if the machin:e continues to remain synchronism after disturbance.
· IVsl•IVRI R\1
P max per phase = ✓ 2 .,,,,,. - However, consider Fig. 44.3 in which P 1 and 11P are of limiting value, where A1 =A2 . If P1 is
R +A- R 2 +X2 more, for the same given 11P, the areaA 2 above curve P would be less than areaA 1 and the system
In the given Example : will fall out of-step. The maximum allowable sudden increase in power 11P on the system transfer-
(66.4)2 4 (66.4)2] = 275.5 MW/ph ring power P 1 is illustrated in Fig. 44.3. The method of equating areas, described above is called
P max per phase= [ ✓42 + 72 42 + 72 Equal Area Criterion of stability studies. The criterion can be applied to study the effect of fault
clearing, auto-reclosure and single pole-switching on transient stability limit.
3 phase P max total= 275.5 X 3 = 826.5 MW Ans.
880 SWI'fCHGEARAND PROTECTION
POWER SYSTEM STABILITY, AUTO-RECLOSING SCHEMES
In Fig. 44.3, P 2 is a maximum permissible power transfer for given conditions of P1 and P2 such 881
that beyond P 2 that transient stability is lost. P 2 is, therefore, the transient stability limit for given In the above equation the quantities E, V, Xs are per phase and the power pis al h
't' p · d' . so per p ase.
conditions. TF?e p4o4s61 ive m icate generatmg action. Negative p indicates motoring action (negative o). Refer
1g. . .
In the above analysis a simple two machine system having an interconnector has been analysed
with the help of Power-Angle diagram and the Equal Area Criterion. The method of approach for Angle corresponds to the e~e.ctrical angle between rotor poles and the stator rotating magnetic
the following two models is the same : field. U:nder synchronous cond1t10n the rotor pole axis is locked with the stator-rotati t·
fi.ield with an angle o wh'1ch varies
· wit · h t h e load. Increased load causes increases in ng magneand
angle Jc
...:._ The synchronous machines connected by a tie-line (inter-connector) : Two Machine Sys. O
mc~eased power P. ~he g:aph of power delivered to the infinite bus by synchronous generator
tern. against power angle 1s a sme curve.
- One synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus : Single Machine Against Infinite
At o= 90°, the power delivered
Bus.
Preaches a maximum limit, i.e.
What is an Infinite Bus ?
Infinite bus has constant voltage, constant electrical angle of the voltage, infinite fault level p _ I E I · IV I sin goo = I E I · IV I
max - Xs Xs ... (44.4 a)
and, therefore, the quantities of infinite bus do not get affected by connecting or disconnecting in-
dividual machines or transmission lines. A large interconnecting power system having very high This limit of ~aximum possible power delivered is called steady state stability limit of the
fault level (compared with the rating of an individual machine/transmission line) can be considered synchronous machme. · ·
to be an infinite bus for the purpose of analysis. Hence P =P max sin o ... (44 .4 b)
44.3. SINGLE MACHINE AGAINST INFINITE BUS E~s. 44.3 and 44.4 apply to cylindrical rotor synchronous machines used for turbo-generators
used_ 1_n thermal and nuclear (steam) power plants. For Salient Pole Machine the eq t · t
Consider a synchronous machine operating with constant field current (excitation current) and modified as follows : ua ions ge
connected to infinite bus. Refer Fig. 44.4.
= EV . (Xd-XaJ
2
lq E Infinite bus
P Xd sm o+ V '2Xd Xd sin (2 o) ... (44.5)
,,
s -~;-,-', jlqXq =P1 +P2 ... Ref. Fig. 44.5
,, where Xd = Direct axis reactance
Synchronous Generator V Xa = Quadrature axis reactance
Synchronous Generator connected Vector Diagram of Salient E = Voltage behind reactance
to infinite bus. Pole Generator. V = Terminal voltage
Fig. 44.4 o= Angle between V and E, electrical radians
E = Excitation voltage, i.e. voltage behind the. synchronous impedance; this is called e.m.f. and positive for generating action
is dependent on excitation. T_he second ~erms on the right hand side of Eq. -180 ,.__ ~,'180 El~c. Dtog.
V = Terminal voltage, considered as constant for infinite bus. 44.5, JS due to saliency of poles. If this term is neglected P. - d(Xd-Xq) ' s -
2- (Xd Xq) Sin 26
o= Angle between V and E. we get the expression 44.3 applicable to cylindrical
Xs = Direct Axis Synchronous Reactance (Steady state) for pole machines (Fig. 44.5).
(lTll REGION OF ST ST STABILITY
generator action, V = E - IXs } For transient state, E in these equations is· -MOTORtNG-
for motor action V = E + IXs
... (44.2) replaced by E' and Xd by X'd, i.e .
Pmax= ST. ST. ST LIMIT
Fig. 44.5. Power angle characteristic of a salient
pole Synchronous Machine (P vis o).
Refer Fig. 44. 7 for Generating Action. For salient pole machines
Under steady state condition, for a cylindrical rotor machine, the electrical power output P of
the cylindrical rotor generator may be expressed in terms ofV, I, Xs and as by the well known power
E' -
p =- V sin o - V2
X'd
(X2XdXq
q -X') sm (2o)
d .
... (44.6)
equation: · for cylindrical rotor machine
... (44.3) E'V
P = --sin
1
o ... (44.7)
Xd
where, o=Power angle between E and V, where E', XJ refer to transient state.
IE I = E.M.F. Excitation voltage, magnitude Voltage behind reactance, proportional to
excitation. P is considered positive for positive generating action.
IV I =Terminal voltage magnitude P is considered negative for negative motoring action.
X 8 = Synchronous Reactance (Steady State ), Series tesistance is neglected. . E:"a~ple 44.3. A cylindrical rotor synchronous generator is connected to infinite the bus and
is delivering current 1 of 1.00 p.u. at 0.91 p.f lag, the busbar voltage is 1.00 p.u.
pOWER SYSTEM STABILITY, AUTO-RECLOSING SCHEMES 883
882 Understanding the Power Angle Diagram
The direct axis sub-transient reaction XJ = 0.37. Determine the equation for power angle curve, A synchronous machine has inherent tendency to remain in synchronism with the busbar. This
Calculate the steady state stability limit. can be visualized by means of the Power-Angle-diagram (Fig. 44.6).
Solution. Power equation for a cylindrical rotor machine : Any increase in load on synchronous generator
results in increase in the angle o (angle between rotor-
p = EV sin 8 ... for steady state pole axis and the stator rotating magnetic field axis) and
Xd
consequent increase in power while the angle 8d is over -rt ( Elec radians)
p = E' V
sin 8 ... for transient state the linear portion of power-angle characteristics. - 180° -9ef' It Etoc radians
Xd Likewise, over the linear portion of the power angle

where E, E' = voltage behind reactance diagram any decrease in load causes reduction in angle
V = Terminal voltage (i.e. the angle between stator rotating magnetic field and
8 = Angle between E and V. in the rotor pole axis) and consequent reduction in power !)ID REGION OF STEADY
Consider V as reference vector transfer P. STATE STABILITY
· pmax ~ ST. ST: ST LIMIT
V=V L0° Note. Here, the response of the governor which ad-
justs the input to turbine to match the output to maintain Fig. 44.6. Power angle characteristic of
= 1.00 LO = 1 + JO set frequency is not considered. Cylindrical Rotor Synchronous
I= 1.00 °-cos- 1 0.91 = LOO L- 24.5° Refer Ch. 45 for Governor action and load-frequency
Machine (P v/s o).
= Angle between I and V = 24.5° control. The synchronous speed and the frequency are
... (44.8) determined by input and output relations for the total grid. For the present analysis, the angle o
E'=V+JIX'd
= (l +JO)+ (1.00 °- 24.5°) (0.37 L90°) between the rotor pole axis and the stator-rotating magnetic field axis both rotating at synchronous
speed corresponding to the prevailing frequency is being discussed.
= 1.00 + 0.37 L65.5° = 1.00 + 0.15 +j0.34
Coming back to the power-line diagram; in the linear portion of the power line diagram the
= 1.15 + J0.34 = 1.20 L16.3
increase in load causes increase in the power transfer. The angle between the rotor-pole axis and
between E ' and V at stator field axis (both rotating at synchronous speed and locked with each other) gets adjusted to
t = 0 is 16.3° meet the changes in load P.
Power angle curve is given by : This ability of the synchronous machines to adjust with changes in load and remaining in
E'V
synchronism is the basis of stability.
(POWER ANGLE OR
P=--sin 8 J
EJ The load on a synchronous machine connected to
the system continues to change by small amounts at all
LOADANGLE
= 01.20 . I!
_ sm u p.u.
37
... (44.9) times and the inputs to turbines get correspondingly
adjusted to maintain the balance between input and
The. maximum possible power transfer is outp11t to maintain constant frequency (Refer Ch. 45).
E' V 1.2 x 1 However, when the power P 1 delivered by a
p= XJ
= <f37 = 3.24 p.u.
synchronous machine corresponding to a certain load
angle 81 is disturbed by change in loading the 0
Steady State Stability Limit.= 3.24 p.u. (Answer) Fig. 44.7. Vector diagram for cylindrical rotor
synchronous machine tends to attain a new load angle
The value of P for various values are from Eqn. 44.8 are as follows : ocorresponding to new power delivery P 2 . machine operating as generator.
From these values Power Angle Diagram can be plotted.
The synchronous machine should remain in synchronism with the system, i.e. it should operate
0
Elec. 0 15 30 45 60 75 in parallel with the system and the angle 8 should remain over the straight line portion of the
' power-angle diagram.
180 165 150 135 120 105 90 16.3°
Now, consider the curved portion of the power-angle diagram. The change in load P brings about
Sino 0 0.259 0.50 0.70 0.86 0.96 1.00 0.281 a large change in o in this region and beyond 8 = 90° ; increase in delta does not give increase in
0.91 P and the machine tends to fall out-of step. The rotor poles slip from the stator magnetic field and,
p 0 0.84 1.62 2.29 2.80 3.13 3.24
the machine tends to fall out-of step. This is called unstable condition. .
The synchronous machine remains in synchronism only if the angular displacement brings
The graph of angle 8 vis time tis called Swing Curve. about corresponding appropriate change in power delivered to attain a new stable value of o.
Power Angle 8 Synchronizing Power, From the above analysis we shall make two simple statements:
Power Angle 8 between rotor pole axis and stator rotating field axi_s (both ~otati~g together at During disturbance,
synchronous speed) is expressed in electrical degrees or electrical radians. It 1s eqmvalent to the -- in the linear portion of the power-range diagram (P vs 8) the change in P brings about cor-
angle between Stator Flux Axis and Rotor Flux Axis, both at synchronous speed. The angle between responding change in o to achieve new values of P and which are stable.
two consecutive poles is 1t radians or 180° electrical.
884 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION POWER SYSTEM STABILITY, AUTO-RECLOSING SCHEMES 885
Note the following : If Ns = Synchronous speed rpm
- Excitation voltage E depends on field current hence quick acting excitation system is neces- = 120 f/P where P =No.of poles
sary for higher transient stability unit of synchronous machines. 2
- In case of salient pole machines, the slope of linear portion of power angle diagram w = ~: mech.radians/sec., Mechanical Angular Speed
(dP I do) is higher (steeper) than that of cylindrical rotor machine. In case of salient pole
machine, the maximum power P max occurs approximately at o= 70° whereas as case of J = Moment of Inertia of rotor is expressed in kg-m 2 and depends upon dimensions
and mass of the complete rotor including the generator rotor and turbine rotor
cylindrical rotor machine P max occurs approximately at o= 90° as seen from Figs. 44.5 and
/load rotor.
44.6.
The moment of inertia J of ·the rotor in kg-m 2 should be obtained from the dimensions and
Substituting weight of the machine and this value should be substituted in Eqs. 44.10 to get value of K.E.
Synchronising power P, an angle 81 is Example 44.4. A synchronous motor driver has moment of inertia J = 400 kg-m 2 and runs at
no load speed of 500 rpm. Calculate the kinetic energy in the rotor.
dP1 EV 21tN
P = do = xd cos '61 ... (44.10) Solution. Angular speed w = - - rad/sec
60
where o1 = angle between V and E in electrical degrees of electrical radians. 21t X 500
= = 52 rad/sec
60
PART B : SWING CURVES AND SWING EQUATION, 1 2
EQUAL AREA CRITERION K.E.= Jw ... (44.12)
2
44.4. DYNAMICS OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES, KINETIC ENERGY, INERTIA = ½x 400 x 522 Joules = 200 x 2704
CONSTANT AND STORED ENERGY = 540,800 Joules Ans.
These terms will be reviewed to enable understanding of the Swing Equation and Transient = 540.8 Kilojoules. Ans.
Stability Studies to be covered in subsequent paragraphs. Angular Momentum M. Eqn. 44.10 is usually presented in another form for stability studies
Earlier, we dealt with the electrical relation. as
VE . V1 V2 .
P =X sm 8 and P =----y-- sm o K.E. = 21 Jw 2 = 21 (Jro) x w
Now, we will study the moment of inertia of rotor, torque and kihetic energy terms and their =Mx w Joules (44.11)
co-relation with the transient stability. The Stability is a question of electrical and mechanical ener- Dark Print indicates 'Mega'.
gy transfer during the system disturbance and, therefore, the mechanical terms gain equal impor-
i.e. KE =KE x 10- 6
tance. It is assumed that the rotor is running in synchronism an'd rotor mass includes total mass
on the shaft. M=Jwx 10- 6
2
44.4.1. Kinetic Energy of a Rotating Mass wh ere, M = Jw = Angular Momentum kg-m
____., __ _rad
___ ... (44.13)
The rotors of synchronous machines including shaft and drive machine has certain kinetic ener- sec
gy (KE) corresponding to their moment of inertia (J), and the angular speed (w). From fundamen- J = Moment of inertia of rotor kg-m 2
tals, we know,
w = Angular speed of rotor, radian/sec
KE= 1 Jw 2 ... Joules ... (44.11) Angular Momentum values depend upon size, type, speed of machines.
2
where, K.E. = Kinetic Energy in rotor ... Joules 44.4.2, Inertia Constant H
J = Moment oflnertia of rotor Inertia constant His defined stored energy in rotor at synchronous speed divided by the volt-
2 ampere rating of the machine, i.e.
't k 2 Joules. sec . Stored Energy Joules
U ms: gm or
Radian 2 H = Inertia Constant = VoIt Ampere R a t'mg ... -VA
- at synchronous speed of machines ... (44.14)
also called mass-inertia and also denoted by symbol I in some American Books.
where N = RPM. One Rev. = 21t radians The inertia constant is usually expressed in terms MJ and MVA as
2 2 6
K E _ Joules sec Rad · H= Megajoules = Joules x 10-
· ·- Rad 2 sec 2 MVA rating of machine VA x 10- 6
/ K.E. = Joules
w = Angular speed ofrotor,- radian/sec. *Joule = Watt. sec.
886 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIOI'{
Example 44.4. Stored Energy and Inertia Constant. Calculate stored kinetic energy in the rotor
Inertia constant Hof a machine is always calculated _at synchronous speed. Value of H depends of a 100 MVA, 2 pole, 60 Hz Generator rotating at rated synchronous speed; the moment of inertia
upon type of machine and it is usually within a narrow limits for a particular type of _machine.
Whereas the value of angular momentum M varies widely with size, speed, moment of mertia of of rotor is 50 x Ia2. Determine Inertia Constant Hand Angular Momentum M.
the machine). Typical values of H are as follows :
Solution, Kinetic Energy stored in Rotor KE = ½ J ro2 joules
Table 44.1. Typical Values ofH is MJ/MVA
Synch. Turbo-Generator Hydro-Gen. J = Moment of inertia. Given J = 50 x 10 2 kg m 2

Types of Non- High N 8 = Synchronous speed for 2 pole 60 Hz= 120 flp
Low
Synch. Condensing condensing Condensing Speed 3000 rpm
Speed = 120 x 60/2 = 3600 rpm
machine rotor 1500 rpm 8000 rpm 3000 rpm 3000 rpm
= Angular speed of rotor at Synch. speed rad/sec.
H2 MJ/MVA 6-9 3-4 4-7 2-3 3-4 = 21tN/60 = 21t x 3600/60
44.4.3. Stored Energy in Rotor of a Syn. Machine KE. (stored)~½ (50 x 10 2) (21t x 3600/60)2 = 35553 x 10 .. J
Stored Energy (GH) is usually expressed in Megajoules and is given by
GH = Stored Energy in Rotor mega-joules
= 3553.1 MJ
Inertia Constant H _ K. E. (Stored)
=GxH ... (44.15) - MVArating
where G = Machine rating in MVA
=MJ/MVA =3553/100 = 355.31 MJ/MVA
H = Inertia constant of machine ~A Angular momentum
GH 100 x 35.33
M= f = x = 0.329 MJs/ele.degree Ans.
180 180 60
Dimensionally, (GH) = Meg~~ules x MVA [For MJ s/radians, use factor 21t rad = 180°]
=Mega-Watt.Sec MVA Table 44.4. Quantities related with Kinetic Energy of a Rotating Mass
MVA X
Symbol Quantity Equation Units
Substituting Eq. 44.13. e Angular displacement radius
Comparing Eq. 44.15 with 44.10. Kinetic Energy of rotating body (KE) can be expressed in (0 Angular velocity radians
terms of Eq. 44.10 and Eq. 44.11 as, de ---
ro = dt second
2
KE=½ Jru Joules=½ Mro2 Joules Jori Moment of inertia
J 2
J= r dm for complete
kg-metre2
or as Eq. 44.12 as GH = ½Mro mega-joules rotor dm = mass of element

at radius r
where _M _3 . mega-joule sec KE Kinetic energy 11002 Joules
M- x 10 as m
ra d'ian 2
M Angular momentum at angular velocity W Jrox 10- 6 Mega-joules
Therefore, referring ro as synchronous speed
Radians
(GH) -= 2 GH Mega~joule
ro radian
G MVA Rating of the synchronous machine G = VJ--1310- 6 MVA
2n radians = 360° Electrical degree H Inertia constant Stored energy Mega-joules

MVArating MVA
and ro = 360 f electrical degrees/sec.
GH Stored energy in complete rotor including shaft Megajoules
where f is the frequency of system Hz ... (44.17) GH=!:.Jwx 10- 6
and connected machine at a synchronous speed 2
ro = 360 f electrical degrees/sec. 1
For one cycle, the rotor moves through 360° electrical degree or 2n radians electrical. In one =-Moo
2 .,
second, there are f cycles, hence
M = Megajoules sec
ro = 360 electrical degrees/sec. where,
Elec. Degree
= 21t f radians/sec. Elec. Degree
(0 =
Substituting Eq. 44.17 in 44.16 we get inertia constant M in terms of GH as : Sec.
M=_g_GH= GH M.J.s. ... (44.18) M Angular momentum GH Mega-joule sec
360f 180f elec. degree M= 180{ Elec. Degree
2 GH GH M.J.s: GH Mega-joule sec
or
= 21tf = ref = elec. radian 1tf Elec. Radians
These equations of G, H, M, J, etc, are summarised in the following table for ready reference : Note. Bold, durk print refers to Mega-Units.
Bold, Dark Prints of G, H, M signify units in Mega, Plain print G. H. M. signify mega 106 .
44.5. SWING CURVE We know, from Eq. 44.3

VE . s:
... (44.3)
During steady state, when the machine is running at constant speed the rate of change of power P e=x SIU u
angle (o) with respect to time (t), i.e. dldt is zero. The angle o is the angle between the axis of
stator-rotating magnetic field and the rotor-pole axis; both rotating at synchronous speed. Substituting in Eq. 44.20, we get the Swing Equation as :
2
When the load on the synchronous machine is changed, the angle o changes to attain a new M d o=P =P _ VE sin o ... (44.21)
value corresponding to the new load situation, and doldt is not zero, during the swing. dt2 a s X
The graph of o versus time tis called Swing Curve. The swing- cur.ve is useful in predicting the From Eq. 44.4 (b),
stability as follows. If the swing curve is such that the value of load angle o starts reducing after
reaching the maximum value and tends to attain a steady new value; the system will not loose ... (44,22)
stability. It will come to a equilibrium position UNSTABLE
after the oscillations are damped out (Fig. 44.8
Curve B). (If oscillations are sustained with time,
are not damped out, the phenomenon is called
t om ___________ _ 44.6. DERIVATION OF SWING EQUATION FROM FUNDAMENTALS
Hunting). w
....I
(9
The Swing Equation co-relates the angular momentum Mand angular acceleration d
dt
2
i.
The
If the swing curve is such that the angle goes z<(
swing equation is applicable to synchronous mqtors and synchronous generators. Consider a
on increasing and does not come to a equilibrium Cl'. w
$ synchronous machine. It develops certain electromagnetic torque to the rotor shaft. If electromag-
with time, the system will loose stability (Fig. O 01
(L netic torque Te and shaft torque Ts are not equal, the rotor will accelerate or decelerate.
44.3. 7 Curve A).
Refer Fig. 44.8 Curve B. This swing curve in- If electrical torque Te and shaft torque Ts are equal then the rotor acceleration will be zero.
TIME, (Sec,) t __.
dicates that doldt is maximum during initial Fig, 44.8, Swing Curve. Consider the stator-rotating magnetic field axis as a reference. The acceleration/deceleration
straight portion of the swing curve. Then it goes of the rotor can then be expressed in terms of d 2 o/dt 2 , where ois the angle between rotor pole axis
on reducing and becomes zero at P max· After this doldt becomes negative (negative slope). Thus and stator-rotating magnetic field axis.
the ooscillates about the desired value. The oscillations are damped out with time and finally at- Thus we get following quantities :
tains a steady desired value corresponding to the new load. The fact that do/dt is reducing after Ta = Accelerating torque
attaining zero value at the peak of first swing indicates stability. Thus from the observation of the
'Swing Curve', i.e. the graph of load angle o versus time t, we note : Ts = Shaft torque
1. If during the first swing, do/dt goes on reducing and reaches zero value and then reverses, · Te = Electromagnetic torque.
the condition indicates stability. Difference between shaft Torque and Electrical Torque gives Accelerating Torque. Hence
2. If do/ dt goes on increasing and do/ dt does not reduce with time, the ogoes beyond 90° electri- Accelerating Torque = Shaft Torque - Electromagnetic Torque
cal and the interlocking between stator flux and rotor poles is lost and the machine looses Ta = Ts Te .. ,(44.13)
synchronism. The stability is lost. The swing equation co-relates the following quantities related
with a synchronous machine. But Power= Torque x Angular Velocity
M Mega Joule sec. i.e. P= Tw
Angular Momentum
· · · electrical degree i.e. Pa= Tew; Ps =Tew; Pe= Tew ... (44.14)
Load Angle o ... Elect. degree Hence, Pe = Ps Pe
Time t ... Sec. Accelerating Power = Shaft Power Electromagnetic Power
Accelerating Power Pa ... Mega watt.
Taro = T8 ro Tero
Electrical Power Pe .. .'Mega watts Thus, we get
Shaft Power (Mechanical) Ps Megawatts.
The solution of the swing equation (by step-by-step method) gives the value of load angle for Accelerating Power = Shaft Power Electromagnetic Power
different values of time. From this solution the swing curve of oversus time can be plotted and the Pa Pe ... (44.15)
stability can be predicted.
Statement of the Swing Equation : For generator the shaft torque is input and the electromagnetic torque is output. In Eq. (44.13)
and Eq. (44.15) the terms are considered positive for synchronous generator.
d 2o
M- =Pa=Ps-Pe ... (44.20) In shaft torque Ts for generator is higher than electromagnetic torque Te then the rotor will
dt 2
accelerate and Ta is positive. Thus for generator the terms Ta, Ts and Te are positive and shaft
where Pa= Acceleration Power ... MW
torque Ts > Electromagnetic Torque.
Ps = Shaft Power ... MW
Likewise for Synchronous motor, shaft torque Ts is output and considered negative; electromag-
Mega Joule sec.
M = Angular Momentum netic torque Te is input and is considered positive.
elect. degree
Thus, for Eqs. (44.13) and (44.15).
Example 44.5. A 4 pole, 50 Hz, 12.5 kV Turbogenerator is rated 200 MVA. Its inertia constant
For Generating Action 1' and P 8 positive. His 8.0 MJ I MVA.
For Motor Action T 8 and P 8 negative. Determine:
Now, Power= Torque x Angular Acceleration. (a) Stored energy in rotor at its synchronous speed.
Therefore, (b) If mechanical input to shaft suddenly raised from 100 MW to 160 MW, find rotor angle ac-
Accelerating Power = Accelerating Torque x Angular Acceleration celeration neglecting electrical and mechanical losses.
Pa=Ta. CO
Solution.
As Torque = Moment of Inertia x Angular Acceleration (a) Stored Energy = GH = 200 x 8 = 1600 MJ Ans.
Ta=Ja (b) Accelerating Power = Shaft Power - Original Power
Hence Pa= Ja o'.l = (Ja) co Pa =Ps -Pe= 160-100 = 60 MW

But =Jco=M
From Swing Eq.
d 2
o
M--=P -P = 60
Hence Pa=Ma dt 2. s e
d2o GH 1600 8
a = Angular Acceleration = - 2 M = 180 f = 180 x 50 = 45 = MJ sec/elec. deg.
dt
~ d o= 60
2
Hence ... (44.16) Hence
45 dt2
From Eq. (44.15) and Eq. (44.16) Hence d 2o . 60 x 45
dt 2- = Angular Accelerat10n =
8
... (44.17)
= 337.5 elec. degree/sec2 Ans.
This is called Swing Equation. Example 44.6, Stored Kinetic Energy K.E. in the rotor of a 50 MVA, 60 Hz, six-pole synchronous
alternator is 200 MJ. While accelerating, the machine is developing power of 22.5 MW while the
VE .
From Eq. (44.3), Pe =x Sln u,
s:
input is 25 MW. Calculate the Angular Momentum Mand the acceleration of rotor.
Accelerating power Pa= P 8 - Pe= 25 - 22.5 = 2.5 MW
Hence the Swing equation (44.17) can be rewritten as
Further,
... (44.18)
. cons t an t H of mach'1ne =. K.E.
I ner t ia MVA(stored)
. =-200-=4
ratmg 50
GH 50x4
M= l80 f= 180 x 60 = 0.0185 MJ.s/elec. degree
2n rad = 180 elec. degrees
where, Pe= Electromagnetic Power = (VEIX sin o) ; Pa= Accelerating Power M = 1.06 MJs/rad
P 8 = Shaft Power (Mechanical Power) ; V = Terminal Voltage d 28 .
E = Excitation e.m.f., induced e.m.f. X = Synchronous Reactance M dt2 =Pa=P3 -Pe=25-22.5=2.5MW
o= Load angle between E and V M = Angular Momentum,
t = time. Hence acceleration d 28/dt 2 = ~; = 2.35 rad/sec. 2
1 6
Solution of Swing equation gives values of o for various values oft. The graph of load angle o
versus time t gives Swing curve. Swing curve is useful in indicating whether the system is stable PART C, EQUAL AREA CRITERIO~
or unstable. Swing equation gives correlation between mechanical power, electrical power and the
load angle o. Under steady condition when shaft power and electrical power are equal and the 44.7. EQUAL AREA CRITERION OF TRANSIENT S'fABILITY
variation of load angle owith respect to time is zero.
This is a simple graphical method to predict the transient stability of two machine system or
d 2o a single machine against infinite bus. This criterion (method of evaluation/prediction) does not re-
M=-=P 8 -Pe=0
dt 2 quire Swing equation or solution of swing equation to determine stability conditions. The stability
and the machine is operating at constant ocorresponding to power VE sin o/X. However, when the conditions are determined by equating the areas of segments on the Power Angle Diagram between
load changes, the angle oundergoes a swing with respect to time for a short time of the o~der of a the P-curve and the new power transfer line for the given conditions.
few seconds. The variation of o with respect to time is given by equation and the graph 1s called Refer Fig. 44.10 explaining the Equal Area Criterion. The Power-angle diagram of P (Power
Swing Curve. Transfer) Versus (Power angle) o is drawn for the given single or two machine system. Let the
892
Mathematical Derivation of Equal Area Criterion
Consider area of Power Angle Diagram between the, given limits. Dimensionally it has units
of (Power x Electrical Radians)= (Energy) or (Work done). Consider the Swing Equations :
P3
d28 VE .
M- 2
=Pi -P2=P1 --X sm82 ... (44.19)
dt
p OP"'{ where M = Angular momentum of rotor
I
Pi= Shaft power, mechanical power
P,
I
I
I
I
1 :
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
: P=PmaxSi
I
I
I
I
P2 =New Steady State Electrical Power = V: sin 82
O l I·-~----~- 0 I Q I
X = Reactance between V and E
01 02 03
0--+ 8 = Angle between V and E, Powe.r Angle
(AJ Stable (B) Unstable (C) TR. Stability limit P2, Pi refer to steady state. condition,
Fig. 44.10. Explaining equal area criterion of transient stability.
Initial Conditions be P 1, 81 at point 1. The position of initial power P 1 and corresponding power Multiply both sides of the Eqn. 44.19 by it
angle 81 are marked, point 1 on the power-angle curve corresponds toP 1 =Pmax sin 81, Let a sudden 2
increase in power transfer be t:-.P. The power-angle should take a new final steady-state position M d 8 do= (P 1 -P)
2
do ... (44.20)
8 corresponding to the new power P 2 = P 1 + t:-.P. The point 2 on the power angle curve corresponds dt 2 dt dt
to the new load condition P 2 and corresponding required steady state power angle 82, However since
the change in power transfer t:-.P is suddenly supplied, the angle (8) overshoot the desired position
But (doJ
5!:__
2
dt dt - dt dt2
2
d do . d o
_
(8) (8
due to the inertia of the rotor upto 3) and then comes back towards 2) under the stable con- (8 2
ditions. The power angle (8) oscillates about the mean desired position 8 2 . The oscillations are
damped out by system resistance, governor action and voltage regulators.
Hence, _!_ M
2
.!!._[(d8)
dt dt
] = (P -P).
s 2
do
dt
... (44.21)
Finally the position of (8 2) corresponding to new Power P 2 2 is reached. Fig. 44.lOA indicates a
stable condition. In Fig. 43.lOA, the point 3 on the power curve is graphically located such that the i.e. !!._ [(d8)2 ] = 2 (P1 - P2) do . 1_ ... (44.22)
dt · dt dt M
Area A 1 (between the 81 and 82 ) is equal to Area A 2 above the P 2 , below power curve P and the limiting
Integrating with respect to t,
load angles 82 and 83, i.e. A 1 = f: (P2 - P
~
2
1) do is equal to A 2 =
03
f ~
(P 3 - P 2) do. If A 2 = A 2 ; the retard-
... (44.23)
ing torque A 1 is equal to accelerating torque A 1 and system is stable.
The conditions of initial load P 1, change in load t:-.P and power angle diagram Pare such that Therefore, ,.. (44.24)
a point 3 is available on the curve for which A 1 = A 2. This is the criterion of Equal Areas - to predict
transient stability. Considering~~ as the slope of the swing curve (8 versus t), for stability, the swing should reach
Refer Fig. 44. lOB which indicates unstable condition. Hence point 3 has reached extreme posi- a maximum value and then start reducing, i.e. doldt should reach zero, maximum swing. (at
tion corresponding to 82 s.uch that the further movement of point P along the curve does not give Oma). Hence, for stability,
any area above the horizontal line P 2 and A 2 <A 1. In such a case, where a point 3 is not available do =O
on the power curve for which area A 1 =Area A 2, the system is unstable (Fig. 44.l0B). dt
For transient stability under given conditions ofP 1, t:-.P and the power-angle diagram the system L3 (P1 -P2) do= 0 ... (44.25)
remain stable if a point is available on the power angle diagram such that A 1 =A 3 . If such a point
Putting the limits from initial condition 8 = 1 to final condition 8 = 3.
(3) is not available on the curve andA 2 <A 3, the system is unstable. This rule of determining tran-
Referring Fig. 44.10 B,
sient stability of a system by equating the areas of segments, on power angle diagram is called
Equal Area Criterion (Method) of transient stability. A1=( cP1-P2) do; A2=f: (Pe-P2)d8
Refer 44.l0C. For given initial condition of Pi, 8 1 there is a limiting value of sudden increase
in load M, such that area, A2 above the power line P2 has reached its maximum limit and
A 2 =A 1. In such case, P 2 is the maximum permissible power transfer after the application of in-
A 1 -A 2 = J: (P1 -P2) do- f: (P 3 -P2) do
creased load and is called transient stability limit of the system for given conditions of initial load
Pi and increase in load f..P. which gives Ai -A2 = L2 (P1 -P2) do ... (44.26)
from Eqns. 44.25 and 44.26, Vs
For Stability L3 <P1 -P2) do =A1 -A2 = 0

