Journal Pre-proof

Structural controls on submarine channel morphology, evolution, and architecture,

offshore Western Niger delta

O.R. Ashiru, Qin Y, Wu S

PII: S0264-8172(20)30196-3
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2020.104413
Reference: JMPG 104413

To appear in: Marine and Petroleum Geology

Received Date: 28 June 2019

Revised Date: 10 April 2020
Accepted Date: 20 April 2020

Please cite this article as: Ashiru, O.R., Y, Q., S, W., Structural controls on submarine channel
morphology, evolution, and architecture, offshore Western Niger delta, Marine and Petroleum Geology
(2020), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2020.104413.

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Author contributions
Wu, S. and Qin, Y. jointly contributed to the preparation and review of the manuscript.
Ashiru O. R conceived the study, took the measurements, analysed the result. She also wrote
and reviewed the manuscirpt.
 1 Structural controls on submarine channel morphology, evolution, and architecture, offshore
2 Western Niger Delta.

3 Ashiru O.R.1,2, 3, Qin Y 1, and Wu S1, 2, 4*

4 swu@idsse.ac.cn

5 1. Institute of Deep-sea Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Marine

6 Geophysics and Georesources, Chinese Academy of Sciences.
7 2. University of China Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
8 3. Department of Marine Science and Technology, Federal University of Technology,
9 Akure, Ondo state, Nigeria.
10 4. Laboratory for Marine Geology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science
11 and
12 Technology, Qingdao, 266061, China.
13

14 Abstract.

15 Partially-avulsed, leveed channels from the continental slope of the western Niger delta are
16 studied using 3D seismic and well data. Four channel complexes (BC1- BC4), two ridges (A
17 and B) and two mud volcanoes (MV1 and MV2) were identified. The morphology, internal
18 architecture, and evolution of the channels changed in response to variations in slope gradient
19 promoted by diapirism, faulting, and mud volcanism. The influence of local tectonics on the
20 mapped channels is marked by channel blocking, migration, and diversion. The relative
21 position of the channel to tectonic structures also interferes with channel morphology.
22 Preserved cross-sectional profiles of BC3 varied between dish, U and V shapes with channel
23 width increased in sections overlying the ridges A and B. Similar variations in morphology
24 were also recorded for thalweg depth, channel fill thickness, levee width, and depth ratio.
25 Abandonment fill is nearly even in BC3 except at the terminal end. MV2 was active at least
26 twice during the evolution of BC3 and may have contributed some fine-grained sediments to
27 BC3. Channel fill is mainly turbidity prone with alternating waxing and waning cycles;
28 lithology consists of sandstone shale and silt in varying grain sizes and thicknesses. Tectonic
29 activity such as diapirism, growth and listric faulting as well as mud volcanism influenced the
30 channel evolution and internal architecture of BC3. In summary, the simple, straight BC3 as
31 imaged by seafloor bathymetry is underlain by a complex, older geomorphology that favor
32 the generation of structural traps and enhance reservoir properties in the western Niger Delta.

33 Keywords: Niger Delta, Submarine channels, Tectonics, Mud volcanoes, upper slope, mass
34 transport deposit.

35

36 1 Introduction
37 Turbidity currents sculpt the seafloor by erosion and deposition into dramatic seascapes,
38 including submarine canyons, sinuous submarine channels, and submarine fans consisting of
39 lobes and distributary channels (Mayall et al., 2006; Deptuck et al., 2007; Wynn et al., 2007).
40 Submarine channels are the primary conduits for sediments transported from the continental
41 shelf into the deep ocean. Channel systems include channel levee systems, terraces, intraslope
42 fans and lobes, and are important in the petroleum industry because they form major
43 repositories for coarse-grained sediment (reservoirs) deposited along channel axes, and for
44 fine-grained sands and silts deposited on levees (seals/ traps). These are the primary targets of
45 interest in the petroleum industry (Mayall et al., 2006).
46

47 Advances in seafloor technology over the last 30 years have permitted the mapping of the
48 deep sea in great detail. This has aided our ability to visualize and understand how these
49 systems evolve through time, providing detailed information about the range of channel
50 architectures and evolutionary histories (e.g. Pirmez et al., 1997, 2000; Mayall and Stewart,
51 2000; Kolla et al., 2001; Babonneau et al. 2002, 2004, 2010; Abreu et al., 2003; Deptuck et
52 al., 2003; Posamentier and Kolla, 2003; Gee and Gawthorpe, 2006; Heinio and Davies, 2007).
53 Submarine channel systems are commonly described from various tectonic settings such as
54 the Niger Delta (Deptuck et al., 2003; Adeogba et al., 2005; Heinio and Davies, 2007), the
55 Gulf of Mexico (Pickering et al., 1986; Posamentier, 2003) the Nile Delta (Samuel et al.,
56 2003), Brunei (Demyttenaere et al., 2000), Brazil (Qin et al., 2016, 2017, 2019) and offshore
57 West Africa (Abreu et al., 2003; Gee and Gawthorpe, 2006).
58
59 The architecture of channel systems is complex as it is strongly influenced by factors such as
60 local and regional tectonics, eustatic sea-level changes, as well as rate of sediment supply
61 (Reading and Richards 1994; Cohen and McClay 1996; Morgan, 2004; Clark and Cartwright
62 2009; Deptuck et al., 2007, 2012; Jobe et al, 2015, 2016, 2017). Studies of channel
63 adjustment in response to tectonic structures commonly help in reconstructing the
64 deformation history of these structures and in predicting sediment distribution patterns on
65 continental slopes. The behaviours of turbidity currents within submarine channels in
66 promoting erosion, bypassing or deposition, are closely related to variations in seafloor
67 gradient. The development of submarine channels is thus strongly influenced by variable
68 seafloor topography generated by active faults, folds, and gravity tectonics such as mud and
69 salt diapirs (e.g. Graham and Bachman, 1983; Droz and Bellaiche, 1985; Cronin, 1995;
70 Pirmez et al., 2000; Huyghe et al., 2004; Ferry et al., 2005; Gee and Gawthorpe, 2006;
71 Mayall et al., 2006, 2010; Clark and Cartwright, 2011; Qin et al., 2016, 2017, 2019).
72

