MASS & BALANCE - 1

BASIC THEORY AND CALCULATION

© Capt Rahul Monga

CONTENTS
• Introduction
• Certification Requirements
• Stress
• Loads
• Units
• Fuel and Oil requirements
• Cargo Handling
• Floor Loading Limits
• C of G
• Forces in Level Flight
• CG Position and Stability
• MAC
• Basic Calculations
© Capt Rahul Monga
INTRODUCTION
• The mass of an aircraft and the location of its centre of gravity are vital
information required before commencement of any flight.
• The Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM) contains critical mass and balance data,
for example:
• Maximum empty mass;
• Maximum fuel load and effect on centre of gravity of fuel in different tanks;
• Maximum freight or passenger load in any compartment and effect on centre of
gravity;
• Maximum mass permitted for take-off and landing;
• Critical positions (forward and aft) of centre of gravity for take-off, in flight and for
landing.
• Knowing the actual aircraft empty weight and position of its centre of
gravity the following can be calculated
• Passenger and freight load
• Planned fuel load
• Actual weight of the aircraft and location of its is centre of gravity in flight

© Capt Rahul Monga

• The calculated or actual take-off mass must not exceed:
• The AFM maximum permitted take-off mass; or,
• The maximum take-off mass determined in aircraft performance calculations.
• The calculated or actual landing mass must not exceed:
• The AFM maximum permitted landing mass; or,
• the maximum landing mass determined in aircraft performance calculations
for the destination and for any alternate aerodromes.
• The aircraft centre of gravity must at all times remain within the limits
specified in the AFM for the relevant stage of flight.

© Capt Rahul Monga

• Improper loading cuts down the efficiency of an aircraft from the
standpoint of
• Altitude
• Manoeuverability
• Rate of climb
• Speed
• Because of abnormal stresses placed upon the structure of an
improperly loaded aircraft, or because of changed flying
characteristics of the aircraft, accidents can occur.

© Capt Rahul Monga

CERTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS
• Certification requirements for civil aircraft are derived from
• ICAO Annex 8 Airworthiness of Aircraft [ICAO, 2016] and
• ICAO Airworthiness Manual, Part V State of Design and State of Manufacture [ICAO,
2014].
• Each ICAO contracting state then establishes its own legal framework to
implement the internationally agreed standards and recommended
practices.
• No aircraft can be flown without certification.
• The issue of a type certificate signifies the airworthiness of a particular
category of aircraft, according to its manufacturing design (type design).
• It confirms that the aircraft of a new type intended for serial production, is
in compliance with applicable airworthiness requirements established by
the national air law.

© Capt Rahul Monga

• Certification Standards
• EASA CS25 & FAR25 –
All Jets & Turboprops in
commuter category
MTOW>5700kg
• EASA23/FAR23 – All ac
with 9 pax or less and
MTOW<5700 kg & all
prop twins 19 pax or
less & MTOW < 8618
Kg

© Capt Rahul Monga

STRESS
• Many forces and structural stresses act on an aircraft when it is flying
and when it is static.
• When it is static, the force of gravity produces weight, which is
supported by the landing gear.
• The landing gear also absorbs the forces imposed on the aircraft by
take off and landing.
• During flight, any manoeuvre that causes acceleration or deceleration
increases the forces and stresses on the wings and fuselage.

© Capt Rahul Monga

STRESS
• Stresses on the wings, fuselage, and landing gear of aircraft are
tension, compression, hoop, shear, bending, and torsion. These
stresses are absorbed by each component of the wing structure and
transmitted to the fuselage structure.
• Stress is the force applied to a material, divided by the material’s
cross-sectional area.
• σ = Force/Area (Unit Kg/M^2 = Pascal)
• Strain is the deformation or displacement of material that results
from an applied stress.
• ε = L-Lo/Lo, where L is length after load, Lo is the original length.

