1.

The Engineer’s Transit

Main parts of the transit

1.) Upper Plate- The upper plate, which is also called the alidade, consists of the
entire stop of the transit. As a unit, the entire assembly rotates about a
vertical axis. The alidade contains the standards which support the telescope
and the level tube, the vertical circle and its vernier, the compass box, the
circular cover plate and plate leveling vials, the upper clamp, tangent screw,
and the needle lifter.

 Telescope-The transit telescope is an optical type and is similar to that of a

dumpy level. It is used for fixing the direction of the line of sight, viewing the
objects, and magnifying their apparent size in the field of view. The telescope
contains the objective lens, cross hair ring, eyepiece, and focusing screw. A
sensitive level vial is attached to the telescope tube to indicate whether or not
the line of sight is horizontal.
 Standards- Two vertical standards, either the A or U type which are mounted
on trunnions, are integral parts of the upper plate. The standards are used to
hold into positions the horizontal axle level so that the telescope can be
elevated er depressed by rotating on an axis perpendicular to the line of sight.
 Compass box- The transit is usually provided with a compass for establishing
the magnetic meridian and to allow rough checks on measured angles. It is
found on the upper plate between the standards. Most compass circles found in
transits are fixed with the north (N) and south (S) points located in the same
vertical plane as the line of sight of the telescope. In some transits, the
compass box is so designed that the compass circle may be rotated with
respect to the upper plate.
 Plate level vials- attached to the upper plate are two level vials which are
position at right angles to each other. The plate levels are used to establish the
upper and the lower plates in a horizontal plane.
 Vertical circle- it is attached to the telescopes and rotates with it. It is used in
measuring vertical angles. Graduation on the vertical circle are normally divided
into ½-degree space with readings to the nearest minute obtained from a
vernier having 30 divisions.
 Plate Verniers- Two opposite verniers, called A and B verniers, are provided for
the horizontal circle. The A vernier is located adjacent to the eyepiece where it
is easily used by the instrumentman. The B vernier is positioned 180 degrees
from the A vernier. The vernier segments are each about 5 cm long and fit
close to the graduated circle as they rotate around it.
 Optical Plummet- The optical plummet is a small telescope through the vertical
center of the transit. It is available in some transits particularly European made
 instruments. This device enables the instrument to be centered over a given
point quickly and precisely by means of an optical system. By means of a prism
the line of sight to centering point is directed vertically downward so that
viewing is actually horizontal, facilitating ease of observation. Aside from being
more accurate, optical centering is usually faster than centering with a plumb
bob, especially when there is a strong side wind.
 Telescope clamp- To hold the telescope horizontal or at any desired inclination,
the vertical circle or telescope clamp is tightened. When this clamp is loose the
telescope can be rotated clockwise or counterclockwise in vertical plane. This
clamp is located near the horizontal axle of the transit.
 Telescope Tangent Screw- This is also called the vertical circle slow-motion
screw. It allows the telescope to be rotated slightly or in small movements
about the horizontal axis after the telescope clamp is tightened. This screw is
particularly useful when setting the cross hairs precisely on a distant point
sighted.
 Upper Clamp- The upper clamp is a locking device which is attached to the
upper plate and rotates with it. When tightened it exerts pressure on the collar
around the outer spindle causing the upper and lower plates to lock together.
Upper clamps are usually with hexagonal heads and turn inward toward the
center of the part they stop.
 Upper Tangent Screw- When rotated, this screw allows a small range of
movement between the upper and lower plates even after the upper clamp is
tightened. The screw is located at the upper plate. Most tangent screw have
round heads and usually turn in a direction tangent to the motion they control.

