Topic: Inorganic and Organic

Chemical compounds are divided into two general categories of substances.

These are:
• Inorganic compound. A compound that does not contain the chemical element carbon
(C).
• Organic compound. A compound containing carbon atoms, the exception is carbon
dioxide (CO2). Carbon dioxide is inorganic.

Inorganic compounds are further divided into three categories. These are:
• Acids. An acid is any compound that dissociates into one or more hydrogen ions (H+)
and one or more negative ions (called anions) and is a proton donor.
• Bases. A base is any compound that dissociates into one or more positive ions (called
cations) and one or more negative hydroxide ions. The negative hydroxide ions (OH−)
can either accept or share protons.
• Salts. A salt is an ionic compound that dissociates into one or more positive or negative
ions in water, although some salts are not soluble in water. The positive and negative
ions are neither hydrogen ions nor hydroxide ions. Sodium and chlorine atoms break
away from the salt lattice when water molecules surround them. Water molecules
become oriented so that the positive poles face the negatively charged chlorine ions and
the negative poles face the positively charged sodium ions. The water’s hydrogen shells
react with the sodium and chlorine ions, drawing the ions from the salt lattice.

THE pH SCALE
There must be a balance between acids and bases in order to maintain life. An imbalance
disrupts homeostasis. The acid-base balance is measured using the pH scale. The pH scale (Fig.
2-7) measures the acidity or alkalinity (base) of a substance using a pH value from 0 to 14.
Values on the pH scale are logarithmic values. A pH value of 7 is neutral, which is the pH of
pure water. A pH value greater than 7 is a base or alkaline. A pH value less than 7 is an acid.
The pH value of chemical compounds in living things naturally fluctuates during metabolism.
Metabolism is a collection of chemical reactions occurring in a living organism. Sometimes
the chemical compound is more acidic than alkaline and vice versa. Any drastic sway in the
acid-base balance could have a devastating effect. A chemical compound called a buffer is used
to prevent harmful swings in the acid-base balance. A buffer releases hydrogen ions or binds
hydrogen ions to stabilize the pH. A weak acid or base does not easily separate (ionization).

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
An organic compound is a compound whose chemical elements include carbon. Carbon plays
an import role in living things because compounds that contain it build many different organic
compounds, each having different structures and functions. The large size of most carbon-
containing molecules and the fact that they don’t dissolve easily in water makes them useful in
building body structures. Organic compounds also store energy required by an organism for
metabolism.
Carbon can combine with other atoms because carbon has four electrons in its outer shell. This
leaves room for four additional electrons from other atoms to bond to the carbon atom in a
biological reaction (Fig. 2-8). Carbon also has low electronegativity and lacks polarity when a
bond is formed.

A carbon atom commonly combines with other carbon atoms to form a carbon chain. There are
two forms of carbon chains. These are straight carbon chains and ring carbon chains. Fig. 2-9
shows how this is used to illustrate fructose.

Carbon chains are the basic form for many organic compounds. Organic compounds come in
many sizes—small to large. Many, but not all, large organic compounds are called polymers.
A polymer is made up of small molecules called monomers. A monomer is another name for
subunit. Monomers are bonded together to form a polymer in a process called dehydration
synthesis, which removes water molecules from the compound.
A large organic compound is called a macromolecule which in many cases is a polymer. A
macromolecule can be reduced to its monomer in a process called hydrolysis, which adds water
molecules to the polymer.
There are four types of organic compounds that are macromolecules. These are:
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Proteins
• Nucleic acids

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates store energy from an organism in the form of sugar, starches and in the human
body, glucogen. Cellulose is also a carbohydrate used as bulk to move food and waste
through the gastrointestinal tract. Carbohydrates are also used as material in the cell wall.
Carbohydrates are organized into three major
Carbohydrate groups. These are:
• Monosaccharides. Some of the important monosaccharides are: glucose, the main
energy source for an organism; fructose, acquired by eating fruit; galactose, which is
in milk; deoxyribose, DNA; and ribose, RNA. A monomer is also a monosaccharide.
• Disaccharides. This is a combination of two monosaccharides bonded during
dehydration synthesis. Sucrose (table sugar) and lactose (milk sugar) are
disaccharides. Sucrose contains glucose and fructose. Lactose contains glucose and
galactose.
• Polysaccharides. Apolysaccharide is comprised of many monosaccharides and
includes glycogen, starch, cellulose, and chitin, which is an amino sugar.

Lipids
• Lipids are our fats and provide protection, insulation and can be used as an energy
reserve. They are important components to the cell membrane and store pigments.
There are four kinds of lipids. These are:
o Triglycerides. Triglycerides protect and insulate the body from most lipids and
are a source of energy. Because lipids have few polar covalent bonds, they are
mostly insoluble (do not mix well) with polar solvents, like water.
o Phospholipids. Phospholipids are a major component in cell membranes.
o Steroids. Steroids are cholesterol and some hormones.
o Eicosanoids. Eicosanoids are divided into two kinds. These are prostaglandins
and leukotrienes. Prostaglandins are involved in various behaviors such as
dilating airways, regulating body temperature, and aiding in the formation of
blood clots. Leukotrienes are involved in inflammatory and allergic responses.
Other kinds of lipids include fatty acids, lipoproteins and many plant pigment including
chlorophyll and beta-carotene and the fat soluble vitamins such as A, D, E and K.

Proteins
Proteins comprise about 50% of a cell’s dry weight and make up material in the cell wall.
Proteins are peptidoglycans and help to transport chemicals into and out of a cell. In addition,
proteins are part of cell structures and cytoplasmic components. Some proteins are antibodies
that kill bacteria and play a role in muscle contractions and provide movement of
microorganisms. Proteins are made up of polypeptides that bond together using peptide
bonds.
There are four structural levels of proteins. These are:
• Primary. The primary structure is the sequence in which amino acids are linked to
form the polypeptide. Sequences are genetically determined and even the slightest
alteration within the sequence may have a dramatic effect on the way the protein
functions.
• Secondary. The secondary structure is locally folded and is the repeated twisting of
the polypeptide chain that links together the amino acids. There are two types of
secondary structures. These are a helix and a pleated sheet. The alpha-helix is a
clockwise spiral structure. The pleated sheet forms the parallel portion of the
polypeptide chain.
• Tertiary. The tertiary structure is the three-dimensional active structure of the
polypeptide chain. Tertiary structure is the minimal level of structure for biological
activity.
• Quarternary. Is where the proteins, in order to be functional, contain subunits of
polypeptide chains. An example would be DNA polymerase.

Proteins have many roles in a living organism. They are found in bone collagen and
connective tissue and provide protection in the form of immunoglobins, which are antibodies.
Some of the other important proteins are:
• Myosin. Muscle contraction.
• Actin. Muscle contraction.
• Hemoglobin transports oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) in blood.
• Enzymes. An enzyme that is a biological catalyst that increases the rate of chemical
reactions in cells by reducing the energy required to begin the reaction. The reaction
does not change the enzyme. The name of an enzyme typically ends with “-ase.”
• Flagellin. Protein in flagella.