© Capt Rahul Monga

TYPES STRESS

© Capt Rahul Monga

LIMIT LOADS
• In aerospace engineering, the ultimate load is a statistical figure used in calculations, and
should hopefully never actually occur.
• Strength requirements are specified in terms of
• Limit load Bn - The maximum load to be expected in service
• Ultimate load Bu - Limit load multiplied by prescribed factors of safety
• With respect to aircraft structure and design, ultimate load is the amount of load applied
to a component beyond which the component will fail.
• If failure were to occur, then the relevant structure in the aircraft would stand a large
chance of fracture.
• During the testing for determination of the loads, no fracture must occur at the ultimate
load for a period of 3 seconds.
• The ultimate load Bu is related to the limit load Bn, using the concept of safety factor
• Bu >= 1.5 Bn
• Loads between Limit and Ultimate – May cause permanent deformation
© Capt Rahul Monga
DESIGN LIMIT LOADS
• Design Limit Load (DLL)
• This is the maximum load that the designer would expect the airframe or
component to experience in service. The standard DLL’s are: For Transport
Aircraft 2.5. For Utility Aircraft 3.4-3.8, and for Aerobatic Aircraft, 6. These
values are based on ‘G’-Forces and derived from failure values determined
experimentally at the design stage.
• Design Ultimate Load (DUL)
• The DUL is the DLL x the safety factor. The minimum safety factor specified in
design requirements is 1.5. The structure must withstand DUL without
collapse.
• Safety factor
• The safety factor is the ratio of the ultimate load to the limit load.

© Capt Rahul Monga

DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
• The aircraft manufacturer will attempt to design an aircraft to take
into account all the loads that it may experience in flight.
• There are various guidelines, formulae and experience to guide them
in the design of a good fail safe/damage tolerant structure.
• Safe Life
• Defined as the minimum life during which it is known that no catastrophic
damage will occur.
• Life-counts for components of assemblies may be recorded as number of
flying hours, cycles of landing or pressurization events or even on a calendar
basis.
• After the elapsed life-count or fatigue cycle , the item is replaced or
overhauled.
© Capt Rahul Monga
DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
• In the operational life of the Aircraft, and to minimise the chances of
failure due to fatigue, aircraft designers apply the principle of Fail safe
construction or Damage tolerance.
• Fail Safe or Damage Tolerant Structure
• Large modern Aircraft are designed with a Fail-safe or Damage-tolerant structure.
This can be described as a structure in which a failure of a particular part is
compensated for by an alternative load-path provided by an adjacent part that is
able to carry the loads for a limited time period.
• Typically this is a structure which, after any single failure or crack in any one
structural member can safely carry the normal operating loads until the next periodic
inspection.
• True dualling of load-paths in common practice could be found in wing attachments
and also in vertical stabiliser and horizontal stabiliser attachment points.

© Capt Rahul Monga

S N Curve
• Cumulative lower loads can cause
damage which can cause failure
below ultimate stress. In metals
this is called fatigue
• SN Curve is a plot of the
magnitude of an alternating stress
versus the number of cycles to
failure for a given material.
Typically both the stress and
number of cycles are displayed on
logarithmic scales.

© Capt Rahul Monga

WING LOADS
• The wing is subject to
• Bending
• Twisting
• Torsion

© Capt Rahul Monga

WING LOADS - BENDING
• Main loads on the wing are bending loads
which incorporate tension and
compression. These are maximum at the
wing root.
• Shear loads are present at the centre
section of main spar.
• Bending and shear loads are controlled by
observing ‘g’ and loading limits MZFM –
Maximum Zero Fuel Mass

© Capt Rahul Monga

WING LOADS - TORSION
• Twisting or torsional loads are caused by shift
of CG/CP as well as by control deflection
• These can be very high if wing/control surfaces
suffer aerodynamic flutter
• Flutter is an un-damped oscillation caused by
imbalance
• The mass of the wing affects the likelihood of
flutter – a lighter wing is more susceptible to
high frequency flutter
• Position of engines can reduce flutter by
providing a balancing mass forward of the main
wing
• Fuel in outboard fuel tanks can reduce stress
and flutter

