Lecture 03

Introduction to Electronics
Part 1: Circuit Analysis

L3: Element Characterization
Dr. Rik Dey

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, IIT KANPUR
2023-24 SEM-II ESC201A INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS CIRCUITS
1
Engineering Analysis
Real-life System
Series or
Abstract Model Parallel?
Mathematical
problem
Dr. Rik Dey ESC201, 2023-24 Sem-II 2

Maxwell’s Equations to Kirchhoff’s Laws
Maxwells’ Equations
(Vector Differential Equations)
Constraint (When) Derivation (How)
Lumped Circuit Abstraction

Kirchhoff’s Laws (KCL, KVL)
Methods of Circuit Analysis

(Graph, Matrices)

Lumped Circuit Abstraction and Kirchhoff’s Laws
• 1st Constraint: No total time varying charge within the element. 
➢ Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL): Conservation of Charge 𝒌=𝑵
෍ 𝒊𝒌 = 𝟎
❑ The algebraic sum of currents flowing into any node must be zero. 𝒌=𝟏
• 2nd Constraint: No time-varying magnetic flux outside the element. 
➢ Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL): Conservation of Energy 𝒌=𝑵
෍ 𝒗𝒌 = 𝟎
❑ The algebraic sum of voltages around any closed path must be zero. 𝒌=𝟏
• 3rd Constraint: The size should be smaller than wavelength L << λ.

Electrical Circuit
Questions
➢ Compute current given voltage
➢ Compute light intensity generated from bulb
❑ How to solve these questions? Apply KCL and KVL
➢ Need to understand each element’s behavior: Characterization
What will you learn today?
• General Circuit Analysis – Recap
• Tellegen’s Theorem and Energy Conservation
• I-V Characteristic of Electrical Elements
• Voltage Source and Current Source
• Passive and Active Elements
• Series and Parallel Combination of Electrical Elements


Circuit Analysis
• The Generalized Approach to Analysis
• Step 1: Write down the I-V relationships
• Step 2: Write down KCL at all nodes (independent)
• Step 3: Write down KVL at all loops (independent)
• We will analyze circuits which has a planar unhinged graph

• Euler Formula: V – E + F = 1 (considering only inner faces F)
• V = # of Vertices or Nodes (where two or more elements are connected)

• E = # of Edges or Branches (formed by electrical elements)
• F = # of Faces formed by Essential Meshes (Loop containing no other loop)

What does Lumped Circuit Abstraction buy us?
• Connection of several circuit elements in closed paths by conductors: Graph
• Identifying Nodes and Meshes
• Nodes: where two or more elements are connected
• a, b, c, d are Nodes or Vertices, V = 4

L2
• Elements are Branches
L1 • V, R1 to R5 are Branches or Edges, E = 6
L3
• Essential Meshes: A Loop containing no other loop
• L1 to L3 are Essential Meshes, F =3
• Euler Formula: V – E + F = 1 V = 4, E = 6, F = 3.
How to solve circuits? => Application of KCL & KVL
• Associated variables convention
L2
L1
L3
• Q: How do we compute voltage/current/power consumed across various elements?

➢ Replaced differential equations with simple algebra using lumped circuit abstraction.
V-I Equations
E = 6 equations, equals to # of elements

KCL Equations
▪ Any 3 are independent

▪ Unhinged Planar Graph
V – 1 = 3 equations, # of independent KCL
KVL Equations
▪ Essential Mesh: Independent eqn.

▪ Unhinged Planar Graph
F = 3 equations, # of independent KVL
How to solve circuits? => Application OF KCL & KVL
• Associated variables convention
12 equations
12 unknowns
E = (V – 1) + F
E = 6 equations from I-V relation
(V – 1) + F = 6 equations from
KCL and KVL
• Finding Independent Equations (a much easier task for unhinged planar graph)
➢ Solve
Can we solve using KCL and KVL?
Not So Easy!!!