73 Channel systems in the offshore parts of Niger Delta are shaped by gravity tectonics
74 characterised by normal faults and mud diapirism in response to rapid sedimentation over an
75 under compacted, mobile shale belt (Hansen et al., 2017). These diapiric structures and
76 associated listric faults modify seafloor topography, leading to gradient variations that
77 influence turbidity gravity flows and alter equilibrium profiles in submarine channels (Pirmez
78 et al., 2000; Deptuck et al., 2007; McHargue et al., 2011). These variations in topography, in
79 turn, result in major changes in sediment routes and sediment distribution (e.g. Gee et al.,
80 2007; Alves et al., 2009; Mayall et al., 2010; Oluboyo et al., 2013; Gamboa and Alves, 2015).
81 Also, the duration of activity of these mud volcanoes mold the seafloor into folded synclines
82 and anticlines, invariably influencing seafloor gradient (Damuth 1994; Clark and Cartwright,
83 2009).
84
85 A detailed description of the bio/chronostratigraphic of the Neogene succession in the study
86 area has been previously published by Chima et al., (2019). However, little is known of the
87 interactions between shale tectonics and submarine channels/ reservoir distribution. In this
88 study, we describe the relationship between structures and spatio-temporal evolution,
89 morphology, and architecture of channel complex and channel complex set (Bonga Complex;
90 BC) from a 638.78 km2 study area using 3D seismic data, well logs and core data. The
91 objective of this paper is to understand localised structural controls on channel evolution and
92 architecture for the leveed channels observed in the study area.
93

94
 95 2 Geological setting
96 The Niger Delta has subaerial and submarine sediments up to 12 km thick covering an area of
97 140,000 km2. The Niger Delta is of Cenozoic to Miocene age (Allen 1964, 1965; Evamy et
98 al., 1978; Doust and Omatsola, 1989). The subaerial part of the delta covers about 75,000
99 km2 (28,900 mi2) and extends more than 300 km (186 mi) from apex to mouth. It was formed
100 by a failed rift arm in the triple rift junction dividing the South American and African plate,
101 which opened the South Atlantic. The delta lies in the southwestern part of the Benue trough;
102 it is an extensional basin overlying an oceanward dipping continental basement and a
103 landward dipping oceanic basement. It is bounded by the Cameroon volcanic line and passive
104 transform continental margin (Fatoke, 2010; Reijers, 2011).
105

106 The Niger Delta continental margin is situated in the Gulf of Guinea, offshore Nigeria, and it
107 is the 9th largest deltaic system in the world (Doust and Omatsola, 1990; Grimund et al,
108 2018). It is fed mainly by the Niger River which empties into the Atlantic Ocean via the Gulf
109 of Guinea after crossing five African countries; Guinea, Mali, Niger, Benin, and Nigeria.
110 The river has a length of about 4,180 km, distributing mud to gravel-sized sediments onto the
111 delta from a drainage area of 2.16 x106 km2 (Amangabara and Obenade, 2015), with a mean
112 annual discharge and sediment load of 6,140 m3/s and 1,270 kg/s, respectively (Mulder and
113 Syvitski, 1995). The Forcados-Ramos and Sangana-Nun distributary systems split the Niger
114 River discharge into roughly equal portions onto the western and southern portions of the
115 Niger Delta (Allen, 1965).
116

117 The study area (Fig.1a, 1b) lies on the upper-middle slope, identified as the boundary of the
118 extensional and translational zones associated with folding and faulting in response to rapid
119 sedimentation rates, shale remobilization, and diapirism, which includes mud diapirs and mud
120 volcanoes (Damuth, 1994; Morley and Guerin, 1996). A part of this area has been studied
121 previously by Chapin et al. (2002) and Jobe et al. (2015, 2016 and 2017). The literature has
122 demonstrated the lack of abundant fines to preserve levees as the reason for the unleveed
123 channels studied in this area and adjoining areas (Chapin et al., 2002; Adeogba et al., 2005).
124

125 In the Niger Delta, rifting was initiated in the Late Jurassic and terminated in the Cretaceous.
126 The basin is marked by faults: thrusts, normal and listric faults. This period is also marked by
127 syn-rift sands and Late Cretaceous shales. Generally, the delta is an overall succession of
128 regressive, offlapping sediment cycles with three diachronous siliciclastic units; the
129 overpressured Akata Formation, the Agbada Formation and the Benin Formation (Reijers,
130 2011). The Akata formation is the oldest mapped unit. It is a shale sequence marked by thick
131 shales, turbidite sands, and small amounts of silt and clay deposited in the Paleocene.
132 Overlying this marine transgressive unit are Eocene fluvial sands of the Agbada formation
133 whose rapid sedimentation has contributed to the diapiric nature of the Agbada shales. The
134 Oligocene Benin sands are the youngest unit in the Niger delta, which is made up of flood
135 plain sands and alluvial deposits (Fatoke, 2010; Reijers, 2011; Tuttle et al., 2015).
136

137 The overpressured Akata shale provides the detachment horizon for large growth faults that
138 define depobelts. Six depobelts are identified and described (Doust and Omatsola 1990,
139 Owoyemi, 2005, Reijers, 2011). The Akata Formation, a lateral equivalent to coeval delta
140 topset strata, ranges in age from the Paleocene to the Holocene (Doust and Omatsola, 1990).
141 Damuth (1994) divided the delta into three major gravity-tectonic zones (Figs. 1):
142