© Capt Rahul Monga

V-n DIAGRAM
• The flight envelope defines operational
limits for an aircraft with respect to
maximum speed and load factor given a
particular atmospheric density.
• The flight envelope is the region within
which an aircraft can operate safely.
• If an aircraft flies 'outside the envelope' it
may suffer damage; the limits should
therefore never be exceeded.
• A chart of speed versus load factor (or V-n
diagram) is a way of showing the limits of
an aircraft's performance. It shows how
much load factor can be safely achieved at
different airspeeds.
• V is the IAS and n is the load factor.
• n = L/W

© Capt Rahul Monga

MASS & VOLUME CONVERSIONS

© Capt Rahul Monga

Fuel Conversion Practice Questions
• If 60,000kg of fuel is required for the flight and the aircraft already
has 10,000kg on board, the number of imperial gallons of fuel having
a density of 0.72 still required to be loaded is?
• (60000-10000)/0.72 x 1/4.545 = 15280 imp gal
• The maximum quantity of fuel that can be loaded into an aircraft’s
tanks is 3800 US gallons. If the fuel SG is 0.79, the maximum fuel
mass in kg, which may be loaded is?
• 3800/1.2 x 4.545 x 0.79 = 11370 kg

© Capt Rahul Monga

AIRCRAFT LOADING – GENERAL POINTS
• It is the responsibility of the aircraft Captain to ensure that the aircrafts Centre of
Gravity remains within limits throughout the complete flight regime
• The term ‘weight’ is often used in place of ‘mass’, so the two terms are fully
interchangeable with each other
• Incorrect loading will have an adverse effect on the aircraft speed, its rate of
climb, its ceiling and its manoeuvrability
• Gross overloading could result in damage to the aircraft and may lead to loss of
life
• Accidents may result from unclear loading instructions, or if the aircraft is
carelessly loaded.

© Capt Rahul Monga

FUEL & OIL REQUIREMENTS
• A flight should have sufficient fuel/oil for safe operations which is comprised of:
• Taxy – Start up and taxi to the end of the runway
• Trip – Take off to touchdown. Also called burn-off or sector fuel
• Contingency- A % of trip fuel for un-forecast winds or ATC rerouting. 5% or 3% under
special circumstances
• Alternate – From point of diversion to touchdown at alternate
• Final Reserve – Defined by operator. Typically for jets it is 30 min holding at 1500’ above
destination alternate and 45 min for propeller aircraft
• Additional Fuel: To comply with a specific regulatory or company requirement. Examples
include ETOPS fuel, fuel required for a remote or island destination where no alternate is
available
• Extra Fuel: Discretion of the commander
• Block or Ramp Fuel is the sum of the above

© Capt Rahul Monga

CARGO HANDLING
• Freight is secured in
• ULDs
• Pallets
• Restrained with nets as bulk cargo
• A unit load device (ULD), is a container used to load luggage, freight,
and mail on wide-body aircraft and specific narrow-body aircraft.
• It allows a large quantity of cargo to be bundled into a single unit.
Since this leads to fewer units to load, it saves ground crews time and
effort and helps prevent delayed flights.
• Each ULD has its own packing list (or manifest) so that its contents
can be tracked
© Capt Rahul Monga
UNIT LOAD DEVICE
• Unit Load Devices (ULDs)
are of several shapes and
sizes depending on the
overall dimensions of the
fuselage and cargo hold.
IATA has introduced an
identification code for each
type

© Capt Rahul Monga

PALLETISED CARGO
• Palletised Cargo is used
where freight dimensions
are unsuitable for
container ULDs
• Pallets with load spreading
bars are used and freight is
secured with a cargo net

© Capt Rahul Monga

LOADING AND SECURING
• Specialised vehicles and semi-automatic electrical systems are used to load cargo
• ULDs and pallets are secured to the cargo bay by a variety of methods
• Bulk Cargo compartments are used for odd shaped/sized cargo, luggage, mail and
late delivery.
• This is loaded randomly and secured by tie down and cargo nets. Partition nets
may also be used

© Capt Rahul Monga

FLOOR LOADING LIMITS
• Floor loading limits are specified by the manufacture
• There are two limits which must be observed:
• Distribution Load Intensity (or area or floor load):
• It is calculated as the weight of the object divided by the area it occupies.
• Floor Running Load (or linear load):
• It is calculated as the weight of the object divided by the distance it covers
along the aircraft's length.

