Department of Pure and Industrial Chemistry

Umaru Musa Yar'adua University Katsina

Lecture Note: CHM 101: General Chemistry I (2 Units C: LH 30)

2023/20234 SESSION

Course Contents

Part One
Atoms, molecules, elements and compounds and chemical reactions.
Modern electronic theory of atoms. Electronic configuration, periodicity
and building up of the periodic table. Hybridization and shapes of simple
molecules. Valence Forces. Structure of solids. Chemical equations and
stoichiometry; Chemical bonding and intermolecular forces

Part Two

Kinetic theory of matter. Elementary thermochemistry. Rates of reaction,

equilibrium and thermodynamics. Acids, bases and salts. Properties of
gases. Redox reactions and introduction to electrochemistry. Radioactivity.

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Preambles:

Chemistry: Is the branch of science that deals with composition, reaction, interaction and
structure of matter while Inorganic Chemistry: Is the branch of chemistry the deal with the
study of elements and its compounds.

ATOMS, MOLECULES AND CHEMICAL REACTION

Atom: An atom can be defined as the smallest particle or part of an element that can never exist or

An atom is the smallest particle of an element which can take part in a chemical reaction that
retained the elemental property. In short it’s the building block for everything in the universe.

Discovery of atoms:

Atoms were speculated by Democritus and Luccipus ~ 2,500 years ago and later discovered
by John Dalton in 1808 using empirical evidence.

Atoms are usually represented by symbols. A symbol is one or two letters that are used to
represent an atom of the element.

A symbol can be the first letter, first two letters or first letter and another letter in the name of an
element or its latin name. For one letter it is usually in a capital form e.g carbon (C), oxygen (O),
hydrogen (H) etc. In the case Lithium (Li), Calcium (Ca), Chlorine (Cl), Magnesium (Mg) etc.

The same format is used in the case of latin names.

Potassium (Kalcium ) –K, Sodium (Natrium) – Na, Iron (Ferrium or Ferrous) – Fe etc. +

ATOMIC STRUCTURE

An atom consists of a central nucleus surrounded by a number of shells orbits situated at

different energy levels.

The nucleus is situated in the center of the atom and consists of two particles namely protons
(P) and neutrons (n) while the shells contain the electrons (e).

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The nucleus gives the mass of the atom, and its particles are also known as nucleons. The
nucleus account for the physical properties of the atom. The electrons found in the shells are
responsible for the chemical properties of the atoms because that can be lost or gained.

The nucleus was discovered by Rutherford in 1911.

TIMELINE and FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES of THE ATOM

Atom is principally made up of some particles namely proton, electron and neutron. These
particles are called fundamental particles or sub-atomic particles of an atom.

DISCOVERY OF FUNDAMENTAL or Sub-Atomic PARTICLES

Electrons:

Electrons were discovered by J.J Thompson in 1897 while investigating the conducting of
electricity by gases at low pressure.

Protons:

Protons were also discovered by J.J Thompson after electrons, but they were observed by
earnest Rutherford in 1911 when he bombarded various nuclei with atomic particles.

Neutrons:

Neutrons were discovered by James Chadwick in 1932 when he bombards a thin sheet of
beryllium with alpha particles using zinc sulphide screen.

SUMMARY TIMELINE OF ATOM:

However, the year of discovery for the particles might vary depending on the sources.
Properties or characteristics of the fundamental particles of an atom.

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The characteristics of the particles are summarized below.

Relative Relative Position in the Effect of magnetic

SN Particle Symbol
charge mass atom field
Deflected toward
1 Electron e -1 1/1840 Shells
positive plate
Deflected toward
2 Proton p +1 1 Nucleus
negative plate
3 Neutron N 0 1 Nucleus No tract

MODELS OF ATOMS

The discovery of sub-atomic or fundamental particles of the atom led to the speculation about
how these particles might be arranged to form neutral atoms. Therefore models of atoms
suggest how the sub-atomic particles are arranged in the atom if present.

There are three models by which atoms were represented. They include;

1. J.J Thomson’s plum pudding models (1897). The model suggests that atoms contain
electrons dotted about within a sphere of positive change as shown below. The models are
also known as plum pudding.

Thomson model of an atom.

Thus Thompson proposed an atom as a sphere of positively charged malter which negatively
charged electron embedded.

2. Rutherford model (1911).

The plum pudding idea was discovered by Ernest Rutherford, Hans Geoge and Ernst
Marsden’s alpha scattering experiment. Therefore, Rutherford described an atom to consist of
positively charged core called nucleus where most of the mass of the atom is concentrated
and the electron move around the nucleus.

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Rutherford compares his model to the solar system with electrons orbiting the nucleus like a
planet orbiting the sun.

Rutherford model of an atom

3. Bohr model (1913)

Neils Bohr suggested atom to contain a minute nucleus consisting of protons and neutron
which contributes to the most made atom (similar to Rutherford’s model). But electrons
revolve around the nucleus in a circular orbit of definite quantum energy.

Bohr model of an atom

MOLECULES and COMPOUNDS

A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance which can exist alone under ordinary
conditions. A molecule can be an elements containing some atoms e.g H2, O2, Cl2, N2, O3 etc.
Furthermore, a molecule is formed by chemical combination of two or more atoms of the
same or different elements.