Tellegen’s Theorem and Energy Conservation
• Power = Rate of energy use/generation. Unit is Watts = Joule/Sec
d𝑤 d𝑞
𝑃= = 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑖 => P(t) = v(t) i(t)
d𝑡 d𝑡
• Energy E = ‫ ׬‬d𝑤 = ‫ 𝑃 ׬‬t d𝑡 = ‫ 𝑣 ׬‬t 𝑖 t d𝑡
1 2 3 ❑ Tellegen’s Theorem:
𝒌=𝑵
ib id ෍ 𝒗𝒌 𝒊𝒌 = 𝟎
ia ic ie 𝒌=𝟏
4
Proof of Tellegen’s Theorem
𝒌=𝑵
❑ Tellegen’s Theorem: ෍ 𝒗𝒌 𝒊𝒌 = 𝟎
𝒌=𝟏
KVL at Loop 1: – va + vb + vc = 0
1 2
ia ib Multiply by I1: (– va + vb + vc) I1 = 0
KCL at Node 1: – ia – ib = 0
I1
ic KCL at Node 2: ib– ic = 0
4 KCL at Node 4: ia + ic = 0 (redundant)
Loop current I1 Note that: I1 = – ia = ib= ic
2nd Equation: va ia + vb ib + vc ic = 0
Proof of Tellegen’s Theorem
1 2 3
ia ib id KVL at Loop 1: – va + vb + vc = 0
I1 I2 KVL at Loop 2: – vc – vd + ve = 0
ic ie
4
KCL at Node 1: – ia – ib = 0 Proof:
KCL at Node 2: ib + id – ic = 0 (– va + vb + vc) I1 + (vc – vd + ve) I2 = 0
KCL at Node 3: : – id – ie = 0 va(–I1) + vbI1 + vc(I1–I2) + vd(– I2) + veI2 = 0
I 1 = – ia = ib Relating I1 and I2 to element currents:
I 2 = – id = ie va i a + vb i b + vc i c + vd i d + ve i e = 0
i c = I1 – I2
Tellegen’s Theorem and Energy Conservation
• Power P(t) = v(t) i(t)
• Energy E = ‫ ׬‬d𝑤 = ‫ 𝑃 ׬‬t d𝑡 = ‫ 𝑣 ׬‬t 𝑖 t d𝑡
𝒌=𝑵
❑ Tellegen’s Theorem: ෍ 𝒗𝒌 𝒊𝒌 = 𝟎
𝒌=𝟏
1 2 3 ➢ Why Physically?
ia ib id
➢ KCL and KVL
➢ Charge Conservation
ic ie
➢ Conservative Field
4

Circuit Analysis: Electrical Elements
• The Generalized Approach to Analysis
• Step 1: Write down the I-V relationships
• Step 2: Write down KCL at all nodes (independent)
• Step 3: Write down KVL at all loops (independent)
• The Main Learning Objectives are:

• Knowing I-V relationships of various electrical elements
• Knowing how to find independent KCL equations
• Knowing how to find independent KVL equations
• The internal behavior of the electrical element can be arbitrarily complicated, but the
specific I-V relationship between terminals will completely characterize its behavior
Bulb’s behavior
v(t ) = R  i (t ) Ohm’s law

➢ Any electrical element which obeys Ohms law
can be modeled as a linear resistor
➢ Even though characteristics are non-linear,

over a certain range, the bulb can be thought of
as a linear resistor with resistance R

Conductance
v(t ) = R  i (t )
v(t )
i (t ) = = G  v(t )
R
Ernst Werner von Siemens
1816-1892
G = 1/R is called conductance and its unit is Siemens (S)
Unit is sometimes written as mho [ohm written backwards]
Resistance related to Physical Parameters
L
R=
A
Resistance is affected by the dimensions and geometry of the resistor

as well as the particular material used
ρ is the resistivity of the material in Ohm meters [Ω-m]