© Capt Rahul Monga

CALCULATION DLI
• Distribution Load Intensity is the maximum static mass per unit area which the floor is designed
to continuously carry
• Load/Unit Area
• Example: If a mass of 50 kg is spread over 1 square metre, the distribution load is
• 50/1 = 50 kg/sq meter.
• Floor loads and aircraft weights are sometimes given in Newtons.
• 1 Kg is 9.8N under normal gravitational conditions.
• Example: If floor loading limit is 5000 N/m sq and mass is 300 Kg. What is the area over which this
mass can be distributed? (g=10m/sec sq)
• Limit = 5000 N/m sq or 5000/10 = 500 Kg/sq m
• For 500 Kg -- 1 sq meter
• For 1 Kg -- 1/500
• For 300 Kg -- 1/500 x 300 = 300/500 = 0.6 sq meter
• or
• Limit = Mass / Area
• Area = Mass / Limit = 300/500 = 0.6 sq meter

© Capt Rahul Monga

CALCULATION FLOOR RUNNING LOAD
• Floor Running Load is the weight divided by length of the load
• Weight/Length
• Example: A pallet of cargo weighing 1500 kg is 120 inches long by 60
inches wide. Assuming the base of the pallet is entirely in contact
with the cargo hold floor the running load will be?
• 1500/120 = 12.5 Kg/inch

© Capt Rahul Monga

CENTRE OF GRAVITY
• The point on the aircraft where the total mass is said to act.
• It lies on the longitudinal axis.
• The sum of all the weight moments is zero.
• Its distance from the datum point can be found by dividing the total
moment by the total mass.
• C of G = Total Moment/Total Mass

© Capt Rahul Monga

CENTRE OF GRAVITY BASIC CALCULATION
• The position of the CG is calculated by separately considering the weights
of the empty aircraft, the load and fuel
• The moment of each around a datum is calculated and added
• Total moment / Total mass determines the CG
• Moment is the turning force created by the mass acting over a distance.
Moment = Mass X Distance
• Large awkward moments are sometimes divided by a constant to produce
a moment index. This is for ease of calculations
• Datum is the reference point from which all lever arm measurements are
taken. This is not the CG and is decided by the manufacturer. It can be
• In front, on the nose, within the aircraft or even behind the aircraft
© Capt Rahul Monga
 Principle of a Balance Arm

Moment Arm

Datum is a reference point from which all lever or moment

arms are taken and is not the CG
 Moments Affecting a Balance Arm

= -100 kg cm = -100
+100kg
kgcm
cm

Item Mass Arm - Moment + Moment

Left Arm 10 kg X -10 cm -100 kg cm
Right Arm 10 kg X +10 cm +100 kg cm
Totals -100 kg cm +100 kg cm
Total Mass 20 kg Total Moment 0.0 kg cm
Effect on the CG of Repositioning of the Datum

Item Mass Arm - Moment + Moment

Left Arm 10 kg X +2 cm + 20 kg cm
Right Arm 10 kg X +22 cm +220 kg cm
Total Mass 20 kg Total Moment +240 kg cm

Total Moment + 240

CG = = = + 12cm
Total Mass 20

CG is located 12 cm to the right of the datum

 Effect of Varying the Mass

Item Mass Arm - Moment + Moment

Left Arm 8.5 kg X -10 cm -85 kg cm
Right Arm 7.75 kg X +10 cm +77.5 kg cm
Total Mass 16.25 kg Total Moment -7.5 kg cm