Compounds: Means a material formed by chemical binding of two or more different

chemical elements or compounds containing different atoms e.g. H2O, CO2, HCl, CH4 etc.

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In short, Molecules are two or more atoms chemically join together while compounds are two
or more different elements join together chemically either heteronuclear or homonuclear.

In summary

ATOMICITY

Atomicity: Simply means the number of atoms in a molecule e.g

Oxygen, O2 – two atoms, atomicity = 2

Ozone, O3 – three atoms, atomicity = 3

Water, H2O – three atoms, atomicity = 3

Phosphorus, P4 – four atoms, atomicity = 4

CONCEPT OF ISOTOPY;

Isotopy is the phenomenon whereby atoms of an element exhibit different mass but have
same atomic number e.g 3616Cl : 36
16Cl

ISOTOPES

These are atoms of an element that have same atomic number but a different mass number.
Isotopes have same atomic number (number of protons) due to same number of protons while
they differ in mass number due to a different number of neutrons.

Isotopes have similar chemical properties due to the presence of the same number of
electrons but have different physical properties as a result of their different mass number (or
number of neutrons).

Representation of Isotopes

Isotopes are represented like atoms by the symbol of the element with a mass number as
superscript (top left) and atomic as a subscript (bottom left); A ZX where;

a = mass number

z = atomic number

x = symbol of the element

For chlorine, 3616Cl : 36

16Cl
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Isotopes were discovered by Soddy in 1919, and later Thomson found that isotopes also exist
in non-radioactive elements.

Characteristics of isotopes

- They contain the same number of protons and the same number of electrons
- They contain a different number of neutrons
- They exhibit different physical properties such as melting point, boiling point, density
etc. (due to different neutrons)
- They have similar chemical properties (due to the same number of electrons).

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS (Ar)

It is the average mass of various isotopes as they occur naturally in any quantity of the
element.

It can be obtained from the expression.

A+B = Ar
2
OXIDATION STATE OR OXIDATION NUMBER

It is defined as the charge possess by ions. Cat-ions have positive oxidation number
equivalent to its charge while anions have negative oxidation state also equivalent to the
charge they carry e.g Na0 + Cl0 → Na+Cl- (Na = Oxidized while Cl = Reduced).

Note: Oxidation is loss of electron; OIL and reduction is gain of election; RIG.

For S-block the oxidation state is always the same as the group number +1, for group 1 and
+2 for group two. However, variable oxidation numbers occur to a limited extent in the p-
block and always changes by the value of 2. For e.g. group III, +1 and +3, group IV +2 and
+4, group V, +3 and +5 etc

The oxidation can be worked out as follows for e.g. H2SO4

O usually has an oxidation number of -2 except in O2 and O22-

H usually has an oxidation number of +1 except in H2 and H-

Total oxidation number = overall charge

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Summary

Element by its self (uncombined) = 0 Monoatomic ion = ion exchange

Group 1A: Always +1 [H]: +1 with non-metal and -1 with metal
Group 2A: Always +2 [O]: usually -2 and with peroxide -1
Halogens: usually -1 and with peroxide +1 [F]: Always -1
Sum of O.N. for neutral compounds = 0 Sum of O.N. for polyatomic compounds = ion charge
Total oxidation number = overall charge

NaOH = x -2 +1 = 2-1 = 1

H2SO4 = 2+x–8=0

(+1x2) x (-2x4) x=8-2 = 6

For MnO4- = x – 8 = -1

x (-2 x 4) x = -1 + 8 = +7

ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE

The electronic structure is also known as electron configuration is defined as the arrangement
of electrons in the atom of an element.

TYPES OF ARRANGEMENTS

There are two types

1. The arrangement of electrons in the main energy level

2. The arrangement of electrons in sub-energy levels or orbitals

ARRANGEMENT USING ELECTRONS MAIN ENERGY LEVELS

This arrangement considered electrons as negatively charged particles being attracted by the
positively charged nucleus at the centre of the atom. The electrons are arranged in shells (or
orbits) that surround the nucleus at different energy levels increasing from inner shell to
outermost ones as shown below.

Each shell can accommodate 2n2 electrons where n = the energy level containing the
electrons.

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Thus each shell can accommodate the following

n=1 (first shell, K shell) - 2 x 12 = 2 electrons

n=2 (2nd shell, L shell) - 2 x 22 = 8 electrons

n=3 (3rd shell, M shell) - 2 x 32 = 18 electrons

n=4 (4th shell, N shell) - 2 x 42 = 32 electrons

But for the first 20 elements, the 3rd shell can only accommodate only 8 electrons. Examples.

11Na = 2, 8, 1

19K = 2, 8, 8, 1

20Ca = 2, 8, 8, 2

15P = 2, 8, 5

ARRANGEMENT USING SUB-SHELLS OR SUB-ENERGY LEVELS

Electrons configuration can also be defined as the distribution of electrons in sub-shells or

orbitals in atom of an element. Sub-shells or sub-energy level are known as orbitals.

An orbital is a place or region where the probability of finding an electron is very high or a
place where electron(s) can be found.

TYPES OF ORBITALS
The orbitals of an atom obtained from absorption spectra of an atom when it absorbs
energy include,
S-orbitals (2e-), p-orbitals (6e-), d-orbitals (10e-) and f-orbitals (14e-) known as sharp,
principal, diffuse and fundamental respectively. The four orbitals are known below.