143 (1) an upper extensional zone with listric growth faults beneath the outer shelf;
144 (2) a translational zone with diapirs and shale ridges beneath the upper slope; and
145 (3) a lower compressional zone with imbricate thrust structures (toe thrusts) beneath the
146 lower slope and rise.
147
148 3 Methodology
149 3.1 Dataset
150 The study area lies approximately 120 km offshore Nigeria in the western Niger delta, at
151 water depths ranging between 940 and 1200 m (Uyanwune et al., 2015). It overlies the
152 southernmost portion of the area studied by Jobe et al., 2015, 2016, 2017 (Fig. 2). These data
153 was acquired from Shell Petroleum Development Company (SPDC). Available 3D seismic
154 data cover an area of 638.78 km2 that overlies the Bonga channel complex. It is an industry-
155 standard 3D seismic volume with a dominant frequency of 60 Hz and a bin size of 12.5
156 m×12.5 m, resulting in a vertical resolution of 8.3m at the depths of interest in this work.
157 Depth conversions are made by assuming a seismic velocity of 2000 m/s for shallow
158 subsurface.
159
160 3.2 Seismic interpretation
161 Seismic profiles and well logs were interpreted based on 2D seismic facies analyses (Vail et
162 al., 1977) and a 3D seismic geomorphology approach (Posamentier et al., 2007). Seismic
163 facies analysis and interpretation were deduced from the configuration of reflection continuity
164 and amplitude, cross-sectional geometry, and strata terminations. Seismic attributes such as
165 similarity, semblance attributes and spectral decomposition attribute to enhance subtle
166 features such as flow direction, lithological variations, and structural features such as faults,
167 folding, slumps, channel levees, overbank deposits, terrace, and crevasse splays. The polar dip
168 attribute was loaded to show the gradient of the channel floor. Also, two wells on either side
169 of the channel complex levees were used to understand the nature of the channel fill (Fig.2).
170
171 3.3 Morphological measurements
172 The external morphology and internal architecture of the submarine Bonga channel complex 3
173 (BC3) were quantitatively analyzed (Fig.3). Morphological measurements of (BC3) was done
174 at 100-m intervals along the channel complex. These measurements were based on the
175 methods and descriptions of previous studies (Deptuck et al., 2007; Hansen et al., 2015; and
176 Qin et al., 2016, 2017). The following morphometric parameters were measured:
177
178 (1) channel thalweg depth, defined as the depth from the top of the seafloor to the deepest part
179 of the channel;
180 (2) channel width, defined as the horizontal distance between the crests/ peak of two outer
181 levees. The width was measured at three mapped horizons, namely seafloor (SF), channel top
182 (H1) and top of (H4) corresponding to the top of each phase (Fig.3);
183 (3) channel thalweg gradient, defined as dip values along the thalweg measured at every 60 m
184 interval along the channel. A dip attribute map for the intended horizon is produced and
185 gridded for this purpose;
186 (4) depth ratio, defined as the channel width to channel depth ratio for the same section; and
187 (5) sinuosity, defined as the along-channel distance divided by the straight-line distance
188 between the same two points along any particular reach of a channel.
189
190 3.4 Lithological interpretation
191 Time-to-depth conversion of seismic data enabled the identification of the depth of the various
192 horizons of interest, allowing an estimation of their ages. The correlation of gamma-ray,
193 sonic, resistivity, neutron and density cross plots from two wells (BW01 and BW04). In
194 addition, well logs was also used to deduce lithology. Well-tie to seismic data and referencing
195 to data of stratigraphic markers enable the delineation of lithofacies. Visual inspection of
196 wells in the study area was used to determine the degree of amalgamation of channel fill
197 elements and its implication on hydrocarbon exploitation in the area.
198 4 Results
199 4.1 Lithology of channel belt
200 The two wells (BW01, BW04) used for lithology description of channel belt sit on external
201 levees (Fig. 2). They are both located on either side of BC3 in its upslope section. External
202 levees are associated with large turbidity flows where current overspills the confining channel
203 belts (Normark et al., 1998; Hansen et al., 2015). The lithology of external levees may not
204 completely represent channel fill lithology, but they are close representations of channel fill
205 deposits. Both wells are deviated and dip west. Biostratigraphic markers loaded on wells
206 indicate that BC3 dated to the upper Miocene to the Pliocene (Fig. 6). Well logs of both wells
207 used in lithology interpretation and channel flux energy are shown in Fig. 6.
208
209 4.1.1 BW01
210 Sands encountered in this well have a remarkably consistent texture with fine to medium grain
211 size. They have been classified as quartz arenites. The most abundant detrital component is
212 quartz with moderate proportions of fresh feldspars (mainly) and minor lithic fragments
213 (Table 1). Clay clasts, rare mica, heavy mineral, carbonaceous debris, and rare bioclasts make
214 up the rest of the detrital assemblage as minor trace amounts. Authigenic quartz forms the
215 major diagenetic mineral with rare kaolinite, carbonates, and opaques as trace components
216 (Table 1).
217
218 4.1.2 BW04
219 Sand samples are chiefly unconsolidated with unpreserved depositional structures. Sands are
220 described as quartz arenites with intercalations of arkosic psammite/ wacke. The sands are
221 chiefly fine-grained at the top and medium-grained sands at the base, suggesting finning
222 upward fill common to waning current sequences. The sand samples are dominated by quartz
223 with moderate to abundant feldspar and locally significant detrital clay matrix. Minor lithic
224 fragments, rare mica, heavy minerals, organic fragments, and very rare bioclasts also occur
225 (Table 1).
226
227 4.2 Seismic units and facies

228 The interpretation of seismic facies was based on seismic-reflection characters and
229 comparisons with previously published and widely cited seismic-based studies of deep-water
230 channels from offshore Niger delta and other deep-water continental margins (Primez et al.,
231 2000; Abreu et al., 2003; Posamentier and Kolla, 2003; Adeogba et al., 2005; Deptuck et al.,
232 2003, 2007; Cross et al., 2009; McHargue et al., 2011; Hansen et al., 2015). The study area
233 was divided into three seismic facies labelled units 1, 2, and 3 respectively (Fig. 4a). This
234 division was based on a careful description of seismic reflection analysis. These units were
235 further tied to geologic ages from biostratigraphy data. The seismic facies of BC3 were also
236 interpreted following the same principles as above, and presented in Fig. 4b.