– Conductors (Aluminum, Carbon, Copper, Gold)
– Insulators (Glass, Teflon)
– Semiconductors (Silicon)
σ = 1/ρ is the conductivity of the material, unit is Siemens per meter [S/m]
Linear Time-Invariant Resistor
i
Slope G = 1/R
➢ Any electrical element which obeys Ohms law can be modeled as a linear resistor

Linear Time-Varying Resistor
➢ A linear resistor which varies with time

Generalized Resistor
Bulb
PN Diode
Gas Diode Tunnel Diode

Short vs Open Circuit
v
R=
i
i
G=
v

Short vs Open Circuit


Voltage Source

New Element: Current Source
IS

Current Source Again!
– IS i

Zero (Null) Voltage and Current


Passive vs Active Elements
d𝑤 d𝑞
• Power = 𝑃 = = 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑖 => P(t) = v(t) i(t)
d𝑡 d𝑡
• Energy E(t) = ‫ ׬‬d𝑤 = ‫ 𝑃 ׬‬t′ d𝑡′ = ‫ 𝑣 ׬‬t′ 𝑖 t′ d𝑡′
➢ Passive: E(t) > 0 for all time t

➢ Active: E(t) < 0 is possible for some time t
➢ Passive: V-I (or I-V) relation must lie in

1st and 3rd quadrant, e.g. Resistors
➢ Active: otherwise, e.g. Sources

Voltage and Current Source
IS
v


Series Circuit
Two elements are in series if there is no other element connected to the node joining them
A, B and C are in series
The elements have the same current going through them (KCL)
ia = ib = ic
Series Circuit
Two elements are in series if there is no other element connected to the node joining them
A and B are in series E, F and G are in series

Parallel Circuits
Two elements are in parallel if both terminals of one element are connected with corresponding
terminals of the other element
The voltage, both magnitude and polarity, across parallel elements are equal (KVL)
va = vb = − vc
Parallel Circuits
Two elements are in parallel if both terminals of one element are connected with corresponding
terminals of the other element
A and B are connected in parallel
D, E and F are connected in parallel

Combining Resistances in Series
If we take
Both circuits are equivalent as far as I-V relation is concerned.
Concept of Equivalent Circuits
Two circuits are equivalent if they have the same current-voltage behavior.
Req is always larger than the largest of R1, R2, R3
If any of R1, R2, or R3 is infinite (open circuit), then Req is infinite.

Combining Resistances in Parallel
If we take
𝐺𝑒𝑞 = 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + 𝐺3
Both circuits are equivalent as far as I-V relation is concerned.

Concept of Equivalent Circuits
Two circuits are equivalent if they have the same current-voltage behavior.
1 1 1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
= + =
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2
Req is always less than the smallest of R1 and R2
If any of R1 or R2, is zero (short circuit), then Req = 0.

Element Combination Rules

Combining Resistances in Series
For each value of i, add values of v1 and v2 from the characteristic

Combining Resistances in Parallel
For each value of v, add values of i1 and i2 from the characteristic

Element Combination Rules
➢ How about two ideal voltage sources V1 and V2 in parallel?

➢ Not allowed by KVL unless V1 = V2
➢ How about two ideal current sources I1 and I2 in series?

➢ Not allowed by KCL unless I1 = I2
Non-Ideal Voltage Sources
• How to model non-ideal batteries?
• Ideal battery in series with internal resistance: Draw the I-V characteristics
• Why the internal resistance is not modelled in parallel with the ideal voltage source?
charging
discharging
Ideal battery Real battery

Non-Ideal Current Sources
• How to model non-ideal current source?
• Ideal current source in parallel with internal resistance: Draw the I-V characteristics
• Why the internal resistance is not modelled in series with the ideal current source?