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But the shape of f-orbitals is very complicated.

An orbital can be characterized in terms of quantum numbers.

QUANTUM NUMBER

These are integral numbers which describe the energy of an electron in orbit, the distance of
an electron from the nucleus, shape and number of orientations of an electron cloud (orbits)
and direction of the spinning of the electron(s) round its own axis.

The quantum numbers are four;

i. Principal quantum numbers(n)

ii. Azimuthal or subsidiary quantum number (l)
iii. Magnetic quantum number (Ml or M)
iv. Spin quantum number (Ms or S

The quantum describes the electron completed and are obtained from quantum mechanics
which considers an electron as a wave.

Energy levels of the first few orbitals

4p
3d
4s
3s
2p
2s
1s
The quantum numbers,

Principal Quantum Number (n): it gives the main energy levels of the orbitals. It has values
of integers from 1,2,3,4 ----r.

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Azimuthal, angular momentum or subsidiary quantum number (l): it gives sub-division of
states of a given principal quantum number. It also give the type of orbitals in an atom it has
a value from 0,1,2,3,-----up to n-1.

Values of ‘n’ 1 2 3 4

Values of ‘l’ 0 0,1 0,1,2 0,1,2,3

The values of ‘l’ are usually represented by letter s, p, d, and f for sharp, principal diffuse and
fundamental respectively.

Thus values of ‘l’ 0 1 2 3

Types of orbital s p d f

Each orbital can accommodate 2(2l+l) electrons. Therefore the orbitals can have the
following number electrons in the orbital which is govern the following principle.

Pauli exclusion principle: State that no two electron in the same atom can have identical
values for all four quantum numbers i.e [(a) no more than two electron can occupy the same
orbital (b) two electron in the same orbital must have opposite spins].

Orbital value of l no of electrons 2(2l+l)

S 0 2(2x0+1) = 2

p 1 2(2x1+1) = 6

d 2 2(2x2+1) = 10

f 3 2(2x3+1) = 14

Magnetic quantum number: it gives sub-divisions in a given orbitals. Its values depends on
values of ‘l’ and ranges from -1 -----0----+l

Each value represents a division as follows.

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n value of ‘l’ No of e- 2(2l+1) Orbital values of Ml Divisions

1 0 2 s 0

2 1 6 p -1, 0, +1 px, py, pz…..

3 2 10 d -2,-1,0,+1,+2 dx, dy, dz…..

4 3 14 f -3,-2, 0, +1, +2, +3 fx, fy, fz…..

Each division or box can take 2 electrons

Spin quantum number, Ms: it describes the motion or movement of electron in the orbital. It
has only two values +1/2 and -1/2.

Aufbau Principle. It states that orbitals in an atom are arranged in an increasing order of
energy with orbitals of lower energy being occupied by electrons first before those of higher
energy. The arrangement could be obtained as shown below.

n value of ‘n’ values of l nl

The orbitals are arranged from the tail to the head of the arrow as

1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s e.t.c.

Note: The electrons are indicated as super script.

1H 1S1 11Na 1s2, 2s22p6, 3s1

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2He 1s2 13Al 1s2, 2s22p6, 3s2 3p1

3Li 1s2, 2s1 20Ca 1s2, 2s22p6, 3s2 3p6, 4s2

4Be 1s2, 2s2 26Fe 1s2, 2s22p6, 3s2 3p6 3d6, 4s2

5B 1s2, 2s2 2P1 30Zn 1s2, 2s22p6, 3s2 3p63d10, 4s2

For the elements with atomic number 1- 20 4s is filled with electrons before the 3d but for
elements with atomic number greater than 20, the 3d comes after the 4s2 as shown below.

21Sc 1s2, 2s22p6, 3s2 3p64s23d1

After rearrangement it becomes

21Sc 1s2, 2s22p6, 3s2 3p63d104s24p1

Similarly for 31C29

31C29 1s2, 2s22p6, 3s2 3p63d104s24p1

Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity;

It states that degenerate orbitals (orbitals with same energy) are occupied by single electrons
before pairing begins.

Example
2p3
2p4
3d7
RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS (Ar)

It is the average mass of various isotopes as they occur naturally in any quantity of the
element. It can be obtained from the expression.

Relative Atomic Mass, Ar =

% abundance of isotope A x its isotopic mass +
100
% abundance of isotope B x its isotopic mass +
100
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 % abundance of isotope C x its isotopic mass + ------
100

Example

(1) A sample of ordinary neon is found to consists of 20Ne, 21Ne, and 22Ne isotopes in the
percentages; 20Ne = 90.22%, 21Ne = 0.26% and 22Ne = 8.82%. calculate the relative atomic
mass of Neon.

Note: The top left values on the Ne are the isotopic masses.
Relative Atomic Mass, Ar =
90.22 x 20 + 0.26 x 21 + 8.82 x 22
100 100 100
= 18.044 + 0.055 +1.940 = 20.04
(2) An element, X has two isotopes 2010X and 2210X in the ratio of 1:3

What is the Relative Atomic Mass, (Ar) of X

- The % (percentage abundance) should be calculated before applying the formula.