237
238 BC3 cuts into mass-transport deposits (MTD) at its base. The seafloor (SF) and five horizons
239 (H1, H2, H3, H4, and H5) were mapped within the seismic data (Fig. 5a, b). Four channel
240 complexes were recognized and named Bonga complex 1, 2, 3 and 4 (BC1, BC2, BC3, and
241 BC4). In addition, two channels Bonga channel 2I (BC2I) and Bonga channel 4I (BC4I) are
242 recognized as a part of BC2 and BC3 respectively. As stated earlier, only BC3 is visible at the
243 SF and it is the focus of this paper (Fig. 8a). BC1, BC2, and BC4 are buried but become
244 visible from horizon H2. One striking feature of BC2 is the blocking of its course by two mud
245 volcanoes (MV1 and MV2) (Fig. 8a, b). These two volcanoes have steepened the seafloor
246 topography in these parts forcing a migration of BC2I down dip (Fig.8a, b).
247
248 4.3 Channel morphology
249 4.3.1 General description of the channel system
250 The study area is located between two NW-SE parallel trending structural highs, interpreted as
251 ridges of shale diapirs topped by mud volcanoes. At the Sea floor, channel complex (BC 3) is
252 seen dissecting these two structures in a perpendicular direction. On this horizon, BC3 is a 28
253 km long, straight, and leveed (Fig. 2). It is wholly or partly filled, depending on its proximity
254 to the shale ridges. In sections abutting the ridge A (up-slope sections), a part of the channel is
255 filled. Along the channel profile, the filling of channel increases downslope with increasing
256 distance from the mud volcanoes. BC3 has a well-defined thalweg and numerous terraces on
257 both sides of the channel. In many sections along the channel, sediment fill is faulted and
258 folded in response to the underlying overpressured mobile shale belt, forming diapirs as well
259 as lateral ridge push.
260
261 4.3.2 Channel width
262 For all the mapped horizons, BC3 is widest at Sea floor and narrower at H1 and H4, although
263 its width varies along the channel (Fig. 9a). Channel width ranges between 4,000 m and 2,000
264 m at SF but decreases to 3,200 m- 1,500 m at H1 and 3,000 m-1,200 m at H4. For all mapped
265 horizons, the channel width is initially steady, increases slightly near the mud volcano (MV1)
266 up to the middle of BC3 at about 10,000 m where the width decreases. Further increase in
267 width continues after this point to the end of the channel.
268
269 4.3.3 Inner/ outer levee
270 The outer levee presents a similar thickness along BC3, with both the left and right outer
271 levees having similar values, ranging between 62 to 161 m (Fig. 9b). High thickness values
272 were recorded near the NE (up-dip of the slope) and lower values in the down-dip direction.
273 Due to the difficulty of constraining the extent of the outer levee of each channel complex (as
274 a result of their proximity to eachother), morphological measurements were restricted to their
275 thickness. Left and right inner levees have an uneven width distribution. Wide right levees are
276 alternated by narrower left inner levees and vice-versa (Fig. 9c). In some sections, levees were
277 merged and the extent of left/ right levees could not be constrained.
278
279 4.3.4 Channel-fill thickness
280 Fig. 10a shows a plot of channel fill thickness and the thickness of the overlying abandonment
281 fill. Channel fill thickness ranges between 129 m and 324 m. The thickness of the overlying
282 abandonment fill ranges between 61 m and 148 m. Channel-fill thickness increases as the
283 distance from ridge A increases, with partial/ complete filling in some sections. Channel-fill
284 thickness is the lowest in the SE. The majority of channel fill remains within the gently
285 concave upward section of the channel, on the flanks of ridge A and B. The abandonment fill
286 thickness is nearly even throughout the course of BC3, with a slight increase near the middle
287 of the complex and a sharp drop near the SE end.
288
289 4.3.5 Channel depth and depth ratio
290 BC3 presents an undulating profile at its thalweg with the depth range between 230 m and 410
291 m. It is deepest at the SE end of the channel and shallowest at sections underlain by the ridge.
292 BC3 thalweg is further deepened in parts where were cut by the faulting that gave rise to the
293 uneven profile of BC3 thalweg. At SF, H1, and H4, BC3 presents a nearly identical depth
294 ratio profile with slight variations (Fig. 10a, b). Values range between 5 and 13 for all the
295 horizons and the average value is 9 for SF and H1, and 8 for H4. Generally, depth ratio seems
296 to vary the most at sections away from ridges A and B.
297
298 4.3.6 Channel thalweg gradient
299 BC3 channel thalweg gradient ranges between 580 m and 40 m for H4, between 490 m and
300 130 m for H1, and between 400 m and 90 m at the SF (Fig. 11). Except for the slope gradient
301 at SF, values measured at H4 and H1 may have been subjected to differential compaction by
302 burial or local increase in elevations in response to diapirism and faulting. Fig. 11a shows
303 BC3 generally concaves downwards at H4, then changes to concave upward motif at H1 and
304 becomes straightened at SF. The general orientation of the slope profile is elevated in the NE
305 and lowered in the SW.
306
307 4.3.7 Sinuosity
308 BC2I is longest at H3 and shortest at H1, while BC3 is longest at H3 and shortest at H1.
309 Sinuosity values range between 1.05 m and 1.30 m for BC2I, and between 1. 06 m and 1.91 m
310 for BC3 (Table 2).
311
312 4.4 Structures associated with BC3
313 4.4.1 Two structural highs (shale ridges A, B) were mapped in the study area. They are
314 diapiric structures, bearing mud volcanoes at the top that are believed to have been active
315 during the evolution of the channel complexes (Fig. 2, 7, 15). Ridge A lies to the NE of the
316 study area while ridge B lies to the SE. Seafloor dip magnitude/ bathymetry reveals that the
317 two structural highs identified are cut through by BC3, and a gently dipping/ flat-lying mid
318 area separating these two ridges. Mud volcanoes MV1 and MV2 were identified sitting on
319 ridge A. MV1 has a higher elevation across all mapped horizons than MV2 (Fig. 7). These
320 two mud volcanoes contributed to gradient variations across the seafloor and within the
321 channel in addition to lateral push of sediments downslope (Fig. 14).
322
323 4.4.2 Faults, graben and folds
324 The study area is strewn with two fault sets: a hanging, closely-spaced fault showing lateral
325 ridge push and a set of NE- SW trending initially normal faults but gradually curvilinear at
326 depth (listric) (Fig. 14a, 14b). These faults dissect the study area, creating areas of varying
327 gradients and zones of weaknesses within the clastic sediments, thus allowing channels ease to
328 cut through. In sections closest to MV2, folded sediments are present in the shallowest layers
329 (1900 m) (Fig. 14b). These folded sediments occur in between sets of parallel faults,
330 interpreted as evidence of lateral ridge push downslope. In other sections further down the
331 direction of current, folding is not clearly defined or absent.
332
333 5 Discussion
334 5.1 Channel architecture and evolution
335 The architecture and evolution of the channel BC3 were investigated from high-resolution
336 seismic data. At H5, BC2I migrates from BC2 on the flanks of ridge A, merges with BC3 on
337 the right, then departs from BC3 further down the channel towards the SE (Fig. 8a). Similarly,
338 BC4I also departs from BC4 on the flanks of ridge A, merging with BC3 on the right and like
339 BC2I, it departs from BC3in the SW direction (Fig. 8a). We attribute this lateral shift in
340 channel position to changing gradient over time in response to expanding/ erupting mud
341 volcano, diapirism, and faulting. Four stages of channel evolution are considered for BC3
342 (Fig. 5b, Fig. 12):
343
344 Phase 1: wide, degradational, high sinuosity channel form. H5 is interpreted as the erosional
345 base of the channel complex, and H4 being the top of this phase. The channel at this phase has
346 an average thickness of about 60 m and a width ranging between 823 m and 3,100 m. H5
347 corresponds to the top of a marine flooding surface [MFS 3.9 (Upper Miocene)] based on
348 stratigraphy and core data information. Sinuosity is highest at this phase (1.91). Well logs
349 show funnel-shaped gamma-ray (GR), and together with sonic logs, the results suggested an
350 upward increase of flow energy that would have aided the initiation of BC3 (Fig. 6). Here,
351 BC3 erodes into a mass transport deposit (MTD) at its base, and this may be one of the
352 reasons for its high sinuosity (Table 2), given the irregular topography of MTD top surface.
353 The merging of BC2I and BC4I with BC3 is interpreted to occur at the top of this phase and
354 may have contributed to its increased width and channel-fill thickness (Fig. 8a, 15).
355
356 Phase 2: narrowed, aggradational, low sinuosity channel forms between H4 and H2. At H2,
357 BC3 is further straightened and narrowed. It has a low sinuosity of 1.08, a width range of
358 2065-1220 m and an average thickness of 66 m. GR log motif for this phase is bell-shaped,
359 suggesting waning current sequences. The transition from high current energy at phase 1 to a
360 reduced current energy at this phase would have favored the aggradation of BC3. The channel
361 axis at H2 shows a kink towards the middle of this generally straight channel (Fig. 13). BC3
362 cuts through a densely faulted slope. The channel itself sits on a horst block in most sections
363 also, for channel sections close to MV2, parallel, even spaced faults near the seafloor were
364 observed (Fig. 16c). These faults lead to a lateral ridge push of sediment layers downslope.
365 The kink observed is due to a combination of these faulting as well as failure in the sediment
366 layers beneath BC3 (Fig. 16).
367
368 Phase 3: there is further aggrading and spill of channel-fill onto the levees. This results in the
369 straightening of the channel, creating cut-offs marked at the top by H1. It is about 55.1 m
370 thick on average, and a width ranging between 3460 m and 1098 m. In this phase, BC3 has a
371 low sinuosity (1.06) and the channel is further straightened. The channel axis is curvilinear as
372 the kink is even more pronounced than the one observed in phase 2 (Fig. 13). BC3 is slightly
373 shifted eastwards towards the middle of the channel, merging BC3 with BC2I and BC4I to the
374 left and right, respectively (Fig. 4a). We ascribe that heightened faulting, resulting in BC3
375 sitting on a horst, may have occurred at this phase, in addition to further lateral ridge push as
376 MV2 expands (Fig. 16). Channel is widened (due to the merging channels) with overbank
377 deposits and levees formed. Log shape shows a blocky, cylindrical motif for GR, suggesting
378 relatively stable energy with sand-rich deposits towards the top of this phase. Channel