... (44.27) p
Ai =A2
Transient Stability of Transmission System having Parallel lines will be reviewed in the next
section.
Solution for 02
u
From Fig. 44.10 (c ); applying Equal Area Criterion, for Stability, Area A 1 = Area A2 Fl STEADY STATE
f 03 (Pmax sin 8 - P2) BEFORE FAULT
f 02
81
(Pz - P max sin 0) do =
82 STEADY STATE
LINE A-B OPEN
After performing integrations, we get
P 2 (o2 , 81) + Pinax (cos 82 - cos 81) = P 2 (8 2 - 03) - P max (cos 82 - cos 03)
However, P 2 =Pmax sin 82 , Hence
(83 - 01) sin 82 + cos 83 - cos 81 = 0 ... (44.28)
From given values of 81 and 82, the Eqn. 44.28 can be solved for 83.
Example 44.7. A synchronous generator is capable of developing maximum power P max of 500
MW is operating at initial power angle of S 0
•
(A) How much power is being delivered at 8 = S ? 0
(B) How much can the shaft power be increased suddenly without loss of transient stability ?
Solution. Maximum power P max occurs at power angle o= 90° degrees. For other power angles,
P O = P max sin ◊ = 500 sin 8
(A) Power developed at o= 8°, P 8o = 500 sin 8° == 69.6 MW Ans.
o~--~4-----+-----+----~:--
(B) Let initial angle 8 = 8° 45 9 O ANGLE() !12_
Sudden increase in load up to angle 0 without losing synchronism should bring is to be calcu- Fig. 44.11. Power transfer curves before, during and after line-to-line fault.
lated. Let 82 be the rotor angle to which rotor can swing without losing synchronism. Then as per
Power transfer from S to R is given by the equation P = Vs VR sin 8/X, where Vs and VR are
Equal Area Criterion, Om= 1t -- 81
bus voltages; o is the angle between Vs, VR and Xis the reactance of transmission line.
From Eqn. 44.28, substituting 83 = 1t - 81, we get
Transient stability is defined as the ability to properly adjust to (remain in synchronism) sud-
(n: - 82 - 81) sin 82 + cos (n: - 82) cos 81 = 0 den large changes in the system, (load changes, faults and switching). Three phase faults are the
(1t -- 82 - 81) sin 82 - cos 82 - cos 81 =0 ... (44.29) most severe type of fault as far as stability is concerned since the voltage is reduced on all phases .
The effect of faults on power transmission is in increase the equivalent series reactance, X, and there-
In given problem, 81 == 8 = 0.13885 rad, Substituting in Eqn. 44,29, fore, decrease the electrical power that can be transmitted. During the fault the electrical output of
(3.14 - 82 = 0.138) sin 82 - cos 82 - 0.99 = 0 the sending and generators is less than the mechanical input, so that they speed up, increasing
Solving, we get 82 = 50°, corrrespondlng power angle, 82 . At the same time the rotating equipment at the receiving end slow down, since the load
is greater than the mechanical input to the receiving end generators. The receiving and slow down
= P max sin 82 = 500 · sin 50 = 383 MW further increases angle 8.
P 2 =3R3 MW
Refer Fig. 14.11, which gives the following four power angle curves for the power transfer be-
Permissible sudden additiomd loading without loss of transient stability with initial rotor angle tween Sand R.
8° is : Curve P 1 = Steady state P vs. 8 before fault
P 2 - Pi= 383 - 69.6 = 313.4 MW Ans. Curve P 2 = Both Breakers A, B closed, power transfer P is minimum.
Curve P~ = Only breaker A opened.
44.8. CRITICAL CLEARING ANGLE Curve P 3 = Both Breaker A and B opened.
Refer Fig. 44.11 explaining the transient stability of parallel transmission line system between Curves 1, 2, 3, 4 are drawn from corresponding steady state. Power equation
two distant generating stations Sand R. P = (Vs V RIX sin 8, where V1 , V2 , X depend on the condition of fault and breaker position.
Pzmax = Maximum power transfer during fault
Transient stability of the transmission system is determined by means of Equal Area Criterion P 3max = Maximum power transfer with fault cleared and faulty line open.
considering the sequence of events 1, 2, 3, 4 and the Swing of angle o .on corresponding segments
P = Initial operating point for stability limit.
of power curves. The events occur in the sequence 1, 2, 3, 4. During this disturbance the power
angle swings about its mean position. When the line-to-line fault occurs, the transmitted power is Critical clearing angle 00 is obtained by applying Equal Area Criterion to Fig. 44.12, i.e.
reduced to point E, and the swing begins along E-F. At point F, breaker A, opens and the trans-
Jsc (P- Pzmax sin o) do+ J,s (P -P3max sin o) do= o
3
mitted power increases to G. The swing continues along G-H and at H the fault is cleared. By the
~ ~
time H is reached, the sending end rotor inertia has increased, as represented by area I, since the
mechanical input has exceeded the transmitted electrical power. With the fault cleared the trans-
mitted power is J, which exceeds the mechanical input, so that deceleration of the sending end [Po+ P 2max cos oJ:: +[Po+ P2 cos oJ::
generation and acceleration of the receiving end generation begins. The swing continues to point
A, where the additional sending end rotor inertia resulting from the fault is completely absorbed
by the load (Area II equals Area I). Since at K, the electrical output of the sending end exceeds the
As 83 = 180° = sin- 1 (_!:_)
P3max
mechanical input, the swing reverses until a point such asN, where the swing reverses again. Volt- . P (8 1 - 03) + P2max cos 81 - 03max cos 03
age regulator and governor action, as well as system resistance, will dampen the oscillation, until cos 8c =
P 2max - P 3max
the operating point is reached.
Note that if the initial swing went as far as
point L and the sending end generators still had
SWINGING
VECTORS V•vVR s t2WINGCURVE
G, - -
Critical angle oc can be calculated by using the above expression instead of graphical solution.
Example 44.8. Critical Clearing Angle. A synchronous generator at 50 Hz is on load of 1
p.u. connected to infinite bus. Resistance is neglected.
excess rotor inertia (Area II smaller than Area I), V~ J' : V11
The maximum possible power transfer under healthy condition (steady state stability limit) is
the swing would continue in the same direction A FAULT tc B
and the system would go out-of-step. When point F 1.8 p.u.
L is passed, the mechanical input of the sending P- During a fault, the maximum possible power transfer (steady state) is 0.4 p. u.
l
end generators again exceeds the electrical out- TIELINE
During post fault condition, after fault clearing the limit of power transfer limit is 1.3 p. u.
put and the swing becomes accelerated. Determine the critical clearing angle either graphically or by calculations.
By opening circuit-breaker A, B on both Fig. 44.12.
Solution. Draw Fig. 44.12 in which
sides of the faulty line ; the power angle curve
jumps from (Pz) to (P3), i.e. power transfer ability of the single line CD is more than power transfer Peak of curve Pt : P2max = 0.4
Peak of curve P3 : P3max = 1.3
of double line with one line faulty. During the transient state, early clearing of faulty line (Point H). given
will reduce accelerating area (I). Peak of curve P1 : P1max = 1.8
If faulty line is not cleared quickly, area I increases. There is a limiting value of clearing angle
Power Transfer at 81 = 1 p.u.
oc and corresponding clearing time T 0 (ob- o is to be determined.
tained from swing curve o us. t) such that the INITIAL Graphically
faulty line must be opened before the swing Draw P such that Area DEFGH = Area HLH
reaches 00 , i.e. the breakers A, B should be P1 =TWO LINES BEFORE FAULT Adjust oc finally to get A1 =A2,
opened and fault cleared before time t 0 cor- ~er Alternatively
responding to power angle c. This limiting ~ p
value of 00 and t0 are illustrated in Figs. f-
(/)
POWER TRANSFER
Use expression 44.20 o1 = sin- 1 ( /
8
}=
33.8 elect. degrees
P = ONE LINE BKS. A & B OPEN
er 3
. - 1 p
44.12 and 44.13. ~
0
o3 = 180 - sm - p . =80 - sm
. - 1( 1 }
13
Refer Figs. 44.12 and 44.13 explaining a. 3max ·
P = DURING FAULT'F' BKS.
Critical Clearing Angle, Pis the power trans-
2
A&BCLOSED = 180 - 50°24' = 129° 36'.
fer from area I to II. oc is the critical clearing Critical Clearing Angle oc
0
angle between Vs and VR such that area A 1 _1 P (01 - 03) + P2max cos 81 - P3max cos 03
is equal to area A 2 and area A 2 has reached cos 8c = ---=----cc--...c.c..--=-------
P2max - P3max
· l' · A r h . Fig. 44.13.
maximum imit. ny I urt er increase in = 1(33,8 -129.5) + 0.4 X 0,83 + 1.3 X 0.77 = 0.377.
angle oc will increase area A 1 and the A 2 < A 1 and stability would be lost.
Hence Oc = 67° 52' (Electrical) Ans.
Mathematical Expression for Critical Angle 80
Refer Fig. 44.12. Explaining critical clearing oc 44.9. METHOD OF IMPROVING TRANSIENT STABILITY LIMIT
Let 81, P = Initial point on curve Plmax - increasing switching system voltage (Refer Eq. 44.2)
00 = Critical clearing angle - reduction of series reactance X by introducing parallel lines (Refer Eq. 44.1).
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION POWER SYSTEM STABILITY, AUTO-RECLOSING SCHEMES 899
898
-
-
use of high speed circuit breakers.
use of high speed protecting relaying.
100
90
~~ -
]'--...
t-- ,_ I
-
t--.._ i-- t-!'
~~
r-- r---
I
- use of carrier current protection to obtain simultaneous opening of circuit-breakers on either

~~ ~ .._ t---- >-
end of transmission lines. t--- r---.....
-- use of auto-reclosure. I\ ~ -----
~
'\
- use of single pole switching.
- use of single pole auto-reclosure.
1\8
- use of series capacitors to reduce reactance. \ ~~ P = Single line to round fault
Q = Line to line fault
- use of HVDC transmission with damping control.
As seen from Eqs. (44.1) and (44.2), by increasing the voltage at station buses, P max, i.e. steady \ "' '-..._ R = Double line to ground fault
state stability limit increases. ' ~ I'- "'- S = Three phase fault.
The power curve is raised when P max is increased. This allows larger limits of swinging of angle I"'--
8. Thus raising P max increases critical time and possibility of maintaining stability for given dis-
turbance.
Reducing in series reactance results in increase in P max· Parallel transmission lines reduce 10
equivalent reactance as compared with a single line. Secondly, when fault occurs on one of the lines, 0
the other line continues supplying power. Thus power transfer capability during fault condition is 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 ZO 2.2. 24
DURATION OF FAULT IN Hz -
increased.
Fig, 44.14 (b ). ·Effect of duration of fault on limit of power transfer for various types of fault.
Faster fault clearing always results in reduction in disturbance. There is a limiting fault clear-
ing time called 'critical fault clearing time' before which the fault should be cleared by opening of Consider a two machine system with double circuit interconnection (Fig. 44.15).
circuit-breakers for the system to maintain stability. The use of high speed circuit-breakers, there- Table 44.1. Required Operating Time of Circuit Breakers and Protective
fore, improve the stability. This method is more convenient than those which need changes in design Relaying Function with Reference to American Grid
of system. Time in Cycles 1 Cycle ::: 1 I 60 sec
Function
44.10. HIGH SPEED CIRCUIT BREAKERS AND FAST PROTECTIVE RELAYING FOR EHV-AC Lines UHV-AC Lines
IMPROVED TRANSIENT STABILITY. Primary Relay 1 -2 0.5 -10
Circuit-breaker 1.5-2 -3 1 2 2.25
By high spe0d circuit-breakers, we now mean, circuit-breakers of operating time less than 3
Current Detector Dropout 0.5 -2 0,25 - 0.5
cycles. Fast relaying refers to instantaneous relaying assisted by carrier current protection for
Margin 3.5 -6 3
transmission systems.
Details about fault clearing time, relay time and circuit-breaker time are given in chapter 2. Auxiliary Relay 1 0.25 - 0.5
Fig. 44.14 (a) illustrates a simple system subjected to various types of faults such as (P) single Back-up Breaker Clearing 2 -3 2 2.5
line to ground, (Q) Line to line, (R) Double line to ground, (S). Three phase fault; at sending end Total Time 10.5 -17.0 8 -10.5
on one of the lines. The limit of power that can be transferred for duration of faults is plotted on Representative 'l'otal Time .12 9
Fig. 44.14 (b). The circuit-breakers at both ends of the line are simultaneously opened. From the
graph it is visualised that "Power transfer limit for given type of fault, for given system configuration In this ~ystem, assume that phase-to-phase fault occur between breakers A and B which is
can be increased by reducing the fault clearing time". ~leared by h1.gh speed relay scheme simultaneously at both A and B. During the time the fault ex-
Hence fast and simultaneous opening circuit-breakers at both end of transmission lines im- ~st~, the eqmvalent transfer reactance between the sending and the receiving ends of the system
proves the tr_ansient stability limit. Therefore, for important bulk power transmission lines and in- Is mcreased. Because of fault power there is a decrease in the electrical power that can be trans-
terconnectors fast circuit-breakers, carrier current protection or pilot wire-differential protection, ferred.
,static relays having better and faster characteristics are desirable. The higher cost is justified by
This re~uction can be represented on the power angle diagram as DE. While the fault is on
the increased limit of power transfer.
the a~gle o mcrease but assuming high speed relaying and fast breakers A and B the fault is iso-
lated from the system quickly. During the fault, the power transfer and increase in angle ois defined
by the curve E_F. When the breakers open the reactance between the sending and receiving ends
of the system 1s reduced but not to its original value, because line A - B is open. The transmitted
power then ap~rec~ably increases and operation shifts instantaneously from F to G. This electrical
power outp~t 1s _still ~elow the initial operating point, so the sending generators continue to ac-
celerate until pomt N 1s reached where the electrical power output equals the initial power output
and the mechanical input. .
Fig. 44.14 (a), The system subjected to fault Fat sending end on
one of the two lines.
equal area criterion, where area DD'GHL below the P 1 line is larger than the area LMN above
B p 1. However, rapid reclosing after a fault clearing would permit stable operation.
(Refer Fig. 44.16). Upon the occurrence of a fault as shown on line A - B, the electrical power
p flow drops to E. During the fault the angle increases from E to F. With simultaneous fault clearing
the power flow instantly increases from F to G. With line A - B open o continues to increase until
at H the breakers at both A and B are reclosed. Now the power instantly increases from H to J,
and the system will continue to swing to K until area II equals area I. Equilibrium will finally be
reached again at D.
Thus the rapid auto-reclosure of circuit breakers at either ends of the line in the event of fault,
improves the transient stability of system. And the power that can be transferred can be increased
with the use of auto-reclosure systems.
A &B BK.RS.OPEN
~ -AREA l
44.12. SINGLE POLE RECLOSING OF CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
~ .
E
*" p~.
___,______
_;¥
A 8.B BHRS.CLOSED
, ~DURING L-L !=AULT
Where bulk power is transmitted, single pole reclosing has certain advantages. In single pole
switching, the protective relaying and breaker operating mechanism is such that single pole of
0---4~5-, 90 13.5 . 180 S breaker can be opened for fault on the corresponding phase. The unfaulted phases continue getting
Fig. 44.15. Power angle diagram before, during and after line-to-line fault. power. Since most single line to ground faults are temporary in nature, auto-reclosure can be readily
applied to such schemes. The merits of single pole switching are the following :
However, this is not the end of the swing because sending generators are still going faster than
the machines at the receiving end of the system. Neglecting losses the swing will continue to point - the healthy phases continue to supply power and only faulty phase is opened. Therefore,
K where area II equals area I. Provided the area NKL under the curve and above line P 1 is greater power transfer is more than three pole opening.
than the area I of DEFGN the system will ultimately reach equilibrium at a final operating point - single pole reclosing further improves the power transfer limit (Fig. 44.17).
N. If the area NKL is less than area, I, the system will not maintain stability. - the power transfer on fault can be substantially increased for single pole auto-reclosure
schemes.
For any given power transfer P, there is a critical clearing angle. Unless the fault is cleared
before the power angle o reaches angle, the system loses synchronism. For larger power transfer Single pole reclosing breakers and single pole relaying are more expensive because three inde-
there:'ore,_ faster fault clear~ng is required to ensure stability. This demands for fast relaying and pendent mechanisms and complex relaying are required.
,oo
!¼
fast circmt-breakers. The distance relays should be stable during power swings. ·
44.11. AUTO-RECLOSURE IMPROVES TRANSIENT STABILITY

~~
~ __ I____
Rapid auto-reclosure of circuit-breakers at both the ends of transmission lines is advantageous.
The b~nefits of ~uto1;llatic high-speed reclosing can be represented on the power angle diagram,
a _syste~ i~ _shown m Fig. 44.16, where if line A - B is opened accidently at either line terminal
\
\ "'
I\
I"-.
"-
~
~
SY5TEM
I I
with an mitial power flow P1, the stability limit will be exceeded. This can be determined by the \ ~
SINGL£ POLE RECL05/NG
---. i - - r--
p
B \
\ '\.
--
""r--..
"" '<:TRIPLE -P0L£-RECL05/NG
"" ~
..........._
'>ILL LINES IN 0
O 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 _ 32 36 40 44 48
r-- - 52
LIN£ A-B OPEN RECL05/N6 TIME PERM/55/BLE IN Hz -
Fig. 44.17. Comparison between three-phase auto-reclosure
-:L FAULT ON LINE A-B and single phase auto-reclosure.
Choice of Autoreclosing schemes varies in different countries.
45 95 135 180 About 93% E.H.V. Schemes in U.S.S.R. are with three phase autoreclosure.
Fig. 44.16. Power angle diagram for L-L fault with rapid reclosing.
902 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION POWER SYSTEM STABILITY, AUTO-RE.CLOSING SCHEMES 903
44.13. INDEPENDENT POLE MECHANISM

It refers to the use of separate mechanism for each pole of the breaker. Recent 245 kV and 420
~·=;~~{~~t~===:-1----
C-+--+-H-,---+--l----
_-_-_-
kV circuit-breakers are provided with this feature. In this feature, although the breaker poles
operate independent of each other, the relaying may be arranged to trip all three poles for some
types of fault.
44.14. SINGLE POLE TRIPPING*

It refers to use of separate operating mechanical for each pole and use of relaying such that
L
le-->-
Fl
LOCIIL
---17Sl!~~~~f
for single line to ground fault on a phase, only the pole of faulty phase is tripped. For other fault ~/\1\ ~_, ~ .., ___
such as phase-phase, double line-to-ground, three phase; all the three poles are tripped. The relay-
REMOT{'
ing required for such tripping is more complicated. However, where large generating station is tied
Fig. 44.18 . .Carrier signals in conventional phase comparison rel~ying.
to a single transmission line, such a scheme is preferred.
44.15. ~ELECTIVE POLE TRIPPING LOCAL CIIANN!u.

It is a new system, in which the relaying is such that the faulty phases are tripped for cor- -n.st--
lsa.l
responding type at fault, i.e. ~ _n_n_-
REMOTE
L-G fault - Only one ; affected phase operated
2£-G fault} . .
L-L fault - Two, affected phases opened
3-Phase fault -All three phases opened.
Selective pole tripping can provide adequate improvement in stability to satisfy many system
requirements.
Independent pole operation requires three independent operating mechanisms on the circuit-
breaker, one for each pole. These are not mechanicaily connected in any way. Three separate trip
coils are required for primary relaying, one for each pole. In case of double trip-coil schemes where Fig. 44.19. Carrier signals in SPCR.
trip coil for primary and back-up are provided on same breaker, totally six trip coils would be neces- . T~e main disadvantages of the isolated phase approach is the requirement for four separate
sary. pilot signals (A, B, C and G) per terminal. However, offsetting those disadvantages are many relay-
mg advantages.
44.16. SEGREGATED PHASE COMPARISON RELAYING (SPCR)** 1. The SPCU approach overcomes the three major problems of series compensated lines - ab-
(Courtesy : Westinghouse Electric Corporation, U.S.A.) normal frequencies, phase impedance unbalance, voltage reversals.
Independent pole operation of power circuit-breakers requires segregated phase relaying. 2. High speed operation, due to angle diversity between phase and eliminated of filters required
Segregated Phase Relaying developed by Westinghouse Electric Corporation, USA facilitates Inde- in conventional phase comparison circuitry.
pendent Pole Protection. 3. Inherent redundancy because for sub-systems back-up each other.
The SPCR scheme compares the phase (angular) position of current in each phase (and ground) 4. All ~he advantages of carrier current relaying : not responsive to power swings, not subject
separately. The comparisons are based on square waves derives directly from raw (unfiltered) power to mutual mductance problems, unaffected by loss of potential, relays correctly operate for 3-phase
system currents. This approach compares with conventional phase-comparison schemes that com- zero voltage faults and unaffected by voltage transients.
pares a single square-waves train derived from a three-phase network of sequence fitters and 5. Phase isolation, independent pole concept extended to relays and circuit-breakers.
mixing transformer, as depicted in Fig. 44.18. There are many variations of that conventional 6. Inherent phase selectively for all types of faults which alone with phase isolation provides
phase-comparison technique - some use two separate comparisons, one for positive sequence and greater flexibility in system design.
one for negative sequence. However, all incorporate positive sequence and/or negative sequence net-
works and, therefore, are vulnerable to abnormal frequencies and phase impedance imbalances. 44.17. INFLUENCE OF POWER SWINGS ON TRANSMISSION LINE PROTECTION
The new approach, shown in Fig. 44.19 consists offour separate sub-systems-three phases and
ground. The ground sub-system is included to protect ~gainst the single-line-to-line ground fault A sudden change in loading on transmission lines causes change in the power angle and the
with high fault resistance and heavy through-load, and to provide back up detection for all normal power angle o oscillates about its new equilibrium position. This produces power swings resulting
m heavy equalizing currents in the transmission lines. The power swings influence the distance
ground faults.
protection. The distance protection should be such that it should be stable over a wide range of
* Power system is not allowed to operate with unbalanced condition for more than I second. All three poles are power swings and does not trip unselectively if power swings subsides to normal within reasonable
opened after unsuccessful single pole autoreclosing.
time. But if special conditions arise, such as very large oscillations following a sudden disconnection
oflarge load, load shedding, clearance of fault, etc. It is necessary to use additional out of step block-
** Segregate = To set apart; to separate.
904
3. Rapid (high speed) Autoreclosing. A scheme in which the circuit-breaker is reclosed
ing or out of step tripping relays. The selection and location of these relays is made after study and
within 0.3 second after the fault trip operation.
analysis of network.
4. Delayed (low-speed) Autoreclosing. A scheme in which the CB releases more than 1 sec.
The starting element of a distance relay usually responds to overcurrent or minimum im-
after the fauit trip operation.
pedance.
During power swings there is flow of equalising currents in transmission lines. Since the 5. Lock-out. A feature in autoreclosing scheme, which prevents closing of the circuit-breaker
phenomenon is symmetrical in all three phases the swing causes starting elements to pick-up in after its second tripping.
the three phases during power swings. 6. Antipumping. A feature in autoreclosing scheme which prevents repeated C - 0 operations
Since starting element pick-up during power swings, it becomes a task of the measuring ele- even if closing impulse continues to be prevented.
ments to decide whether the system should be tripped or locked. 7. Time Designations. (Refer Fig. 44.20).
Second
!1
Instant Final Contacts Opening
PART D : AUTORECLOSING of Fault Relay Current Closing Coil l o ch Operation
l!
Operates Zero Breaker Energised
Contact Fully Breaker Current
t 1
Separate OP.en Fully Close Flow
Stops
44.18. AUTORECLOSING SCHEMES Closing
Autoreclosing of high voltage a.c. circuit-breakers has been covered in chapter 2.