2.) Lower plate- The lower plate or horizontal circle 1s the scale with which
horizontal angles are measured. It is graduated on its upper face and divided
around its circumference into 360 degrees. Graduations are further
subdivided into smaller parts, usually half-degrees, one-third degrees, or
quarter degrees. This plate can be held stationary, while the upper plate is
rotated or can be rotated independently. As one unit, it can also be rotated
with the upper plate. The underside of the lower plate is attached to a vertical
and tapering spindle called the outer spindle.

a.) Lower clamp-Although the lower motion clamp is attached to

horizontal circle, it does not rotate with it. This clamp is used to control
the rotation of the horizontal circle. It tightens a collar around the outer
spindle and stops any motion between the leveling head and the
lower plate.
b.) Lower Tangent Screw- This screw is used to make precise settings
after the lower clamp is tightened. It moves the lower plate to a
desired exact position using small range of movement.
3.) Leveling Head Assembly- The leveling head assembly consists of a bottom
horizontal foot plate, four leveling screws, and the plumb bob chain. It is a
lower part of the transit. The assembly allows the instrument to be leveled
and centered over a point. Also included is a device that permits the transit to
be moved in small increments laterally without moving the tripod.

a.) Leveling Screws- There are four leveling screws that are threaded into
the leveling head which bear against the foot plate. Each screw is set
into a cup to protect the foot plate from continued scoring whenever
the screws are turned. These screws are used for leveling the
instrument by the plate levels. They are operated in pairs and always
turned in opposite directions. When the screws are turned, the
instrument is tilted about a half ball-and-socket joint. If it is desired to
shift the transit laterally with respect to the foot plate, all the four
screws are loosened to release the pressure between the sliding plate
and the foot plate.
b.) Plum Bob Chain- In most conventional transits, a chain with a hook is
suspended from the bottom part of the leveling head assembly and
hangs between the tripod legs. It is used for attaching a string and a
plumb bob so that the instrument may be set exactly over a selected
point on the ground. The plumb bob string always hangs vertical due
to gravity and its centerline passes through the center of the transit
when the instrument is level.

 Leveling the transit

After the transit is set up over a point, the next step is to level it carefully
by means of the leveling screws. The upper plate is turned until the plate level
vials are approximately parallel to a line through two opposite leveling screws.
Leveling is started by turning two opposite leveling screws uniformly. One screw
is loosened as much as the other is tightened. Shift to the other set of leveling
screws when the bubble is nearly in the center of its tube. Continue manipulating
the screws alternately until both level vial bubbles are centered. It is important to
remember that the bubble will always move in the direction of the left thumb as
the screws are grasped and turned. All foot screws must bear evenly on the foot
plate and should never be allowed to bind. Leveling screws will turn easily if there
is even pressure on the plates. A cheek must always be made by turning the
instrument through 180 degrees in azimuth. Once the leveling process is
completed, the plate bubbles will remain centered at any direction the telescope
is pointed. It either or both bubbles move, an adjustment of the plate level vials
should be made.
 Most precise transits have three leveling screws and only one plate level
vial. In leveling such instruments, centering of the plate level bubbles is first done
over any two screws and then at right angle to them by manipulating the third
screw alone. This procedure is repeated until the plate is level in all directions.

 Care of the Transit

1. When the transit is not in use, it should stored in its carrying case. If it
is to be transported in vehicle or over long walking distances, the
instrument should be removed from its tripod end carried in its box.
2. If the instrument becomes wet or damp, dry it off with absorbent cloth
or preferably in sunlight.
3. Protect the instrument at all times from any shock or sudden jolt. Never
allow the instrument to fall or be dropped because very serious
damage will surely result.
4. Hold the transit in the arms with the tripod sticking out to the side or
behind and not on the shoulder when carrying it inside a building or
when there is danger of striking the instrument against a tree and other
obstructions.
5. The transit should be lifted from the carrying case by grasping the
standards and not by the telescope.
6. When the transit is set up, the tripod legs should be spread well apart
so that it is stable. To minimize the danger of damage.from
overturning, the tripod shoes should be sunk firmly in the ground. It
should never be left unattended because it may be upset by passing
vehicles, stray animals, playing children, wind, or it may be stolen.
7. Since tripod legs easily slip on smooth and hard surfaces, avoid setting
up the transit on concrete slabs, boulders, and steel plates. In soft
ground, the pointed shoes of the tripod should be pressed deeply
enough so that the tripod will not settle while standing.
8. Graduated circles and verniers should not be touched with the fingers
since this will only tarnish their surfaces. If such surfaces are tarnished,
they are cleaned by applying a thin film of oil which should be left for a
few hours and then wiped off with a soft clean rag.
9. Clamps should be tighten only until they are snug and never tighten
down hard. Over-tightening may lead to appreciable damage of the
instrument. A definite and firm, but not too severe, tightening is all that
is necessary.
10. A waterproof cover for the transit should always be brought along in
case of rains, showers, and thunderstorm.
  Circle Graduation of the transit