Power drawn from battery
• Suppose the battery is connected to a load 𝑅𝐿
Power drawn from a real battery

2
2
𝑉
𝑃 = 𝐼 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝐿
2
Power drawn from an ideal battery 𝑃 1
2 Efficiency = = <1
𝑉 𝑃ideal 𝑅𝑖
𝑃ideal = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿 1+
𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿

Load for Maximum Power Transfer
2
𝑉
𝑃= 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝐿
• What is the value of 𝑅𝐿 for which 𝑃 is maximum?
2
d 𝑉
𝑅𝐿 = 0 ⇒ 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑖
d𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝐿
25% efficiency 𝑉𝑆2

𝑃𝐿max =
4𝑅𝐿
Note: Sometimes a different

definition of efficiency is used.
Be aware of what the definition is
used before using this fact.
An Interesting Problem
Q. How much power is absorbed or generated

by each individual circuit element?
➢ The power absorbed by R is 1W
➢ The power generated by the current source (Is) is 1W
➢ No power is generated or absorbed by the voltage source (Vs)

Another Interesting Problem
Q. How will intensities of light from bulb 1 and 2

change if we close the switch?
a) 1 will remain the same i) 2 will remain the same
b) 1 will decrease ii) 2 will decrease
c) 1 will increase iii) 2 will increase
▪ Or, any of the combination above can happen depending on bulb resistances

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Introduction to Electronics

Part 1: Circuit Analysis

Dr. Rik Dey

2023-24 SEM-II ESC201A INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS CIRCUITS

Dr. Rik Dey ESC201, 2023-24 Sem-II 2

Constraint (When) Derivation (How)

Lumped Circuit Abstraction

Methods of Circuit Analysis

Dr. Rik Dey ESC201, 2023-24 Sem-II 3

➢ Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL): Conservation of Charge 𝒌=𝑵

• 2nd Constraint: No time-varying magnetic flux outside the element. 

➢ Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL): Conservation of Energy 𝒌=𝑵

• 3rd Constraint: The size should be smaller than wavelength L << λ.

Dr. Rik Dey ESC201, 2023-24 Sem-II 4

• General Circuit Analysis – Recap

• Tellegen’s Theorem and Energy Conservation

• I-V Characteristic of Electrical Elements

• Voltage Source and Current Source

• Passive and Active Elements

• Series and Parallel Combination of Electrical Elements

Dr. Rik Dey ESC201, 2023-24 Sem-II 6

• General Circuit Analysis – Recap

• Tellegen’s Theorem and Energy Conservation

• I-V Characteristic of Electrical Elements

• Voltage Source and Current Source

• Passive and Active Elements

• Series and Parallel Combination of Electrical Elements

Dr. Rik Dey ESC201, 2023-24 Sem-II 7

• We will analyze circuits which has a planar unhinged graph

• V = # of Vertices or Nodes (where two or more elements are connected)

• F = # of Faces formed by Essential Meshes (Loop containing no other loop)

• a, b, c, d are Nodes or Vertices, V = 4

• L1 to L3 are Essential Meshes, F =3

• Q: How do we compute voltage/current/power consumed across various elements?

E = 6 equations, equals to # of elements

Dr. Rik Dey ESC201, 2023-24 Sem-II 11

▪ Any 3 are independent

▪ Essential Mesh: Independent eqn.

Dr. Rik Dey ESC201, 2023-24 Sem-II 15

• General Circuit Analysis – Recap

• Tellegen’s Theorem and Energy Conservation

• I-V Characteristic of Electrical Elements

• Voltage Source and Current Source

• Passive and Active Elements

• Series and Parallel Combination of Electrical Elements

Dr. Rik Dey ESC201, 2023-24 Sem-II 16

• Energy E = ‫ ׬‬d𝑤 = ‫ 𝑃 ׬‬t d𝑡 = ‫ 𝑣 ׬‬t 𝑖 t d𝑡

• General Circuit Analysis – Recap

• Tellegen’s Theorem and Energy Conservation

• I-V Characteristic of Electrical Elements

• Voltage Source and Current Source

• Passive and Active Elements

• Series and Parallel Combination of Electrical Elements

Dr. Rik Dey ESC201, 2023-24 Sem-II 21

• The Main Learning Objectives are:

v(t ) = R  i (t ) Ohm’s law

➢ Even though characteristics are non-linear,

Dr. Rik Dey ESC201, 2023-24 Sem-II 23