openinglArcing
nme Time
Time
l
These sections may please be_ referred. In this chapter we will study autoreclosing schemes _
+--Ti+!+-Ta~
____,.___
I
__,,.utoreclosure Setting _ _ _..,..
t--.
iRelay Breaker
with static relays. 6~~ui-;-1 Td 1 4 - - - - 1 Operates Fully
l},elay Breaker Time / Electrical Dead Time for Second Open &
Autoreclosing schemes can be regarded as an inherent features of protection system and net- Opening Locked
work automation. The ultimate aim of Autoreclosing is to eliminate the supply interruption due to
temporary faults and to improve transient stability limit (Refer Sec. 44.5).
+ ~~e o:~~~~g
- -
Operation
----• j-
~ L__!_...:__=
if Fault
Persists
OPen
Depending upon the system requirements there can be five varieties of autoreclosing schemes System Disturbance Time(if successfully reclosed)----♦
in today's high-voltage transmission systems. Fig. 44.20. Sequential events in single shot autoreclosing scheme.
(Chapter 2 for detailed description)
1. Rapid autoreclosing scheme to improve stability and prevent loss of synchronism.
In cases where there is a danger of losing synchronism, non-repetitive rapid autoreclosing is used (a) Fault Clearing Time Tr, Time between occurrence of fault and final arc extinction in cir-
for one or three phases. The first reclosure can be critical from stability considerations (Refer Fig. cuit-breaker.
44.7). Hence the process should not be repeated. (b) Relay Time, T, .. Time between occurrence of fault and closing of tripping contacts or ener-
Before systems can be interconnected, there must be synchronised. For this purpose a quick- gising of shunt trip release.
acting automatic synchronizer can be used instead of mutual synchronizing process. The automatic
(c) Opening time of C.B. T0 • Time between energising of shunt trip release and opening of
synchronizer is used in conjunction with autoreclosing equipment.
circuit-breaker contacts.
2. Delayed Autoreclosing Schemes. Delayed autoreclosing is used appropriately meshed
networks where synchronism is maintained during the dead time after the line interruption. A rapid (d) Arcing Time of C.B. (Ta). Time between separation of circuit-breaker contacts and final
autoreclosing scheme can also be continued with several delayed autoreclosing versions. current zero.
3. Autoreclosing Schemes with Desired Switching Sequence. In cases where a circuit- (e) Total fault clearing time= Relay time + Circuit-breaker time
breaker in conjunction with isolators, interrupts several lines (as in stations with ring buses), the Tr= Tr+ Tcb = T,. + (T0 + Ta)
autoreclosing scheme must ensure that the switching sequence follows a correct pattern. Therefore, (/) Dead Time Td (of CB). Time between final current zero of first opening and contact
such autoreclosing scheme must have a certain built-in logic so the correct autoreclosing sequence
touch during subsequent reclosing.
is carried out in spite of large number of switching combinations required in a particular power
(g) De-ionizing Time (of Transmission Line Fault). Time for deionizing the arc space after
system. opening of circuit-breaker. (Refer Ch. 2).
4. Programmed Autoreclosing and Programmed Interruption. A further step is scheme · (h) System Disturbance Time. Time between occurrence of fault and successful reclosing of
for power system with central monitoring system which involves not only programmed contacts. ·
autoreclosure but also programmed interruptions.
5. Multi-shot Autoreclosing for Low Power Distribution Lines (Refer Fig. 2.14). 44.20. RAPID AUTORECLOSING SCHEME
Autoreclosing is adopted only for over-head lines. It is not used for underground cables or gas in- Rapid single shot auto-reclosing scheme must always be considered as integral part of line
sulated cables, generator circuit-breakers etc. ~rotection. Whether the auto-reclosing should be single phase or three-phase and the optimum dead
time depends on system studies carried out on trans.ient network analyzer and digital computer.
44.19. TERMS AND DEFINITIONS REGARDING AUTORECLOSING The present trend is to have carrier aided distance protection schemes for long transmission lines
1. Autoreclosing. The process of automatic closing of a circuit-breaker after its opening. and carrier current phase comparison protection for relatively short lines upto say 50 km length.
2. Single Shot Autoreclosing. A scheme providing only one reclosing operation, lock-out of The Distance Protection Scheme provided for long transmission lines are fitted with Autoreclos-
circuit-breaker follows if breaker opens after first reclosure. ing Apparatus (Refer Ch. 42).
906
In general the autoreclosing scheme used for other types of protection schemes (differential
Recently Directional wave Relays are used in conjunction with distance protection.
directional comparison, phase comparison) is also similar to the above mentioned scheme.
In static distance protection schemes, although the auto-reclosing unit is a self-contained unit,
it is designed as a functional° unit, it is designed as a functional accessory of the distance relay.
44,21. DELAYED AUTORECLOSING SCHEME
(Refer Ch. 42). The general trend is to combine the whole protection system for each line in one
cabinet. Thus 1static auto-reclosing scheme should be selected as an integrated aspect of static dis- As mentioned earlier, on highly interconnected meshed systems, loss of single line is not likely
tance protection scheme. The basic advantage include the reduction of space and reduced time of to cause these two sections of the system to drift apart and lose synchronism. Delayed Autoreclosing
installation and commissioning (in addition to advantages mentioned in Ch. 42). is preferred in such cases.
Static autoreclosing schemes comprise integrated circuit logic elements (Refer Ch. 38). The logic Delayed autoreclosing can also be employed as follow-up of an unsuccessful rapid auto-reclos-
elements include flip flops AND, NANO, NOR, Time delay etc. ing. The object of delayed reclosure is to
Fig. 44.21 give a logic diagram of a static reclosing unit for a commercial static distance relay. reclose after a delay of several seconds, fol- SA SB
lowing an unsuccessful rapid auto-reclosing F 1~r~~
such schemes are used in Switzerland. ------
In highly interconnected meshed net- Us
;m§.---~1--:-:.1t...---:::!)--ffit-----,-;;_;:~~--..J..._~ work, delayed auto-reclosing has an ad- U1 u2

vantage over rapid autoreclosing that the A, B Circuit-breakers
SA, Ss Substations
line is not likely to close on to a likely exist- UA, Us Voltage-transformers U1 Line voltage
ing fault immediately after interruption U2 Busbar voltage.
and at higher generator excitation. The
E2~1 delayed reclosure permits the generator ex- Fig. 44.22. Explaining delayed autoreclosing.
citation to be reduced to normal level before
the reclosing takes place. In England, the Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB) employ
delayed autoreclosure with dead times of the order of 5 - 60. seconds. The analysis of relative per-
formances of rapid reclosing and delayed reclosing system showed was as follows :
Rapid auto-reclosing: 68% successful reclosure
Delayed auto-reclosing: 78% successful reclosure
A3
Thus the probability of successful reclosure increases with delayed reclosing.
AI= Current through the circuit-breaker C =,Outputs of (2), (3) respectively. . Some design features. In rapid auto-reclosing principle, the line is reclosed at both ends
A 3 = To distance relay trip for effection
tripping coil
three-phase interruption
simultaneously without voltage monitoring.
D = Contactor E 1 =Inputs for instigating three-
E 2 = Inputs for instigating single or
phase reclosure 44.22. SYNCHRONISM CHECK
three-phase reclosure E 2 = Inputs for blocking reclosure :
G=Redosure such as time zones of distance
Consider _delayed auto-reclosing of line circuit-breakers A, B interconnecting sub-stations
K = Flip--flop (signals 1 at both inputs SA and TB. It 1s presumed that the system is quite stable and opening ofline AB has not resulted
relay, air pressure monitor,
result in a 1 single at output 1)
switching, etc. in loss of st~bility however this could result in voltage phase difference between ends A and B.
Ni, N 3 =Counters for single-phase or HF= High-frequency trip
three-phase reclosing
Hence reclosmg of line A and B, after a delay could result in on unacceptable shock of the system.
M =Distance measurement
W = Selector switch (see Table) R, S, T =Phase selection signals It i~ a usual practice to incorporate a synchronism monitor relay in the reclosing system to
ts= Operating time (release time) W Def= Breaker lock-out determme whether auto-reclosing can take place. The synchronism monitor relay gives a three-fold
Reclosure signal 1 appears at out- Isr = Blocking time check between voltages on both sides of circuit-breaker.
put only if there is also a 1 signal at d = Output of sub circuit (1)
the side input - phase angle difference in voltages
t 1, t 3 = Dead time of signal-phase or three - voltage magnitude difference
phase reclosing. - frequency difference.
Fig. 44.21. Logic diagram of a static rapid reclosing unit accompany Phase Angle Difference. Suppose circuit-breaker Bis being closed. U1 and U2 are voltages
a distance protection for rapid autoreclosing scheme
(Courtesy : Brown Boveri, Switzerland) on either sides (Refer Figs. 44.22 and 44.23). Voltage U 2 will oscillate with respect to vector U 1 .
When the phase angle between [!1 and U2 is less than say± 30° (shaded area) the contacts of
The autoreclosing unit described above is used in conjunction with tripping circuits of the dis-
synchronism monitor relay close.
tance relays.
(Refer Fig. 44.23). Vectors U 1 and U2 oscillate with respect to each other. When they fall within
The selection of such that
all three phases trip if a single phase faults occurs while the reclosure is blocked, or shaded area, the phase difference is less than 30° and contacts of synchronous monitor close. When
they are beyond the shaded area, the phase angle is more than 30° the contacts of synchronous
- all three phases trip when three phase tripping is required for all types of faults.
908
The distance relays incorporate starting element operates and initiates auto-reclosing scheme.
monitor remain open and closing relay of auto-reclosing Any interlock needed to prevent the•initiation can be devices through AND circuit on an-interlock
scheme is blocked out. It takes the next opportunity contact in series with the starting element contact.
when the two vectors come near synchronism again.
For example in air blast circuit-breakers, the pressure switches contacts for low-pressure lock-
The voltage check incorporated when the ing may be connected in series with starting element of distance relay and auto-reclosing relay so
synchronism monitor prevents reclosure if any of the , that breaker does not reclose during low air pressure.
voltages U 1 and U 2 are less than predetermined value /
U)' Summary
(say 80% Un). , Power system stability refers to condition during which the synchronous machines in the sys-
I
The frequency difference check is generally based / tem have ability to remain in synchronism. Transient Stability Limit refers to the maximum power
on a timer in conjunction with phase difference relay. that can be transferred through a.point after the given sudden large disturbance without causing
When the two frequencies are nearly equal, the phase loss of synchronism.
difference between voltage vectors varies very slowly. Fig. 44.23. Condition for closure of synchronism Transient stability limit of transmission system can be improved by several means such as
For example, a relay closes only if phase difference be- monitor contracts.
tween voltage vectors does not exceeded 30° over a . - fast fault clearing by means of fast circuit-breakers and fast relays. [One cycle relay and
period of2 seconds. This limits the frequency difference between two vectors to a maximum of0.19% two cycle C.B.]
of 50 Hz. - auto-reclosing circuit breakers.
The delayed reclosing permits enough time to carry out the synchronising check. - single pole switching.
Sequence of Delayed Reclosing the Circuit Breaker. Consider the _tri?ping of l!ne AB. on - single pole auto-reclosure, etc. [Also refer Sec. 18.26]
fault. The normal practice is to reclose the breaker at one end first. This is calle~ dead lme The distance relays should remain stable for permissible power swings. Beyond these limits,
charging'. Closing of this breaker, say A, does not r~quire sy_nchronis~ ch~ck. Recl~smg at other out-of-steps blocking or out-of-step tripping is resorted to.
end B is then under the control of synchronism momtor and is called hve hne reclosmg. Autoreclosing refers to the reclosing or circuit breaker after its opening on fault. Autoreclosing
The dead time selected for reclosing A and B are different. For example,. if dead ti_me for dead feature is provided for protection of overhead transmission lines.
line reclosing (A) is set at say 6 seconds, the corresponding dead time for live hne reclosmg (breaker - single phase or three phase autoreclosing.
B) is of the order of 16 seconds. The events for autoreclosing sequence for breakers A and B are - rapid autoreclosing
then as follows : - delayed autoreclosing
Table 44.3
Rapid autoreclosing is preferred for transmission lines whose disconnection for longer time can
Sequence of delayed reclosing of circuit breakers A and B. (Refer Fig. 44.21). cause loss of synchronism. Delayed auto-reclosing is preferred for reclosing transmission lines large
interconnected (meshed) systems in which delay in reclosing does not affect the system stability
(1) ·t =0 Fault occurred substantially.
(2) t = 0.1 sec Circuit-breakers A and B open and make the line dead.
(3) t = 6 sec. Voltage monitor rel1;1y at A check whether line is dead and then reclose breaker A. PART E. MODERN DEFINITIONS OF POWER SYSTEM
DISTURBANCE, STABILITY
(4) t = 16 sec. Synchronism monitor at B check the synchronism between charged line and bus bar B and
then permit reclosing the circuit-breaker B.
44.24. TERMS AND DEFINITIONS IN POWER SYSTEM STABILITY STUDIES (1980)
Under-voltage Relay. The end of the line which closes first, (A is this cas~, Refer ~ig. 44.22) Power System Stability has been an area of study from the early days of electrical power genera-
connects the dead line to busbar SA. An undervoltage relay is used for measurmg the hne voltage tion and transmission. This subject has become very important as the various power systems over
to establish categorically that the line is dead. The undervoltage relay is set very low (8 to 10 V large geographic areas has been interconnected to form a network. Long distance high power EHV
for normal voltage Un= 110 V) is connected to the lines a voltage transformer UA, transmission lines have been introduced. Sophisticated equipment have been added for control,
automation and protection. Better Mathematical models and computer softwares have been estab-
44.23. CONTROL SCHEMES FOR AUTO-RECLOSING lished for analysing and predicting transient stability.
As mentioned earlier, the autoreclosing device is a part of line protection scheme. H~nce ~tis Considering these aspects, the terms and definitions have been revised by CIGRE and IEEE.
to be incorporated with the type of line protection. (Distance/differential/overcurrent/carri.er aided 1. Power System. A network of one or more electrical generating units, loads, power trans-
directional comparison/phase comparison). The auto-reclosing device is initiated automatically by mission lines, including the associated equipment connected to the networks.
one of the following means : 2. Operating Quantities of a Power System. Physical quantities, which can be measured
or calculated that can be used to describe the operating conditions of a power system.
- Circuit-breaker auxiliary contact
Note. Operating quantities include r.m.s. values of corresponding phasors of alternating or os-
When circuit-breaker opens on fault, the auxiliary switch also operates and closes the circuit cillating quantities.
which initiates auto reclosing device. 3. Steady-state operating condition of power system. An operating condition of a power
- Protective relay contacts. system in which all of the operating quantities that characterize it can be considered to be constant
This method is preferred because it prevents accidental reclosing. for the purpose of analysis.
SWITCH GEA."{ AND PRO'rECTION
910 derived historically from the fact that in most cases for such instability the trajectories are
4. Synchronous Operation . _. monotonic.
4.1. Synchronous operation of a machine. A machine is in sync?ronous operation wit~ a 13. Oscillatory Instability. A power system is oscillatorily unstable for a particular steady-
network or another machine to which it is connected i.f its average electrical speed (products of its state operating condition if following a disturbance its instability is caused by insufficient damping
rotor-angular velocity and the number of pole pairs) is equ~l to the angular frequency to the a.c. torque.
network voltage or to the electrical speed of the other machme. . . 14. Power System includes not only generators and transmission lines but also associated equip-
4.2. Synchronous Operation of the Power System. A power syste~ is i~ synchronous ments such as turbines, connected mechanical loads, control system etc. For analysis of the stability
operation if all its connected synchronous machines are in synchronous operat10n with the a.c. net- problem, the models of concerned significantly influencing equipment need only be considered and
work and with each other. other parts of the systems are neglected. Power system is usually an interconnected grid which is
5. Asynchronous Operation . . divided into hierarchical areas and each area has its automatic control of load, frequency and
5.1. Asynchronous operation of a machine. A machine is ~n asynchronous oper~trnn with stability. Power is exchanged between areas during normal condition and during emergency con-
a network or another machine to which it is connected if it is not m synchronous operatrnn. dition. When there is major disturbance in a part of a grid, that part is quickly isolated from the
5.2. Asynchronous operation of a power system. A power ~ystem is in asynchrono:1s opera- remaining system. To avoid the collapse of the whole grid, the network is Islanded or segregated
tion if one or more of or its connected synchronous machines are m asynchronous operatrnn. during a major fault (Refer Ch. 45).
Note. The term 'non-synchronous' is some times used as a synonym for 'asynchronous'. 15. Steady-state Operating Condition does not exist truly in any power system because the dis-
turbances such as load fluctuations, voltage fluctuations occur almost continuously. The steady
6. Hunting of a Machine. A machine is hunting if any of its operating quantities experience state is assumed for the purpose of analysis-under such an assumed state that all the operating
sustained oscillations. quantities are considered to be constant for the purpose of analysis.
7. Disturbance in a Power System. A disturbance in a power system ~s a sudden change or 16. Loss of Synchronism means transition from synchronous state to asynchronous state and
a sequence of changes in one or more of the parameters of the system, or m one or more of the is the usual indication of Loss of Stability. This is true only for purely a.c. system having only
operating quantities. · . . synchronous generators. With increased use of asynchronous generators and HVDC transmission,
7 .1. Small disturbance in a Power System. A small disturbance for which the equ~tions this is above concept does not apply to all the machines and all the transmission links. The power
that describe the dynamics of the power system may be linearized for the purpose of analysis. system of its parts may be in asynchronous operating condition. e.g. Two Areas connected by HVDC
7 .2. Large Disturbance in Power System. A large disturbance is. a dis_turbance for which link may even operate at different frequencies and are as a rule not in synchronism with each other.
the equations that described the dynamics of the power system cannot be lmearized for the purpose 17. Synchronous operation of a machine is usually defined by average electrical speed. Instan-
of analysis. taneous electrical speed may experience some deviation from synchronous speed without'loosing
8. Steady-state Stability of a Power System. A power systei_n is a stead! state stable for a _ synchronism. During and after the disturbance, machine rotors may 'Swing' from their steady state
particular steady state operating condition if, following any s~all disturbance, i~ reache~ ~ stead_y position but their average electrical speed over several seconds, should be same as synchronous
state operating condition which is identical or close to the pre-disturbance operatmg condition. This speed if synchronism is not lost. It means, while analysing the swing and in the swing equation,
is also known as Small Disturbance Stability of a Power System. the synchronous speed of rotor poles and the stator magnetic flux is assumed as the machine is
9. Transient Stability of a Power System. A power System is tran_siently stable for a par- running in synchronism. The swing in angle o is with reference to the synchronous rotating axis.
ticular steady-state operating condition and for a particular disturbance, if reaches an acceptable 18. Hunting is a special operating condition. Some quantities oscillate with constant, finite mag-
steady-state operating condition. nitudes with constant runs value of oscillation. This condition is considered as stable or unstable
10. Power System Stability Limits depending upon the other definitions applicable to stability. However, hunting comes in the category
10.l. Steady-state Stability Limits. The steady-state-stability limit is a_ ste~dy-state operat- of steady state stability since r.m.s. values of oscillations are constant.
ing condition for which the power system is steady state but for which an arbitrarily small change 19. Disturbance refers to the ca.use of change in operating quantity. The analysis of the power
in any of the operating quantities in an u~favourable dir~c.tion_ c~uses the power system to lose system is usually performed in three categories (Ref. Sec. 50.8.2.) :
stability. This is also known as the small disturbance stability limit. · - Pre-disturbance steady operating state (Normal)
10.2. Transient Stability Limit. The transient stability limit for a particular disturba_nce is - During disturbance (Emergency)
the steady-state operating condition for which the power system is transiently s_tabl~ for which an - Post-disturbance steady operating state. (Restoration)
arbitrarily small change in any of the operating quantities is an unfavourable direction causes the The disturbance is called 'small' or 'large' depending upon whether linear approximation of sys-
power system to lose stability for that distance. . . . . . . tem model is valid or not. For small disturbance, linear approximation is valid.
11. Critical Clearance Time. Ifa particular disturbance includes the mitiat10n and_is_o~at~on Disturbance are usually made up of sequence of a sudden changes e.g.
of a fault on a power system, the critical clearing time is the maximum time between the 1rntiatrnn
"Occurrence of fault - opening of breaker - reclosing of
and isolation such that the power system is transiently stable.
breaker - opening for the second time - locked open".
12. Monotonic Instability. A power system is monotonically unstable for parti_cular st_eady-
state operating condition if following a disturbance its instability is caused by msufficiently this chain of events can be considered as one disturbance. The stability of the system is usually
studied with reference to such a 'sequence of events' and not an individual 'event'.
synchronizing torque.
Note. The trajectory for monotonic instability may not ~e _strictly monotonic or have less tha? 20. Natural or Inherent Stability is a new term. A power system is inherently stable for a par-
one oscillation. The main criterion is insufficient synchrornzmg torque and the nomenclature IS ticular steady-state operating condition and particular disturbance is no automatic control action
912
(C) Stability of Large Induction Motor Loads
is required to maintain stability. For example, if there is a sudden change in load and the system
absorbs this change on its own, without loss of stability by adjnstment of 8 corresponding to new Large motors should run stably for busbar voltages upto 85% of normal rated voltage, under
P, the system is inherently stable for given condition. (During 1970's, new automatic control sys- steady state loading condition.
tems and protection systems have been introduced to enhance (increase) transient stability limits. During voltage dips due to faults somewhere else, the transient stability of loads will be af-
The inherent stability gets further improved by using such means). fected. Special measure should be taken to provide for asynchronous operation, auto-reclosing/re-
21. The short term stability refers to behaviour for several seconds. synchronizing etc., for large, important motors.
22. The longterm stability refers to behaviour for period of more than several tens of seconds. Large motors take high starting currents for a few seconds. The bus-voltage shall not dip below
For short term stability study, the faster automatic controls operating within a few tens of seconds 85% under starting conditions.
(e.g. excitation control, governor control, circuit breaker operation etc.) are considered. For long
term stability study, the slower controls operating in more than a few tens of seconds or minutes PART F: IMPROVEMENT IN STEADY STATE TRA.-i\TSIENT
(e.g. Load-frequency control; load shedding, boiler control etc.) are considered. The exact time for STABILITY LIMITS
short term and long term has not been defined. Sometimes a term : 'Mid-t_erm stability' is used to [An integrated modern approach towards improving transient stability of interconnected Net-
bridge the gap. work (Grid), transmission systems, synchronous machines]. ·
Types of Instability. In some cases instability may be due to insufficiently synchronising Table 44 F summarises the various methods of improving transient/steady state stability limits
torque. Such instability is called Monotonic Instability. in modern power systems. Actually, these methods are interdependent. However, each method plays
If instability is caused by insufficient damping torque, the term oscillators instability is used. a significant role in improving stability of corresponding part of the system.
In practice it caused by combination of 'monotonic' and 'oscillatory' causes. But for analysis and Table 44-F Methods of Improvement of Transient/Steady
conceptual aid, these terms have been separately defined. By such a separation the most effective State Stability of Power System
ways to stabilize the system can be pin-pointed. Method Description Reference
Instability can also be caused by insufficient supply of reactive power resulting in voltage col-
lapses. The instability caused by inadequate reactive power and fall of busbar, voltage is called
Voltage Instability. However the term Voltage Instability is not used widely as yet (1982).
Rapid Exeit::~:: :ontrnl
(A~)
•- Automatic Voltage
Regulators
Sec. 44.23-D
- High Excitor Ceiling
0
Voltage
REGULATOR - Rapid Excitation Response.
44.25. OPERATIONAL LIMITS WITH REFERENCE TO STEADY STATE STABILITY
&EXCSYSTEM
LIMIT AND TRANSIENT STABILITY LIMIT
(B) Rapid Fault Clearing - Simultaneous operating of Sec. 44.10
The power transfer Pis related with voltage Vs and VR· From the equation, P = Ws VRIX) sin 8, circuit-breakers on both ends
~
and the study of the power angle diagrams for each synchronous machine and the transmission system, of transmission line for rapid
the operational limit are mainly concerned with maintaining the power transfer and the bus-voltages fault clearing.
within limits to maintain transient stability.
(A) Under Normal operating conditions, Power transfer P should be of the order of 75% Pmax (C) Rapid Auto Reclosing - Rapid Autoreclosing of Sec. 44.18
circuit-breakers for transient
·~~
where Pmax is steady state stability limit (V8 VRIX) for generator units. faults as overhead lines.
During post fault conditions, the power transfer P may be as high as 90% Pmax till the human ~t~"-·
intervention takes corrective action over from automatic process, for generator units. (D) Series Capacitors - Reduction in reactance of Sec. 44.23-B
For transmission systems, angle 8 is kept within ± 30° for transfer stability. Reduce X transmission line by use of
series capacitors. Power
1 IVs I· IVR I traµsfer limit increased.
Pmax=·2 X . - Use of controllable series
capacitcrs.
(B) The busbar continuous voltages IVs I and IVR I should held within specified limits by con- (E) Paralles Lines Reduce X -- Reactance X reduced giving Sec. 44.23-B
trolling excitation, by tap changing transformers, by shunt compensation and series compensation higher power. transfer limit
etc. to maintain the steady state and transient stability limits. The limits ofbusbar voltages as per v. VR/X.
standards are as follows :
kV rms, Phase to Phase, steady state (F) Network Islanding - Unstable Ai:ea segregated Sec. 45.9
from neighbouring healthy
Nominal rated voltage 33 66 132 220 400 Areas by automatic Network
Islanding.
Lower Limit of Rated voltage 30 60 120 200 380
Upper limit of rated voltage 36 72.5 145 245 420

Method Description Reference The steps associated with total network include -
(G) Load Frequency Control - Total generation in the Grid Sec. 45.4 1. Load-frequency control and system frequency control during normal and emergency condition
equal to total load. post fault condition.
~=~ - Load frequency control and
~}~ load shedding to maintain 2. Back-up breaker operations. If fault is not cleared by main (Primary) breakers; the back-up
constant frequency. breakers should be opened to clear the fault. When back-up breaker should be opened to cause
least disturbance to the system ?
T~flvR
(H) Voltage Control
Vs ____
- Voltage of sub-station
buses held constant by
Ch. 45-B
3. Network Islanding (segregation).
f
voltage control techniques.
T' ----> To split the network into appropriate islands to prevent cascade tripping and the total black-
P= VsVR.5,,,[ out.
X
(I) Use of HVDC - The power flow through Sec. 44.23.4

·4, Alternate routes of power transfer during emergency depending upon prevailing generation
Transmission with HVDC link is modulated to position in various areas and loading of lines.
damping control. damp system disturbances. 5. Use of system Damping Resistors (SDR). These are switched in when faulty line is opened
and are switched-off after reclosure.
44.26. METHODS OF IMPROVING TRANSIENT STABILITY LIMIT 6. Increasing interconnections (tie lines) to reduce reactance X and .increase available power.
Refer the power equations 7. Adding transmission lines of higher voltage levels.
(2) Method of improvement of Transient Stability of Transmission systems and Tie Lines, and
P . u~ t·or t ransm1ss1on
= IVs IX· IVR I sin . . 1nes
1
.
Methods associated with Circuit-breakers and the Protection.
2.1. Adding Parallel lines to increase power transfer ability. If single circuit transmission line
p = I V IX. I E I sm ~ synch. ronous mach'me.
. o- 1or has a reactance X, a double circuit line will have reactance X/2 ; corresponding steady state
stability limit would be double.
ThemethodsofimprovingsteadystatestabilitylimitPmax= I Vsl~IVR I or IVil; IEI gives IVsl
p max= _ · IVR_I
_ _x
__ ... for Single Circuit line
corresponding improvement in the transient stability limit considering the increase in decelerating
area available above the power line on the swing _curve. Hence the improvements in transient IVs I· IVR I ... for Double Circuit line.
Pmax =2 X
stability can be explained by above steady state equation.
The methods of improvement of transient stability limit can be considered in four inter-depend- 2.2. Increasing the transmission voltages for higher power transfer.
ent categories : V1V2
1. Methods associated with Network Stability. Pmax=~
2. Methods associated with Transmission Lines and Tie line stability. P max for a 400 kV line would be approximately 42122 = 4 Times the P max for 220 kV line.
3. Methods associated with circuit-breaker and protective Relays for transmission system and 2.3. Isolating the faulty line from the system by using faster transmission line protection and use
Network. of fast circuit-breakers. Opening the circuit-breakers at both ends of transmission line simul-
4. Methods associated with stability of synchronous machines. This section gives an integrated taneously with total fault clearing time of 3 to 4 cycles.
approach to stability studies. Relay Time = 1 cycle = 20 ms
(1) Stability of the complete Network. Power System means all the connected power sta- Circuit-break time = 2 cycles = 40 ms
tions. Synchronous machines in the Network are in synchronous operations with the A.C. network (Total break time) = (Circuit breaker time).
and with each other. If one or two connected power stations loose synchronism due to some distur- Total fault clearing time = 1 + 2 = 3 cycles = 60 ms
bance, they should be isolated from the Network before the instability spreads to a larger part of During the presence of fault, the line voltage falls equivalent resistance X between ends of
the power system.
transmission lines increases, Power Transfer -.Ability P between sending end and receiving
Frequency and rate of change of frequency of each generator and sub-station bus is monitored end is reduced and power-angle curve is lowered.
to judge the stability condition of the respective generating station and sub-station. The total Permissible duration of short-circuits in Network
generation is adjusted to match with the total load so as to maintain constant Frequency. Load-
frequency control is monitored from the grid control centre, generating station control rooms and Nominal Voltage kV 33 132 220 400 760
sub-station control rooms. The power system may be in : S.C. Duration seconds 0.3 0.2 0.18 0.14 0.10
- normal operation condition maximum
- emergency condition (Major fault)
By operating the faulty line from both the ends simultaneously, the Power angle curve for
- tninsient from normal to emergency the healthy line will be above the previous condition (faulty line in circuit), and stability
- post-emergency condition during which the system is being brought to normal condition limit is therefore, increased.
after the disturbance.
916 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTEC'I'ION POWER SYSTEM STABILITY, AUTO-RECLOSING SCHEMES 917
Secondly a continued fault on transmission line will result in loss of stability of stations in Excitation voltage Eis continuously adjusted to require steady state value of Vb?' automatic
the sending end and receiving end. Opening the faulty line quickly will prevent the loss of voltage regulators. Hence automatic voltage regulators of a synchronous generators improve the
stability of sending end receiving end stations. steady state stability limit. The excitation system should have quick response. Quick response ex-
2.4. During major faults, the voltage collapses, fault current increases, power transfer reduces, citation systems with high ceiling limit have these features.
frequency drops. Hence faulty parts should be isolated as quickly as possible to prevent loss 1. High value of Nominal Response.
of stability of the corresponding part of the system.
2. High Ceiling Voltage.
2.5. Rapid Auto-reclosing of circuit-breakers at both ends of the transmission lines (for temporary 3. Quick action (Fast response)
faults) improves the transient stability limit. About 70% faults in power systems are on over- 4. High Reliability.
head transmission systems and are caused by temporary flashover. Nominal Excitation Response is defined as "average slope of exciter open circuit-voltage versus
Caused by birds or lightning over-voltages. The line can be safely put into service after certain time" characteristic measured over a period of first 0.5 second after short circuiting the regulating
minimum time for de-ionization of fault by automatic reclosing of circuit-breakers at both ends of resistance.
the line. (Refer Sec. 2.12).
Ceiling Voltage is the value of final maximum, steady state open circuit voltage of exciter.
Overhead transmission lines for bulk power supply are provided with protection and circuit- The excitation response values. upon the type and design of excitation system. Excitation
breakers suitable for Rapid Auto-reclosing [O - 3 sec - CO].
response (slope of excites terminal voltage v/s time curve) varies widely e.g.
Single Pole Switching. For a single line fault on overhead transmission line, only the faulty Slow response ; 1.00 unit : V/sec for 125 V Exciter.
phase may be opened and reclosed.
Medium response : 2.00 unit : 200 V/sec.
(Refer Sec. 45). The protection and circuit-breakers should be suitable for single-pole switching, Fast response : 5.00 units : 500 V/sec.
2.6. Use of appropriate protection system for EHV, high power transmission lines. The Super Excitation : 30.00 units : 3000 V/sec.
distance protection for transmission lines readily responds to power swings. The relays should have
Increase speed of excitation response is the important means for improving power system
characteristics such that for permissible Power Swings during the disturbance, the relays are block-
ed (Refer Sec. 45). stability. If the fault has substained for a long time, a machine may sustain the first swing of its
rotor; but because of continuous reduction in field current under sustained fault condition, the
During network islanding, the measurements by relays should be such that, the separation of machine may pull out of step during the second or third swing. The excitation system having high
two neutrals should be approximately at the electrical centre of the swing (Refer Sec. 43). excitation response and controlled by automatic voltage regulator causes reduction in the initial
2.7. Voltage Regulation and Excitation System. Synchronous Generators have excitation decrease of flux linkage; i.e. the flux-linkage reduces more slowly on fault. Therefore, the e.m.f. E
winding on rotor supplied with low voltage d.c. current from the excitation system. drops more slowly and machine does not fall out-of-step during the first swing. Meanwhile the ex-
The terminal voltage V of a synchronous generator is given by citer voltage is increased resulting in higher e.m.f. E and the machine not fall out of step during
V=E-IX the second swing. For a more severe disturbance however, the machine may fall out-of-step during
the first swing, with high excitation response, if machine does not fall out of step in the first swing,
V = Terminal Voltage it will not fall out of step in subsequent swings.
E = Induced emf (excitation emf). 2.8. Machine Parameters
IX= Voltage-drop in machine reactance
The parameters of synchronous machines influence the power system stability. Low
IX= Drop varies with variation in load current i and it's power factor. The induced emf E can synchronous reactance increased the stability limit. Damper winding on rotor poles (of salient poles)
be varied by varying excitation current. Automatic Voltage Regulators of synchronous gen- gives better damping.
erators adjust the excitation current automatically to maintain constant terminal voltage. 2.9. HVDC Interconnection
The Automatic Voltage Regulator and Excitation System has certain: With AC interconnection, the power transfer is given by
- Upper and lower limits of excitation (e.g. ceiling voltage 100 V for 500 V nominal voltage).
V1V2 V1V2
- Excitation response (Volts per sec or per unit volts per sec. i.e. slope of'open-circuit voltage P 8 =~sin◊= 2X for◊= 30°.
of main exciter v/s Time' curve e.g. 1000 volts/sec. for a 500 V nominal voltage).
Due to series reactance X, the AC transmission has a very low transient stability limit. HVDC
Due to these limitations, actual excitation system are unable to hold constant terminal voltage line does not have such a limit due to absence of reactance X.
during transient conditions. During transient disturbance the reactance X of the machine varies
due to the changes in flux Hnkage. The current I varies due to the disturbance and power swing. Power flow through HVDC link can be quickly increased/decreased/ reversed/modulated.
Hence IX drop varies. Excitation emf E cannot instantaneously respond to these transient varia- HVDC system control can be modified such that the swing oscillations are damped. Thereby
tions. However, the steady state (after a few tens of cycles, say 20 cycles) power limit Pmax depends the stability of both AC Networks and the transmission system is improved.
on emf E as given by the equation. Synchronous HVDC interconnection has parallel AC lines. HVDC power flow improves stability
of parallel AC lines.
P -_IEl·IVI.
X sm
~. p
u '
_IEl·IVI
max - X Asynchronous HVDC link does not have any parallel AC line. The control is modified to damp
where I E I =Excitation voltage behind reactance the oscillations in connected AC networks. ·
I V I = Terminal voltage . HVDC link may be in form of a tnmsmission line or in the form of back-to-back coupling system.
(Ref. Sec. 47.2.11)
5. System Damping Resistors (SDR). When a faulty line is switched off by opening of cir- 11. Explain with the help of power-angle diagram for two machine system having double circuit trans-
cuit-breakers, the rotor angle 8 of sending end generators accelerates (swings). If the line was car- mission line, the concept of transient stability.
rying significant power; swing would be severe because of sudden load throw-off. The machines in 12. What is Auto-Reclosing of circuit-breakers ? How does it affect stability of transmission systems?
the sending-end power station would loose stability even though the faulty line was isolated. To 13. Explain these terms with reference to transient stability
prevent such a happening, the method of system damping resistor is used. (i) independent pole operation
System damping resistors are switched in after isolating faulty line, before the swing reaches (ii) single pole tripping
the first peak. These resistors are of high power consumption rating (200 MW, 300 MW) and are (iii) selective pole tripping
connected in star with neutral grounded either to substation bus or near generator terminals. The 14. Explain the difference between :
SDRs are switched off after the swing is reduced and the auto-reclosing of line is executed. rapid auto-reclosing and delayed auto-reclosing.
(SDR is used as an alternative method to series capacitors). Explain the sequence of operations and the check features in delayed autoreclosing schemes.
Ref: Ch. 45-C Voltage stability