Therefore, Total ratio = 1+3 = 4
20
For 10X = ¼ x 100 = 25% - % abundance of isotope A
For 2210X = ¾ x 100 = 75% - % abundance of isotope B
Therefore Ar = 25/100 x 20 + 75/100 x 22 = 21.5
(3) Calculate the Relative Atomic Mass of chlorine given the following data.
35 37
For 17Cl = 75% and 17Cl = 25%

Therefore: Ar = 75/100 x 35 + 25/100 x 37 = 35.5

The Relative Atomic Mass of an element is 21.5. The two isotopes of the element are
20 y
10X occurring 25% in nature and 10X occurring as 75%. Calculate the value of y
(isotopic mass).

Therefore, Ar = 21.5 = 25/100 x 20 + 75/100 x y

21.5 = 5+ 75y/100

21.5 – 5 = 75y/100

16.5 = 75y/100

16.5 x 100/75 = y = 22//

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 EMPERICAL FORMULA

It is the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of elements present in a compound or the
simplest or most reduced ratio of the compounds.

e.g sodium chloride, NaCl (1: 1), HCl (1: 1), KCl (1: 1).

Carbon dioxide, CO2 (1:2); Na2SO4 (1:2);

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), but HO (1:1) etc

STEPS INVOLVED IN FINDING EMPIRICAL FORMULA

- Write the symbols of the elements

- Write the mass or % by mass of the elements
- Determine the mole of each atom of the elements
Mole = mass or % by mass/relative atomic mass (Ar) of the element = n = M/MM
- Determine the mole ratio
Mole ratio = mole / smallest mole
- Write the atoms of the element and their ratio as sub-scripts

Example:

(a) 2.39g of lead sulphide contains 2.07g of lead. Find the empirical formula (Ar Pb = 207.2,
S = 32).

Therefore, mass of lead (Pb) = 2.07

Mass of sulphur = mass of lead sulphide – mass of lead
= 2.39 – 2.07 = 0.32g
Or the empirical formula
Elements Pb S
2.07 0.32
Mass/Ar 2.07/207 = 0.01 0.32/32 = 0.01

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Mole ratio

Mole/smallest mole 0.01/0.01=1 0.01/0.01 = 1

Therefore Ratio of atoms = Pb:S = 1:1 (mole ratio)

Empirical formula = PbS

(b) 5g of calcium carbonate contains 2g of calcium and 0.6g of carbon. Calculate the
empirical formula of calcium carbonate (Ca = 40, C = 12, O = 16)

Elements Ca C O
Mass 2 0.6 5-(2+0.6)=2.4
Mole 2/40=0.05 0.6/12=0.05 2.4/16=0.15
Mole ratio 0.05/0.05=1 0.05/0.05=1 0.15/0.05=3
Ratio of atoms Ca:C:O = 1:1:3
Therefore Emperical formula = CaCO3
Molecular formula

If the ratio of the actual number of atoms of elements present in a compound

In some cases, for specific compounds, the molecular formula is the same as empirical
formula. For example.

Sodium chloride = NaCl

Carbon dioxide = CO2

But they differ in some cases

Hydrogen peroxide;

Empirical formula = HO

Molecular formula = H2O2

The molecular formula can be obtained if

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 i) The empirical formula of the compound is known
ii) The relative molecular mass or vapour density of the compound is known.
(but vapour density x 2 = molecular mass)

Thus when the two conditions (i) and (ii) are known, then molecular formula can be obtained
from the expression;

Molecular formula = (Empirical formula) n

Where n = molecular mass of the compound/formula mass of the empirical formula

N:B Formula mass of empirical formula is the sum of atomic masses of the atoms in the
empirical formula.

Example:

Determine the empirical formula of an oxide of nitrogen containing 70% of oxygen. If the
relative molecular mass of the oxide is 92, calculate its molecular formula (N=14, O=16)

Solution;

First, determine the % of the elements and then the empirical formula.

Then use the expression for determination of molecular formula.

The oxide contains nitrogen (N) and Oxygen (O)

Since % o = 70%

Then % N = 100 – 70 = 30%

Step 1. Empirical formula

Elements N O

% 30 70

Mole =%/Ar 30/14=2.1 70/16=4.38

Mole ratio = mole/smallest mole 2.1/2.1 = 1 4.38/2.1=2.1

Ratio of atoms N:O = 1:2

Empirical formula = NO2

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Step 2. Molecular formula

But molecular formula = (empirical formula)n

And n = molecular mass of the oxide/formula mass of empirical formula = 92/14 + 16x2

n= 92/46 = 2.

Thus molecular formula = (empirical formula) x 2

= (NO2)2

= N 2 O4

Q. 3g of a metal reacts with chlorine to produce 14.83g of the metal chloride.

i. Find the molecular formula of the chloride (M=27, Cl=35.5 and molecular mass of metal
chloride = 132.5)

ii. What would be the molecular formula if the molecular mass of the chloride is 266.

CHEMICAL REACTIONS

A chemical is a permanent change in which reactants are converted into products. Example
rusting of iron in which iron is converted into brown iron (III) oxide, Fe2O3 on exposing iron
to moist air. Chemical reactions are represented by chemical equations.

The common reactions include;

i. Combination or Synthesis reaction

ii. Displacement reaction
iii. Decomposition reaction
iv. Double decomposition reaction
v. Neutralization reaction
vi. Redox reaction etc.

The above reactions are now going to be illustrated with suitable equations.

1. Combination reaction; a reaction in which two substances combine to form one

substance.