Total Moment - 7.5

CG = = = - 0.46 cm
Total Mass 16.25

CG is located 0.46 cm to the left of the datum

 Effect of Relocating the Mass

Item Mass Arm - Moment + Moment

Total Mass 16.25 kg X -0.46 cm -7.475kg cm
Right Arm +1.3 kg X +10 cm +13 kg cm
Left Arm -1.3 kg X -10 cm +13 kg cm
Total Mass 16.25 kg Total Moment +18.525 kg cm

Total Moment + 18.525

CG = = = + 1.14 cm
Total Mass 16.25

CG is located 1.14 cm to the right of the datum

 Alternative Method

Item Mass Arm - Moment + Moment

Left Arm 7.2 kg X -10 cm -72 kg cm
Right Arm 9.05 kg X +10 cm +90.5 kg cm
Total Mass 16.25 kg Total Moment +18.5 kg cm

Total Moment + 18.5

CG = = = + 1.14 cm
Total Mass 16.25

CG is located 1.14 cm to the right of the datum

Effect of Adding Mass to the Balance Beam

Item Mass Arm - Moment + Moment

Left Arm 77 kg X -1.5 m -115.5 kg m
Right Arm 57 kg X +1.5 m +85.5 kg m
Total Mass 134 kg Total Moment -30 kg m

Total Moment - 30
CG = = = - 0.22 m CG is 0.22 m to left of datum
Total Mass 134
Principle of a Balance Beam
Determining the Balance Point Using a Small
Mass
 Determining the Balance Point

Mass Arm - Moment + Moment

6 kg X - 4.0 m - 24 kg m
3 kg X - 2.0 m - 6 kg m
3 kg X +3m + 9 kg m
6 kg X +7m + 42 kg m
Total Mass =18 kg Total Moment = + 21 kg m

Total Moment + 21 CG is 1.17 m to aft of datum

CG = = = + 1.17 m
Total Mass 18
BALANCE BEAM PRACTICE QUESTIONS
• A beam balance is pivoted 1.37m from the left end. The pivot point is also
the beam’s CG and datum. If a 55.5 lb mass is suspended from a point 1.2
m to the left of the pivot, using a 23 lb mass, the Balance Arm (BA)
required to put the beam back in balance will be:
• 55.5 x 1.2 = Y x 23
• Y = +2.90m
• A bar with a datum located at 90 inches from the left end has two 6 kg
masses located 50 inches each side of the datum. If a mass of 1.35 kg is
added to the left arm and a mass of 0.75 kg is added to the right arm, the
new CG will be positioned at?
• Total moments = (-50 x 7.35) + (+50 x 6.75) = -30 kg in
• Total mass = 14.1 kg
• CG = -3-/14.1 = -2.13inch
• CG is 2.13 left of datum

© Capt Rahul Monga

C OF G LIMITS
• C of G limits have to consider both ground and air requirements

• Ground Limits – Between main and nose wheels

• Rear CG – More weight on rear wheels. Strength of the main gear is a
consideration while calculating aft limit at MTOM
• May make nose wheel adherence and steering ineffective
• Forward CG –
• More weight on nose wheel. Strength of the nose gear is a consideration
while calculating forward limit at MTOM

© Capt Rahul Monga

C OF G OF AIRCRAFT
• For the purpose of weight and balance
computations, the CG of an airplane is an
imaginary point about which the nose-heavy (–)
moments and tail-heavy (+) moments are exactly
equal in magnitude.
• If suspended from the CG point, the aircraft
would have no tendency to rotate nose up or
nose down.
• The CG of the loaded aircraft can range fore and
aft within certain limits that are determined
during the flight test for type certification.
• These limits are the most forward- and rearward-
loaded CG positions at which the aircraft meets
the performance and flight characteristics
required by the certificating authority.
• On small airplanes and on all helicopters, the CG
location is identified as being a specific number
of inches from the datum. The CG range is
identified in the same way.