379 overspills have developed into terraces at this phase.
380
381 Phase 4: there is a widening of the channel and further straightening due to filling up of
382 channel by heterolithics. This phase is marked at the top by SF and the bottom by H1. BC3 is
383 widest in this phase ranging between 1849 m and 3973 m. Widening may be due to levee
384 collapse, in addition to the merging of BC3 with BC2I and BC4I. Faulting of outer levees and
385 inner-outer levee walls may have favoured slumping, thus widening BC3 at this phase. It has
386 an average thickness of 95 m. GR log shows a wriggly motif of rapid oscillations from sand to
387 shale, suggesting heterolithics deposition. We interpreted this phase to be the abandonment
388 facies, which is a waning phase cycle of fines (finning upward sequence of fine grained
389 sediments) that drapes the seafloor (Jobe et al, 2017; McHargue et al., 2011). Scattered along
390 the channel margin are intra-channel pockmarks (Fig. 13), which may indicate recent channel
391 abandonment (Jobe et al., 2017).
392
393 5.1.1 Scale comparisons with other submarine channels
394 Morphological measurements of channel complexes from Niger delta have been previously
395 studied including Deptuck et al. (2007), Hansen et al. (2017) and Zhao et al. (2017). The
396 Mahin and Avon channels were studied by Hansen et al. (2017). These two channels are
397 located in the Northern sections of the study area. The average channel width is 2740 m, 1978
398 m, and 3281 m for the Mahin, Avon and lower Avon, respectively. These values fall in a
399 similar range as that measured in BC3 (4,000- 1,200 m). Sinuosity values for the three
400 channels are 1.90, 1.16 and 1.76 respectively which bear close similitude to values obtained
401 for BC3 (1.91- 1.06). However, BC3 is much deeper than both Mahin and Avon. The channel
402 slope gradient for BC3 is also much higher than that of Mahin and Avon channels. We
403 attribute these differences to heightened gradient by the ridges A and B and BC3’s proximity
404 to the two mud volcanoes in the study area. Similarly, Gee et al. (2007) found that on the
405 steep limbs of anticlines associated with salt diapirs, channels have more deeply incised axes
406 and more sinuous. However, sinuosity in this context is relative as other studies from western
407 Niger delta (Deptuck et al., 2007) have reported higher sinuosity indices > 2.8 [far greater
408 than the value from BC3 (1.9)] with widths ranging between 1061 m and 243 m and depths
409 between 156 m and 13 m.
410
411 In comparison with the evolution of Y and YI as studied in Jobe et al., (2015), phases in BC3
412 differ in terms of width and height and probably dynamics of turbidity flow. Although
413 dynamics of flow is not the subject of this study, it is noteworthy to see that adjoining channel
414 complexes such as these may have differing architecture, morphology and evolution. In BC3,
415 phase 1 is the most sinuous while it is the least sinuous in Y, even though both channels
416 display evidence of large mass wasting features which we interpreted as MTD. Also, BC3
417 straightens as each new phase develops while Y has low sinuosity in phase one, increases in
418 sinuosity with meander cut-outs in phase 2 then straightens only during phase 3. The
419 differences in sinuosity and timing of straightening may be explained by differences in the
420 pulses of flow, and not necessarily changes in the nature of flux. The influence of the
421 orientation and topography of buried older channels as discussed in Jobe et al., (2015) may
422 also be a factor worthy of note here, however, both channels sit on the path of buried older
423 channels.
424
425 Finally, BC3 is widest at SF while Y narrows at this horizon. The thickness of the individual
426 phases also differs from BC3 to Y with the thickness of heterolithics in BC3 being far more
427 than that of Y. We ascribe this change to faulting of the levees, and the influence of the
428 proximity of BC3 to MV2 again affirms sediment contribution from MV2 to BC3. We
429 identified that the merging of BC2I and BC4I with BC3 has commenced at the top of Phase 1
430 and seized at Phase 2. This merging would have favored channel widening in these phases.
431 The nature of channel fills in BC3, Y, and YI were described from seismic amplitude
432 reflection as well as sediment cores. Channel-fills are mainly quartz arenites that grade into
433 arkosic psammite, then wackes (Table 1) that typify turbidites facies (Fig. 6). Similar
434 sediment facies have also been described from Y and YI (Jobe et al., 2015).
435
436 5.2 Structural controls on channel system
437 Internal reflections of BC3 levees reveal crenulations in sections closest to MV2. In other
438 parts of BC3 (further downslope) folding is either not clearly defined or absent, suggesting
439 that the crenulations and folding may be directly linked to the proximity of MV2 to that
440 section of the channel (Figs. 15, 16a). In sections where folding is present, inner levee folding
441 is often limited to one levee (left/ right) or both when inner levees are joined together
442 (sections where left and right inner levees are merged). We attribute the folding of levees near
443 MV2 to be resulted from a lateral push of sediments downslope, as mud volcano erupts and
444 expands, exerting pressure on the surrounding sediments. This fact is evidenced by parallel,
445 nearly evenly spaced faulting on both sides of MV1 and MV2 (Figs. 7, 15 and 16).
446 Consequently, we ascribe a coeval relationship to the evolution of MV2 and BC3.
447
448 Clark and Cartwright (2009) identified four types of responses of submarine channels to
449 tectonic structures: confinement, diversion, deflection, and blocking. In the study area, BC2 is
450 blocked by MV1, while BC2I and BC4I diverge from the path of their various channel
451 complexes (Fig. 8a). Within the study area, structural control is affected in 3 ways: (1)
452 channel migration resulting in a newly formed ‘BC3’ and a corresponding change in
453 morphology, (2) channel length/ profile ponding; and (3) contribution of fine materials to
454 channel.
455
456 5.2.1 Change in morphology
457 From the highest point on BC3 thalweg (NE) and the lowest point- the terminal end (SE),
458 there exists a difference of 650 m in elevation. This high gradient would be accompanied by
459 high-velocity flows and corresponding deep channel incisions as turbidity current travels
460 through the course of BC3. The first effect of gradient on channel architecture is the erosional
461 depth (Gee et al., 2007; McHargue et al., 2011). In Fig. 12, the thalweg floor is elevated in
462 areas closest to MV2, suggesting that localized channel gradient elevations were also
463 achieved, aiding downslope channel erosion.
464
465 BC3 width at all three horizons is initially narrow on ridge A for about 3000 m, increases
466 steadily downslope to the mid-section of BC3 (about 10,000 m along the BC3 profile) and
467 then drops slightly until about 10,800 m before increasing again along its length. This mid-
468 section marks the site of channel kink aforementioned (Fig. 13). This kink is tied to faulting at
469 the base of the channel, causing a deepening and narrowing of channel in this section (Fig. 9a,
470 10, 11a). We explain the increased width at SF to be closely tied to locally increased gradient
471 near MV2 and the site of increased widening. This locally heightened gradient may have led
472 to a more erosive flow, contributing to widening in these sections. At the site of the kink,
473 faulting has forced channel thalweg to deepen (Fig. 10, 11), thus slowing down the flow
474 velocity. The absence of a more erosive flow in this section of BC3 may have caused the
475 narrowed width observed in this section.
476
477 The merging of BC3 with BC2I and BC4I in sections along the channel also increased the
478 width. Internal reflection data shows medium to low amplitude (medium to fine sand and
479 mud) for both BC2I and BC4I flanking BC3 on either side (Fig. 15). This suggests that the
480 central channel axis of both channels has merged with BC3, and relics of their levees are seen
481 here. Generally, sections where BC2I or BC4I merges with BC3 are wider than other sections.
482 The sections where BC2I or BC4I do not merge with BC3 also correspond with the narrowed
483 section in BC3 as mentioned above. Thus, faulting not only may have contributed to slowing
484 downflow (causing a less erosive flow) in these parts, but also may have halted the channel
485 merging process in these parts. Furthermore, large width values were recorded in sections
486 where the channel wall is breached by faulting (Fig. 14b, 15 and 16).
487
488 Inner levee thickness also follows a similar trend as channel width shows, except on the ridge
489 B where the thickness value drops slightly. We attribute this drop to the partial ponding effect
490 of ridges A and B along channel length as discussed below. The outer levee is almost even
491 throughout the profile (Fig. 10). This may be due to the almost even thickness of the channel
492 fill and abandonment facies. The presence of external levees in channel systems has been
493 described to be associated with larger turbidity flows where currents fill the topography,
494 confining the channel belts and spills onto the surrounding seafloor (Hansen et al., 2015). This
495 suggests a close relationship between the origin of channel fills and external levees.
496
497 Inner levee width varies from one point to another with the right levee width being wider in
498 more sections (Fig. 10). This alternating width may have been inherited from the natural
499 channel dip gradient at the time of levee deposition (channel thalweg generally dips E except
500 on ridges A and B when it dips W). This opposing trend noted for inner levee width further
501 affirms structural control for BC3 architecture. Channel fill thickness is almost uniform,
502 throughout the course of BC3 except at the SW (terminal end) where it drops sharply. We
503 attribute this trend to waning flow as BC3 approaches its terminal end (outside the study area).
504 Another factor to note is that the slight increase in topography near ridge B may have banked
505 the flow of turbidity current, slowing it down such that more sediments will be deposited
506 before the ridge B (Fig. 2). In Fig. 9, at about 4,000 m, an elevated value for width is noted.
507 This increase is also reflected in the plots of the slope gradient and depth profile (Fig. 11, 12).
508 This may be the onset of the horst upon which BC3 sits as this section is closest to MV2 (Fig
509 16c). The channel thalweg profile also shows an increased elevation at about 4,000 m, which
510 is probably due to the buckling effect of sediments abutting MV2 in response to lateral ridge
511 push (Fig. 12a, 16a, b).
512