Generic representation A+B AB

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 heat
e.g C + O2 CO2
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
Na + Cl2 NaCl
2. Displacement reaction: It involves displacement of a less reactive species by a more
reactive species. It depends mostly on the reactivity series.
(The arrangement of metals in decreasing order of reactivity).
The most reactive element (metal) at the top of the series will displace the less reactive
one (at the bottom).

Generic representation A + BC AC + B

e.g Mg + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2 + H2(g)

Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
3. Decomposition reaction: It involves the breaking down of a single compound or
specie into two or more simpler species.
Generic representation AB A+B
e.g Ca(OH)2(aq) CaO(s) + H2O
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
2Pb(NO3)2 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2
It normally take place on heating or at higher temperature.
4. Double decomposition reaction- It involves the exchange of metal ions or species and
in most cases led to the formation of a precipitate. It also involves two reactants which
produce two products.
Generic representation AY + BX BY + AX
BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) BaSO4 + 2NaCl(aq)
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
CuSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
5. Neutralization reaction – It involves the reaction between acid and base or alkali to
form salt and water.
Generic representation AB + CD AD + BC
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O
19
 MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4 + H2O
6. Redox reaction – It is a reaction that involve both oxidation and reduction processes.

Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

Fe + 3Cl2 2FeCl3

MnO4(aq) + 8H(aq) + 5Fe(aq) Mn(aq) + 5Fe(aq)3+ + 4H2O

State symbols: They are states in which a substance in a chemical equation.

S – solid, l-liquid, g-gas and aq-aqueous

EQUATION: An equation is used to represent a chemical reaction. It is expressed as

Reactant(s) Products

In writing an equation the formulae of the reactants are written on the left while products on
the right of an arrow pointing away from reactant to products.

The reaction is then balanced to conform with the law of conservation of matter. The matter
is neither created nor destroyed but changes from one form to another.

STOICHIOMETRY – Is simply the balancing of an equation to obtain an equal number of

atoms on both sides of the equation.

AgNO3(aq) + NaCl NaNO3 + AgCl

7atoms 7atoms
Mg + H2O MgO + H2
5atoms 5atoms
Ca(OH)2 + 2HCl CaCl2 + 2H2O
9atoms 9atoms
FORMULA: A formula is used to represent a compound. It can be obtained from valency or
oxidation number of ions. Valency is the combining capacity of an element or number of
charges for ions. Oxidation number is the charge possessed by ion or substance.

The formula of binary compounds and hydroxides can be obtained by exchanging the
valencies or number of charges for oxidation number.

Na O Na2O Sodium oxide

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Mg O MgO Magnesium oxide
Ca Cl CaCl2 Calcium chlorides
Al3 (OH) Al(OH)3 Alminium hydroxides
Similarly for ions: NH4+ & SO42- (NH4) SO4 (NH4)2SO4
Ammonium sulphate

PERIODIC TABLE

The periodic table is a table that shows the arrangement of elements in increasing order of
their atomic number (number of protons).

The earlier arrangement proposed by Mendeleev in 1869 was based on increasing order of
the atomic masses or weights of the elements thus taking the properties of the elements as a
function of their atomic masses. However, with the existence of isotopes where an atom of
the same element exists with different atomic masses, the arrangement of the elements then
changes to the present where the elements are arranged in increasing order of atomic number.
Thus the new periodic law states that properties of the elements are a periodic function of
their atomic numbers.

TYPES OF ARRANGEMENT

There are two types of arrangements in the periodic table namely;

i) horizontal arrangement
ii) vertical arrangement

HORIZONTAL ARRANGEMENT

The elements are arranged horizontally in a row called period in increasing order of atomic
number. There are seven (7) periods in the periodic table and the period is equal to the
number of shells in the electronic configuration using main energy levels.e.g

elements in the same period have different properties due to a different number of electrons
in their outer most shells and also structural change across the period from metallic to the
metalloid (giant molecular) to simple molecular (for non-metals).

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VERTICAL ARRANGEMENT

Elements are arranged vertically under one another in a column called group. The group is
equal to the number of electrons in the outer most shell.

Elements in the same group usually have similar properties as they have the same number of
valence electrons (electrons in the outer most shell).

Many books name the main group and the subgroups (the transition) elements as A and B
subgroups dated back to the older Mendeleev periodic table of a half-century ago. The
disadvantages of such naming include over emphasizing the slight similarities between A
and B subgroups and there are a large number of elements in group VIII found between the A
and B subgroups as shown below. Also in the earlier versions, the groups are numbered as a
group I to VII and 0 depending on the number of outermost electrons.

PERIODIC PROPERTIES

Periodic properties are the general properties of the elements. They include atomic and ionic
radii, ionization energy, electron affinity, electronegativity, density, melting point, boiling
point and oxidation state.

Atomic radii (size of atoms)

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Atoms are spherical in nature. Thus their radius cannot be measured directly. However, an
indirect method of determining it, is by considering the distance of closet approach between
two covalently bonded atoms or the distance between two nuclei of the bonded atoms (inter
nuclear distance). Therefore atomic radii are defined as half of the internuclear distance of
two covalently bonded similar atoms.

The periodic trend is that atomic radii decrease across the period from alkali metals to the
halogens. This is due to increase in nuclear charge electron attraction.

On descending down the group the atomic radii increases due to increase in the number of
shells which outweighs the nuclear effect charge.