The horizontal and vertical circles and are the parts of the engineer’s transit
by which the values of horizontal and vertical angles are determined. A stadia arc
is also included with the vertical circle on some transits.

 The horizontal circle is mounted on the lower plate. It is graduated to 15 min for
the 20-sec transit and 30 min for the 1-min transit. The plates are numbered
from 0° to 360°, starting with a common point and running both ways around
the circle.
 The vertical circle of the transit is fixed to the horizontal axis so it will rotate with
the telescope. The vertical circle normally is graduated to 30´ with 10°
numbering. Each quadrant is numbered from 0° to 90°; the 00 graduations
define a horizontal plane, and the 90° graduations lie in the vertical plane of the
instrument.

 Transit Vernier

Verniers allow the use of an engineer's transit for measuring horizontal

and vertical angles with a high degree at accuracy. There are actually three
verniers in an engineer s transit. Two are used on the horizontal circle and one at
the vertical circle. The three types of verniers used in transits are:

1.) Single Vernier- This type of vernier is usually employed in transits which
are used for the measurement of angles where a high degree of
precision is required such as in triangulation work. A single vernier is
read in only one direction and must be set with the graduations ahead
of the zero mark in the direction to be turned.
2.) Double Vernier- A double vernier consists of two-parts a vernier on the
left and another identical vernier on the right. Each one is graduated
and runs in an opposite direction from the common index point. The
Vernier on the left is used when reading clockwise circle graduations
and the vernier on the right for reading counterclockwise circle
graduations. Most transit use double vernier.
3.) Folder Vernier- The folded vernier avoids the use of a long vernier
plate. It has a length similar to a single vernier, however, half of the
graduations are placed on each side of the index mark. This type of
vernier is used when there is not enough space available for a double
vernier.
 2. The Theodolite

 Types of theodolite

 Repeating Theodolite- A repeating theodolite is so designed that it can

measure a horizontal angle as many times as required by adding them
successively on the graduated circle. An engineer's transit is actually a
repeating instrument since it is capable of accumulating angles on its horizontal
circle by means of its upper and lower motions.. The horizontal scales on a
repeating theodolite may allow horizontal angles to be read directly to 10 sec or
20 sec.
 Directional Theodolite- In a directional theodolite the horizontal circle remains
fixed during a series of observation. The telescope is sighted on each of the
points and direction rather than angles to these points are read on the circle. A
required horizontal angle is determined by calculating the difference between
two observed directions.
 Digital theodolite- can be combined with an EDM instrument and a
microcomputer to assemble into what is called total station instrument or an
electronic tacheometer. Total stations are extremely versatile and useful for
almost all types of survey. Such a unit can be employed for measuring
distances and can also automatically read and record horizontal and vertical
angles as well as display them externally in digital form. In a total station the
horizontal and vertical relations of the telescope are converted from mechanical
angular displacements to direct digital readouts. It eliminates the need to read
circles through a microscope Either light-emitting diodes (LED's) or liquid-
crystal diodes (LCDs) are used for readout displays.