513 5.2.2 Channel length/ profile ponding

514 Within the study area, the shale ridges A and B partially restrict the channel length, ponding it
515 (Fig. 2). The increased slope elevation on ridges A, B, and nearly flattened elevation in
516 between them may have favoured this ponding effect. The effect of ponding on BC3 may
517 have resulted in many morphological changes, including increase in channel length, depth of
518 thalweg, the width of channel and levees, etc. Generally, ponding may have contributed to
519 slowing down turbidity flows in these parts however, the presence of complex tectonism in
520 the study area blurs the delineation of the extent of this effect as discussed above. Also, BC3
521 is confined in sections abutting ridge A. These sections are shallow and less widened than
522 parts with a typical dish-shaped motif (Fig. 14).
523
524 5.2.3 Contribution of fine sediment to channel
525 The absence of leveed channel complexes in sand-rich systems has been recognized from
526 areas close to the current study (Chapin et al., 2002; Adeogba et al., 2005). Generally, this has
527 been attributed to insufficient availability of fines to build levees (Reading and Richards,
528 1994; Richards and Bowman, 1998; Beaubouef and Friedmann 2000; Adeogba et al., 2005).
529 Leveed channel complexes are interpreted as elements formed during the latter stages of
530 basin-filling episodes. A petrological description of the channel sediments (Table 1) in BC3
531 reveals localized detrital clay matrix with lithic fragment inclusions composed of rare
532 metamorphic and felsite clasts. This petrography suggests that the mud volcanoes made at
533 least local contributions to the channel-fill. Co-rendered mapped horizons show that both
534 MV1 and MV2 bear clear radial mudflow fractures that terminate mostly within the channels
535 (Fig. 8b). We interpret these structures to be conduits linking the mud volcano to the channels.
536 We equate these structures to slope striations described in previous studies (Pratson et al.,
537 1994; Gee et al 2007). Inferences from the folded inner levees also affirm that the channel
538 evolution and mud volcanism were coeval.
539