For e.g period 2,

Element: Li Be B C N O F

Atomic radii(Å): 1.23 0.89 0.8 0.77 0.74 0.74 0.72

Period 1,

Element: Li Na K Rb Cs

Atomic radii(Å): 1.23 1.57 2.03 2.16 2.35

ATOMIC RADII (SIZE OF IONS)

Ions are charged species metals form positive ions when they lose one or more electrons(s).
While non-metals form negative ions when they gain one or more electron, positive ions are
also called cations, and negative ions are called anions. But in general, cations are smaller
than the atoms from which they are formed.

Trends in ionic radii

On descending the group radii increases due to increase in the number of shells e.g. alkali
metal ions (group 1).

Li+ (0.76A0), Na+ (1.02A0), K+(1.38A0) etc

The ionic radii decrease on moving from left to right across the period e.g
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Na+ (1.02A0), Mg2+(0.72A0), Al3+(0.535A0) etc

But for isoelectronic ions (ions that have the same number of electrons) ionic radii decreases
as the atomic number of the neutral atoms increases. For e.g

Na+, Al3+, Mg2+, N3-, O2-, F-

(10e) (10e) (10e) (10e) (10e)

Thus 7N3-, 8O2-, 9F-, 11Na+, 12Mg2+, 13Al3+, decreasing order

ELECTRON AFFINITY

It is the energy released when an extra electron is added to a neutral gaseous atom; it depends
on the size and effective nuclear charge. Electron affinity cannot be determined directly, but
are obtained from the Born Haber cycle.

PERIODIC TREND

It increases across the period due to a decrease in the size of the atoms and increases in
nuclear charge while down the group it decreases due to increase in size of the atoms as a
number of shells increase.

ELECTRONEGATIVITY

It is defined as the power of an atom to attract the bonding electrons towards itself in a
molecule. Its trends are similar to those of the electron affinity.

Across the period:

Na(0.9), Mg(1.2), Al(1.5), Si(1.8), P(2.1)

Down the group

Li(1.0), Na(0.9), K(0.8), Rb(0.8), Cs(0.7)

Density

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It is defined as mass per unit volume it generally increases across the period due to increase
in atomic mass and decrease in atomic radium. Also, it increases the down the group, but the
increase in volume only slow down the rate of increases.

MELTING POINT

It is the temperature at which solid melts. It depends on the size of the atom and metallic
bond.

Its periodic trend across the period is irregular, it increases from metals to metalloid and then
decreases for the non-metals.

However, down the group for metals, it decreases due to increase in the size of the atoms ad
decrease in strength of metallic bonding. But for the halogens (group VII) ad noble gases
(group VIII), the melting point increases due to increase in the strength of the Vander Waal’s
forces.

BOILING POINT

It is the temperature at which a liquid boils or change to vapour. Its values are usually higher
than those of the melting points as it involves complete breakage of attractive forces while
melting only involve partial breakage of the forces.

The periodic trends of boiling point across the period and down the group are similar to those
of melting point.

INTRODUCTION TO TRANSITION METALS

Transition metals are elements that have partially filled d-orbitals, or they are elements
whose atoms are having 1 – 9 electrons in their d – orbitals. The elements are found between
main groups two and three elements. The elements are also known as d-block elements as
they all have partially filled d-orbitals.

The d – block elements are classified into three namely

- First row or series transition elements

- Second row or series transition elements
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 - Third row or series transition elements

The d – block elements could be distinguished from the nature of their d-orbitals. The first
series has partially filled 3d – orbitals, the second series have partially filled 4d – orbitals
while the third series have partially filled 5d – orbitals.

FIRST SERIES TRANSITION ELEMENTS

These elements have incompletely filled 3d – sub-shells or orbitals and they include Sc, Ti,
V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni and Cu.

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION

Elements Symbol Electronic Structure

Scandium Sc [Ar] 3d1 4S2
Titanium Ti [Ar] 3d2 4S2
Vanadium V [Ar] 3d3 4S2
Chromium Cr [Ar] 3d4 4S2 or [Ar] 3d5 4S1
Manganese Mn [Ar] 3d5 4S2
Iron Fe [Ar] 3d6 4S2
Cobalt Co [Ar] 3d7 4S2
Nickel Ni [Ar] 3d8 4S2
Copper Cu [Ar] 3d9 4S2 or [Ar] 3d10 4S1
Note [Ar] = 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3p6
PERIOD OF THE TRANSITION ELEMENTS

The period can be obtained from the number of shells or the principal quantum number of the
outer most orbital.

Sc. [Ar] 3d1 4S2; period = 4

Or

2, 8, 9, 2, 4, shells, period = 4

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However, the group in which the element belongs to is based on the number of electrons in
the penultimate shell i.e. (n – 1)the shell or the d – orbitals.

For group IIIA – VIIA, A, group = (n+2)A where n = 1 – 5. e.g

INTRODUCTION TO HYBRIDIZATION
In Chemistry, hybridization is the combination of two or more atomic orbitals with different
energies to form a new atomic orbital with a lower energy.

The concept of hybridization explains the bonding properties of molecules and atoms. It is
important in determining the shapes of molecules and their reactivity. In organic chemistry,
hybridization is also used to describe the sharing of electrons between atoms in a covalent
bond.

WHAT IS HYBRIDIZATION?