3. Modern Surveying Equipments

 Real Time Kinematics (KTS)

is a technique used to enhance the precision of position data derived from
satellite-based positioning systems (global navigation satellite systems, GNSS) such as
GPS , GLONASS, Galileo, and BeiDou . It uses measurements of the phase of the
signal's carrier wave , rather than the information content of the signal, and relies on a
single reference station or interpolated virtual station to provide real-time corrections,
providing up to centimeter -level accuracy . With reference to GPS in particular, the
system is commonly referred to as Carrier-Phase Enhancement , or CPGPS. It has
applications in land survey , hydrographic survey , and in consumer unmanned aerial
vehicle navigation.
  Global Positioning System
Originally Navstar GPS , is a space-based radio navigation system owned by the
United States government and operated by the United States Air Force. It is a global
navigation satellite system that provides geolocation and time information to a GPS
receiver anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to
four or more GPS satellites.
The GPS system does not require the user to transmit any data, and it operates
independently of any telephonic or internet reception, though these technologies can
enhance the usefulness of the GPS positioning information. The GPS system provides
critical positioning capabilities to military, civil, and commercial users around the world.
The United States government created the system, maintains it, and makes it freely
accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver.

 Laser Scanner
In modern engineering, the term laser scanning is used with two related, but
separate meanings. The first, more general, meaning is the controlled deflection of laser
beams, visible or invisible. Scanned laser beams are used in some 3-D printers , in
rapid prototyping, in machines for material processing, in laser engraving machines, in
ophthalmological laser systems for the treatment of presbyopia , in confocal microscopy
, in laser printers , in laser shows , in Laser TV, in ceramic laser treatments , and in
barcode scanners . The second, more specific, meaning is the controlled steering of
laser beams followed by a distance measurement at every pointing direction. This
method, often called 3D object scanning , 3D laser scanning or lidar , is used to rapidly
capture shapes of objects, buildings and landscapes. A laser rangefinder is a device
which uses a laser beam to determine the distance to an object.
 Survey Drone
using a drone can vastly reduce the time spent collecting accurate data. By
acquiring raster data from the sky – in the form of geo-referenced digital aerial images,
with resolutions as sharp as 1.5 cm (0.6 in) per pixel – you can gather millions of data
points in one short flight.
More time still can be saved by using a survey-grade drone such as the eBee
RTK. Such GNSS/RTK receiver systems are effectively flying rovers, capable of
receiving data corrections streamed from a base station or via VRS to achieve absolute
X, Y, Z accuracy of down to 3 cm (1.2 in) – without needing Ground Control Points
 Electronic Distance Measurement
 Direct measurement of distances and their directions can be obtained by using
electronic instruments that rely on propagation, reflection and reception of either light
waves or radio waves. They may be broadly classified into three types:

 Infrared Wave Instrument- These instruments measure distances by using

amplitude modulated infrared waves. At the end of the line, prisms mounted on
target are used to reflect the waves. These instruments are light and
economical and can be mounted on theodolites for angular measurements. The
range of such an instrument will be 3 km and the accuracy achieved is ± 10
mm.
 Light Wave Instruments- These are the instruments which measures distances
based on propagation of modulated light waves. The accuracy of such an
instrument varies from 0.5 to 5 mm / km distance and has a range of nearly 3
km.
 Micro Wave Instruments- These instruments make use of high frequency radio
waves. These instruments were invented as early as 1950 in South Africa by
Dr. T.L. Wadley. The range of these instruments is up to 100 km and can be
used both during day and might.

 Total Station

Total Station is a lightweight, compact and fully integrated electronic instrument

combining the capability of an EDM and an angular measuring instrument such as wild
theodolite.

 Geodimeter

Geodimeter is an instrument which works based on the propagation of modulated

light waves, was developed by E. Bergestand of the Swedish Geological Survey in
collaboration with the manufacturer M/s AGA of Swedish. The instrument is more
suitable for night time observations and requires a prism system at the end of the line
for reflecting the waves.

 Tellurometer
It is an EDM which uses high frequency radio waves (micro-waves) for
measuring distances. It is a highly portable instrument and can be worked with 12 to 24-
volt battery.