540 5.2.4 Slope gradient and sinuosity

541 Channel pathways tend to follow areas of the least resistance to flow, e.g. areas of high
542 gradient. Generally, the steepest slope gradient should produce straight channels, often erosive
543 with little deposition (except at the terminal end) (Pirmez et al., 2000; McHargue et al., 2011).
544 At H4, BC3 is sinuous despite the high channel slope gradient at this time. A model showing a
545 relationship between sinuosity, surface resistance and slope gradient for over 40,000 flow
546 routing simulations was produced by Lazarus et al. (2013). They submitted that for any given
547 ratio of resistance variance relative to the slope, there is a mean sinuosity threshold. Their
548 model treats path sinuosity (Ω) as a function of resistance (R) variance relative to the slope
549 (S), where R/S values <1 correspond to low sinuosities, and at R/S values > 1, sinuosity
550 values begin to increase. In other words, changing the variance of flow resistance in the
551 landscape (e.g. local topographic roughness, vegetation) density relative to mean landscape
552 slope produces a range of sinuous patterns with natural analogs.
553
554 Below H4, the uneven surface of underlying MTD represents an increase in flow resistance
555 (R), where flow velocity may have been reduced, hence, the high sinuosity at this phase. At
556 H4, BC3 has the steepest slope gradient but it is also the most sinuous (Table 2, Fig. 11),
557 although this gradient may have been altered by compaction from overlying sediment
558 deposition. Here, we see BC3 having an initial gentle channel slope in the NE and a steeper
559 slope towards the SW (Fig. 11). Also, flow resistance may be heightened or lowered by
560 faulting, folding and undulating topography, depending on the effect of these structures on the
561 local slope gradient. This may explain how BC3 is initially sinuous and then straight at the
562 base. Available works in the literature have reported that convex-upward longitudinal profiles
563 are commonly observed near active uplifting structures such as fold and thrust faults. They are
564 interpreted to result from the deep incision of turbidity currents in response to local uplift
565 (Huyghe et al., 2004; Deptuck et al., 2007; Noda et al., 2008). This trend is also observed in
566 the study area (Fig. 11, 12). As channel fills up, at time H3 and H4 straighten and then
567 overflow its banks (Fig. 13).
568

569

570 Conclusions
571 • Submarine channels are described from 3D seismic and core data from the upper
572 slope, Niger delta. The flow velocity of a channel is one of the key element that
573 controls the channels’ capacity to erode and transport sediment through its path. This
574 flow velocity is heightened by a steepened gradient. In this study, we demonstrated
575 that this gradient is locally increased by shale ridges A and B as well as mud volcanoes
576 1 and 2 (MV1 and 2). Also, the role of faulting and folding on the flow velocity of the
577 turbidity current cannot be overlooked (Fig 14). In this study, the downslope section of
578 the channel sits on a horst, further heightening the channel slope gradient.
579

580 • The dominance of one tectonic activity over the other with respect to their influence on
581 BC3 morphology and architecture is quite difficult to delineate given the complex
582 structural terrain in the area. However, it is still visibly clear that locally important
583 tectonic events have successfully modified the channels in the area altering their
584 morphology and architecture. Morphological variations seen in BC3 vary from the
585 crests of ridges A and B to the gently dipping mid-portion between them. Slope
586 gradient and topography may have been altered in the study area at all horizons except
587 at SF where overlying compaction has had no marked effect. It is hoped that this study
588 will provide alternate explanations to submarine channel analogs studied in areas with
589 pronounced tectonism. Particularly with the ongoing debate on submarine channel
590 classification, the studied channels may present an exception to the rules and
591 generalized classification schemes may not apply.
592

593 • This work also provides new insights to the nature of channel fill by including
594 lithology description of the channel belt from core data. BC3 is a confined to semi-
595 confined, sand-rich turbidite system of Pliocene-Early Miocene age. Locally important
596 tectonic events have successfully modified the channels in the area, altering
597 morphology and architecture of the channel. The channel as observed from the SF is a
598 newly formed ‘BC3’ resulting from the merging of BC2I and BC4I to the pre-existing
599 BC3. Additional insights to channel evolution concepts is also provided. The model of
600 channel evolution agrees to the phases of evolution that have been described in
601 previous studies from the study area with minor differences. In contrast to the general
602 evolution of a straight eroding channel in phase 1, BC3 is a sinuous low gradient
603 eroding channel with a deeply incised system away from the upper slope. This new
604 knowledge demonstrates that the nature of the substrate that the channel cuts into as
605 well as locally important tectonism play a significant role in its evolution.
606

607 • With these current findings, we opine that channels and channel complex studies entail
608 many variations and our understanding of channel systems and their classification may
609 vary with morphological modifications influenced by tectonic deformation that may
610 not be regionally important. We conclude that mud diapirism may have been active
611 and influencing channel evolution not only by modifying seafloor gradients but by
612 contributing fine-grained sediments into BC3 in the form of slumps, slides, and
613 possibly sheet flows.
614

615
616 Acknowledgments
617 The authors acknowledge the Shell Development Petroleum Company (SPDC) for the release
618 of secondary data and permission to use and publish this data. We also appreciate the
619 comments from the anonymous reviewers of this work.
620
621 Funding sources
622 The first author appreciates the CAS-TWAS presidential fellowship, Federal University of
623 Technology Akure (FUTA) and the Institute of Deep-sea Science and Engineering, Chinese
624 Academy of Sciences (IDSSE) for the scholarship given to carry out this research. We are also
625 grateful for the financial support from the NNSFC grant number (No. U1701245;
626 191228208).
627
628 Conflict of interest
629 The authors declare no conflict of interest.
630