Hybridization of atoms refers to the process of combining two atoms together to form a
new molecule. Hybridization can occur spontaneously or as part of a chemical reaction.

Hybridization involves taking two atoms from different elements and combining them to
create a new substance. This process can happen spontaneously or be catalyzed by another
agent, such as heat or light.

IMPORTANT FEATURES OF HYBRIDIZATION

• Hybridization is a process of mixing two or more atomic orbitals with each other to
form new hybrid orbitals.
• The number of hybrid orbitals formed is equal to the number of atomic orbitals
involved in the process.
• The energy of these new hybrid orbitals is lower than that of the original atomic
orbitals. This results in a decrease in overall energy for the atom, making it more
stable.
• The shapes of molecules can be predicted by looking at the types of orbitals
involved in their formation. For example, if two sp orbitals form a molecule, it will
be linear in shape (like CO2).

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TYPES OF HYBRIDIZATION

The term 'hybridization' refers to the process of combining two or more atomic orbitals into
new orbitals with different shapes and energies. The resulting orbitals are called 'hybrids'.
One type of hybridization that can occur is called 'diagonal hybridization'. This occurs
when two orbitals on the same atom are combined to form a single hybrid orbital.

The most common example of this is when two p-orbitals combine to form a single sp-hybrid
orbital.

The resulting hybrids have properties that are intermediate between those of the original
orbitals. For example, an sp-hybridized orbital has one lobe that is larger than the other,
and its energy is somewhere between that of an s-orbital and a p-orbital.
There are three types of hybridization between S and P orbitals: sp3, sp2 and sp. The
type of hybridization depends on the number of valence orbitals being combined.

• sp: This involves the combination of two orbitals – one S orbital and one p orbital. The
resulting molecular orbital has 50% s character and 50% p character. Diagonal hybridization
of atom is present in acetylene (C2H2).
• sp2: This type involves the combination of three orbitals - one S orbital and two p orbitals.
The resulting molecular orbital has 33% s character and 67% p character. Examples include
ethene (C2H4).

• sp3: This type of hybridization occurs when four orbitals are involved in bonding - one S
orbital and three p orbitals. The resulting molecular orbital has 25% s character and 75% p
character. Examples include methane (CH4).
• sp3d: This type of hybridization occurs when four orbitals are involved in bonding – one S
orbital, three p orbitals and one d orbitals. One example of sp3d is pcl5.

• sp3d2: This type of hybridization occurs when four orbitals are involved in bonding - one
S orbital, three p orbitals and two d orbitals. They are inclined at an angle of 90 degrees to
one another

Shapes of Hybridization

• Linear: The sp hybridization is caused by the interaction of two-electron groups; the

orbital angle is 180°.
• Trigonal planar: Three electron groups are involved, resulting in sp2
• Tetrahedral: Four electron groups are involved, resulting in sp3
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 • Trigonal bipyramidal: Five electron groups are involved, resulting in sp3d
• Octahedral: Six electron groups are involved, resulting in sp3d2

VALENCE FORCES

Valence forces refer to the attractive or repulsive forces that exist between atoms or
molecules due to their electric charges. These forces play a critical role in determining the
chemical and physical properties of chemical compounds, as well as the formation of
chemical bonds. For example, the strength of the intermolecular forces between molecules
determines the boiling and melting points of a substance. The nature of the chemical bond,
whether covalent or ionic, determines the solubility of a substance in water and other
solvents.

There are types of valence forces, which are: electrostatic force, and off course the covalent
force. The details of these forces will be explained subsequently.
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ELECTROSTATIC FORCES

Electrostatic forces refer to the forces that exist between charged particles. These forces can
both be attractive or repulsive and play a fundamental role in many chemical and physical
processes. The attraction between positively charged protons in the nucleus and negatively
charged electrons is an example of an electrostatic force that holds atoms together in a stable
form.

The electrostatic force between two charged particles can be calculated using Coulomb’s
law, which states that the force is directly proportional to the product of the charges
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

The expression for Coulomb’s law can be written as F = k *q1*q2/r2,

where F is the force between two charged particles,

q1 and q2 are the charges of the particles,

r is the distance between them, and k is Coulomb’s constant.

The strength of electrostatic forces depends on the magnitude of the charges and the distance
between them. The greater the magnitude of the charges, the stronger the electrostatic force.

Conversely, the further apart the charged particles are, the weaker the electrostatic force. In
the case of an ionic bond between a metal and a non-metal, the electrostatic attraction
between the oppositely charged ions is what holds the ions together in the crystal lattice
structure of the ionic compound.

COVALENT FORCES

Covalent forces are the attractive forces that exist between atoms due to the sharing of
electrons. Covalent bonds are formed when two or more non-metal atoms share electrons to
achieve a more stable electron configuration. The covalent bond is a result of the attractive
force between the positively charged nuclei of the atoms and the negatively charged electrons
that are shared between them.

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The strength of a covalent bond depends on the number of shared electrons and the distance
between the nuclei of the atoms. The greater the number of shared electrons, the stronger the
covalent bond will be. Additionally, the closer the nuclei of the atoms are to each other, the
stronger the attraction between them will be, resulting in a stronger covalent bond.

The expression for covalent forces is dependent on the nature of the bond.

In a nonpolar covalent bond, the shared electrons are evenly distributed between the two
atoms, resulting in a symmetrical distribution of charge.