© Capt Rahul Monga

 Calculating the BEM CG

Item Mass Arm - Moment + Moment

Nose wheel 350 lb X 40 in 14 000 lb in
Left main 850 lb X 115 in 97 750 lb in
Right main 850 lb X 115 in 97 750 lb in
Total Mass 2050 lb Total Moment +209 500 lb in

Total Moment + 209500 CG is 102.2 in to right of

CG = = = + 102.20 in
Total Mass 2050 datum
 Effect of Loading on the CG

Item Mass Arm - Moment + Moment

BEM 2420 kg X 8 in aft +19,360 kg in
Fuel 400 kg X 20 in aft +8,000 kg in
Crew 150 kg X 13 in aft +1,950 kg in
Freight 20 kg X 22 in fwd -440 kg in
Total Mass 2,990 kg Total Moment +28,870 kg in
Total Moment + 28,870
CG = = = + 9.66 in CG is 9.66 in aft of datum
Total Mass 2990
 Determination of CG for Take-off & Landing
(The CG limits are between 50 inches and 55 inches aft of datum)
Station Weight Arm Positive Moment Negative Moment
(kg) (in) (kg in) (kg in)
Basic Weight 3900 43 aft
Fuel 550 52 aft
Oil 60 3 fwd
Crew 150 12 fwd
Row 1 140 88 aft
Row 2 122 aft
Row 3 75 146 aft
Front Hold 40 28 fwd
Rear Hold 85 150 aft
Baggage 240 160 aft
Total Weight

Total Moment
 Determination of CG for Take-off
(The CG limits are between 50 inches and 55 inches aft of datum)
Station Weight Arm Positive Moment Negative Moment
(kg) (in) (kg in) (kg in)
Basic Weight 3900 43 aft + 167700
Fuel 550 52 aft + 28600
Oil 60 3 fwd -180
Crew 150 12 fwd - 1800
Row 1 140 88 aft + 12320
Row 2 122 aft
Row 3 75 146 aft + 10950
Front Hold 40 28 fwd - 1120
Rear Hold 85 150 aft + 12750
Baggage 240 160 aft + 38400
Total Weight 5240kg + 270720 - 3100
- 3100
Total Moment + 267620 kg in
Total Moment + 267620 CG is 51.1 in
Take - off CG = = = + 51.1 in
Total Mass 5240 aft of datum
(The CG limits are between 50 inches and 55 inches aft of datum)

If the estimated fuel consumption for the flight is 480 kg and the oil consumption
is 20 kg determine the CG for landing:

Remove 480 kg fuel from 52 in aft

= -480 x 52 = -24960 kg in
Remove 20 kg oil from 3 in fwd
= -20 x -3 = +60 kg in

Total Moment + 267620 - 24900

Landing CG = = = + 51.2 in
Total Mass 5240 - 500

The CG of both phases is within limits so the aircraft is safe for flight.
 Redistribution of Mass Within an Aircraft
The all up mass of an aircraft is 65,000 kg and its CG is 30” aft of
datum. If the CG envelope is from 28” to 43” aft of datum the
amount of mass that has to be moved from hold 2 to hold 1 to
move the CG to its forward limit will be:

mxD=Mxd m x (475 – 260) = 65,000 x 2

65,000 x 2 130,000
mass to be moved (m) = = = 605 kg
(475 - 260 ) 215
Redistribution of Mass within the Aircraft
Practice Questions
1. The CG limits of an aircraft are from 83 in to 93 in aft of datum.
The CG as loaded is found to be at 81 in aft of datum and the
loaded mass is 3240 lb. The amount of mass which must be
moved from the forward hold, 25 in aft of datum to the aft hold,
142 in aft of datum to bring the CG on to the fwd limit is:

mxD=Mxd m x (142 - 25) = 3240 x 2

3240 x 2
mass to be moved (m) = = 55.38 lb
(142 - 25 )
An aircraft has a loaded mass of 5500 lb and the CG is 22 in aft of
datum. If a passenger of weight 150 lb moves from row 1 to row 3, a
distance of 70 in the position of the new CG will be:

mxD=Mxd 150 x 70= 5500 x d

150 x 70
Movement of CG (in) = = 1.91 in
5500

CG moves 1.91 in aft so the position of the new CG = 22 + 1.91

= 23.91 in aft of datum
How Adding Mass to the Aircraft Affects the CG
An aircraft has a mass of 1800 kg and a CG position of 2.43 m aft of the
datum. If an additional mass of 200 kg is added at an arm of -2.00 m
(forward of the datum) the location of the new CG will be:

Item Mass Arm - Moment + Moment

BEM 1800 kg X + 2.43m +4374 kg m
Added 200 kg X - 2.00m -400 kg m
Totals 2,000 kg Total Moment = +3974 kg m

Total Moment + 3974

CG = = = + 1.987 m
Total Mass 2000
 How Removing Mass from the Aircraft
Affects the CG

An aircraft has a mass of 1704 kg and a CG position of 3.1 m aft of the

datum. If a mass of 60 kg is removed from the aft hold at 4.7 m aft of the
datum the location of the new CG will be:

Item Mass Arm - Moment + Moment

BEM 1704 kg X + 3.1m +5282.4 kg m
Removed -60 kg X + 4.7m -282 kg m
Totals 1644 kg Total Moment = +5000.4 kg m

Total Moment + 5000.4

CG = = = + 3.04 m
Total Mass 1644
STATIONS NUMBERS
• A method of locating components on the aircraft must be established in order
that maintenance and repairs can be carried out.
• This is achieved by identifying reference lines and station numbers for fuselage,
wings, empennage, etc.
• Fuselage station lines are determined by reference to a zero datum line (fuselage
station 0.00) at or near the forward portion of the aircraft as defined by the
manufacturer.
• Station numbers are given in inches forward (negative and given a – sign) or aft
(positive and with a +sign) of the zero datum.
• Wing stations are measured from the centre line of the aircraft and are also given
in inches left or right of the centre line.
• Vertical position from a ground line or horizontal datum can be known as a Water
Line (WL) or Buttock Line, given as a dimension in inches from the horizontal
datum.
© Capt Rahul Monga
STATIONS NUMBERS

© Capt Rahul Monga

 Body Station Question
The CG is currently at + Stn 300. Determine how much mass must be
moved from +Stn 370 to +Stn 120 to bring the CG within limits.

CG Range

Mass change x distance moved = Total mass x change of CG

Mass change =
(300 - 280 ) x 3758 = 300 kg
(370 - 120 )
MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD
• On larger airplanes, the CG and its range are
typically identified in relation to the width of the
wing.
• The width of the wing, or straight-line distance
from the leading edge to the trailing edge, on an
airplane is known as the chord.
• If the leading edge and the trailing edge of a wing
are parallel, the chord is equal at all points along
the entire length of the wing.
• The average length of the chord, or MAC, of a
tapered wing is more complicated to define.
• The MAC is the chord of an imaginary airfoil that
has the same aerodynamic characteristics as the
actual airfoil.
• The CG location and various limits are then
expressed in percentage of the chord or percent
MAC.

© Capt Rahul Monga

CG in Terms of % MAC

C
A

æ A -Bö
CG as % MAC = ç ÷ x 100%
è C ø
CG in Terms of % MAC

æ A -Bö
CG as % MAC = ç ÷ x 100%
è C ø
 Example of CG in Terms of % MAC
The CG of an aircraft is 1200” aft of datum, the leading edge of the
mean aerodynamic chord is 1174” aft of datum and the length of the
MAC is 130”. The CG position as a % MAC is:

Solution

æ A -Bö
CG as % MAC = ç ÷ x 100%
è C ø

æ 1200 - 1174 ö
CG as % MAC = ç ÷ x 100% = 20%
è 130 ø
 CG as a % MAC Practice Questions
1. A loaded aircraft’s CG is located at 24% of an 8 ft MAC, the distance of
the leading edge of the MAC is located at +20 ft, the safe range is 21%
to 36% MAC. The distance from the datum to the rear CG limit is:

Solution:

Distance of aft CG limit from LeMAC = 36% x 8 = 2.88 ft

Distance from the datum to the rear CG limit:

= 2.88 + 20 = 22.88 ft
INTERACTION OF FORCES IN LEVEL FLIGHT

© Capt Rahul Monga

C OF G RANGE IN FLIGHT
• Aircraft manufacturer
defines a forward and a
rearward limit.
• Relative position of Centre
of Pressure and CG affect
longitudinal stability

© Capt Rahul Monga

EFFECT OF C OF G ON STABILITY
• Tendency of an aircraft to
return to original position
after disturbance
• Positive Longitudinal
Stability – CG Ahead of CP
• Negative Longitudinal
Stability- CP Ahead of CG
• In flight the aircraft should
be stable in pitch

© Capt Rahul Monga

TRIM DRAG
• If the CG is ahead, a down
force is required from the tail
• This requires lift from the
wings to be increased – which
increases drag
• This is called trim drag. A high
trim drag results in more fuel
consumption.
• Therefore loading is done in a
manner to keep the C of G
near the rear limit of CG
Range
© Capt Rahul Monga
STATIC MARGIN
• As the aircraft is stable when center
of gravity is forward and unstable
when center of gravity is aft, there
is a position in the middle where
the aircraft is neither stable nor
unstable i.e the stability is neutral.
• This point is called the neutral
point.
• The distance between the center of
gravity and the neutral point of the
aircraft is the static margin.
• The greater this distance and the
narrower the wing, the more stable
the aircraft.

© Capt Rahul Monga

Effects of CG Forward of the Safe Range
• Nose heavy condition
• Increases aircraft trim drag
• Increases the fuel consumption
• Decreases the range and endurance
• Decreases aircraft controllability
• Increases the stalling speed
• Increases longitudinal stability
• Makes the rotation and flare difficult
• Increases the take-off run and may cause the aircraft to ‘nose-in’ on
landing.
© Capt Rahul Monga
Effects of CG AFT of the Safe Range
• Tail heavy condition
• Increases aircraft trim drag
• Increases fuel consumption
• Decreases the range and endurance
• Increases aircraft controllability
• Decreases the stalling speed and the aircraft has a tendency to stall
• Decreases longitudinal stability
• The nose may lift before reaching VR
• Difficulty in maintaining a set glide angle because the aircraft has a greater
tendency to pitch up.
© Capt Rahul Monga
EFFECT OF MASS ON PERFORMANCE
• Performance depends on the difference between thrust available
(which depends on ambient conditions) and thrust required
• Certification requires adequate performance at all stages of flight
• To achieve the required performance, the limiting factor is mass
• Maximum masses must never be exceeded as apart from CG going
out of limits will lead to lack or performance, an increased stalling
speed and a higher fuel consumption

© Capt Rahul Monga

EFFECT OF OVERLOAD
• Decreases the aircraft’s ceiling, rate of climb and manoeuvrability
• Structural limits may be exceeded
• Increases the stalling speed
• Increases the take-off and landing distances
• Increases the fuel consumption
• Decreases aircraft range and endurance
• Increases the wear and tear on brakes and tyres during landing.

© Capt Rahul Monga

OVERLOADED AIRCRAFT WITH CG IN SAFE
RANGE
• Increased
• Stalling Speed
• Drag
• Required Thrust
• Fuel Consumption
• T/O and ldg distance
• Wear on brakes and tyres
• Decreased
• Range and Endurance
• ROC and Engine Out Performance
• Climb Gradient
• Ceiling

© Capt Rahul Monga

EFFECT OF WEIGHT ON STALL SPEED
• The basic stalling speed is the slowest speed that can be achieved in
level flight without stalling, at a given weight. Also called the 1g stall
speed. VS1g.
• With the increase of weight the stall speed increases.
• Stall speed is proportional to the square root of weight
• VS ∝ √ weight
• VS new = VS old √ (new weight/old weight)

© Capt Rahul Monga

IN FLIGHT CG MANAGEMENT
• Modern aircraft use automatic fuel management to keep CG near the
optimum location for range or economy
• Fuel is fed in an appropriate sequence to maintain wing bending relief
and CG position
• Passenger and crew movement are compensated by small trim
changes

© Capt Rahul Monga