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838
1 Table1: summary of sandstone mineralogy of intercepted in BW01 and BW04
2
Well Detrital Percentage Accessory Diagenetic Percentage Comment on
name mineral composition minerals mineral composition (%) reservoir
assemblage (%) assemblage character
BW01 Quartz 54.1- 65.1 (0- 40 %) – Authigenic 2.0- 3.7 % Rock is
Feldspar 4.3- 9.2 mud clasts, quartz Rare surrounded,
Lithic 0- 0.7 carbonaceo Kaolinite Trace moderate
fragments Tr- 0.6 us debris, Pyrite Tr- 0.3% sorting,
Mica heavy Carbonate Tr- 0.3 % texture
minerals Opaques appears
(tourmalin massive, loose
e, garnet, with point
pyroxene, grain contact.
detrital Kaolinite
opaques) occur as pore
filling patches/
booklets.
Porosity
generally
reduces with
depth between
32- 24%.
Permeability
is excellent.
BW04 Quartz 33.7- 91.7 Zircon, Authigenic 0- 1.3 Rock is
Feldspar 5.0- 13.7 tourmaline, quartz chiefly quartz
-K- feldspar (4.3- 13.3) Sphene, Siderite tr- 11.7 arenite with
-plagioclase (tr- 0.7) Leached Kaolinite intercalations
Detrital clay staurolite, (pore filling) 0- 3.3 of clay rich
matrix 57.3 garnet and Grain sandstone at
Lithic Kyanite. replacive 0- 0.3 (2576.4 m),
fragments 0.3- 3.0 kaolinite described as a
Rare micas tr- 0.7 Non- ferroan psamite/
Organic dolomite 0- tr wacke.
fragments 0- 1.7 Authigenic Moderate
Heavy opaques 0- 0.3 sorting, with
minerals tr- 0.7 angular-
Detrital subrounded
opaque tr-0.7 grains.
Bioclasts 0- tr filling patches/
Pelletal booklets.
glauconite 0- tr Loose packing
favors high
porosity.
3
4
5 Table 2: Channel sinuosity in BC2I and BC3 on all mapped horizons
6
Horizon Length of Length of Sinuosity Length of Length of Sinuosity
sinuous BC2I straight BC2I (m) index BC3 (m) straight BC3 index
(m)
H1 25005.955 23716.914 1.05 25510.492 24681.229 1.06
H2 25744.736 23599.884 1.09 26104.192 24142.745 1.08
H3 31982.476 24583.049 1.30 25992.141 23760.749 1.09
H4 26809.903 25226.448 1.06 38339.825 22391.812 1.91
H5 26899.930 25311.643 1.06 42989.732 37735.580 1.14
7
8
Fig. 1: Insert map illustrating the geographical location of the study area. Above: Bathymetry map of Niger
delta superimposed with depth contour lines. Study area (red box) lies on the upper continental slope.

Below: Geological section across the upper slope shows gravity tectonics deformation. Red box indicates the
study area which lies on the edge of the compressional and translational zones and location of Fig. 2 (adopted
from Zhao et al., 2018).
Fig. 2: Seafloor dip magnitude map of the study area draped on contour bathymetry (adapted from Jobe et al.,
2015). BC3 cuts through the slope and shale ridges A and B from NE to SW. Mid-section between ridges A and
B is more gentle dipping than sections on ridges A and B. Red circles mark well locations used in this study.
Fig. 3: Schematic presentation of channel morphology and measured parts (modified after Qin et al., 2016). W is
channel width; H is Channel thalweg depth; R. il is width of right inner levee; L. il is width of left inner levee; H.
ol is height of outer levee and Cf. is channel fill thickness. Sinuosity index is given by C2/ C1 where C2 is
length along channel axis, C1 is length between reference points. A is the abandonment facies and B is the
channel fill.

Fig. 4a: Seismic stratigraphic units tied to geologic ages from biostratigraphic data.
Fig. 4b: Seismic facies associated with BC3.
Fig. 5: A: Un-interpreted and B: interpreted section of BC3. Note H4 eroding into a basal MTD.
Fig. 6: Lithological log of wells BW01 and BW04. Arrows pointing left, centre and right indicate upward
increasing energy, relatively constant and waning energy as reflected by Gamma ray (GR) log respectively.
Note that both wells are deviated and are located on the external levees of BC3 (see Fig 2). Inset shows
position of well logs and relative distance to BC3. GR (blue) and resistivity (red) logs for BW01 (left) and
BW02 (right) superimposed.
Fig. 7: Selected across slope sections of the study area showing faulting in the study area. Inset is a seafloor
image with spectral decomposition attribute. Cross sections show layering of siliciclastic units and mud
volcanoes underlain by shale diapir.
Fig. 8a: Cross- section of spatio- temporal channel evolution in response to changing gradient on ridge A’
influenced by diapirism and mud volcanism. Note BC2’ migrating towards BC3 and relative distances of mud
volcano 2 (MV2) to BC2’ in A-D. BC4’ is also diverging at the top and base towards BC3. BC3 in C and D is
a newly formed complex from the merging of BC2I, BC3 and BC4.I
Fig. 8b: Time slices at H5 and H2 horizons loaded with semblance attribute. Note slope striations in between
channel complexes and mud volcano.
Fig. 9: BC3 width at 3 horizons SF, H1 and H4 respectively (A), Inner and outer levee thickness (B) and left and
right inner levee width (C). The marked red boxes are locations of ridges A and B respectively. The unmarked
middle portion is the flank of the ridges having a lower elevation and densely faulted.
Fig. 10: Plot of BC3 depth to thalweg and thickness of abandonment (A). Note that BC3 thalweg is deep and
undulating. The sharp changes in elevation are related to localized faulting. Abandonment thickness is nearly
even with gradual increase in the SW. Depth ratio of BC3 at SF, H1 and H4 respectively (B). Depth ratio is even
and nearly the same for H1 and SF but different at H4.
Fig. 11: Channel thalweg gradient profile at H4, H1 and SF. Note slightly concave upwards trend as BC3
attempts to reach equilibrium at H1 and H4.
Fig. 12: (A) Alo5ng slope depth profile of BC3 SF and thalweg superposed on slope topography of channel
bank. (B) Channel gradient profile at SF. Note elevated thalweg near 4000m in response to localised faulting or
mud volcanism.
Fig. 13: BC3 evolution in plan and section view. The kink in the channel axis at phase 2 may have initiated the
bend in phase 3 and slight lateral shift in the lower half of BC3 at SF. Structural control on lateral channel
migration may also lead to faulting of levees in phase 3.
Fig. 14a: Cross- sectional geometries of BC3

Fig. 14b: Seismic cross- sections along BC3. Note faulting and slump in wider sections suggesting structural
control on channel morphology. Slump sites may have influenced terrace formation.
Fig 15: Time slice of the study area at 2000 m/s co-rendered with grey scale similarity attribute. A:
Uninterpreted B: Interpreted sections. Note growth faults closely tied with expanding mud volcano.
Fig 16: Seafloor horizon co-rendered on grey scale similarity attribute showing tectonic effect across sections of
BC3. A, A*: across slope and along slope seismic sections with parallel even spaced faulting produced as MV2
expands and eventually erupts. The area abutting MV2 is dissected by columnar faults and crenulated bedding
suggesting a lateral push downslope. B: seismic section of BC3. Note the buried, migrating BC2I and BC4I
respectively. Bold white arrow shows direction of lateral downslope sediment push causing channel migration.
Channel is shallow upslope (NE) but cut below by faulting downslope that may favours deepening. C: top to
bottom faults dissecting the study area. BC3 sits on a horst and graben structure in the downslope parts (SW).
Highlights:
1. Tectonic activity and channel evolution were coeval in the study area.
2. Marked variations in channel morphology and architecture were observed.
3. The seafloor shows migrating sbmarine channels merging with pre-existing channels.
4. A mud volcvano influenced the morphology of the channel complexes in the study
area.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.