QUESTIONS Ch. 45-D Automatic Voltage Regulators and Excitation Systems for Alternators.
1. Fill in the gaps :
(a) Swing curve of a synchronous machine is a graph of _ _ Versus __.
(b) Power angle diagram of a synchronous machine is a curve of _ _ v Is __ .
(c) Steady state stability ofa synchronous generator connected to infinite busbars can be expressed
in terms of e.m.f. E, terminal voltage Vby equation _ _ .
(d) Fast relays used for transmission line protection have a relay time of _ _ ms and circuit-
breaker time of ms.
(e) System Damping Resistors used for improving stability are switched-in when _ _ and are
switched off again when __ .
({) Rapid Auto-Reclosing seguence of circuit-breakers is expressed as _ _ .
(g) System Damping Resistors are installed in _ _ .
(h) Series capacitors are usually used for transmission lines of rated voltage _ _ .
(i) Power Angle ois the angle between the vectors ;
Maximum permissible steady state value of angle ofor a salient pole machine is about _ _ .
(j) Maximum permissible value of angle ofor a cylindrical rotor machine is _ _ .
(k) Transient stability of synchronous generators can be improved by means of _ _ .
2. Define the following :
(a) Steady State Stability Limit (b) Transient Stability Limit
(c) Critical Clearing Angle (d) Disturbance
3. State and explain Equal Area Criteria of Stability.
4. State and explain the co-relation between swing curve and stability.
5. Explain with the help of pov.:er angle diagram the effect of fast fault clearing and auto reclosing on
transient stability limit.
6. Explain the term Critical Olearing Angle with the help of equal area criterion.
7. State and Explain Swing Equation. Derive Swing Equation from fundamentals. State the units of
each term used in the expression.
8. Explain the significance of HVDC interconnecting link in improving transient stability.
9. A generator is operating at rated voltage and is connected to infinite bus at 50 Hz. Power transfer is
at 1 p.u.
Maximum possible power transfer is 1-8 p.u.
Consider a 3-phase fault under which maximum power transfer is reduced to 0.4 p.u.
The power transfer after fault is 1.3 p.u. (Refer Ex. 43.5). Determine critical clearing angle .
10. A 2 pole, 50 Hz, 11 kV turbogeneratorli:as a rating 50 MW.
0.8 pf lag-rotor has moment of inertia J = 8800 kg m 2
Calculate inertia constant Min mega joules per elect degree. [Ans. 0.0483 MJ/elec. deg.]
LOAD-FREQUENCY CONTROL, LOAD SHEDDING & STATIC FREQ. RELAY 921
Parallel Frequency Control. In this method, the frequencies of station A and Bare regulated
simultaneously. By this method, the swings are shared by both stations and swings of each station
are reduced. Automatic control ofload is desirable, for maintaining proper operating conditions. In
automatic frequency control, the inputs to generators get automatically adjusted to meet the chang-
ing load conditions.
45.2. LOAD-FREQUENCY CHARACTERISTICS OF ROTATING MACHINES

The frequency control is influenced by the favourable characteristics of the large rotating
machines (Induction and Synchronous) connected in the network.
- Reduction in frequency of supply causes reduction in speed of the induction motors, thereby
Load..Frequency Control, Load causes reduction in power requirement and the demand.
-- Inertias of the rotating machines have flywheel effect. Energy is released when the frequen-
Shedding and Static Frequency Relay cy falls and the energy is absorbed by the rotor when the frequency increases.
Introduction to system frequency control - Characteristic ofrotating ma.c~ines-----: Primary-frequency The effective load connected to the network, therefore, depends upon the supply frequency (and
control - Secondary Load frequency control - Load~frequency control ma Gnd-Network - L~ad voltage). A drop in voltage and frequency results in a reduction in effective load (Load Reduction
-shedding- Use offr~quency relays for load shedding- Static frequency relay- Network Islandmg Factor). This in turn leads to a reduction in the frequency drop, i.e. to the rate of drop of frequency
-· Applications of frequency relays, Load Dispatching and Network Controller - Summary. (dfldt) becomes flatter.
45.1. INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEM FREQUENCY CONTROL 45.3. PRIMARY LOAD-FREQUENCY CONTROL