In a polar covalent bond, the shared electrons are unevenly distributed, resulting in a partial
positive charge on one atom and a partial negative charge on the other.

An example of a covalent bond is the bond between two hydrogen atoms. Each hydrogen
atom contributes one electron to form a shared pair of electrons, resulting in a covalent bond
between the two atoms. Other examples of covalent bonds include the bonds between atoms
in molecules such as water, carbon dioxide, and methane.

TYPES OF BONDS

Bonding is the joining of two or more atoms together. Bond is the force holding atoms
together in a molecule.

Atoms combined chemically together via bond formation to form compounds. Normally
valence electron shells are used in a bond formation. Also atoms of elements form bonds by
losing or gaining or sharing of electrons to attain the nearest noble gas electronic
configuration.

There are three types of bonds

1. Ionic or electrovalent bond

2. Covalent bond
3. Coordinate bond

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IONIC OR ELECTROVALENT BONDING

This type of bonding involve transfer of electrons from metals (usually group I &II) to non –
metals (usually group VI & VIII). After the electron transfer the metal becomes positively
charged and the non-metal becomes negatively charged due to loss or gain of electrons
respectively. The oppositely charged ions are held together by strong electrostatic force of
attraction which is called ionic bond (or ionic bonding). e.g. NaCl, MgF2, CaO, Li2O e.t.c.

The ionic bond formation is illustrated below by cross and dot diagrams.

Note: the elements use their outermost electrons for bond formation

e.g. NaCl.

Before reaction after reaction

Or

MgF2

Or
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For ionic compounds to be formed the metal should have low ionization energy and the non-metal
should have high electron affinity.

PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

1. They have high melting and boiling point.

2. They conduct electricity in molten or aqueous solution.
3. They are soluble in polar solvents e.g. H2O.
4. They are insoluble in non-polar solvents e.g. Benzene
5. Their crystal lattice (structure) consist of ions.
6. They are solids with giant structure.

COVALENT BONDING

This type of bonding is formed by sharing of electrons between two or more non-metals or between
less electropositive metals with non-metals except ALF3. In the formation of the covalent bond each
atom contributes equal number of electrons (equivalent to its valency) to the bonds. After sharing of
electrons each atom attain the configuration of the nearest noble gas. E.g. He, Cl2, NH3, CO2, CH4,
BCl3 e.t.c.

Illustration of the covalent bonding

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A pair of shared electron gives single covalent bond, 2 pairs gives double bond.

PROPERTIES OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS

1. They are usually gases (O2, CO2, SO2, liquids (NH3, H2O) or volatile solids or giant
solids (I2) or giant solids (SiO2).
2. They have low melting and boiling point.
3. They do not conduct electricity in any form because they do not contain ions except
polar molecules in aqueous solution e.g. HCl.
4. They are soluble in non – polar solvents (e.g. ether, benzene)
5. They are insoluble in polar solvents
6. Their crystal lattice (structure) contain molecules.

COORDINATE BOND OR DATIVE BOND

This type of bonding is similar to covalent bonding once it is formed because both involve
sharing of electron. The difference between them is that in coordinate bonding one of the
atom (called donor) provide the electrons to be shared and the other atom (acceptor) provide
the space. The donor atom must have or possess one or more lone pair of electron (s) and the
acceptor must have empty orbital to accommodate the donated electrons. E.g. H 3O+, NH4+,
NH3BCl3, NH3BF3, Al2Cl6

H 3 O = H2 O + H +

H3N: + BF3 NH3BF3 Al2Cl6

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INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

These are weak attractive forces that hold atoms (for noble gases) or molecules (Cl2, H2O,
CHCl3 etc) together.

There are three types of such forces

I. Van der Waal’s forces

II. Hydrogen bonding
III. Dipole – dipole attractions

VAN DER WAALS FORCES

These are attractive forces neither covalent nor ionic holding atoms such as noble gases or
non-polar molecules together. It is also define as induce dipole – induced dipole attractions
that exist in non-polar molecules such as Cl2, Br2, alkanes such as CH4, C2H6, e.t.c. or
between atoms such as He, Ne, Ar, e.t.c.

The strength of van der Waals forces increases with the increase of the size of the molecules
or atoms. The increase in strength causes increase in boiling point of the noble gases and
halogens down the group. It also makes halogen to change their physical state (F, Cl 2 (gases),
Liquid (Br2) and Solids (I2).

HYDROGEN BONDING

It is a weak bond formed between hydrogen atom bonded to an electronegative atom and lone
pairs of another electronegative atom from another molecule. It occurs in polar molecules
containing polar groups such as –OH, -NH, - COOH and –X (Halogens)

The number of H – bonds formed by a molecules is equal to the number of lone pairs of
electrons e.g. NH3 (one H-bond) H2O (2 H-bonds) and X (3 H-bonds)

Hydrogen bond is represented by dotted lines and it is responsible for.

i. The high boiling point of water and HF

ii. Holding DNA strands together
iii. Solubility of polar covalent molecules in water e.g. NH3, C2H5OH.

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DIPOLE – DIPOLE ATTRACTION

These are attractive forces that occur in polar molecules. It also known as permanent dipole –
permanent dipole attraction e.g. CHCl3, CH3COCH3, C6H5NO2 e.t.c. it is represented as

It occurs in weak polar molecules such as alkenes, alkynes, CHX (halogens. It affects boiling
points.

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