The regulation of power supply insist that the supply frequency variation should remain with Electri~al energy cannot be stored in large quantities. The energy stored in other forms. This
± 1% about the declared frequency of 50 Hz**. When load on the generator or a group of genera!ors fact plays an important role in power generation. The mechanical output of the turbines must be
increases the rotors slow down resulting in reduction in frequency. However, the governors adJust continuously adjusted to the electrical load on generators. Every condition of electrical load should
the input' so as to bring the frequency to original level. This control of fre~uency by ~he action of bring appropriate change in mechanical input to the turbines. This relative simple equation is made
governors is called Primary Control. The action of governors is au~omatic. ~ drop I? speed due complicated by the fact that load on the network is affected by many consumers and is supplied by
to increased load causes governor action so as to admit more stream mto turbme and mcrease the several generators located in various power stations.
electrical output. In the event of loss of load or sudden change in load, the governor c?ntrols the_
The frequency of a generator and generating station bus is controlled partly by the action of
speed of generators. However, frequency control by governors alone is not a~equate and Seco1;1dary
control' is necessary. In secondary control, the loading on different plants 1s changed accordmg to the mechanical governors controlling the turbine speed and partly by changes in load conditions.
The plant output is increased by increasing input. How much load the plant should share is decided
the instructions of the load dispatcher'.
by Grid Control Loading Engineer.
Method of Frequency Control
The frequency control by the action of the mechanical governor is called the 'primary control'.
Manual Control. Very small isolated generating stations can have manual co1;trol of frequen- The governor admits more steam turbine or more water in hydro turbine. Thereby the electrical
cy. The generator adjusts the input to bring the frequency with permissible limits . output of the generator is also increased. To avoid hunting, the governors are designed to remain
Flat Frequency Control. Consider stable at a speed corresponding to new output which is not the earlier speed. Hence frequency con-
system illustrated in Fig. 45.1. By control by governor action alone would not return the frequency to the original (required) value (50
trolling frequency of G1 at station A, fre- Hz).
quency of G2 at station B is controlled.
This method is called flat frequency con- 45.4. SECONDARY LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL
trol. The disadvantage of this method is A B The frequency of a generating station is brought to the required value by appropriate load trans-
that, the station A should have enough _,....._ _.__"""""I_
Tl£ LINE
fer. This is in addition to primary frequency control.
capacity to absorb the changes in load.
Further, the tie line also should have The amount of load shared by each generator is determined by the setting of turbine control
enough capacity to transfer the power. system (primary control) and the amount of the load shared by generating station or a group of
Fig. 45.1. Parallel operation cf station A and B. generating stations in an area is determined by Central Load Dispatching Centre (Load dispatching
Flat-tie-line Regulation. In this engineer or Network Controller). (Refer sec. 45.11). The secondary control takes into account the
method, the station A is used for fre- economic operations of the complete system having several interconnected generating stations.
quency control and also, the regulation is improved by adjusting the input at station B.
The control loop, comprising turbine control system and machine, has a well-known straight
line characteristic of output vs. Frequency (Fig. 45.2). As long as the consumption of the total net-
* The increase in electrical output of generator is achieved by the increase in mechanical input to turbine. The work is equal to the sum of the outputs of the generating sets, there is zero deviation from the
setting of inlet valve to turbine is adjusted to get desired input. target frequency. If the load on the system deviates, the output point of all the machines move
** The CEGB, UK has operational target limits of 49.8 and 50.2 Hz, i.e. 0.4% variation. Under frequency is along their respective characteristic curves until the sum of the generating power is equal to the
harmful to blades of steam turbines. As per IS, permissible variation is± 3%.
922 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION LOAD-FREQUENCY CONTROL, LOAD SHEDDING & STATIC FREQ. RELAY
923
45.6. LOAD SHEDDING
t
f
When generators get overloaded beyond the maximum mechanical power input, it becomes
necessary to interrupt some load to save the system from loss of stability. This process is called
load shedding. In majority of power systems, load shedding is automatically performed because the
(Hz) time available is insufficient for manual operation. For automatic load shedding, the overloads
should be sensed by relaying in suitable form. During overloads beyond maximum mechanical
fo
input, the frequency of generators or part of system decays proportional to the generator inertia
and amount of overload.
Rate of frequency decay is probably the quantity most indicative of an overloaded condition.
Frequency relay is frequently utilized for load shedding. This relay consists of an induction disc
with two sets of potential coils, one of which has capacitance in series with it. Therefore, as the
frequency changes the phase angle of the potential flux changes. A typical pick-up frequency would
be 48.5 cycles. Time of operation of the relay is a function of the difference between the set frequency
Pm p and the actual frequency. To this extent the greater the rate of decay of the frequency the faster
(Machine : Turbine= Generator Unit) will be the relay operation. For example, for !:if of 1/2 cycle, the relay operates in 0.6 sec and for
{a= Rated frequency Pm= Machine output at frequency. !:if of 1 cycle relay operates instantaneously. (Refer sec. 45.8).
. Fig. 45.2. Machine load frequency relation.
The load is disconnected in steps. To ensure the co-ordination of all the relays in a particular
new 1oa d , a nd the balance is, restored. Each . . .
. . mdividual genera t or s h are s that protection of load network, the frequency relays must measure with high accuracy and the measured value should
be preferably independent of voltage.
change which corresponds to its characteristic curve. b 1· . t d altering
. t· d 'b d hove that can e e imma e The frequency of a network usually varies in the following manner :
There remains a residual frequenc~ devrn_10n_ e~rid~ : 'ng the straight line characteristic.
the set values of the individual generatmg umts, i.e. Y isp aci !:iF =function (M, H)
where !:iF == change in frequency
45 5 LOAD-FREQUENCY CONTROL OF A GRID 11P == Power deficit
• • . d . ·d The entire interconnected H == Inertia constant of network.
~~~~r~:~;~;t h::~:ir:wi;1'; :erits as compared with an
1
syst:;d:~:::~efs s[:1\:;st:ea~rf;_v;~a~ In load shedding programme, the following points should also be considered :
isolated system : . tl h droelectric thermal - Variation of the frequency with respect to the time in the event of deficit and subsequent
load shedding.
- Transfer of power between areas (hZonesh) twhichd~e p7t:a.:;~afe ilectricity B~ards etc.
and nuclear e.g. in Karnataka, Ma aras ra an aim . . . - 'I'he nature ofloads to be disconnected as well as their dependence on frequency and voltage.
_ Mutual assistance in the event of a fault which means reduct10n of spmnmg reserves. - Behaviour of system voltage before and after load shedding.
_ Improve compensation of load fluctuations. . - Topographical distribution of the energy resetves, load centres. (This information is useful
.
Entire Grid is divided into certain Regional .
Grids. E xch ~nge of. pow er between two aadJacent
. d of time certain in assessing possibilities of dividing the network into separate load/generation islands in
zones is usually governed by a fixed programme so that durmg a given perio , the event of energy deficit).
amount of power is exchanged betwee.n two Zones. . . . t ('f The load shedding may cause the voltage rise in the network due to cutting off ofreactive loads.
1
· ) h tz · · t ucted to mcrease its impor , 1 Therefore, control of reactive power flow and voltage rise sho~ld be considered while planning the
If there is a frequency droJ\lll ~n area, t(Z(?fn'et _t a o~-: lg~ I:c~ a control is based on the Line load shedding scheme.
it is already importing) or reduce its expor 1 1 is expor i
Frequency Bias. . . ro rammed export of 1000
For example, neighbouring Zone (A) generatmg 6000 MW ~i~ ~
MW would increase its generation by 120 MW and export 1~2 e z °
£ii
Region (B) when the 45.7. USE OF FREQUENCY RELAYS FOR LOAD SHEDDING (Refer sec. 26.18
Frequency Relays)
frequency of station (B) has dropped by say 0.2 Hz below desired level of 50 .Hl. d . R . A .s
The load shedding is carried out in small steps instead of a sudden large step. This prevents
The import of power from Zone A to Region · B is· possi'bl e on1y if the local oa fmRe egion i
.on A will power swings and shocks to system, secondly the load shedding is preferably carried out at the
(6000 - 1000) = 5000 MW, when the additional demand of 112 MW. The freh:e7~y ~he f~quencies level of distribution voltage and not at transmission voltage. Thereby load blocks to be shed are
drop below 50 Hz when its loading is increased. However by proper l~~d-: (l9 f-50 5 Hz). more evehly distributed over the system and the difficulties of voltage, rise, power swings etc. are
f both Zones A and B are maintained within the targetted frequency imi s · · . minimised.
o . 11 . th . overnor action. The grid contra1
The tie line control is a secondary act10n fo owmg e p7~~-Y fask of the grid control centre is The load shedding programmes are generally in two to four steps.
loading centre covers all zones under ~he secondaryd 7:ntro . . e fvarious zones within set limits.
The maximum frequency step is just below the normal service frequency whereas the lowest
to keep the power transfer between various zones an requenci~s o t 1 nd regulate its own fre-
step to be sufficiently above the frequency at which auxiliaries have to be switched off in the power
As a consequence each zone needs its o:Vn load controfl centre o co; rgo t~ the instruction of Grid
quency and also to ensure the mutual mterchange o power accor m station. By such settings, there is no need of disconnecting power station auxiliaries when the sys-
Control Centre. tem frequency decreases. (During 1970s, some large interconnected system in USA, Canada, Europe
LOAD-FREQUENCY CONTROL, LOAD SHEDDING & STATIC FREQ. RELAY 925
924 The frequency relay consists of a single stage basic unit and can be augmented by three plug
in frequency steps.
suffered a complete black-out due to disconnection of power
system auxiliaries during under frequency). Instead of frequency measuring step, a dfldt stage can be plugged in. It operates between 0.1
50
· and 9.9 Hz/s and can be adjusted in steps of 0.1 Hzls: The tripping frequency may be set between
Each of the two to four steps shed about 10 to 20% of ~he 39.1 and 65 Hz. The time lag of this stage can be set to different values between 33 and 130 ms.
available load. The frequency relay used for the load shedding
ds to rate of change of frequency (dfldt) and the sus-
~=:~~~ under frequency (< f). Fig. 45.3 indicates the stepped
t 49 -
'l'he frequency measuring stages are designed for frequency range between 39.2 and 65 Hz ad-
justable in steps of 0.025 Hz, and are accurate within ± 0.003 Hz. The pick-up time may vary be-
tween 0.15 and 1.15 sec or between 0.5 and 5 sec. If the auxiliary voltage is derived from the
characteristics of a frequency relay. It can be see.n_ that adt f
lower f requenc Y t he relay becomes more sens1t1ve an 48 -1 measured voltage, the relay operates between 0.6 and 1.2 times rated voltage when the measuring
system is supplied from d.c. source, the relay can operate between 0.2 and 1.2 times rated voltage.
operates for lesser dfldt.
When planning the load shedding pr?gramme.' the step_s
ed to be disconnected consecutively until the eqm- 47 3 4 5
I When the voltage falls below the set value (0.2 and 0.6 ofrated) the operation of the relay is blocked.
45.8.1. Turbine Frequency Capability and Under-frequency Limits
are arran g . t bl' h d th f equency 2 Thermal power stations supply bulk power. In thermal power stations, each turbo-generator
librium between output and input is es a is e e r d¼t ------- is driven by its associated steam turbine. Steam turbines are comprised of several stages of turbine
begins to rise again. Fig. 45.3. Stability of a frequency relay blades of varying lengths, shapes and natural frequencies of vibrations. Design is such that at
The frequency should not rise abov~ the permitted level with respect to dfldt and f. synchronous speeds, vibrations are within limits. Off-frequency operation of a loaded turbine gives
after load shedding as it is harmful particularly to steam-tur- (Courtesy : Brown Boveri, Switzerland)
vibration stresses on the turbine blades and may eventually damage the turbine blades. The in-
bine blades. vestigation of failures of turbine blades by Westinghouse, USA indicates the limits of duration of
The frequency relay for load shedding has three operating criteria, off-frequency operation as :
60 Hz rated frequency in USA: Continuous
_ The frequency is below the set release ~requency.
59.6 Hz : 1000 minutes, cumulative
The gradient df/dt is greater than settmg. h t t'
- The gradient df/dt must stay above the set value throughout thew o1e se ime. d d 58.9 Hz : 90 minutes cumulative for life time
- d fi ·t . h'gh df,ldt the load shedding covers first, secon an 58.4 Hz : 13 minutes cumulative for.life time
In the event of large energy e 1c1 ' i.e. 1
57 .9 Hz : 1.8 minutes "
third step, at a earlier pace.
57.4 Hz : 15 seconds "
56.9 Hz : 2.4 seconds "
· 45 ,8 , STATIC FREQUENCY RELAY
56.5 Hz : 1 second " (Note : Rated f == 60 Hz)
(Courtesy : Brown Boveri, Switzerland) . s.
Over-frequency operations also has similar limits obtained by mirror-image graph.
The following basic requirements are satisfied by static frequency relay ·
Off-Frequency Limits. Under-frequency operation of turbine-generators was also studied by
(i) high reliability General Electric, USA in mid-1960's following the North-east Blackout. Using known material
(ii) accuracy properties and assuming the largest expected stimulus. General Electric's analysis estimated the
(iii) high measuring speed. . . . . 1 for measurement. The ref- minimum time to cracking some part of the turbine bucket structure. Assuming the turbine was
A recently developed static frequency relay e1:1ploh~shd1g1ta~ ~rmc1upaertz crysta·1 oscillator of 100 carrying load, these calculations produced the following limits) :
· l' db b 'lt m 1g prec1s10n q ,- 1. A reduction in frequency of one per cent to 59.4 Hz would not have any effect on blade life.
erence value of frequency is supp ie ya m - ' . . fth s stem under supervision.
kHz. The oscillations of the oscillator are _counted du;mg on~ c~~e o t n:;ber this means that the 2. A reduction of frequency of two per cent to 58.8 Hz for about 90 minutes could result in
If the number of oscillations counted durmg one eye e exc_ee s e se t' damage.
measured frequency is lower than the set value for the time ofmeasur~men . f 1 t· g the 3. A reduction in frequency of three per cent to 58.2 Hz for about 10 to 15 minutes could result
. . . th 1 ontain filters or special means o eva ua m in damage. ·
To improve the immumty to nmse, e_re ays ~ . dd' . on during the set tripping
4. A reduction in frequency of four per cent to 57.6 Hz for a period of one minute could result
signals and the input transformers are eJ~~pedttth tr~:e~:~:;}~:ue~~Y s'teps). In this way, high . in damage.
time, all measured cycles have to excee . e_ se mg
de ree of immunity to noise and harmomcs 1s assur.ed. . It was noted that comparable increase in frequency above rated frequency can be expected to
g For over frequency relays, the measured cycles have to be shorter than the settmg. produce similar results. ·
A Steam~Turbine Generator Under-frequency Protection
B Two level under-frequency protection were planned based on unit size viz. units 100 MW and
below, and units above 100 MW.
Units 100 MW and Smaller. This class of unit will be protected with one electromechanical
20 ms induction-disc under-frequency relay with input supplied from the generator bus pbtential trans-
'--..__/ formers. The relay is set with a minimum pickup of 58.0 Hz to operate in 9 seconds for a step
F' 5 4 Number of cou~ts during half a cycle increases with reduced frequencyt d) decrease in frequency from 60 Hz to 57 Hz.
J~ 4
N~;mal frequency waveform B = Reduced frequency waveform (exaggera e
L~AD-FREQ.UENCY CONTROL, LOAD SHEDDING & STATIC FREQ. RELAY
This under frequency relay is armed for tripping only when the unit is connected to the trans- pickup settmg of 110 per cent V/Hz A 96 927
mission system. It will be connected to operate a lockout relay, which will trip the breaker(s) re-
quired to separate the generator from the system. These units, having drum-type boilers, will be ;~:~fif:;e;e:~s s~~:i::~rf~:t~~:t~:fa ty~=~eg~e:;ra~n:gs~~J:~~4:~rc~~~
case encountered ,1 " e irom 5 to 60
l::~ ~=t::~~;~~~
d ·
tph:/;elnayt
allowed to carry station service loads after separation from the system to facilitate rapid reloading
of units after the disturbance has subsided.
Unit larger than 100 MW. Southern electric system engineers made the decision to protect
all large units, regardless of manufacturer, with a six-band solid-state frequency relay system
~~:: ::~\~~!-:!~~r~~f~t~i::~:~1:dxi:~eu
programme
.
~o:i:!%~~h~~:i!I;,i:~:~;";s :~~2~
ppmg wou not be a problem up to the d . . ~·
;::
us it appeared
es1gn capability of the load shed
0
designed around existing relays to meet the six-band programmable under-frequency limits. This Plant Auxiliary System Co- d. .
relay system will be supplied from the unit potential transformers and will have an inhibit circuit (PWR) steam su 1 . . or matwn. Nuclear units havin . .
pumps If the f pp y use special under frequency protection for th . g. a pressunzed water reactor
to prevent undesired underfrequency accumulations when a unit is not connected to the transmis-
protection will ~;;u;;cy stays below li1:1its prescribed by the pu;1r :r~m.ary system reactor coolant
sion system.
Each frequency band will feed a mechanical, preset, continuous memory counter to accumulate • the Southern elecfric :;:re:m1~t~~~tti.ng down the reactor. Prese~tl; t~:;i~1:e1:~~WacRture~,t this
static und fi ' avmg reactor coolant d um son
the time duration of the underfrequency condition for that band. The frequency relay system will
contain six frequency thresholds and two continuous monitoring stages. Ten cycles after an under-
frequency condition picks up the highest set underfrequency threshold, the mechanical counter for
shed scheme : ~:u .~r sett~ng verified sufficient co-ordination
The disturbanc o1 a um~ shutdown for any overload within t
:r:~
tion of thi:r;e~':1e~cy rela}'.' fixed time delay of0.25 second ~~;p u~/rfrequ_ency protection with a
~ se~tmg of 57.0 Hz. Evalua-
e a opted 40 per cent load
band 1 will begin accumulate time. As long as the frequency remains between the highest set tem undervolta e ev~;;ag: swings were similarly reviewed for co-o~~~~~~ she~ sche_me's capability,
threshold and the next lower frequency threshold, the band 1 counter will continue to accumulate
time. If the frequency continues to decline and passes through the next lower frequency threshold,
sufficiently Ion:tim:~:r: re!aysllThe undervoltage relay setting used :~:It~umt auxiliary _sys-
ys o a ow voltage recovery w1'tho t t . .
u nppmg.
n e system provided
the band 1 counter will stop accumulating and the band 2 counter will begin to accumulate time
after a ten cycle delay, and so on for the other bands. The time accumulated in e.ach frequency 45.9. NETWORK ISLANDING
band will be independent of all other frequency bands. \ In a large system ade t .
When the mechanical counter accumulates its preset value, an output contact on the counter work and to le . qua e precaut10n should be taken to
will initiate tripping or alarm. It is expected that frequency bands 2 through 6 will be used for is divided into :~a1I::;1fi°m/ossible.portion of network una&:;~~nt;omp~~te coll~pse of the net-
direct unit tripping; band 1 w1ll be used for annunciation. Drum type boiler units will be separated load) that can be handle~ ~ny ls, edachh Idsdl~nd has set limits of freque~cyo (~~tp1evte tfh1s, the network
from the system but allowed to carry station service load; however once through boiler units will Wh oa s e mg. u o generators and
. en_ the frequency begins to decrease (d
be shutdown since this type of unit is not expected to be capable of such continued operation.
mto :hefim_te sections at predetermined points~; }~!i:ae: load
e difference between th t
t heavy faults) the network is split
cy re ays.
UNDERFREQUENCY PROTECTION CO-ORDINATION
load equalization in every islaned ou put and load is reduced in every section by load h dd'
Turbine-Generator and Load Shedding Co-ordination. Graphs are drawn for the co-or- Th. fi . s e mg or
dination of the turbine-generator underfrequency schemes with the 40 per cent load shed program
which will be implemented on the Southern electric system. The frequency response curve shown
is for 40 per cent loss of generation which corresponds to the maximum design limit of the adopted
. Is ormation of islands is possible for
mg centres are uniformly distributed over a~:;;:;~~:l s::::~s where load centres and generat-
load shed programme. The rectangular blocks show the time accumulated for each frequency band 45,10. OTHER APPLICATION OF FREQUENCY RE
of the six-band relay. The use of graphical techniques to evaluate co-ordination ofrelay setting with - disconnection of small . LAY (Refer Sec. 26.18)
inverse time relays to estimate the co-ordinating margin for each of the overload simulations. The b' m-p 1ant generati t (:t:
percentages of contact closure or band operations shown in the graph are quite small, indicating a me-ge.nerator) from feeding the networ~g:~es al:to? supply. system with their own tur-
- protect10n of generators and. au ·1· . . n a au t occurs m the latter Ch 43
very adequate co-ordinating margin. · x1 1anes m larg . · ·
quency relays should be different (generally mu~hpfwer tat10ns. The settings of such fre-
The high degree of co-ordination shown in the above case implies that the 40 per cent load shed
scheme can tolerate loss of generation somewhat greater than 40 per cent without incurring a tur- 45 11 LOAD ower than those for load shedding.
' · DISPATCHIN
bine trip. Note however, that the multiband relay scheme was assumed to have had no previous R fi S G AND NETWORK CONTROLLER
underfrequency experience, whereas in continuous operation the relay will "rechet" or accumulate : .er ec. 45.5. The total intercon t d
underfrequency experience, such that severe disturbances which pick up the lower frequency bands :wevaL1hng frequency (F). It means the t:~~l eMWACGN etwot~k. (.National Grid) operates at comm
could result in substantial margin loss due to the relatively short permissible times within these asses. Th 8 N t' G . . enera 10n is m t h d . on
Despatch Centr;) a wna1 nd is controlled from National Loada; et wl1th total MW load plus
bands. Th N . . on ro Centre (National Load
Volts per Hertz Co-ordination. During an under frequency excursion, the possibility of over- e ational Load c t 1
~1:
exciting the generator and/or unit connected transformers is increases. For this reason, it was neces-
sary to evaluate generation units volts-per-hertz (V/Hz). Relay schemes employed on system
generators to ensure co-ordination with the adopting 40 per cent load shed scheme. Unit suscep-
dependin
fro~d that ~~~:::r;~~e(;~
Gr1 s.
=~::~/;
1
ro Centre allocates (1) the MW .
that Regional GridG=:~r::~:~r!~ ; ~ ;;pgiont/Ial Grid
ower trough Tie-Lines betwee N . hb . or mport
n e1g ourmg Regional
tibility to V/Hz tripping was determined by examining the frequency and voltage profiles of each
unit in the 147 bus, 42.9 per cent loss of generation case with respect to each unit's V/Hz relay settings. Courtesy ; Westinghouse USA refer "C . .
Generally, each unit on the Southern electric system has at least one V/Hz relay stage with a minimum under-frequency Protection"-D W s·10 h oordmat10n and Load Conservation with Turbine-Generator
• • a, C.R. Roaland, J.W. Pope.
- - - -----------------

928 LOAD-FREQUENCY CONTROL, LOAD SHEDDING & STATIC FREQ. RELAY 929
d nd Fre uency of its own by Mateh'mg
Each Regional Load Control ?entre. controlls Lo~ al MW l~ad plus MW losses plus/minus The load change in this systems are rectified by the influence of dropping characteristics of the
Generation in various Power Stations with tota reg10na . machine (Fig. 45.1).
amount of tie line power flow. . d C t 1 Centre and is in communica- Set values of f 0 and Pio and constants Cp and TN are fed into system controller by hand and
The Network Controller installed in each Regi~nal Loat 1 on ro ·n Power Station and Major the actual values of transmitted power and frequency deviation are measured in the system and
. d C t 1 ell as with con ro rooms 1 . .
tion with the National Loa on ro as ':" .. t' ·h nnels microwave commumcat10n fed back to the controller. The controlled variable y of the network controller determines the set
S bstations in its zone through power hne commumca ion c a ,' values of the mac):iine involved. These values are applied to various units according to predeter-
c:annels, telephone communicat_ion chan~el, Fax etc .. ion Control Rooms ensures that the station mined plan which takes into account. (Refer Ch. 46-B Economic loading).
Load/Generation Controller mstalled m ~ower Statb' . t r adJ'usted by the station load
. . • tt d 1· ·t The settmgs oftur me rnpu a e . d h - economy of generator - safety
frequency is w1thm targe e 1m1 s. . d t' llocated by the regional grid an t e
- operational requirements.
controller automatically dependin~ up?n require gene:~o;o;h: speed and frequency automatically.
turbine governor of each generato, umt operates to con f ower between various zones The signals are transmitted to individual machines are fed to the turbine control systems. If
The task of the load control centre is to keep th~ e~ch;n~~ oes pEach zone may have its own the turbine control is designed to suit the input signal directly, the signals can be directly inter-
(electricity boards or areas) and system fr~quenc~ at e~;~oa~s: its own zone. The national load preted. If the turbines are fitted with conventional mechanical contrnllers, additional units are
load control centre to regulate the generating stations aifferent re ·onal zones. The function is per- necessary for converting the signals into suitable form to control the turbines.
control centre controls the exchange ofplolw~r btetlwl eJ1.1 dth load co~trol centre. It has a digital com- In systems where large, sudden change of loads and frequency can occur, it is necessary to
formed automatically by network contra er ms_ a e m • e limit the power change of individual unit (Fig. 46.1) to protect the turbines from excessive loads.
puter or a microprocessor with other accessories (Refe~~h. 46). ter system sends instructions to
The planned output and loading is progi·ai~me~. le (cTomlpu t ry) The machine controllers
· · t t' by means of earner s1gna s e eme e ,
;:;!~:: tfi:~:ri:t;~t:ti::i:~d adjust the turbine governors to givet rettre~~o:!i:!~e controller.
he output control function is obtained by local frequency con ro oop
1
. .
SUMMARY
Under stable steady state operation, all synchronous machines in the grid operate at
T . . 1 It · ut variable e comprises a
The network controller operates on load frequency prn1;c1p e. s m~ synchronous speed. Frequency is the measure. of load/generation balance.
combination of linear deviation from frequency and transmitted power . Prevailing frequency of synchronous gen~rators and the Grid depends on matching between
e=Af>+KM' (Total MW Load on the Grid plus Losses) and the (Total MW Generation) at that time. Excess Load
e = Input variable ofload frequency controller causes frequency drop. Excess Generation causes frequency rise. Hence frequency is a major control
where parameter.
n
Af>= Li (pi +Pio) Primary frequency control is by governor-control of turbine speed to maintain constant rated
i=l frequency of generator unit.
M'=F-F0 Secondary frequency control is by instructions of Regional Load Dispatch Centre to Generating
K = Constant MW/Hz Stations to adjust turbine setting to increase/decrease the generation such that total Regional Grid
p.IO = Target power transmission [MW] not only maintains its own frequency within target range but also imports/exports allocated power
to neighbouring Regional Grids.
p.I = Tie-lineup power [MW]
F O =Target frequency The Network Controller (Load Controller) has a computer aided closed loop control system. The
frequency difference M', is measured to determine the required generation difference Af>.
F = Actual frequency
n = Number of supply points. . . b • The instructions are sent to turbine-governor of each generator turbine unit for appropriate
A PI controller is used for regulating system and its output variable Y is givne Y setting. The turbine governor controls the speed (hence frequency) as per that setting and generator
gives corresponding power output.
y = Cp x e + T
i
edt
It
n When the frequency of a generator-turbine unit falls below safe value, the frequency relay
operates and gives alarm so that load should be shed. Load is shed at distribution level.
where CP = Proportionality constant
TN= integral action time constant. h VVhen system frequency starts falling due to overloads or fault, there is a possibility of cascade
The integral component eliminates the control deviation in lthl e steady state and t e propor- tripping of turbine-generator units in the entire regional Grid and the total National Grid. To avoid
. · fl th d ic response of the contro oop. this and maintain save the Grid, the Network is Islanded into separate Islands. Frequency relays
tionately constant m uences e ynam . d fl t ation within a system must
According to the principle. of load-freque~?dc~nt~~~ ~~[J~:k c::t~ller for that system. If the
be compensated by the machme sets contro e y t ll . . the adjacent networks do not vary
between adjuceilt islands measure and monitor dfldt and f such that during faster rate of fall of
frequency, the Network is divided into separate islands, each having certain generation and load.
basis K has been selected correctly, the system con ro ers m Load shedding is carried out in each island. Thereby each island is saved from loss of synchronism
and after the disappearance of the disturbance, the islands are reconnected and the original Net-
their controlled variables.• . d
. . dL dF cy Control. Ch. 50. Operat10n an work is restored.
* Refer Ch. 46-B for Automatic Economic Dispatch an oa requen
SCADA systems.
QUESTIONS
1. Explain the effect ofload on frequency of generating stations. Describe primary and secondary control
of load and frequency.
2. Explain the need of secondary load and frequency control. Explain the procedure of Load-Frequency
Control at National Grid Level, Regional Grid level and local power station.
3. Explain how a frequency relay is useful in load frequency control. Describe a typical frequency relay
and its method of measurement.
4. Write detailed notes on any two :
- procedure ofload shedding
-- network load-frequency controller
- static frequency relay for load shedding
- network islanding
Voltage Control and Compensation
1. The supply frequency of ... Hz should not increase above ... Hz and should not drop below ...
of Reactive Power
2. Frequency relay used for load shedding measures ... and ... . CAPACITORS FOR SHUNT COMPENSATION AND
3. If the load on a generator increases, the frequency tends to .. . SERIES COMPENSATION
4. Frequency of a synchronous generator having 2p number of poles and rotating at synchronous
speed N is given by ... Voltage control in Network-Rated Voltage and Limits-Methods of Voltage Control-Tap
5. The load shedding is carried out when the frequency reaches about ... Hz. changing-Voltage Regulators-Series and Shunt Compensation-Static Shunt Compensation of
Reactive Power-Law of Reactive Power-Series Capacitors-Installation Details-Effect of Reactive
6. Explain the harmful effects of underfrequency on steam-turbine blades in steam-thermal power Power Flow on Voltages.
plants. What are the under frequency limits ? Part B : Power Factor Improvement and Power Capacitors
7. Explain harmful effects of overfrequency on Power Transformers in generating station. What are the Shunt Capacitors for various applications Protection of Shunt Capacitor Banks-Details about
limits of vlf for safety of transformer. Capacitors Scheme-Applications-Individual Load-Group Correction-33 kV Bank.
Summary
45.12. VOLTAGE CONTROL IN NETWORK (POWER SYSTEM)

The voltage of buses in generating stations, switching substations and receiving substations
and load-points should be held within permissible limits under conditions of gradual increase or
decrease in load flow and also during sudden disturbances. Such as short-circuits, load switching.
The voltages of distribution lines and supply points to consumers should be held at constant rated
values (within permissible limits) under fluctuating load conditions. The task of voltage control is
closely associated with fluctuating load conditions and corresponding requirements of reactive
power compensation (kVAr Compensation) under steady state and transient state.
Load-frequency Control is achieved by continuous matching of generation (production) of
electrical power with prevailing load conditions by joint actions of Load control rooms in Generating
Stations. Voltage Control is achieved by appropriate tap-changing and shunt compensation in
respective sub-stations, and Automatic Voltage Regulators in the excitation system of generators :
Fig. 45.5 illustrates the various methods of voltage control which are applied simultaneously.
RECEIVING SUB-STATION
SUB-STATION
TRANSMISSION C +--®-LOAD
GEN.
LINE D
STATION 2 5 MOTOR
f--,-..,---{
B
6
--Ji----<> --J 1------<>
6
Fig. 45.5. Methods of voltage control in network.

1. Excitation Control. 2. Surge Diverters
3. Tap Changing Transformer 4. Series Capacitors
5. Shunt Reactors 6. Shunt Capacitors (Switched).
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION VOLTAGE CONTROL AND COMPENSATION OF REACTIVE POWER 933
932
45,14. METHODS OF VOLTAGE CONTROL
45.13. PERMISSIBLE VOLTAGE VARIATION
The various methods of steady state and transient voltage control in the Network include :
During heavy loads (or lower fa,ctors loads) the IX drop in transmission and distribution lines
- Excitation Control and voltage regulators in generating stations.
increases and the receiving-end voltages decrease.
- Use of Tap-Changing transformers at sending-end and receiving- end of transmission lines.
During low loads the IX drop in series reactance of li~es is ne~ligibl~. _The shunt capacit,ance - Switching in shunt reactors during low-loads or while energizing long ERV lines. Un-
of transmission lines taking Capacitive Currents causes increase in receiving-end voltages. 'lhus, switched shunt reactors.
the substation bus voltage experience : - Switching-in shunt-capacitors during high loads or low p.f. load.
REDUCED VOLTAGE f--~HIGH LOAD (Ref. Fig. 45.5)
INCREASED VOLTAGE ~LOW LOAD - Use of series capacitors in long ERV transmission lines, (distribution lines ln certain cases
NORMAL VOLTAGE ~NORMAL LOAD of fluctuating loads).
Low voltages cause higher current flow through supply line for same ;oad c~using higher l~ne - Use of tap-changing transformers in factory, sub-stations, distribution sub-stations, trans-
losses, Low voltages also cause increased current to deliver same power, nence n~creased heating mission substations.
of lines, motors, transformers. Below certain voltage (70 to 80% Rated Voltage; t_he motors_ get - Use of static shunt compensation having shunt capacitors and thyristorised control for step-
stalled and are tripped automatically by the over-current or under-voltage ~rote~t1on. Sustam~d less control of reactive power and voltage. (This method is used instead of synchronous con-
low voltage cause failure of insulation of transformers and motors due to overheatmg. The permis- densers).
sible values of upper and lower voltage limits are as follows : - Use of synchronous condensers in receiving sub-stations for reactive power compensation.
Table 45.1. Reference Values of Voltage Limits in A.C. Network All the above methods are appropriately applied in respective sub stations to achieve voltage
0
control of various networks buses (Ref. Fig. 45.5).

Permissible Lowest
System Voltage Highest Voltage System Voltage Time Span of Voltage Phenomena, Slow and gradual changes in voltage have time span of
Class half a minute to several tens of minutes. Such phenomena are called long term (steady state) voltage
Line to Line R.M.S. phenomena. Sudden disturbances in voltage are covered by the term "transient voltage phenomena." Ref.
Line to Line R.M.S. Line to Line R.M.S.
Ch. 45-C.
LV (1. ph.) 240 V Ph. to n. 264 V 220V (A) Excitation Control and Voltage Regulations of Generators:
The induced e.m.f. synchronous generator (E 1) depends upon excitation current (Field current).
LV (3 ph.) 415V 440V 380 V
The terminal voltage V of a synchronous generator is given by the equation
M.H.V. 3.3 V 3.6kV 3kV V=E-IX
The generators have excitation and voltage regulation system. The functions of this system are :
M.H.V. 6.6kV 7.2kV 6kV
- To control voltage under steady state operating conditions for operation near steady state
M.H.V. 11 V 12 kV l0kV stability limit.
- To regulate voltage under rapidly changing load conditios, e.g. starting of induction motor
M.H.V. 22 kV 24kV 20kV loads, sudden switching in of large load, fault.
30kV - To regulate voltage under faulty conditions (Fault elsewhere beyond generator protection
M.H.V. 33 kV 36kV
zone).
H.V. 66kV 72.5 kV 60kV - To enable sharing ofreactive power. The reactive power shared by a generator depends upon
its excitation level.
H.V. 132 kV 145 kV 120kV
Time span of AVR response is of a few seconds.
E.H.V. 220 kV 245 kV 200kV The terminal voltage of synchronous generator is held within permissible limit by means of
automatic voltage regulators. (Ch. 45D)
E.H.V. 400kV 420kV 380kV
(B) Tap-Changing Transformer
U.H.V. 760 kV 800 kV 750kV
The voltage control of transmission and Distribution systems is obtained basically by Tap-chang-
ing,
Note. L.V. =Low voltage M.V. = Medium Voltage
M.H.V. = Medium High Voltage H.V. = High Voltage Tap-changers are either on-load or off load type. By changing the turns ratio of transformer
the voltage ratio and the secondary voltage is changed and voltage control is obtained. Tap-changing
E.H.V. = Extra High Voltage U.H.V. = Ultra High Voltage
is the most widely used method of controlling voltages at various levels.
Permissible variation is approximately± 10% of nominal Value.
Permissible values of Transient Overvoltages are covered in Ch. 18, Sec. 18. 7. The voltage control of the range ± 16% can be achieved by tap changing transformers.
I
934 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION VOLTAGE CONTROL AND COMPENSATION OF REACTIVE POWER 935
Table 45 B-1 * ssvs TVS

Methods of Voltage Control in Electrical Power System (Network)
Excitation Control and AVR for Generators+
Method Location and Nature Description and Remarhs Synchronous Condensers with Excitation Control *
(A) Excitation Control Used for synchronous generators Generators supply active and reactive Thyristor Controlled Shunt Compensation (TCS/SVS) *
and Voltage Regulation in generating station control room power. AVR maintain constant terminal
(SS + TS) Automatic Voltage Regulators voltage of generator by means of automatic On Load tap Changers *
SS = Steady state, slow (AVR) are provided with the control of field current. Change in d.c.
Switched Shunt Capacitors and Switched Shunt Reactors *
TS = Transient state, fast excitation system of generators. excitation current changes reactive power
supplied by generators Ref. Ch. 45-D. FACT Systems *
(B) Tap Changing - Fitted with transformers. Simple and most common method of SVSS = Steady State Voltage Stability : 30 sec to several minutes
Transformers (SS) - Off circuit switch at changing secondary voltage of TVS = Transient voltage stability : A few seconds to about 30 sec.
generating end and load transformers of given primary voltage. *Further details in Ch. 45-C
for seasonal voltage variation. Variation of± 16% possible. +Further details in Ch. 45-D
- On-load tap-changes at Response to voltage regulating relay Off-circuit Tap-changing. Occasional Adjustment Of Voltage ratio can be made by off-circuit
receiving and distribution automatically.
sub stations, near load
tap-changing. These adjustments are usually for seasonal load variations of special operating re-
Points. quirements of local sub-stations. Typical range of the off-circuit tap-changers are : ± 12½% varia-
(C) Shunt reactors Sending-end and receiving-end Compensate the shunt capacitance of long tions in 5-7 steps. Daily and short-time voltage control is not possible by off-circuit tap-switch.
(Low Loads) sub stations for long transmission transmission lines during low loads or no
- Unswitched (TS) lines. Or in intermediate loads to reduce receiving-end voltage (to Off-circuit tap-changer operation is manually executed by sub-station operator.
- Switched (SS) switching sub-stations. cancel Ferranti effect). Reactor switching is On-Load Tap-Changers. The daily voltage variation due to changing load, and short period
- Thyiistor controlled (TS) difficult. Hence reactors are connected to
bus bars without C.B. voltage variations are controlled by on-load tap-changers automatically.
'
(D) Shunt Capacitors Receiving-end sub-station - Switched-in type or static (thyristor On load tap-changing is also useful industrial applications where variable voltage is required
(Heavy Load) distribution sub-station, factory controlled) of fixed type (for motors). for the process loads (e.g. arc-furnace duty).
- Switched sub-stations, near group loads, Switched in during heavy, low p.f. The voltage ratio of a transformer can be varied by about ± 16% by means of on-load tap
- Thyristor Controlled near individual loads. loads. changers. Time required for one tap changing operation is 8 to 12 seconds.
- Improve p.f., improve voltage
/
- Saves energy due to reduced line losses On-load tap-changers have about 16 steps with provision of automatic voltage control. The volt-
- Should be switched-off during normal age regulating equipment for automatic control of on-load tap-changer comprises a line-drop com-
I voltage. pensator, voltage sensitive regulating relay, time-delay relay etc.
(E) Static Shunt Receiving sub-stations and - Thyristorised A tap-changer is provided on a transformer for maintaining specified outgoing voltage where
Compensation Distribution sub-stations for - Capacitance brought into circuit during the incoming voltage is subjected to voltage variations. The tap-changer is mounted in/on the trans-
smooth and step-less variation of heavy or low p.f. loads
compensation of reactive power - Inductors brought into circuit during former tank. It comprises a motor driven mechanism and associated control circuit for starting and
injected into line. low loads to reduce receiving end stopping the motor. The motor can be run in the direction for a 'raise' tap-changer or in the reverse
voltage. direction for 'Lower' tap-changer.
(F) Series Capacitors Usually at each end of long lines. Usually about 50% of line inductance is In order to initiate the tap-changing, the line/ bus voltage is sensed from secondary of a V.T. by
To compensate for inductive compensated. This improves voltage and voltage sensitive relay. The voltage sensitive relay has two pairs of contacts for 'raise' and 'lower'. A
reactive power requirements of stability time delay element is provided within the voltage sensitive relay or in its circuit separately. The time
transmission lines. delay relay prevents tap-changing operation during transient voltages and hunting of tap changers.
(G) Flexible AC - Recently introduced (1988) - Series compensation varied as per Time delay can be adjusted between minimum 10 sec. to 60 sec. or more. A line-drop compensator
Transmission (FACT) - Thyristor controlled series requirements of power transfer. is provided within control circuit used for regulating transmission line voltages.
capacitors and thyi·istor - Shunt compensation varied as per
contrblled shunt compensation voltage requirement When the line voltage varies beyond certain set value, the voltage sensitive relay connected in
at intermediate substations - Improves stability. the secondary circuit ofV.T. is actuated either to close 'raise contacts' or 'Lower Contacts'. The driven
Fig. 45.6. Various methods of voltage control in sub-stations and power stations.
motor rotates in required direction to achieve tap-changing.
The motor stops automatically after changing the tap as the unit switch provided in the
* Appropriate fylethod (from A to G) used simultaneously to maintain voltages at each bus within mechanism operates.
specified limits. Line-drop compensator is a replica of transmission line (consisting of adjustable resistor and
Time Spans of Various Voltage Control Means inductor elements). The current flowing through Rand L ofL.D.C. is equivalent to current flowing
The various voltage control means mentioned in Table 45B-l have different effective times for in transmission linl:l. The voltage drop in L.D. C. is proportional to voltage drop in transmission line.
voltage control. Some are useful for steady state slow voltage control. Some others are for very fast The voltage drop ~cross the R.L. of L.D.C. is injected in to main regulating voltage coil circuit.
transient voltage coi'.itrol and some are moderately fast. Therefore, the operation of voltage regulating relay is in accordance with the requirements of the
936 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION VOLTAGE CONTROL AND COMPENSATION OF REACTIVE POWER
937
voltage drop in the transmission line. The tap-changing is therefore, obtained as per the transmis- where VR = Receiving-end voltage
sion line requirements of changing load currents and reactive drop in the line. Thus the tap-chang- Vs= Sending-end voltage
ing by on load~tap changer provides automatic regulation of bus bar voltage. Static voltage
I= Current
regulating relays are available for automatic tap-changing.
X1, = 2n fL of line
{C) Shunt Reactors:
1
Shunt reactors are provided at sending-end and receiving end of long EHV and UHV Xe= Zn fC of series Capacitor
Transmission line, They are usually unswitched type and connected to busbars without any cir-
cuit-breaker for switching. Us~ally, the 40 to 60% of XL is compensated by series capacitor.
When the line is on no load .or low load; the shunt capacitance predominate and receiving end
voltage is higher than the sending-end voltage. (This is called Ferranti Effect).
reJ:;:i~ ~=1~!~~1:e~r~;:h~~~r i~pc:~f:~~sg:;dwner ttrbansfei: ability of transmission line. The voltage
.
(H) Flexible . 0 Y series capacitors
AC Transmission (FACT), ·
The receiving-end voltage of a 400 kV, 1000 km long line may be as high as 800 kV. The shunt
capacitance of such lines is neutralised by switching in the shunt ·reactor. During high loads, the beco~e:{ Jf;}fc!lftPi;~~oY~~~:i:sio~:;e~~Jv~ h~1; series reactance and shunt capacitance. It
series inductive reactance of the line produces IX1, drop and the receiving-end voltage drops, the shunt developed recently (1988) Th t g ' ~1 1. ts a 11 Y ?Y
c?nventional means. FACT has been
reactors are switched off. of 250 to 350 km. In each int:r~ae~:::~ ~~s~:~i~: ~~:f1pr~ses mt~rmediate s1;1bstations an interval
_ c t 11 bl • . ' owmg eqmpment are mstalled.
Shunt reactors may be connected to the low voltage tertiary winding of a transformer via a on ro a e series capacitor banks (capacitor bank with thyristor bypass switchin .
suitable circuit-breaker, EHV shunt reactors may be connected to transmission line without any - Controllable shunt compensation (SVS) g
EHV circuit-breaker. Usually, oif immersed magnetically shielded reactors with gapped core are Thyristors are controlled by feed-back control system.
used. Appearance is similar to p0wer transformers. nect;:~\!;:/ower flow and swing-angle oare controlled. FACT preferred for high power intercon-
(D) Shunt Capacitors (Switched in during heavy loads)
Static shunt capacitors are·installed near the load terminals, in factory sub-station, in the Transient voltage stability of the transmission link is improved by FACT system.
receiving sub-stations, in switching sub-stations. Most of the industrial loads (induction motors,
welding sets, furnace transformers etc.) draw inductive currents of poor power factor (0.7, 0.6 lag). 45.15. COMPENSATION OF REACTIVE POWER
The shunt capacitor provide leading voltampere reactive (MVAr) thereby the total kVA loading of is gi~=:~~ve power flow (Q) is closely related with the voltage control. The apparent Power S (kVA)
sub-station transformer and the current is reduced. Thereby IXL drop in the line is reduced and
the voltage regulation is improved. S=P±jQ
Shunt capacitors are switched in when k VA demand on the distribution line goes up and voltage where S = Apparent power, kVA
of the bus voltage goes down. Switching in the shunt capacitor should improve the bus bar voltage P = Real Power kW
if the compensation is effective (necessary). Q =Reactive Power, kVAr
(E) Static Shunt Compensation The various equipments in the network 'Absorb' or 'generate' reactive powe
BY present AIEE Convention : r
A fast stepless variable compensation is possible by thyristorised control of shunt capacitors
and shunt-reactors. SVS acts within a few seconds and provides transient (fast) voltage control and posi[i!~amperes reactive are absorbed by inductive loads and Q for inductive loads is considered
improves voltage stability.
During heavy loads, the thyristors of capacitors control are made conduct for a longer duration ~o:;t~;~ ~~:: by Capacitive loads and Q for capacitive load is considered negative.
in each cycle. During low loa.ds, the thyrist in reactor circuit are made to conduct for longer duration
in each cycle. Thus a stepless variation of shunt compensation is achieved by means of static com- Inductive reactance (Xi) Absorb Reactive Power
pensation. (Further details in Sec. 48.27; SVS) +Q
- Induction motors
(F) Synchronous Condenser - Welding Transformer etc, - Q : positive
Synchronous condensers are loadless synchronous motors connected to the line a suitable trans- - All Inductive loads - p.f. lagging
former. The synchronous con dens or has wide variation excitation control. Under excited - Series reactance
synchronous machine takes leading currents. Thus, by changing the excitation, the reactive power - Under excited synchronous motor.
drawn I supplied by the synchronous condenser is varied. Synchronous condensers connected in
receiving sub-stations, for voltage control. During low load they are operated with over-excitation. 2. CAPACITIVE LOADS
Due to high capital cost and complexity, synchronous condensers are no more preferred.
Shunt Capacitor Supply Reactive Power
(G) Series Capacitors - Series Capacitors -Q
- Q : negative,
Series Capacitors are used for long EHV and UHV transmission line compensate the effect of - Capacitance of transmission line
series reactance. During high loads, the voltage drop in series inductive reactance of the transmis- - pJ. leading,
sion line is cJ)mpensated the series of Capa,citance i.e. - Over-excited synch, Condenser/motor
- Cables
VR = Vs =,I (XL-Xe)
_- Transmission lines on low loads
938
In complex notations :
Complex Power S is the product of voltage E and complex conjugate of I or vice-versa, i.e.
S =El* or S =IE*
consider S =E1*
S=P+jQ
Read power P controls the active power which is converted into mechanical/heat or some other
form ... (watts) and influence frequency f.
Fig. 45.7 (a). Series Capacitor. (b) Vector Diagram for (a).
. Reactive power Q is exchanged between inductive and capacitive loads in the network a1:d i1:-
fluences the voltage in the network. Reactive-power flow increases losses. Hence compensation 1s Ref. Fig. 45.7(a), (b). The load current flowing through the transmission line produces voltage-
provided at each bus. · drop (~V = IXL) in the line.
The control of various bus voltage is achieved by supplying absorbing the reactive power re- ~V =I
(XL) ... without series capacitor
quirements (kVAr) of respective busbars by means of series or shunt compensation. ~V =IX= I (XL - Xe) ... with series capacitor.
Compensation of Reactive Power means supplying/absorbing reactive volt-amperes. Thus with series capacitors in the circuit the voltage drop~ Vin the line is reduced and receiv-
ing-end voltage yR on full lo~d is improved.
45.16. EFFECT OF REACTIVE POWER FLOW ON VOLTAGE AT SENDING-END AND Series capacitors improve the power transfer ability i.e.
RECEIVING END OF TRANSMISSION LINE
IVs I· IVRI .
Let P = Power transfer watts per phase P= X X smo
L- C
Q = Reactive Power Transfer VARs per phase
hence series capacitors are used for long ERV transmission system to improve power transfer
IVs I = Sending-end Voltage Volts, ph. ton, magnitude ability (Stability Limit) as o is reduced [Refer Fig. 45.7(b)].
IVR I = Receiving-end voltage, ph. ton, magnitude Vector Diagram. Ref. Fig. 45.7 (a) and (b) explaining the principle of series capacitor, I is the
~V = Vs - V R ... drop in the line voltage load current flowing through the transmission line. IXL is the voltage drop in series inductive reac-
R+ i X = Series impedance of line/ph. tance of the line. IXc is the voltage drop across series capacitor. VR is the receiving voltage with
The relationship between Vs, VR and P, Q is given by the equation: series capacitor in the circuit. Due to the effect of series capacitor the receiving-end voltage will be
VR 1 instead of VR. Angle o between Vs and VR is also reduced giving higher stability.
RP+XQ
~V=IVsl-lVRI= IVRI Series Capacitor Installation Scheme. (Ref. Fig. 45.8). Series Capacitors are installed either at
both ends of the transmission line (in sending-end and receiving-end sub-station) or in an inter-
Jfthe resistance R is neglected, i.e. X> >R, then mediate switching sub stations. Fig. 45.8 illustrates the scheme of one pole of a three bank. Fig.
XQ 45.16 illustrates the location of Fig. 45.8.
~V= I Vs I - I VR I= vR During normal operation, isolator (1) is open isolator (2.2) are closed; circuit-breaker (3) is open
Hence voltage drop in line depends mainly on the flow of Reactive Power Q.
and the line current (I) flows through the capacitor bank (5).
Since the capacitors and its cpnnections are at extra-high voltage (corresponding to the line
The power angle o between VR and Vs is proportional to voltage) the equipment are installed on a raised platform suppojted on post insulators of adequate
insulation level.
0 oc XP - RQ = _]IE__
IVR I I VR I Series capacitor bank (5) comprises capacitor units connected in series, parallel combination
to give desired capacitive reactance and MVA capacity.
if X»R, angle o depends mainly on P
Damping circuit(6, 7) limits the frequency and peak cifin7ush currents through the capacitor
Thus, bank when capacitor is switched in or by passed by closing of the circuit breaker (3).
Voltage is mainly controlled by reactive Power flow power-angle ois mainly control-
led by real power flow. For voltage control, the flow of reactive power through t!1~ tra~s- Circuit-breaker (3) is closed, first wherever the capacitor-bank is to be bypassed. Bypass isolator
mission line should be controlled. The. flow of reactive power is controlled by IllJectmg (1) is closed after closing the breaker (3). Thus the series capacitor bank can be bypassed and normal
required VAr into the system by means of line current flows through the isolator (1).
- Static shunt Capacitors/reactors (SVS) Over-current protection is provided by overcurrent relays connected on secondary side of CTs
- Synchronous Condensers (Compensators). (9.12). Earth-fault protection is provided by relay c9nnected to CT (11). Discharge reactor (4)
provides a path for discharging the capacitor after its switching off.
45.17. SERIES CAPACITORS During external fault on the line fault current a) passes through series capacitor (5) causing excessive
Series capacitors are connected in series with the line conductors. They reduce the effect of voltage IXc resulting in damage to capacitors. To protect the capacitors from such a failure; a spark
inductive reactance between the sending-end and the receiving-end of the line. gap (8) is provided. When voltage across (5) increases, the spark-gap is triggered. The CT (10) gets
1-..--•-1/ff
940 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION VOLTAGE CONTROL AND COMPENSATION OF REACTIVE POWER 941
1 ' (A) Capacitor. Comprises conductors separated by insulation capacitance C of a parallel plat
---.w
A.C. LINE capacitor is given by ·
EA
C = d ... farads.
2 '4" 2 --.... where C = Premittivity of dielectric medium
= Eo Er
12
Eo = Premittivity of vacuum
= 8.85 x 10- 12 farads/metre
Er= Relative permittivity of dielectric.
4
5 6 Capacitors have following important attributes.
I-
- Voltage across capacitor cannot change instantaneously. Hence it acts like a surge suppres-
sor.
II 7 - It stores electrical energy in static voltage form. Energy stored in a capacitor is given by
1
We=½ CV 2
...... joules.
where C = Capacitance in farads
'1 NORMAL
POSITION
8
10 11
V = Voltage across C in volts
PLATFORM We= Energy stored in capacitance.
.INSULATED FROM
GROUND GROUND
In alternating current circuit, the capacitance give capacitive react~nce Xe= 1tlfe ...... ohms,
> ~ I 71 I / / I / I/ J JI JI 7 l///7 7 JJ 1t l l I l 2
and takes leading power factor currents, i.e. current leads voltage.
1. Bypass Isolator 2. Series Isolator 3. Bypass breaker
4. Discharge Reactor 5. Damping Reactor 6. Damping Resistor
In other words, the capacitors supply leading volt-amperes reactive and Q is negative.
7. Protective Spark-gap 9-12. Protective Current Transformers Qe =le V= V2 roe
Fig. 45.8. Series-Capacitor Installation Scheme. V V2
= - • V = - Voltamperes reactive
current and is arranged to close the bypass circuit-breaker (3), is closed. This is an unusual and special Xe Xe
application of the circuit-breaker. where Qe = Voltamperes reactive
The line fault should be cleared by circuit-breaker at sending-end and receiving-end of the V = Voltage Volts
transmission line. 1
Xe= 21tfc .... ohms
Qe = Apparant or Reactive Power supplied by a capacitor of C
APPLICATIONS OF POWER CAPACITORS
IN ELECTRICAL NETWORK farads and charged to voltage V.
(B) Standard Capacitor Units Available Commercially*.
45.18. APPLICATIONS OF POWER CAPACITORS IN ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS Indoor Type Unit Outdoor Type Units
There are four distinct applications of capacitors in electric power system : Rated Volt- Number of kV Ar of Rated Volt-
Number of phases Rated kV Ar
age Volts Phases Unit age, Volts
l. Shunt Capacitors connected near load points/receiving sub-stations for power factor improve-
ment and voltage control during his load period (Discussed here). These are applied in low volt- 230 1 5, 7.5 230 1 1, 2.5, 5, 7.5
age/medium/high voltages. 440 1 and 3 10 and 15 440 1 and 3 5, 10, 15
2. Series Capacitors used in EHV and UHV transmission lines to improve power transferability. 660 1 and 3 io and 15 660 1 and 3- 5, 10, 15
2400 1 and 3 15 and 25 2400 1 and 3 5, 10, 15
3. Surge Suppressor connected between line and earth near terminals or rotating machines or
3600 1 and 3 15,25 3600 1 and 3 10, 15,25
circuit-breakers (Refer Sec. 18.12).
7200 1 15,25 7200 1 10, 15,25
4. Coupling Capacitors used for connection between carrier current equipment and high voltage
10500 1 50, 75,150 10500 1 50, 75,150
line (Refer Sec. 30.18).
12500 1 50, 75, 150' 12500 1 50, 75,150
5. Capacitor voltage-transformer used for EHV applications, (Refer Sec. 36.6) Upto 200 13800 1 Upto 200
13800
6. In HVDC circuit-breakers.
7. In AC. circuit-breakers for voltage grading. * Table gives typical ratings of capacitor units for reference. For application aspects, please consult the
manufacturers.
942
(C) Standard Rating of Shunt Capacitor Banks* - Reduced voltage level due to increased IXL drop in supply circuit. Poor efficiency of motors
due to reduced voltage.
Rated Voltage 3-phase kV · Total Rating of Shunt Capacitor Bank - Poorer illumination of lamps due to required supply voltage.
phase to phase (having series + parallel combination of units)
0.420 20, 30, 50,100,125,150,180,250,300,500, - Increased power losses due to higher currents drawn during low power factor.
750, 1000 kV Ar - Increased cost of power due to high kVA demand.
3.3 Upto 5 MV Ar. (G) kVA, kVAr, kW, Cos <j>
6.6 Upto 10 MV Ar. Refer Fig. 45.10. Power factor is defined as the ratio of active power W to the total apparent
11 Upto 15 MV Ar. power (kVA).
33 Upto 25 and 50 MVAr. kW
66 Upto 50 and 100 MVAr. P.F.=kVA =cos qi ... (1)
132 100, upto 200 MVAr. Hence, kW=kVAxP.F. =kVAx cos <j>
(D) Shunt Capacitors and Power Factors Improvement VI
In a 3-phase circuit, k VA = '\/'3 1000 ... (2)
The function of shunt capacitors applied in the form of a single unit or a bank (comprising a
group of units in series parallel combination) is to supply capacitive volt-amperes to the system at where V = line to line volts
the point of connection. !=Amperes
The shunt capacitors compensate the lagging kVAr absorbed by the inductive loads such as l W = 3 VI cos p
induction motors transformers/welding sets. C 1000
The shunt capacitors improve the power factor and thereby reduce the total kVA <j> = Angle between I and V
demand. Hence the 12 R losses through line are reduced and the voltage regulation is improved. In case of capacitors / leads V
This is illustrated.in the well-known Fig. 45.10. In case of inductive loads I lags behind V.
Shunt capacitors are as a rule, connected near the load end and also receiving sub- Summarising for 3-phase circuits : Fig. 45.9.
stations.
When used in the sub-station, the shunt capacitor banks should be provided with switching
device. So that during low loads, capacitors are switched off and voltage does not rise above specified
limit. When used with loads, the capacitor units may be non-switched type (e.g. with induction
motors). Recently thyristorised (Static) control has been introduced to provide shunt compensation.
90 KVAR
The shunt capacitor bank~ (groups) comprise standard capacitor units of 20 kVAr connected
in series/parallel combination. Such banks are used factory-sub.stations, distribution-sub-stations.
The all kVAr ratings of the banks are 15 MVAr at 12kV; 50 MVAr at 36 kV recently).
B
(E) Advantages of Shunt Capacitor Banks connected at load/reving end.
Fig. 45.9.
1. Reduced lagging-current through supply circuit. Reduced I 2 Rt losses supply line. Improve
power factor. Energy Saving; Economy. kW= ,f3 VI cos<!> = l 73 VI cos <j>
2. Increased voltage at load-end during full load. Reduced Voltage fluctuations at load end. 1000 . 1000
3. Improved voltage regulation if capacitor units are properly switched. If not properly kVA =~V/sin<j>
r 1000
switched, the voltage rises during low load and no load periods resulting in overessing the trans-
former insulation. kVA2 = kW2 + kVAr2 ...(4)
4. Reduced kVA demand, hence same transformer and distribution circuit having cer- .1n VI
kVA = '/u lOOO ... (5)
tain rated kVA can deliver higher kW. (This is called "Release" of capacity of supply cir-
cuit). kW
cos <j>= kVA
5. Reduced kVA demand, hence lesser charges to be paid to the electricity board for the same
consumption of electrical energy. The tarrif generally two part tariff with certain charges for max- kW =kVAx cos <j>
imum kVA demand; This component reduces due to use of shunt capacitors at load end. kVAr
tan<j>=--
(F)' Disadvantages of Low Power Factor (PF) kW
An electrical plant or sub-station operating at a low power factor has following demerits : . kVAr
sm<j>= kVA
- Reduced kW capacity; over loading of cables, transformers, lines for .same kW load. In-
creased kVA dem.and for same kW load. kW
cos <j>= kVA
* The size is limited by circuit breaker capacity also. h.p. = 746 W = 0.746 kW ... (6)
VOLTAGE CONTROL AND COMPENSATION OF REACTIVE POWER 945
Induction motor (2)
Example 45. kW, kVA, kVAr cos<!>
kVA2 = 150 at lagging P.F. of0.8 (given)
A 3-phase 460 V, system having current 200 amp, total power 120 kW. Determine power-factor,
kVA, kVAr, cos$. kW2 = kVAr2 cos <!>2 = 150 x 0.8 = 120 kW
kVA=-VS VI =1.73x460x200=l 592 kVAr_ 2 =-YkVA~ -kW~
Solution. 1000 1000 .
= ✓ 150 2 - 1202 = 90 kVAr (+)
kW= 120 (given)
Lighting Load (3)
kW 120
cos<!>= kVA = 159 _2 = 0.55 Ans. kVA3 = 50 at unity P.F. (given)
kVAr= kVA2 -kW2 = 1592 - 1202 = 104 kW3 = kVA 3 cos $3 = 50 x 1 = 50 kW
2 kVAr_ 3 =0
or kVAr = 3VI [\~6~os <!>) ] = 159.2 [1- 0.752] = 104 Ans. Total kW= kW1 + kW2 + kW3
(H) Supply of kVAr, Absorption of kVA according to presently accepted terminology. i.e. kW= 60 + 120 + 50 = 230 kW
- Inductive loads take lagging currents and absorb kVAr, Q is positive. Total kVAr = kVAr1 ± kVAr_2 ± kVAr_ 3
- Capacitors take leading currents and supply kVAr. i.e. kVAr = - 45 + 90 + 0 = 45 kVAr
- Synchronous condensers take lagging p.f. currents and absorb kVAr when under-excited.
They take leading p.f. currents and supply kVAr when overexcited. Hence they are used for kVA 2 = kW2 + kVAr 2 = 54925
step-less p.f. control in receiving sub-stations. Alternatively static shunt compensation has k VA = 54925 = 234
reactors connected at load by means of thyristors. Capacitor current is increased to supply Power-factor of sub-station
kVAr during heavy loads, inductor current is increased to absorb kVAr during light loads. kW 230
= kVA = 234 = 0.982. Ans.
(I) Loads of Poor Power-factor SUBSTATION
Induction motor, induction melting and refining Example : Power Factor Improvement
furnaces, welding sets, fluorescent lights etc. take supp- Exam~le 4~-B-3. ~he power factor of a 120 kW group load is 0.8 and 120 kW group load is
ly currents of lagging p.f. Refer cable C-3. 0.8 l~g. This p.f. 1s to ht improved to 0.9 by means of shunt capacitors. Calculate kVAr of capacitors
Examples 45-B-2. P.F. of Group Load reqmred.
A factory sub-station supplies power to three loads Solution.
as follows : Draw kVA triangle (Fig. 45.9) as follows:
For cos <)> 1 = 0.8. Draw triangle OAB
- Synchronous motors total 75 kVA at 0.8 p.f. LIGHT
50 KVA 1.0PF
leading. OA = kW1 = 120 (given)
- Induction motors total 150 kVA at 0.8 p.f. lag- INDUCTION MOTORS SYNCHRONOUS
OB =kVA 1 =kW=
120 = 150
150 KVAM. 0.8 PF MOTORS
ging. (LAGGING) 75 KVR, 0.8 PF 0.8 0.8
kVAr_1 = ✓kVAy + kWy = ✓150 2 -1202 = 90
(LEADING)
- Lighting load filament lamps, 50 kVA at unity p.f.
Calculate overall power-factor of sub-station. Fig. 45.10. Combined power factor of a group of
loads with different PFs'. or kVAr_ 1 =AB= OA tan 01 = 120 tan 01
Solution.
Method of Solution. Calculate total kW by algebraic sum of component kW's. Calculate total
=
For cos <)> 2 0.9 .
120
kVAr by summing up component kVAr's. From total kW's and total kVAr's, calculate P.F. kVA2 =kW= = 133.3 kVA
p.f. 0.9
kW kW1 +kW2+kW3
Thus P.F. =kV.Ar= (kVAr-1) x (kVAr- 2) + (kVAr - 3) kVAc2= ✓kVA~ + 120 2 =58 kVAr_ 2
Note. Overexcited synchronous motor acts like a capacitor and supplies kVAr. The power fac- N_ote. For p.f. 0.9 kVA is only 133 for same kW of 120. The kVAr to be supplied by the shunt
tors of individual loads are used for calculating the power-factor of a group of loads as explained capacitors.
in example below. kVAr_ 1 -kVAr_. 2 = 90 - 58 = 32 kVAr. Ans.
Numerical Solution.
Note. Capacitors provide kVAr opposite to the kVAr required by inductive loads. Hence a com-
Subscript 1, 2, 3 for component loads. mon terminology is the inductive loads absorb the kVAr and capacitors supply the kVAr. \
Synchronous motor (1) Economic aspects of capacitor installation based on cost of capacitor installation and
kVA 1 = 75 at p.f. 0.8 load (given) sub-station.
kW1 = kVA1 cos <!> 1 = 75 x 0.8 = 60 kW The cost of capacitor installation can be calculated as follows :
kVAr_ 1 = kVA1 sin <!>1 = 75 x 0.6 = 45 kVAr [-] The cost of Installation = Total cost of capacitors + cost of protective and switching devices
+ cost of installation and commissioning.
(This is negative i.e. opposite, that ofkVAr of induction motor).
946
kVAr_ 1 = 125.7 x 0.484== 60.8 (inductive)
Suppose the cost of capacitor installatio~ is K Rs/kVAr (e.g. Rs. 100 per kV Ar) cost of sub-sta-
tion is S Rs./kVA. (e.g. a 1200 kVA sub-station costing Rs. 480,000 will have Similarly, kVAr_ 1 == 1244 (inductive)
S ==
4
~~gg
0
= Rs. 400 kVA
kVAr_ 3 =- 401 (capacitive)
kVAr_4=0
Most economic p.f. considering cost of kVA released by the capacitors is given by
Combined p.f. angle e = tan-
1
1}:}:k::r)
P.F. == 1-(!J 60.8 + 124.4- 401 + 0 )= 150 14,
= tan-1
125.7 + 165.9 + 401 + 100
Example 45-B-4. A sub-station costs Rs. 400 per kVA and capacitor installation cost Rs.
cos $ = 0.965 eading, '
100/kVA.
Since the load is predominantly capacitive.
Calculate the economical p.f.
Solution. 45.19. INSTALLATION OF SHUNT CAPACITORS
Most economical P.F. is given by
Capacitors are installed at every distribution voltage level (415 V 3 3 kV 11 kV 33 kV 66
kV, 110 kV). The capacitors are connected to provide: ' · ' ' '
P.F. == 1-(~J == 1-(!~~J = 0.955 Ans. (a) Localised p.f. improvement, or (b) Group p.f. improvement
1
Another approach to decide the most economic P.F. is on the basis of kVA maximum demand. . . Sever~l techni~al and econo1:1ic ~sp~cts should be consid~red bef~re deciding the location of capacitors
Let the capacitor installation be Rs. K per kVA (chargeable for a certain period). Let the charges m mdustnal electncal scheme distnbut10n system. The mam techmcal aspects include :
for kVA maximum demand be Rs. M per kVA (chargeable for the same period). Ci) Variations in load (ii) Type of motors/other loads
I
The most ecdnomical p.f. is given by (iii) Load distribution (iv) Circuit diagram
1-(tJ.
(v) Length circuits (vi) Voltage conditions
(vii) Cost aspects.
P.F. ==
Localised P.F. Improvement. This is
Example 45-B-5. The tariff of electricity is Rs. 72 per kVA maximum. The charges of capacitor made by placing capacitors near molor/small
installation are Rs. 12 per kVA calculated for the same period. Calculate the most economic power feeder feeding the load. .___--+--------1--1 I---- C1
factor. 66KV
To obtain maximum advantage, Transformer
Solution. P.F. = 1-(!J 1-(~~J=

== 0.98 (lag)
capacitors should be connected near the load
or near the end of feeders. This reduces los-
ses in supply circuit and improves voltage
33KV
Example 45-B-6. Mixed Load. near load point.

An industrial sub-station is supplying power to following mixed loads : 33KV Bus
Localised power factor for impr.ovement
1. A 150 h.p., induction motor 1 having efficiency of 89% and p.f. 0.9 lag.
can be with switched capacitors or un-
2. A 200 h.p. induction motor 2 having efficiency of 90% and p.f. 0.8 lag. switched capacitors depending upon the volt- Capacitor 33KV
3. A synchronous motor rated 500 h.p. having efficiency of 93% and p.f. 0.707 lead. age rise during low load period. Transformer
4. Unity p.f. lighting load of 100 kW.
(Typical) J 440V
Fig. 45.11 illustrates locations of capacitors C2
Calculate the p.f. of the sub-station. Calculate kW taken by the sub-station.
in industrial electrical scheme, C4, C5 indicate
Solution, Subscripts 1, 2, 3, 4 are as in the same example. Refer example C-2, proceed in 440V Bus
similar way. · localised p.f. correction. C 1, C 2, C3 indicate
Let Tl = etnciency group correction. Induction
C1 is capacitor bank installed 36 kV or Motor
kW1 h.p. x 0.746 == 150 x 0.746 = 125.7 ~
Feeders to Motor
Tl 0.89 66 kV network. · Control Centers
kW2 h.p. x 0.746 == 200 x 0.746 = 165,9 Group Power Factor Improvement. 440V Motor
Tl 0.9 This is made at the primary or secondary
C1-C -c 3-Group Correction
kW3 = h.p. x 0.746 == 500 x 0.76 = 401 side of supply transformer (C1 in Fig. 45.11) C4,C 2,-Localized Correction
5
Tl 0.93 or near main switchgear for motor control
kW4 = 100 centre (C2 and C3 group p.f. correction is Feeders to Small
Motors
kWAr_ 1 = kW1 tan $1 used when load shifts suddenly between
feeders. Group correction is also u.sed when Induction
<h = cos- 1 0.9 == 25° 50' they are several small capacity loads mixed
Motor
with medium capacity loads. Fig. 45.11. Location of Capacitors in Industrial Scheme.
tan $ 1 = 0.484
948 SWITCHGEAR A.t'l'D PROTECTION
Capacitors near Motor Terminal. Capacitors are generally installed across terminals of the
induction motors when connected in this way, the kVAr should be limited to such a value that the
voltage rise near motor terminals is within safe limits when the breaker is open. Refer Table 45-B BUS 33 KV/66 KV
for reference values of capacitor rating for motors.
I
C.B. FUSE O.C.RELAY INDUCTION LIGHTNING ARRESTERS -
1 ~MOTOR
CT CT ISOLATOR & E-SWITCH <f-0--
Fig. 45.12. Alternative positions of capacitor connected to motor.

CTs & PROTECTION
When capacitors are switched along with
moto}, attention should be paid towards set-
MOTOR
ting of overcurrent relay. Refer Fig. 45.12 CIRCUIT BREAKER
explaining alternative position of capacitor

with reference to position of over current RVT
relay. When capacitor is on supply side (1),
capacitor current is not seen by over-cur- TO STARTER
DIRECT ON r - - -- - - - -- - -1
rent relay. Hence, over current-relay setting LINE CAPACITOR BANK,...........1 I
I I
is unchanged.
When capacitors are switched along
with motor with over-current-relay on supp-
CAPACITOR CAPACITOR FUSE-ij ~ il
ly side (position 2) the over-current relay on
supply side (position 2) the over-current
;~
I
I
i ~i I
I
relay will see lesser current. Hence lower L ---- ----- _;
setting required. For example line current Fig. 45.13. Connections of Capacitor to Induction Motors.
for full load operation of motor with improved power-factor is given by the following expressions :
cos <h
Line current= Motor full load current x - - , t , - SERIES
cos 't'2 REACTOR-
where, cos <j> 1 = Full load P.F. without capacitors

cos <j> 2 = Improved P.F. with capacitors.
This aspect should be considered when O.C. relay is on supply side as shown in position 2, Fig. Fig. 45.14. Star connected H.V. capacitor bank.
45.12. Fig. 45.13 illustrates typical connections of capacitors for direct connections with motor. 45.20. REACTIVE POWER REQUIREMENTS AND VOLTAGE REGULATION OF
Installation of 33 kV shunt Capacitor Bank. Fig. 45.14 illustrates a typical scheme. The EHV/UHV A.C. LINES. SURGE IMPEDANCE LOADING
capacitor bank is connected in star and its neutral is not grounded. The circuit breaker should be
The .reactive power requirements of long EHV/UHV lines pose a serious probl~m in voltage
suitable for capacitor switching. It should not re~strike while capacitor current breaking. regulation.
While closing parallel capacitor banks, one bank discharges into the other giving high frequency
in rush currents. Series reactor shown in Fig. 45.14 is of such reactance that the frequency fn of The voltage variation occurs along the length of line and with charging load. Refer Sec. 48.13.
L.C. circuit is within specified limits of breaker capability of closing operation. Let E = Series inductance phase, henry
Vacuum circuit-breakers are suitable for capacitor switching, because C = Shunt capacitance, phase to n, Farads
- They can perform repeated operations without nee.d for maintenance. V = Phase to neutral voltage, Volts
- They can open large capacitor banks without restrike due to rapid rate of rise of recovery I= Line current
voltage. ro = 21t f = 314, f = 50 Hz
- They can withstand high amplitude of inrush currents of higher. frequency. Reactive power produced by shunt capacitance of the line (Qc) is given by :
Refer Fig. 45.14 giving essential protections. Lightning arrestors provide protection against
Qc=Vl=V, V/Xc=V21Xc
over-voltage.
Over-current and earth fault relays provide respective protection to capacitor bank. = roCV2 Volt amperes reactive/phase(-)
Residual voltage transformer (RVT) gives protection against unbalanced loading due to blowing Qc for a given line will depend on voltage of line. Reactive power Absorbed by series inductance
of individual unit fuse. Fuses with capacitor units give short-circuit protection to individual of the line (Q 1) is given by
capacitor units. · 2
QL = ro L 1 Volt ampere reactive/phase, (+)
+0.5 f - - - 1 - - 7 J- -·1
QL for a given line will depend upon line current I. [As per convention, Qc is negative and I I
QL is positive]. t I
I
By shunt compensation at receiying end, the line current I is reduced and the r:active pow~r. ab-
sorbed by the line is reduced, i.e. [QL == roLI2) is reduced by switching-in shunt capacitors at receivmg- : ('(BJ NATURAL LOAD, Pn 1
end. i I ....__ ___. (C) HEAVY LOAD =1.5 P'l1
0·95 L - - - - .l - -· _ _ L ___ .J
The compensation requirements of the ERV line depends on line loading is generally expressed 0° 10° 20° 30° -0.5 L- - - - L _ _ _ .J _ _ _ .....J .
0 10' 20' 30'
in terms of Surge Impedance Loading (Pn) as a multiple of P n· (Say 1.2 P n or 0.9 P n). DISTANCE FROM SENDING END DISTANCE FROM SENDING END
IN ELEC DEG - IN ELEC. DEG. --,...
If the load on the line is such that (the load current I is such that) the react~ve power P:oduced
by the line (QcJ is equal to the reactive power supplied by the line (Qr) the load impedance is called (a) Voltage variation along length of a long line. (b) Reactive power Active power ratio for a long line.
Fig. 45.15.
Surge Impedance (Zs). The line is said to have natural load or unit Surge Impedance Load.
Thus for unit surge impedance loading, or natural loading When line is carrying natural load (P == Pn) the magnitude of voltage is the same everywhere
along the line.
Qc == QL
In Fig. 45.15, the line length has been expressed in terms of electrical degrees. This is obtained
roev2 == roLI2 as electrical angle 0,
Hence ev2 ==LI2 where 0 == l ✓Le
1 l == length of line actual, metres
i.e., ,f )2 ==Zs
==(~ L == series inductance of line per metre per phase
e == shunt capacitance_ of line per metre per phase
(This has a unit of impedance).
If the line voltage Vis to be regulated within say 105% and 95% throughout the line for both
Hence the load impedance which gives Qc produced by the line equal to QL absorbed by line is low loads and heavy loads, compensation of reactive becomes necessary when power transferred
called surge impedance (Zs) of the line. P through line becomes equal to Pm·
Surge impedance of line depends on L and e parameters of the line and is in~epen~en.t of line Pm ==Pn sec 0
length. Surge impedance of a single conductor overhead line is about 400 Q and with twm bundled where 0 == l ✓Le
conductors about 300 Q, Surge impedance of oil filled cables is of the order of 25 Q, Pn == Natural load of line.
Power carried by the line when load is equal to (Zs) and it carries current I such that
Above P == 1.5 P n the reactive power requirement increases rapidly.
VII== Zs is called
From curve B in Fig. 45.15, to maintain constant voltage throughout the length of line.
Surge impedance loading or Natural ioading. It is given by
- Reactive Power should be absorbed during low loads, i.e. shunt reactors should be switched-
y2 in.
P ==VI== -Watts.
n Zs - Reactive power should be supplied during heavy loads, i.e. shunt capacitors should be
where Pn == Natural load or Surge impedance loading switched-in.
Zs== Surge impedance of line== "1f ohms

- Reactive power requirement increases as the length of line increases.
Reactive power compensation
requirements of transmission line
V == Rated voltage ofline == Volts SERIES
varies with line loading. COMPN.
Hence for Surge Impedance Loading.
The transmission line loading
Pn based on thermal ratings of conduc-
In== V ...... Amperes
tors is much higher than P == 1.5
Since Zs for a given line is independent of line length, and depends mainly L and e of line, Pn. But the increased requirements
X
typical values can be mentioned.
i
of compensation and voltage SWITCHED
Rated Voltage of Line, kV

Surge impedance loading, MW
(Natural Load Pn)
132
40
220
125
400
500
765
1700
regulation problems set a limit of
power transfer to about 1.3 P n·
Long EHV transmission lines INTERMEDIATE
i ,
SHUNT
REACTORS
SWITCHING
STATIC SHUNT-COMPN.
need an intermediate switching
Fig. 45.16. A typical EHV/UHV AC Transmission Line indicating
Surge impedance loading gives approximate idea of loading of line. sub-station to enable installation of series compensation and shunt compensation.
Ref. Fig, 45.15 illustrating the variation of voltage along a line carrying a load (a) No load (b)
series capacitors and shunt reac-
N aturalload and (c) Heavy load. tors. A typical scheme is illustrated in Fig. 45.16.
952
economic considerations, reactive power (VAR) has to be supplied by utilities, as certain loads like
Summary .. Induction Motors, Arc furnances, Welding Machines etc. can not function without reactive power.
Voltage of various sub-stations buses should be held within specified limits, the vanatrnn al- Further-more, there are statutory limitations of voltage & power factor variation in every country
lowed is ± 10%. . and these are required to maintained within specified limits under all operating conditions. Voltage
Whereas the active power flow (P) determines,directly the frequency (f) it does not affect the and reactive power are interrelated fields. Voltage levels are index to measure of balance of genera-
voltage significantly. tion and consumption ofreactive power. In India, the load curve shows wide fluctuations at various
Voltages are affected significantly by the flow of reactive power (Q). hours of the day. The variation is different in various regions of the country. At light load condition,
there is excess reactive power available in the system, this causes rise in the system voltage (leading
QX power factor condition). When load demand is heavy, more reactive power is consumed and there
~V= IVR I is low voltage (lagging p.f. condition). During both the conditions reactive power is to be minimized.
where IVR I = Receiving end voltage of the line 3.0. Disadvantage of Reactive Power
Q = Reactive power flow through the line In the peak demand hours, due to inductive or lagging p.f. loads in the system e.g. Fluroscent
X = Series reactance of line lamps, Arc Furnances, Agricultural pumps, Traction Motors etc. voltage is less and thus leading
~V=Voltagedropi'nline= lVsl - IVRI VAR demand is more. It has got the following effects :
Voltages are controlled by supplying reactive power Q called compensation. (i) Effect on Load : It is extremely important that a consumer gets a constant stable voltage as
Generator voltage is regulated by automatic voltage regulator and excitation system. all the equipments are rated for a constant specific voltage. This results into reduction in the
output or in some equipments current drawn increases i.e. IR loss is more and due to heating
Transmission line voltage is regulated by tap-changing transformer, shunt capacitors, shunt
equipments may get damaged for voltage consumers use voltage Regulators etc which is again
reactors series capacitors, SVS. a drain on the resources & cause of unnecessary load & harmonics.
Tap~changing transformers are widely used for network tran~formers distribution transformers
(ii) Effect on Transformers: For the same power to be transmitted over the line, it will have
and transformers in the industrial electrical schemes. Off-load tap-changers are used for seasonal
to carry more current at a low power factor. As the line is to carry more current, its cross
voltage variation, on-load tap-changers are used for daily voltage variatio~. Tap-changers have tap
sectional area will have to be increased, which increases the capital cost of the lines.
selector, diverter switch and motor drive unit voltage measuring relay havmg two sets of contracts.
Also increased current increases the line loss, or the efficiency of the line is lowered, and
_ "raise" and "lower" sends command to the tap-changer. Tap changer operates automatically. the line drop is also increased.
Change in voltage ratio is achieved by change in turns ratio. (iii) Effect on Generators : With the low power factor the KVA as well as KW capacities are
Shunt capacitors are connected near load point; in factory sub-stations, distributi~n and sub- lowered. The power supplied by the Exciter is increased, as well as the Generator copper
stations, receiving stations. They improve power factor, reduce kVA demand, reduce hne current losses are increased, so their efficiency is decreased. ·
and line losses. (iv) Effect on Prime Movers: When the p.f. is decreased, the Alternator develops more reac-
Shunt capacitors should be switched in during low voltage, heavy load and switched off during tive KVA or the watt less power generated is more, but a certain energy is required to
high voltage, low load. . develop it which is supplied by the Prime Mover. This is, the part of the Prime Mover
Series capacitors are used for long EHV transmission lines for voltage co?trol and stability capacity is idle and represents dead investment. Working at low p.f. also decreases the
improvement. During high load, the reactive power loss in the line reactance 1s compensated by efficiency of Prime Mover.
kVAr supplied by series capacitors. (v) Effect on Grid : Due to poor p.f. loads, voltage will be far behind from the rated value.
Flexible AC Transmission (FACT) combines the controllable series capacitors and SVS to To boost up load bus voltage additional reactive power will be supplied by the Generators.
achieve control of voltage, power, swing angle (8). Due to over load Generator/Generators may trip.
Voltage control in transmission system is influenced by reactive power flow. By appropriate (vi) Effect on Switchgear and Bus Bars : The cross-sectional area of the bus bar, and the
action in each sub-station, the voltage control is achieved. contact surface of the Switchgear must be enlarged for the same power to be delivered
Voltage control methods are of three different types: (1) Slow and steady state (2) Medium fast at low p.f.
(3) Very fast for transient voltage stability improvement. (vii) In the off-peak hours, due to minimum inductive loads (leading p.f. situation) in the sys-
tem, system runs in leading VAR (i.e. leading p.f.) condition, which causes high voltage
45.21. REACTIVE POWER MANAGEMENT in the system because of which equipments get damaged.
1.0. As we now know that, reactive power compensation improves power factor, stabilizes and 4.0. Advantages of Compensation
maintains the voltage. Series compensation is suitable for transmission line wh!l~ shunt compen- (i) A greater load can be carried before system reinforcement becomes necessary. An im-
sation is used at the distribution sub-station and at the load. For lower capacities, synchronous provement in p.f. from 0.65 to 0.90 increases the system capacity by 30%.
condenser may be employed which gives smooth control of reactive power, while for lar·rer (ii) Due-to reduction in the current drawn, additional load can be met without additional
capacities, static capacitors are employed. Shunt reactors are required to compensat~ for ch_argmg rating of equipments i.e. loading capacity of the power distribution system is increased.
reactive power under light load conditions. Self adjustment in the reactive power is possible by
(iii) Because of less heating, the ageing of the insulation becomes slow and thus the life of
Static VAR Compensators (SVC) which also damps the system oscillations.
cable/equipment increases.
2.0. In an integrated power system, efficient management. of active and reactive power flows
(iv) Switchgear wear and tear is minimised because of lesser arcing energy dissipation:
is very important. Quality of power supply is primarily judged from the frequenc~ and vo~tage of
the power made available to the consumer. Keeping in view of the safety, security, quality _and
- - --- ---------------------------
954 VOLTAGE CONTROL AND COMPENSATION OF REACTIVE POWER
(v) The KW capacity of Prime Movers/Generatorstrransformers & Lines are increase i.e. high voltage. For example, the charging capacity of one circuit at 400 KV, 1000 KM long, is 500
efficiency is more. MVAR. So, in peak demand hours, all the ERV circuits should be in service, to provide VAR support
(vi) The overall cost per unit is lower. in the Grid.
(vii) The voltage regulation of the line is improved. (iv) Reactors : In extra high voltage networks, capacitive generation often creates problems
(viii) Reduction in power-cuts, due to reduced demand. during operation at low loads; switching operations and disturbances. The severity of such problems
(ix) User gets reduction in 'KVA demand' charges, avoidance of penal rate for low p.f. and increases with the increase in system voltage and increase in line length. Shunt Reactors are a
rebate for higher p.f. radical means of decreasing the excessive capacitance effects associated with the switching on and
off of long lines. They also help to distribute the voltage along the line, decrease the active power
(x) Reduced depreciation charges on capital outlay and less capital investment.
losses and the internal over voltages & also enhances system stability under transient fault. The
5.0. Sources of Reactive PowerNar Compensating Devices number, size and location of Reactors depend on technical and economic considerations. In case of
(i) Generating Units (ii) Synch11onous Condensers 400 KV Circuit, Shunt Reactors are connected at both end of the line and at 400 KV Sub-Stations
(iii) Extra high voltage lines (iv) Reactors according to need shunt type Bus Reactor is provided. Some times Bus Reactors are also connected
(v) Series Capacitors (vi) Shunt Capacitors in the Tertiary winding of the Transformer. They are all passive elements. In the peak demand
hours, Bus Reactors are switched off to avoid low voltage. Generally 60 to 75% of reactive compen-
(vii) Static VAR Compensators (SVC) (viii) Phase Advancers
sation is considered satisfactory, the remaining reactive power being required for the load itself.
5.1. Various Var Compensating Devices Under certain load conditions, the number of Reactors connected to the line is varied so as to regu-
(i) Generating Units : The Generating Units are the major sources to generate as well as_ to late the transmission voltage and flow of reactive power.
absorb reactive power at different load conditions. An under-excited Generator absorbs reactive (v) Series Capacitor: Construction wise, Shunt & Series Capacitors are identical. The two types
power whereas an over-excited Generator will generate it. Th~ terminal v?ltage of the Generat?r differ in their method of connection. They are also passive elements like reactors. The voltage on
is regulated by its automatic voltage Regulator (AVR). By settmg appropriate refe:e~ce :7al_ues m a shunt installationremains constant but the drop across series bank changes instantaneously with
AVR and adjusting field current, reactive power can be generated or absorbed w1thm limits. _To load. Series Capacitor is connected in series with the line. A Series Capacitor compensates for the
maintain rated voltage in the bus in case of heavy load/peak demand VAR generated by the Machme drop or part of, across the inductive reactance of the feeder. The effect of this compensation is valu-
as the system voltage is less and in case of less load/lean demand hours VAR absorbed by the able in two classes of application. One, on radial feeders to reduce voltage drop and two on tie
Machine as the system voltage is more. feeders to transfer power. Series Capacitors are suited particularly to radial circuits where lamp
(ii) Synchronous Condensers : It is a Synchronous Motor working at ,over excitation or under flicker is encountered due to rapid and repetitive load fluctuations, such as frequent Motor starting,
excitation mode with no load. varying Motor loads, Electric Welding and Electric Furnaces.
Its advantages : Its advantages :
- It can be operated either over excited mode to compensate for react~ve p_ower lost du:ing - The principal application for Series Capacitor is to reduce the effective length of Transmis-
the heavy load periods (lagging VAR condition) or under excited durm_g l:ght l_oad pen~ds sion Lines employed for long distance power transfer, so that the line loading can still ap-
to absorb reactive power generated by the Capacitance of the Transm1ss1on Lme (leadmg proach the Surge Impedance Level (SIL) without encountering problems of transient
VAR condition). stability. In other words, it provides increased Line capacity which, in certain cases, obviates
- By suitable control of excitation it is also possible for the Synchronous Condenser to improve the need for constructing additional Transmission circuits.
the stability of the Grid during transient fault. - The compensation employed in practice is 50 - 60%. For example, the power transfer
- Fine control of voltage and/or reactive output. capability of a Line with 50% compensation is approximately equal to the power transfer
- High speed response by using static excitation system. capability of two parallel Lines of the same length and voltage. Thus, for example in Russia,
- Synchronous Condenser has an inherently sinusoidal wave form and the harmonics in the by using Series Capacitors on two 850 KM long 400 KV Lines, the capacity has been in-
voltage do not exist. creased from 450 MW per circuit to 700 MW, obviating the need for a third circuit.
- Short time overloading is possible. - Enhances transmitting capacity and stability.
- Wide continuous operating range, from an over-excited reactive generation of 100% to an - Improved voltage regulation and reactive power balance.
under-excited reactive absorption of approximately 60%. Usually Units between 10-100 - Elegant and simple.
MVA are generally considered for the purpose. - The benefit of Series compensation is that the reactive power is self regulating i.e. when
Its disadvantages : more current (varies square of the load current) flows through the Line under load condi-
tions, both, lagging and leading reactive power increases.
- Flexibility of insta1lation is more difficult compared to Capacitor Bank.
- Increase of rating is not pos·sible without installation of a major Unit. Its disadvantages :
- Losses vary between 1.5 to 4% which are more than Capacitor Bank. - Relay co-ordination _aspect
- Costly compared to Capacitor Bank. - With the introduction of Series Capacitors, problem of sub-synchronous resonance (SSR)
- Due to rotating parts, wear & tear is more compared to static Capacitor Bank. problem arises. The SSR problem comprises of :
(iii) Extra High Voltage Lines: 400 KV, 220 KV EHVtrransmission Lines are a potential source (i) Self excitation involving resonance of electrical system.
of high voltage/leading VAR. In the off-peak hours ERV Lines are some times switched off to avert (ii) Torsional interaction involving both electrical and mechanical systems.
Thyristor controlled VAR absorption components (Reactors) and VAR generation components
(iii) The transient torque problems occuring during fault and switching operations. ~or ex- (Capacitor Banks). This provides automatic reactive power control.
ample, when an Induction Motor is started through a Ser~es Ca~a.cito_r, the Motor may lock m and Its advantages :
continue to rotate below normal or synchro_nous speed. This condit10n is kno:wn a~ sub-_syn~hron~us
- Reliable, fast acting and maintenance free as compared to Synchronous Condenser.
resonance. It is caused by the Capacitor whose capacitive reactance in col)Junction with mductive
- It has low losses
reactance of the circuit and Motor establishes a resonant circuit at a frequency that of supply.
- Improves p.f. and regulates voltage, & also damps the system osciilations.
(iv) The cost of Series Capacitor per KVAR is higher than that of Shunt Capacitor•
- It also increases power handling capacity and transient stability of the system.
(v) Series Capacitor carry full load current, therefore, the current rating of the Capacitor must
- It has a high degree of reliability and is cost effective.
be at least as high as load current and preferably, greater than load current to cater future growth.
(x) Phase Advancers (PA): Most of the Motors used as drives are Induction Motors. Phase Ad-
(vi) Under fault conditions, full fault current passes through the Capacitor _and voltage acr~ss
the Capacitor may exceed the permissible limit and may damage the ?apacitor. Hence, series vancers improve p.f. of an Induction Motor (IM). The induction Motor has low p.f. as stator winding
Capacitors will have to be provided with special protection schemes devices to take care of fault draws magnetizing current which lags behind the supply voltage by 90°. If the magnetizing ampere
turns can be provided from some other source, stator winding will be relieved of the magnetizing
conditions.
current and the p.f. can be drastically improved. A PA is an a.c. excite connected in rotor circuit of
(vii) On energisation, a Transformer Bank drawn high trans~e;11t magnetizing current. If a an IM, which provides the magnetizing Ampere turns at slip frequency. In IM the rotor frequency
Series Capacitor is there in the circuit, it may create a resonant condit10n known as Ferroresonance, is much less than that of the stator so it is desirable to supply the magnetizing Ampere turns from
and consequent demages. the rotor at slip frequency rather than from the stator at supply frequency. The IM may operate
(viii) Shunt Capacitors: Shunt Capacitors are installed in parallel with the induc~ive load. They at a leading p.f. if magnetizing Ampere turns provided are more than that required, PA may be of
are generally distributed at various load points in the Distri~ution System. The reactive po:wer sup- following types :-
plied by Shunt. Capacitor varies as square of the voltage apphed. In peak demand ho~rs, _this should (i) Leblanc's Exciter (ii) Schebious Phase Advancer
be kept on to generate leading VAR and off-peak hours this should be kept off to avoid high voltage. (iii) Walker Phase- Advancer (iv) Kepp Vibrator
Shunt Capacitors are normally connected in the 33/11/.415 KV Bus.
Main advantage with PA is that as compared to Synchronous Condenser, they have small out-
Its advantages : put. However, they are economical only for large capacity Induction Motor.
- Static Shunt Capacitors are the most econo:rr..ical means of generation of reactive power.
- Less costly than Synchronm,1s Condenser.
- Lesser Losses (1.5% or less) QUESTIONS
- Simple Installation. 1. Explain the methodology of voltage control in electrical power system.
- Rating can be increased easily be adding more Units. 2. State whether the following statements are right or wrong. Write correct statements.
- Less maintenance is required. (a) Shunt capacitors are switched off during low load.
Its disadvantages : (b) Series capacitors is generally used for power factor improvement.
- Due to harmonic voltage generation, resonance may occur. (c) Voltage control in power system is achieved by changing load.
- Supply of lagging reactive current not possible. (d) Load shed.ding is used when voltage falls below specified limits.
- Short service life of 10 to 15 years. (e) Synchronous condensers are installed in generating stations.
- It is difficult to repair a damaged Capacitor. (f) Voltage control is possible from load control centre.
- They break down easily at voltage exceeding 1.1 times the ratAd voltage. 3, Explain the function of shunt capacitors. State the various locations of shunt capacitors.
(ix) Static VAR Compensators (SVC) : In a power system, load varies with the time. I~ India, 4. Illustrate the electrical scheme of a typical 33 kV shunt capacitor installation. Explain the function
of each component.
there is a considerable fluctuation in the load throughout 24 hours. Over and above matchmg the
supply and demand of active power, reactive power also should be managed continuously ~o result 5. Explain the function of series capacitor for EHV transmission. Draw a schematic diagram of a series
capacitor installation. State the function of circuit-breaker.
into reduction in KVA demand, maintaining voltage etc. When demand on the system is more,
p~wer factor is less and vice versa.
If fixed Capacitors are employed, on heavy load conditions during peak hours, reactive power (a) Capacitor bank is switched ... when load increases and is switched ... when load decreases.
compensation may not be achieved fully, while under light load conditions, voltage may shoot up. (b) Over excitation of synchronous motor causes current of ... P.F.
This is because, when fixed type Capacitors are installed, KVAR is based on average load so that (c) Series capacitors are generally used for transmission lines rated ... kV.
over voltage may not take place under light load conditions. (d) Capacitors take current of ... P.F.
By employing automatic switched Capacitors, reactive power compensation c~~ be achieve~ ac- (e) Induction motor has P.F. of the order of ....
cording to changing load. There may be three or four steps. During light load condit10ns, _Capacitors 7. Explain the relation between voltage and reactive power of a transmission line. Explain the use of:
can be switched off. With fixed Capacitors KVA demand reduces but p.f. fluctuates. It is observed 1. Shunt capacitor 2. Series capacitors 3. Shunt reactors.
that when SVC are used, KVA demand reduces and p.f. & voltage are maintained almost _con~tant. 8. Fill in the blanks :
By reducing the peaks, it helps to smoothen the load curve. The SVC is a parallel combmation of (a) Shunt capacitors are installed in ...
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTEC'I:ION
958
(b) Typical ratings of shunt capacitor banks for
11 kV sub-station one ... MVAr a nd
33 kV sub-station one ... MVAr. .
ical rating of a shunt capacitor for a 5 kW motor _is ... kVAr.
:~) ~ies capacitors are usually used for transmission lmes of rated voltage ....
(e) Series capacitors improve the ...
9 St te the various methods of voltage control in electrical network. .
. a . 1. 220 kV/132 kV sub-station.
10 Explain the methods of voltage contro m a 1 lation of a transmission line.
11: Explain the co-relation between reactive power ~ow and vo t_age regu e
12, With the help of neat schematic diagrams explam the followmg (any on ).
1. Layout of a 33 kV Shunt Capacitor Bank. . Voltage Stability of Electrical Network
2. Layout of one pole of an ERV Series Capacitor Bank.
3. Static Shunt Compensation Scheme. Introduction - Voltage Instability- Vr/Pr and QIV characteristics - Voltage Collapse Occurances
and their time-spans - Preventive Measures against Voltage Collapse - Terms and definitions.
45.22. INTRODUCTION TO VOLTAGE STABILITY STUDIES

The traditional Steady State Stability Studies and Transient Stability Studies take into account
the active power flow P and power angle o, and assume constant receiving and sending end bus-
voltages. The reactive power flow Q and voltage fall during heavy current flow are neglected. This
approach could not explain the several power system black-outs in USA, Europe, Japan etc. during
the last quarter of the twentieth century. The black-outs were due to the voltage collapse. Voltage
collapse phenomena are of more frequent occurance in rapidly growing interconnected power sys-
tems in India and other developing countries where reactive power management is inadequate.
The voltage collapse incidents have occured under high lagging load currents, stalling of in-
duction motors, inadequate shunt compensation at receiving end, sudden tripping of a generator
unit or a bulk-power transmission line, heavy HVDC power flow without adequate shunt capacitors
at inverter; a line fault or bus fault, starting of a large induction motor, sudden or gradual increase
in distribution load up to limiting power flow through transmission lines, etc. During voltage col-
lapse, the bus voltage starts falling and as a result the power transfer P through the transmission
lines starts reducing resulting in ultimate voltage collapse and loss of system stability of entire
Network.
The term voltage instability was introduced in 1982. The Voltage Stability Studies have
received more attention after 1982 ahd have acquired a vital place in power system studies (1995).
The loss of power system stability due to fall of voltage (voltage collapse) is called Voltage In-
stability. Voltage stability is one of the several type of Stabilities (Ref. Sec. 44.24). Voltage stability
is of three types depending on the time span (t) of voltage collapse :
- Short-term Voltage Instability (t < 1 to 10 seconds), (Also called transient voltage in-
stability.) This corresponds to rotor angle oscillations in transient state stability.
- Mid-term Voltage Stability
- Long~term Voltage Stability
45.23. EXPLAINING VOLTAGE INSTABILITY

We recall from Sec. 45.16 that the voltage drop llVin the transmission line and receiving voltage
IV,. I of a transmission line are closely related with reactive power Q and line reactance X and the
relationship is given by
... (45.2)
960 SWITCHGEAR A."N'D PROTECTION VOLTAGE STABILITY OF ELECTRICAL NETWORK 961
CONSTANT
IVs I IVr I
------j f---+
~ LOAD
cos" 1 +Qr
------j l------jl•
IVr I
ta) Pr,, --j f---+ 4
VOLTAGE CONSTANT lvrl
~=(+),A - -- - B STABLE Vs --j 1--+
Vr-min
/I
/ I VOLTAGE
dv =(-),.e ,,/ UNSTABLE
Pr, COS t!l
dp /,,,..,-\
dv
dp
=O
.,,.,, ,,,,, ( bl
IVr I
o"'----------~----
o Pr - Pmax.
Fig. 45.17. Explaining voltage stability.
(Receiving Volta.ge Characteristics of an AC transmission line with constant sending end voltage IVs I and
increasing load Pr at power factor cos·l.)
Assuming constant sending end voltage IVs I , the receiving voltage IVr I reduces with increas-
ing lagging power factor load. Fig. 45.17, gives typical graphs of IV,. I versus active power P,., with >
...t
sending end voltage I Vs I constant.
The characteristic are U curves with axis parallel to P coordinate. Any point A on the upper
half (a) of the curve has negative dVI dP where increase in P gives drop in voltage, hence condition
of stable voltage. Any point C on lower half (b) of the curve has positive dVI dP, where increase in
P gives increase in voltage, hence an unstable voltage. Point B at the tip of the V curve corresponds
to P max and dVldP = 0 represents Steady State Voltage Stability Limit. IfMVA load with constant
0 Pm2 Pm3 Pm4
p.f. is increased beyond P max, voltage collapses and it is not possible for the transmission line to
feed the increasing power demand, P,. start reducing and Voltage Stability is lost. The reason for Pr-
Fig. 45.18. Supply of reactive power Q, at receiving
voltage instability is understood from Eqn. 45.2 above. The voltage drop t:,. Vin the line is due to
end by switching on Capacitor Banks.
reactive power Q,. demanded by the load. If this reactive power is not supplied at the receiving end
of the transmission line, the voltage drop t:,.V increases and receiving end voltage IV,. I falls. The
reactive power cannot be conveyed through the transmission line, it must be supplied by' capacitors
at receiving end. The real power flow is proportional to [ IVs I x IV,. I]. Fall of IVr I results in reduc- 45.25. SEQUENCE OF SWITCHING-ON AND SWITCHING-OFF SHUNT CAPACITOR
BANKS
tion in P,.. The Pr also falls progressively due to fall in IV,. I resulting in Voltage instability.
The re~eiving end bus voltage should be held constant between specified V,. _ min and V,. _max
45.24. INCREASING VOLTAGE STABILITY LIMIT BY SUPPLY OF REACTIVE POWER co:respondmg to rated nominal bus voltage Vr during regular load variation in power system. For
Refer Fig. 45.18, which gives curves ofreceiving end voltage I V,. I plotted against P,. of various mid-t~rm steady st~te var~ation of few min_ute~ this voltage control is achieved by switching-on
p'ower factors achieved by supply of reactive power Q,. by switching in capacitor banks in steps. c~pac1tor banks durmg fall m voltage and sw1tchmg on capacitor banks during rise in voltage. Refer
Fig. 45.19, curves 1, 2, 3, 4 correspond to receiving end voltage V,. is plotted against P,. for various
Curve 1 is for load p.f. 0.8 with shunt capacitor bank 1 in circuit. The corresponding long term power factors of P,..
stability limit is P ml· Curve 2 is with shunt capacitor banks 1 a:nd 2 in circuit and corresponding
stability limit is P m 2 ; Curve 3 with capacitor bank 1, 2, 3 in circuit has stability limit Pa and so Curve 1 is for load p.f. 0.8 with shunt capacitor bank 1 in circuit. At point A on curve 1 the
on. We observe that the Voltage Instability occurs at higher active power with increased supply of ;oltage has reached V,. _ min corresponding to permissible lower system voltage. Capacitor ba~k B
reactive power Q,. at load end. By supplying Q,. at receiving end, the voltage drop t:,. Vin transmission IS swit~hed o_n. Poi~t shifts to point a on curve 2. At point B, capacitor bank B is switched in and
line is reduced and receiving end voltage I Vr I is held in the nearly flat portion of upper half of op~ratmg p~mt shifts to b on curve 3, and so on. With load increasing, the capacitor banks are
voltage curve I Vr I vs Pr. The generators become unstable for leading p.f. load supply. Hence the ~witched on m steps to maintain voltage above V_ min and to avoid voltage collapse. During decreas-
power factor at sending end should be held lagging, slightly below unity. Ing load P,., the voltage would tend to rise above Vr _ max· Capacitors are switched-off in reverse
order, at highest permissible system voltage V:r-max.
The dynamic performance is not shown in Fig. 45.17 and 18. It can only be visualised by dashed
line of trajectory for short term stability shown in Fig. 45.18.
962 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION VOLTAGE STABILITY OF ELECTRICAL NETWORK 963
0.95 LEAD point ofload curve P 1 and the curve for 1 Bank 1. Likewise, point bis for Bank (1 and 2) in circuit
WITH A, B , C ON and load P 1 . By making Bank 1 and 2 on in steps, the voltage Vr is raised to Va and Vb respectively.
Vrmax
\ By thyristor control of shunt capacitor current + Q,. is varied, the operating point on P 1 line
could be moved steplessly from a to b and voltage could be raised steplessly from Va to Vb·
45.27. VOLTAGE COLLAPSE OCCURANCES, AND THEIR TIME-SPANS

- - - I 2 ·1/
. /j//1 / Voltage stability is of three types depending on the time span of voltage collapse :
/ / / ,,, _,,, SWITCHED - Short-term Voltage Instability (t < 1 to 10 seconds). (Also called transient voltage instability.)
/ / / _,,, SHUNT
WITH / / / _,,,/ / 'iVrl +Qr CAPACITOR - Mid-term Voltage Stability (t < 10 sec to 3 minutes)
A,B /
// /
__,, /
_,,, 1---------.-- BAN KS - Long-term voltage stability (t > 3 min. to an hour)
/ , /
/
,,,,/___ ---- ------
:.--,:;,.,/ A .l. 8 J_ C .l
Voltage collapse can occur due to several individual incidents or sequential combination of in-
cidents occuring under unfavourable load generation and reactive power compensation situations.
/
/
/
I Vs I
:r 1 I STVS M1VS L'I'VS
/ CONSTANT
/
1. Gradual increase on line load,
Pm1 Pm2 Pm3 Pm4 2. Gradual increase in Distribution Load *
Pr-
Fig. 45.19. Switching sequence for capacitor banks for voltage stability. 3. Inadequate Shunt compensation at
Receiving End
Vr _ min== Spedfied Minimum system voltage, Capacitor bank switched in during increasing load
Vr- max== Specified Maximum system voltage, Capacitor bank switched off during decreasing load. 4. Starting of Large Induction Motor * *
5. Step increase in Export of Power *
45.26. Q-V CHARACTERISTICS
6. Fault on Line, Busbar, Equipment *
Fig. 45.20 shows how the receiving voltage Vr varies with variable Q,.. The operating point
moves along constant power curve. By supplying capacitive reactive power (+ Q), the voltage of 7. . Tripping of Local Generator/Feeder *
operating point increases. By absorbing inductive reactive power (- Q), the operating point comes 8. Inadequate Shunt Compensation of
down resulting in fall of voltage. Fig. 45.21 illustrates effect of switching in the shunt capacitor. HVDC AC bus
banks 1 and 2, on voltage at operating point along constant power curve P 1.
STVS Short-term Voltage Instability (t < 1 to 10 seconds). (Also called transient voltage
The shunt capacitor banks provide compensation Qc = V 2 IXc, which is proportional to square
instability.) The time corresponds to oscill~tions in rotor angle during power swings.
of voltage and is represented by curves 1 and 2. The operating point a corresponds to intersection
MTVS Mid-term Voltage Stability (t < 10 sec to 3 minutes)
CONSTANT I Vs I IVr I LTVS Long-term voltage stability (t > 3 min. to an hour)
GEN. vor-r--,;--L_I_N_E _---.~-P These time spans are approximate and for classification of voltage stability.
m Fig. 45.22 illustrates various possible causes described below.
0'1 '±~OAOY,
I
Vl
:::> l. Gradual Increase in Load with Poor P.F. (> P, < cos qi)
m
Pl
tu ~ I.LI
! 00
• I
The load may be combination of distribution load and subtransmission line load. The time span
of such occurance is a few tens of minutes to a few hours near peak load hours on daily load cycle .
::, Vl
OI t; • :::> '--v---'
a.m Station operators can take manual action for increasing turbine settings and increasing power supp-,
+~z u z 2
OPERATING ly. The switched capacitor banks can be switched in. The Voltage Stability comes under Long/Term ·
P=0.5 p.u. OI - COMPENSATION 2
+aI.LI MARGIN AVAi LAB LE POINTS a ,b .
TH BANK Voltage Stability. As the load approaches Pm the stability limit is reached. The value of Pm is very
J- WITH 2 BANKS b
u &@ON low for poor lagging p.f.
f o1---------'"....L-~1---'--------sn ...
w
z 2. Inadequate Supply of Reactive Power to Loads
Cl BAN K(})oN
Vr (p.u.)- The AC bus voltage starts falling with increasing lagging p.f. load. If reactive power compen-•
...•
Cl
I
p -=-025 p.u. ~ l sation is inadequate, the operating point on V/Pr curve goes beyond V,.-min resulting in Loss of
Voltage Stability. The occurance comes under Long Term Voltage Instability and takes several tens
@ LINE I-LOAD P i ._ Vr, p.u - - of minutes.
IVs I IVrl ~ The reactive power can be despatched through transmission liz1e. It should,be supplied directly
CONSTANT into receiving end/load bus appropriate shunt compensation. If this is not d'one, the voltage ofreceiv-
Fig. 45.20. Q - V, curve11 tor comtant Fig. 45.21. Qc - V, curve with curve land 2
for reactive power supply.
VOLTAGE STABILITY OF ELECTRICAL NEJWORK . 965
964
J Y,. J falls. The. load on HVDC line shohld be reduced to avoid collapse of AC bus voltage, at inverter _
end to ensure: "Long Range Voltage Stability".
45,28. PREVENTIVE MEASURES AGAINST VOLTAGE COLLAPSE

The preventive measures against voltage instability are taken simultaneously at load points,
>P distribution level, sub-transmission level and main transmission level. The methods are listed in
Table 45-D.1.
<_.,COS¢ Table 45-D.1. Preventive Measures Against Voltage Collapse
3 LARGE Application
IVs I LONG ~ LOAD
TRANS. LINE
Pr
v LOW P. F. Method Time Gener- Main Sub Distri. Load
ation Trans. Trans.
4
>>>P AVR (ST) *
_J
OLTC (MT, LT) * * * *
5
F
Shunt Reactor Unswitched *
II
Shunt Capacitor (MT, LT) * * *
7 svs (ST) * * *
Ref. Ch. 45A and Ch. 46.
GEN. G)
~ Fig. 45.22. Occurances leading to voltage

>>
! Poe
45;29, DEFINITIONS
Voltage Stability is a type of Power System Stability and the terms covered in Sec. 44.24 are
suitably applied.
collapse and their time spans. The difference between Long Term and Short Term Voltage Stability are on time frame of dis-
turbance I change in load. The Mid-term voltage instability is applicable for time zone in between
ing bus falls gradually resulting in ultimate loss of voltage stability. This comes under Long Term. short term and long term voltage stabilities.
Voltage Stability. Steady State (Long Term) Voltage Stability. A power system is steady state voltage stable
3. Slow staring and Stalling of a Large MV Induction Motor. direct ori line, during peak load. if following a small slow disturbance or increase in load, the system voltages regain steady state
The voltage dips and motor takes longer time to start. If motor circuit breaker does not pick-up; equilibrium values without v9ltage collapse.
motor bus voltage collapses. This has cascade effect on substation-bus voltages and voltage collapse Long-term voltage stability refers to behaviour of system which takes 3 minutes to several
may occur. The occurance takes several seconds upto a minute and comes under "short term voltage minutes. The means available for voltage control over long term are voltage relays and tap changing
stability and mid term voltage stability." transformers, switched shunt capacitors, switched shunt reactors, load shedding, HVDC intercon-
4. Sudden Step-power import by Remote Substation. The operating point onV,.IP curves shifts nection, etc.
beyond stability limit under "Transient instability condition." The occtirance is called Short term Mid-term Voltage Stability refers to behaviour of the system lasting for about 10 to 30 seconds.
Voltage Instability or Transient Voltage Instability. The time span is les.s than 10 seconds. The means available for improving mid-term voltage stability improvement are : Switched shunt
5. Fault on Busbar or-Transmission Line. The voltage collapses, power is diverted to fault. Volt- capacitors, Switched shuntreactors, Tap changing transformers.
age Stability is lost within a few seconds, and the incidence.is under Short Term Voltage Stability Short Term VoltageStability. A power system is short term voltage stable if following a sudden
Regime. aperiodic disturbance or increase in load, the system voltages regain steady state equilibrium
6. Tripping of (]enerating Unit or Parallel in-feed transmission Line. Thishas an effect on sud- values without voltage collapse.
den increase in P,. supplied by the Transmission Line, beyond its Stability Limit P max and increased Short-term Voltage Stability refers to behaviour of the system for a few seconds. For short term
voltage fall below V,. _ min due to loss of local generation/infeed support. The category of such oc- voltage stability improvement available means are : Excitation system control and AVRs of
curance is under Short Term Voltage Stability. synchronous machines, thyristor controlled shunt compensation, tap changing of transformers,
FACT systems, unswitched shunt capacitors and shunt reactors, series capacitors.
7. Sudden Inqre,ase in Pde through HVDC Line without Corresponding Increase in Supply of
Reactive Power Q at inverter terminal. Voltage security. It is the ability of the power system to operate stably with voltages .within
permissible limits following a disturbance or load increase.
When the bus is ~orihected to HVDC Convertor, the voltage support is provided by additional
shunt capacitors/AC filt~r capacitors. Total MVAr drawn by HVDC Inverter from AC bus is of the Load-frequency control is carried out simultaneously from generating stations and distribution
order of 60% Pde· If the reactive power supplied to HVDC Inverter AC bus is not increased, the systems to match total generation systems to match total generation with total prevailing load to
reactive power is drawn from the incoming AC transmission lines and the receiving end voltage
maintain frequency within specified limits. However this is not enough. Voltage Stability must also
be maintained to ensure system stability.
QUESTIONS
1. Explain the phenomena of voltage collapse during high lagging power factor load on receiving end of
long AC transmission line.
2. Describe the procedure of switching in of shunt capacitors to prevent voltage collapse.
3. Define Short term voltage instability and long term voltage instability'. Give examples of occurances
of voltage instability in short term and long term range.
4. State the various methods of maintaining steady state and short term voltage stability.
Automatic Voltage Regulators,
Voltage Control and Sta.bility of
Synchronous Generators
'
Introduction -Operation of Synchronous Generator-EMF and No Load terminal voltage, Saturation
curve-Significance of Field Current.I, Terminal Voltage of an Isolated Generator with constant
field current and without AVR -Synchronous Generator in parallel with the Grid -Types of
Excitation Systems and AVRs-Terms and definitions on AVR and Excitation Systems-Excitation
Systems and AVR (Synchronous Machine Regulators)-Steady state performance Excitation Systems
and AVRs- Transient Performance of AVRs-Excitation System Voltage Response- Generator
Capability Curves-Protective Limiters-V/Q Diagram- Power System Stabilizer-Protective,
Regulating and Limiting Features.
45.30. INTRODUCTION
The voltage control and reactive power flow control of various Network-busses is carried out
simultaneously from load-substations, distribution substations, transmission substations and
generating substations; by means of OLTCs, SVS, Shunt Capacitors and AVRs. The bus voltages
and reactive power supply in generating stations are controlled by and the Excitation Systems and
Automatic Voltage Regulators (AVR) of synchronous generators. The modern term for the Auto-
matic Voltage Regulator is Synchronous Machine Regulator.
We will use the term Generator for Synchronous Generator (Alternator) and AVR for
Synchronous Machine Regulator.
The variable associated with generator are :
- Frequency f - lnduced emf Ea,
- Stator armature current Ia, - Terminal voltage Vt,
- Power factor cos <j>, - Field current Ir, (DC)
-- Apparent power S MVA, Active power P MW and Reactive power Q MVAr
S=P+jQ
- Rotor speed N 8 and Power angle o between vectors Ea and Vt . .
These variables are interdependent. MW output, Speed and frequency are controlled by Gover-
nor of Prime Mover and load MW. Voltage, MVAr and power factor are controlled by the AVR in
Excitation System under steady state and dynamic state and compensatiol). of reactive power at
load bus. The load conditions and/or (}rid condition also influence the operating characteristics.
Mechanical Active power Pm is supplied by prime mover and converted to electrical Active
Power P (MW) by Generator. AVR does not control active power MW, speed N 8 and frequency f.
AVR controls the terminal voltage Vt and, power factor cos <j>, and the Reactive Power supply
MVAr by generator.
In addition to voltage control and reactive power control, the AVR performs steady and tran-
sient stability functions, limiting functions and protective functions.
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATORS 969
968
Reactive power MVAr and power factor of armature current are closely ~ssociated with the The Automatic Voltage Regulators (AVR)(Synchronous machine regulator) in the excitation sys-
magnetic field in the generator air gap which is resultant of (1) rotor magnetic field due to field tem play a very vital role for voltage control, controlling reactive power supply, emf, voltage and
power factor of generator, and also maintaining power system dynamic stability, and in protection
current of generator and (2) armature reaction due to current and its power factor. Net reactive of alternators by imposing several limits on generator variables.
power demanded by the load from the generating station bus, is equal to [Load MVAr ± Shunt Modern term for Voltage regulator is Synchronous Machine Regulator (1986-IEEE Std.). It is
Compensator MVAr] defined as "The regulator that couples the output variables of a synchronous machine to the input
Neglecting losses, with subscripts ; pm for prime mover, g for generator, L for load and sc for of the exciter through a feed back and feed forward control elements for controlling the synchronous
shunt compensator) machine output variables."
1. Active Power Ppm =Pg= PL, for constant speed Ns The active mechanical power supplied by prime mover to shaft is equal to active power supplied
by generator to load plus losses in the generator. A VR does not change the active power P of gen-
Controlled by Governor to Prime Mover and input to prime mover erator; nor does it change the frequency and speed. However the AVR influences the power angle
2. Reactive Power Qg = QL ± Qsc for constant p.f. 8 between the revolving stator plus and revolving rotor flux, both locked up synchronously at Ns.
Controlled by Excitation System and its AVR. EXCITATION SYSTEM AND AVR
Three phase, 50 Hz, AC Synchronous generators (Alternators) supply Active Power P (MW),
Reactive Power Q (MVAr) and resultant Apparent power MVA. Power factor cos~= 'MWIMVA.
Under normal steady state load conditions the terminal voltage should be held within specified
limits and the power factor should be between 0.85 lag and 0.95. Generators are not stable under
leading power factor as the armature reaction has magnetising effect and voltage rises with leading
load current and excitation current looses control.
PROTECTION SYSTEM
AND LIMITING
+-------+I-· CONTROL SYSTEM FOR
MW, f, MVAr, P., F . , V
POWER SYSTEM STABILITY

During disturbances in the Network such as sudden increase/decrease ofload, faults, switching AND VOLTAGE STABILITY
of loads, starting oflarge motors, in the network, etc. the generator should remain stable. The rotor
angle swing should be damped. The terminal voltage should be recovered within few ~econds for Excitation system has a strong interface with the generator protection, generator control and
maintaining stability. This is achieved by field forcing (high field current) and fast excitation power system stability as indicated above.
response (fast rate of change in excitation) characteristics of Excitation Systems and AVR. The functions of an AVR (Synchronous machine regulator) and the Excitation System are:
1. Regulation of Terminal Voltage automatically. To regulate the terminal voltage within
specified limits of the generator automatically under steady state operating condition of varying
load/p.f. This is done by controlling field current by means of a feedback system involving Voltage
SC Transformer and Automatic Voltage Regulator.
2. To facilitate reactive power load sharing with other generators operating in parallel.
PRIME 3. To regulate the voltage and load angle 8 under abnormal conditions and transient disturbing
MOVER conditions such as faults, power swings, sudden switching in oflarge loads, etc. and ensuring higher
transient stability limit. This is ensured by rapid control of excitation current during disturbance.
To ensure transient and dynamic stability of the generator and the power station by rapid and
automatic control of reactive power supply and to ensure that the synchronous machine does not
DC FIELD
fall out of step and trip under emergency condition.
4. To damp swing and electromagnetic oscillations in load angle o under abnormal conditions
and transient/dynamic disturbing conditions rotor oscillations of synchronous generators and to en-
sure transiently and dynamically stable operation.
DC AC 5. To ensure protection of generator .and excitation system by giving tripping command under
AVR AVR appropriate abnormal conditions of variables.
To arrange tripping and rapid field discharge during generator stator faults.
6. Limiting Features. To inhibit the tripping of the generator unit by the protection system
AMPLIFIER REF under permissible swings in active power and reactive power. AVR operates in close liason with
REF DC POWER SETTING the generator protection system and raise.s the operating limits for ensuring generator service
SETTING SUPP LY during disturbances.
FROM 1/2/3
Choice of features, rated characteristics and complexity of an Automatic Voltage Regulator of
Fig. 45.23. Schematic of a Generator unit, load and AVR. a generator may vary from simple manual control with protection interface to a very complex auto-
1. DC Generator 2. Controlled Thyristor Rectifier 3. Uncontrolled Diode Rectifier matic control and imprqved dynamic stability features and performance limiting features, depend-
SC= Shunt Compensation REF= Reference setting ing upon application, size and importance of the generator duty.
A= Amplifier CT= Current Transformer The terminal voltage characteristics of a synchronous generator depend on following three dis-
VT= Voltage Power Transformer not shown for simplicity. tinct operating conditions :
Note, DC AVR senses DC field voltage. AC AVR senses AC voltage and AC ,current. Actual configuration varies_ with 1. Single generator is operating in isolation and supplying stand alone load (without supply
design philosophy of AVR of particular manufacturer. Power Supply DC is either from DC Generator-Amhdyne from the Grid.) ·
! ~mbination or from Rectifier mounted on generator shaft or Static Rectifier receiving power from auxiliary source or
- Terminal voltage varies with Excitation Current, <Vt 9C Ir)
/ the Generator itself. ·
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION AUTOMA'l'IC VOLTAGE REGULATORS 971
970
_ Power factor of generator stator current is equal to load current power factor. 45,31. OPERATION OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
_ Reactive power supplied by the generator depends on the reactiv~ power demand by the A synchronous generator (alternator) has a 3-phase distributed AC armature winding on stator
load, and load power factor. ~. . . and a DC excitation main field winding on the rotor.
2 Two or more generators operating in parallel and supplying st:1~d alone load (~ithou.t supply The rotor is driven at synchronous speed by prime mover (Steam turbine/Hydro turbine/Gas
from the Grid). The terminal voltage depends on the operating conditions ofparallelmachmes and turbine, Diesel engine etc.). The main excitation field winding on rotor of the alternator is supplied
the load conditions. . • . 11 1) DC voltage by the Exciter. The main alternator excitation field current. It is increased or decreased
3 Generator connected to Infinite Bus (Grid or several Generators operatmg m para e
by changing Exciter Voltage by Automatic Voltage Regulator and its feedback control system. Rotat-
_:_ Terminal voltage is constant and equal to grid voltage. ing magnetic field of DC excitation field ofrotor induces 3 phase AC emf in stator armature winding.
_ Terminal voltage does no.t vary with excitation current. . Flow of stator armature current Ia produces induced revolving magnetic field in the air-gap, revolv-
_ Power factor of generator stator current and Reactive Power Q shared by the generator ing at synchronous speed and locked with the rotor magnetic field. The angle between the stator
varies with the excitation current. . . . field and rotor field is the load angle 8 which increases with load and which undergoes oscillation
Under steady state conditions, the terminal voltage of a generator conne,1~ed ~ baJ i.ryi~i;~ bus during disturbances.
(Grid or a large power system) is constant and is determined by the prev~I I~g . ~1 ? ;ge and The Main Exiter provides DG Field voltage to the rotor field winding of the Generator. The
not by the generator field current. The power factor of armature current 1s ecisive1Y m uence exiter-terminal voltage decides the Excitation current (Field current of.the generator. The AVR
by the excitation current. . . d f controls exciter terminal voltage and alternator excitation rotor field current to regulate Generator
The demands made on AVR performance depend on the load ch~rac~er1sfacs and the lo.a p. •
The various applications of synchronous generators are represented m Fig. 45.24. terminal voltage. The pilot excitor (if any) feeds power to the field winding of main exciter.
The generator supplies active power P (MW) at voltage Vt (kV) and power factor cos <j>, .and
~ stator current Ia, (kV), where :
G)~ P = 3 Vt Ia cos q>
Consider an isolated generator-load operating mode (without grid connection). The power factor
cos q> is decided by the load power factor. Magnitude IVt I is decided by Excitation Current and its
control by the AVR.
In case of Parallel operation with the Grid, terminal voltage IVt I is decided by the Grid Voltage
L 0 in parallel operation with grid. In that case the power factor of generator armature current Ia is
decided by the Excitation Current. I cos q> will be get adjusted to required power level, as Vt is
constant corresponding to Grid voltage.
The generator also supplies reactive power Q (MVAr)
Q = 3 Vt Ia sin q>
where, Ia= Armature current, Vt = Terminal voltage, and q> = Power factor angle
In isolated generator-load operating mode (without grid connection) the Reactive Power Sup-
plied by the generator is equal to Reactive Power demand by load side (Load+ Compensator). In
that situation, the power factor cos q> is decided by the power factor of (load + Compensator). By
providing separate shunt compensation to load, the Generator is relieved ofreactive power burden
to that extent.
The characteristics of generator depend on the net active and reactive power load on the gen-
erator.
The apparent power is S = (P + )Q) = 3 Vt Ia Voltamperes
Power Factor cos <j> =PIS= MWIMVA
Fig. 45.24. Applications of synchronous generators. The power angle 8 between the two revolving magnetic fields increases with increasing load.
SC =Shunt Compensation L =Load G =Generators During sudden changes in active load or reactive load, the power angle 8 undergoes a swing. The
Note: Specifications and type, characteristic features etc. ?f Contro!ler differ significantly for A to E due to difference conditions are studied under transient and dynamic stability studies. In vector diagram, the power
in load characteristics/p.f. and protection/control and stability requirements. angle 8 is represented by angle between vectors emf Ea and voltage Vt. With increase in power
A. Single generator feeding a isolated local load. Pa , 8 should increase.
B. Two or more generators in parallel, feeding a local load and a distribution line.
The vector relationship between emf Ea, terminal voltage Vt and power factor cos <!> is given by
c. Two or more generators with local load and operating in parallel with the Grid. . . .
[Vt = Ea - Ia X.]
D. Two or more generators in parallel, feeding a remote load centre via long AC transmiss~o~ lme_s. .
The vector diagram is given in Fig. 45.25. The terminal voltage Vt is equal to vector difference
E. Two or more generators in parallel, feeding a remote load centre via a long AC transmission lme m
. parallel with a HVDC line. between emf Ea and voltage drop in armature winding (Ia · X dr~p). Resistance is neglected. Ia ·X
972
magnetising effect on magnetic flux. Hence the excitation- current should be reduced to maintain
the terminal voltage constant. This is called underexcita:tion condition.
In isolated operation of generator-load combination, the power factor ofload is same as that of
laX the generator. Hence the net reactive power required by load is supplied by the generator.
E'a-----iVt
In parallel operation of two or .more generators feeding isolated load without grid connection,
the net reactive power demanded from the bus. bars by the load-compensator combination is sup-
plied by all the generators operating in parallel. These generators share the reactive power i.n ac-
cordance with their excitation levels and rated MVA.
la
Two or More Synchronous Machines in Parallel
Synchronous generators operating in parallel have tendency to remain in synchronism with
LAG each other. ·
0
Terminal voltages of machines operating in parallel are the same total active power generation
B is equal to total active load on the power plant. Active power supplied by the generator is equal to
A
Lagging p.f. (Overexcited, » Ea) Leading p.f. (Under excited, « Ea) the active power input to its prime mover.
Fig. 45.25. A, B. Vector diagram of a synchronous generator. The total reactive power suppiied to load is equalto reactive power supplied by the generator
Vt= Terminal voltage E 1 = E.M.F. excitation emf or induced emf
units operating in parallel. The re.active power shared by the generator depends on the excitation
Ir= Field current (rotor current) Ia= Armature current (stator current)
current.
cos <j> = Armature current p.f., angle between V1 and Ia The vector difference between emfs in the two generators produces a synchronising current in
S = Power angle, Load angle, angle between E 1 and V1 the local circuit of the two generators operating in parallel.
Ila. X drop is perpendicular to Ia• Ea is proportional to It Ia· cos is proportional to Pal With. grid connection, the terminal voltage Vt remains constant and emf and p.f. of generator
is determined by the emfi'excitation current level of the generator and the load power factor at gen-
is perpendicular tola. The angle obetween Ea and Vt increases with active load Pa, The armature
erator bus. The latter changes with load/network/bus/compensation conditions.
· current la is at certain p.f. angle$ with respect to voltage Vt. ·
The lagging p.f. armature current in generator stator has a demagnetising effect on magnetic 45.32, EMF AND NO LOAD TERMINAL VOLTAGE, SATURATION CURVE AND
flux. Hence the excitation current should be increased to maintain the terminal voltage constant. AIRLINE
This is called overexcited condition. The leading p.f. armature current in generator stator has a.
The induced emf of gener-
ator depends on the excitation AIR GAP
. field current. The terminal LINE
voltage Vt and power factor cos
RATED
$ depend· on. other conditions VOLTAGE
1.0 ----- --
prevailing at bus side depend- I
N ing on operating Illode and ac- I
.I
... tive plus reactive power load. NI
I
<(
>
::IE .
<(
Induced electro motive
force (emf)ttaries with excita- "?
I
I
> tion current in accordance CL
:::IE I I
with the no-load charac- /J. 0.5 I
.
<(
teristics emf Ea versus field
current Ir, This characteristic
I
I
> I !AT NO LOAD!
:::IE
-.
<(
I
is called saturation curve. The
extended straight line is called
I
I
I'
> the air gap characteristic. At ! lf-L
:::IE
I
I no load voltage drop in I
L...;....L-'--------'---- - - _L, _ __.__ synchronous reactance (la · X 0.5

lf-p.u,___,..
MW I◄ MW-1 Mw-1·~---""" drop) is zero and the no-load,
Fig. 45.27, No load terminal voltage Vt against Field Current
terminal voltage Vt is eql\al to (Saturation characteristics) of a synchronous generatpr.
A B emf.
Single generator Two Generators in Parallel Vt on no load = EMF that is proportional to Ir
Fig. 45.26. MVA,MW, MVAr and: .. relationship.
974 LEAD
I ,.
45.33. TERMINAL VOL1'AGE OF AN -ISOLATED GENERATOR WITH CONSTANT 0.95
FIELD CURRENT AND WITHOUT AVR
LcAD 0.9 LAG
If field current is held constant, the terminal voltage of an isolated generator (no~ con1;1ec:~d
to the grid) would drop with increasing lagging p.f. load current d~e to Icl(. ~oltage rop m e
enerator stator winding and demagnetising effect of armature reaction on laggmg currents. If the
lield current is held constant, the terminal voltage of an isolated gener~t?r (not conn~cted ~o ~~e LEAD OLAG
grid) would rise with increasing leading p.f. load current due vector add1t10n _of Icl(. vo t~ge m e 0.6
generator stator winding and magnetising effect of armature reaction of leadmg p.f. current. 0 LEAD P1 ) P 2 ) P 3) P4
\
2 1---------.------;,.....--------~
I Vt CONSTANT I
P. F.
0, LEAD 0.8 LEAD
0
0 Fl ELD CURRENT, If -
Fig. 45.29. V-curves for synchronous generator.
t
::,
0.9LEAD 45.34. TYPES OF EXCITATION SYSTEMS AND AVRs
a. Automatic Voltage Regulators are a part of Excitation System of Synchronous Machines. Over
the past decades the Excitation Systems and AVRs have been developed into several different ver-
sions and designs. The principal differences in configuration are in the equipment for supply of DC
excitation current and method of feed back from generator output.
As per American Practice, the Excitation System has
1. DC Regulator, DC Regulator is optional in some versions.
2. AC Regulator.
In AC Regulators, the current and voltage, supplied by the Synchronous Generator to busbars
0. 9 LAG is measured by the Current Transformers and Voltage Transformers. The reduced secondaries are
connected to the AC Voltage Regulator. The AVR compares the actual current and voltage with
1.0 the desired reference value and gives feed back to the input side of excitation system via an
If Amplifier. The Amplifier receives DC Power from an Auxiliary Source or the Main Generator and
P. F. CONSTANT Feeds DC Power to Generator Field as per feed back signal from AVR.
0 In DC Regulators, the DC field voltage supplied by the Exciter to Field Winding of Synchronous
Generator is fed to the DC Voltage Regulator. The DC Voltage Regulator compares the actual DC
la - p.u. - Field voltage with the desired reference value and gives feed back to the input side of excitation
Fig. 45.28. Terminal voltage Vt against Armature current Ia,
system via an Amplifier. The input is in the form of DC voltage across the field winding of main
at constant field current Ir in ls landed operation.
(Not connected to Grid) Synchronous machine.
(Note: Ir constant corresponds to constant emf Ea) A. Before 1970s, the earlier versions of Excitation Systems, were with DC Generators and
Rotating Amplifier. The DC current required for field was obtained from a DC generator with com-
mutator and brushes. The types of such excitation systems with DC Generators are :
Constant Terminal Voltage •V Curves 1. DC Generator-Commutator Exciter with Rotating Amplifier The DC generator may be
The well known V-Curue, for a synchronous generator is the gr~ph of MV~ load on Y axis a_nd motor driven or generator-shaft driven.
Field current on X axis, for constant terminal voltage. Each V curve 1s for a partic:1Iar level of a~ti:~ 2. DC generator-commutator Exciter with Static amplifier.
power Pa. The power factor curves are also plotted on the same graph,_Th~ umty P·~· curve is 3. DC generator-commutator Exciter with Noncontinuously acting Rheostatic Regulator.
the center of the V. The right side is for lagging p.f. loads and the left side 1s for leadmg p.f. load.
B. During 1970s. the of Solid State Devices (Diodes and Thyristors) and Rectifiers were suc-
cessfully developed and were introduced gradually in the Excitation Systems. The modern Excita-
tion Systems are with Diode Rectifiers (Uncontrolled) or Thyristor Rectifiers (controlled).
976 ,,
With the availability of semiconductor diodes and thyristors, the DC commutator generator the prevailing Grid Voltage which is constant. The terminal voltage of the generator does not change
excitors are no more used in new installations. The types of modern Excitation systems are : by change in its field current (unlike in the case of generator operating on isolated load). The change
in field current of the generator affects the power factor of the generator armature current and
1. Brushless Excitation System : Alternator-Rectifier Exciter employing Rotating Diode
reactive power shared by the generator. Active power shared by the generator remains unaffected.
Bridge Rectifier. .
2. Alternator-Exciter, employing Stationary Noncontrolled Diode Rectifier. The synchronous machine connected to infinite bus (Grid) operates as generator or motor or
condenser (compensator) depending upon the power input to generator shaft and electrical power
3. Alternator-Exciter, employing Stationary Controlled Thyristor Rectifier. delivered by the synchronous machine.
Under steady state conditions, the terminal voltage of an isolated generator (without any other
machin«:l or grid in parallel) is decided by the (1) Field Current Ir(excitation current) (2) Armature For generator operation mechanical power input is more than electrical output and o is con-
sidered to be positive, and we get
current (Ia) which in turn depends on load current and (3) Power factor of la-
With lagging p.f. load, the terminal voltage tends to drop and the field current should be in- Vt+ le)(= Et
creased. The load p.f. must be improved by providing shunt capacitors in load side. For motor operation, electrical power input is more than the mechanical power output and o
With the leading p.f. load the terminal voltage tends to rise and field current should be is considered to be negative, we get,
decreased and the load p.f. should be brought near unity or high lagging by adding shunt reactors
Vt -le)( =Et
in the load side.
Fig. 45.28 shows how the terminal voltage will vary-without voltage regulator for various power For compensator operation, the electrical power is equal to mechanical shaft power and 8 is
factor loads. However, in practice the terminal voltage of Synchronous Generator bus must be regu- zero, Vt = Et,
lated within specified limits i.e. rated voltage with tolerance ± 1%. The amount of field current of the synchronous machine connected to grid determines mainly
As per standard specifications of Synchronous Machines, the permissible variation in generator the machine-power factor and to lesser extent the load angle. The load angle is determined by the
voltage is ± 5%. The AVRs ensure voltage variation within ± 1%. electrical load on generator terminals and the mechanical power input to the shaft. If mechanical ·
In case of isolated generator-load, the terminal voltage is regulated by increasing the field cur- shaft input power is stopped, the machine continues to rotate in motor mode taking electrical input
rent during increasing lagging p.f. load, manually by from grid.
the operator or automatically by AVR. Likewise, I Vt CONSTANT I The V-curves shown in Fig. 45.30 illustrate the characteristics of the synchronous generator
during increasing leading p.f. load current, the excita-
2
operating at constant terminal voltage achieved by changing field current Ir,
tion current is reduced manually or automatically to Table 45D.1
reduce emf and regulate the terminal voltage. Types of Excitation Systems and Source of Excitation Power
For stand-alone (isolated load) synchronous gener- t
ator the DC field current (excitation) is varied to regu-
late the terminal voltage. The field current may be
1 1
1 ~~§~=:=:::=~;;;;:::::~6.
111
9 LEAD
Exciter
Category Type of Exciter Exciter Power Source
Initial
Response
0.8 LEAD
varied by manual control by fntervention of the.control ~ I ! DC DC Generator commutator Exciter Motor-Generator set or Syn. Machine Slow
room operator or by Automatic Voltage Regulators in I P.F. Shaft
the feed back control system in the excitation system AC Alternator-Stationary Non-controlled Diode Syn. Machine Shaft Slow
of the generator. Rectifier
la, (p.u.)-
Lagging p.f. load requires higher field current of AC Alternator-Rotating Non-controlled Diode Syn. Machine Shaft Fast
generator (over excitation), leading p.f. load requires Fig. 45.30. Field current Jr versus Armature
current la for constant terminal voltage Vt, Rectifier Brushless Exciter
less field current (under excitation. The leading p.f.
load current has a magnetising effect on the stator AC Alternator-Stationary Controlled 'Thyristor Syn. Machine Shaft Fast
I
Rectifier
magnetic field and therefore there is a lower limit imposed on the value of load current.
For lagging p.f. higher load, higher field current is necessary to maintain the terminal voltage St Potential Source Controlled Rectifier Synch. machine voltage or Aux. Bus Fast
Voltage
within specified limits.
Alternatively the shunt capacitors on load side may be switched on to improve load p.f. and St Compound Source N on~controlled Diode Synch. machine voltage and Current Slow
relieve the excitation system from overcurrent and heating. Power factor of armature current Ia. Rectifier
The power factor of armature current is decisively influenced

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- - - - -

111 Electrical Machinery by Dr. P.S. Bimbhra

ISBN No. 81-7409-232-3

First Edition 1973

Price : Rs. 350. 00

Computertypetset at: Softserve Computer Systems, Delhi

Printed at:. Mohanlal Printers, Delhi.

PREFACE TO THE THIRTEENTH EDITION

2. HIGH-VOLTAGE A.C. CIRCUIT-BREAKERS 16-31

15.7.3. Test on Low-voltage Circuit-breakers

490 26.23. Time Setting ~~:

Part A : Overcurrent Protection of Transmission Lines

32.4.3. Buchholz Relay (Gas Actuated Relay)

(xxxii) . C . n of Bipolar HDVC Transmission System

58.5.5. Switchgear Installations 12

59. ELECTRICAL SAFETY

Appendix-A : Recent Trends and Advances Towards 21st Century

Significance of Switchgear, Protection and Power Systems

1.1. SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION

Pe,fect Qual,ty. . • - Man-machme mted0ee. t L ad Contrnl Cenke receives the followmg'

preferred. . . t load control centres through on~ or _more of fi l g

IV. APPLICATIONS OF ON-LINE DIGITAL

STATIC PROTECTIVE/CONTROL DEVICES IN POWER SYSTEM

. tre-c os1ng resistors are also conne t d .

. e er o e at the end of this Chapter)

!: ~~~rat~n~ mecha?ism should have ::~~~~t;~:;:x::co:~r

ra e operatmg sequence under short-circuit

SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECT HIGH.VOLTAGE AC. CIRCUIT-BREAKERS 29

3 (1 joule = 1 watt second)

An electrical network comprises the following network parameters: WC = ½Cv 2

L R Substituting these values of C and D in Eq. (3.8) we get

i == - R2 +roL R E sin (mt+ 0) ...(3.14)

e = Emax at t = 0. L~! +Ri =e =Em sin (mt+ 0).

✓R2 + w2L2 = ✓102 + (0.4)2 = 33 ohm

</>=tan- 1~:::: tan- 1 3io4 = 72.350

-- --N Fig. 3.6 Sudden-3 phase-short circuit of an alternator.

natural frequency (restriking voltage).

J; fk,,_ ,... -Transient

----,if-------+-+- -+-:- -t--\---1- - -+-,. - + - - -

"'NTALS OF FAULT CLEARING

3.8. SINGLE FREQUENCY TRANSIENT e c,

- frequency of TRV I This is an express10n or res r ltage phase to neutral volts

where Lin henry, C is in farads, fn is in Hz.

where e is in volts, t is in sec.

e Em ( 1-cos h )" 53411- cos _ x

NTALS OF FAULT CLEARING . . s enerally more severe due to

tinction is propo~ ;~:~ypical values being in the range o o

3.14. INTERRUPTING THE TERMINAL FAULTS

3.16. PHASE OPPOSITION SWITCHING

145 650 415 3.5 297 2.5

Varc = voltage across arc

[Fig. 4.1 (d)J. A+~

E arc= V arc I arc t f1,3)

4.11. ARC EXTINCTION IN AIR-BLAST

4.12. ARC EXTINCTION IN SF6 GAS*

(I) Co~ta~ts Clos~d (II) Contacts Open

1. Arc chutes having deionization plates coated with plastic paint on

Fig. 5.3 Sectional view of a low voltage circuit-breaker.

ELEVATION END· VIEW

of p~~i~i:~~:s:ftptr:~:~~i:: ;:rs:;!~:a\~:;l:!!o; above. The dt~grt· ee ofdprotection