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II Moisture protection
By Martin Homann
1 Goals and strategies of moisture 157
protection
1 Goals and strategies of moisture protection
II
1.1 Goals
The state may only intervene in construction activities through regulations if there is a risk to
the life or health of people or the environment. In this sense, the building regulations of the
federal states require the following (excerpts from BauO NW) [36]:
– “Structural facilities... must be arranged, constructed, modified and maintained in such a
way that... life, health or the natural basis of life in particular are not endangered” (§ 3).
– “Structural facilities... must be arranged, constructed and suitable for use in such a way that
water, moisture... do not create dangers or unreasonable nuisances” (§ 16).
The building owner is largely free to decide which measures should be taken to counteract the
dangers or unreasonable annoyances caused by water and moisture. However, he must choose a
regulated construction method (e.g. according to DIN standards) or a generally or individually
approved construction method. However, for the reasons mentioned above, the state requires
compliance with DIN 4108-3 [47.2] for common rooms. It says in section 1:
“This standard specifies requirements, calculation methods and instructions for the planning
and implementation of climate-related moisture protection in buildings.”
Moisture protection is necessary or sensible for the owners and users of buildings for the
following additional reasons:
a) usabilityof the rooms
Many uses of rooms require a relatively narrowly defined indoor climatecan only be
guaranteed if uncontrolled external moisture influences are eliminated. Human performance
is also only optimal in a relatively narrow climatic range. Buildings and rooms must also
meet aesthetic needs, which can be significantly affected by the effects of moisture
penetration. After all, damp building materials are sources of germs and odors and are
therefore undesirable.
b) Thermal protection of buildings
The energy required for heating is influenced by whether a building is kept dry or not.
The thermal conductivity of building materials increases with thefabric moisture.
Amounts of water to evaporate from damp building materials and the removal of humid
room air require additional energy expenditure.
c) Preservation of the building structure
One of the most important accelerators for the gradual, but in the long term
unavoidable, decay of buildings is without a doubt water. It makes many things
possiblechemical, physical and biological processes that cannot take place in dry
conditions. Experience [16] shows that most structural damage is caused by the influence of
water.
WM Willems et al. (Ed.), Textbook of Building Physics,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-16074-6_9, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH 2017
158 II Moisture
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Figure 1.1Names for the water acting on buildings.
TRANSLATE OF PICTURE
Niederschlag (Ptecipitation), Schlagregen (driving rain), Spritzwasser (Splashing water), Oberflachenwasser (surface water),
Stauwasser (backwater), Wasserdampf (Steam), nicht druckendes Brauchwasser (non-pressing domestic water), Tauwasser an
Bauteiloberflachen (Condensation on component surfaces), Tauwasser im Bauteilinneren (condensation inside the component),
Wasserdampf (Steam), Sickerwasser (Leachate), Baufeuchte (Building moisture), druckendes Brauchwasser (pressing process water),
Grundwasser (Groundwater), Kapillarwasser (Capillary water).
Figure 1.1 shows the many ways in which water affects buildings and what it is called.
1.2 Strategies
High and therefore potentially harmful water contents in building materials only occur when
either liquid water acts from outside, or forms in the building material through condensation or
is still there due to production. In order to avoid high water contents in components, the
following classic strategies and moisture management (building physics strategy) are used:
a) Caulk
Sealing means preventing the access of liquid water to the component through a
flexible,Liquid-water-tight and gap-free membrane, which covers a large area of the water-
loaded components on the impact side. For this purpose, on the one hand, industrially
produced bitumen or polymer sealing membranes are used, and on the other hand,
substances that are applied in the liquid state, which solidify and then form coatings that
adhere completely to the substrate. Waterproofing membranes must be glued or welded to
large areas. Although complete adhesion to the load-bearing component is not necessary, it
is desirable because only if the sealing membrane is damaged will it be impossible to
infiltrate the sealed surface to a large extent. A seal must remain fully functional even on
constantly moving cracks and joints, the presence of which is practically unavoidable in
buildings. Ie A seal must be able to sufficiently bridge cracks, for which the flexibility and
layer thickness of the seal are the most important criteria. In principle, water vapor
diffusion through seals is not subject to any requirements.
1 Goals and strategies of moisture 159
protection
b) Water drainage
A pressure-free water drainage is required due to the manufacturing tolerances during
constructionat least a gradient of around 3 percent in the drainage level. The elements that form the
drainage level only need to overlap in order to largely avoid water ingress at the overlapping points.
Roofing with tiles,corrugated sheets, II
Concrete roof tiles and the thatched roof follow this principle, whereby the slope, the overhang
cover length and the profiling of the overlap areas for the degree of sealingspeed at the
overlapping points are crucial. Roof coverings are therefore not pressure-tight, but only
(largely) rain-tight, which means that water must not accumulate. In strong winds, small
amounts of precipitation can penetrate through the overlap areas, which should not be
complained about. Corresponding covering elements on facade surfaces are referred to as
shingles, in which the covering areas are usually not profiled because the gradient here is at
its maximum. Draining water down a slope with overlapping elements is also a frequently
used strategy for gutter linings, cornices, drainage pipes, etc.
c) Inactivation of capillary water transport

Capillary suction can absorb a lot of water in a short time from a fine-pored, water-wettable
building material structure. This liquid water absorption can be prevented relatively easily
by impregnation or painting. Today, silicone emulsions or polymers in dissolved or
dispersed form are used as impregnating agents. After impregnation, the treated surfaces are
hydrophobic, so that any water that appears initially drips off in a visibly beading manner.
This hydrophobicity on the surface disappears over time under the influence of the weather.
However, this is of minor importance because the building material structure, impregnated
to a depth of a few millimeters, retains its hydrophobicity for a longer period of time. The
surface of absorbent building material layers can also be protected from water absorption
using film-forming or hydrophobic paints based on organic polymers, such as a membrane.
However, due to the low layer thickness of most paints, there is neither complete freedom
from defects nor reliable crack-bridging ability, as is the case with sealing or with coatings
expressly described as crack-bridging. Therefore, impregnations and coatings are preferably
used when the exposure to water only covers relatively short periods of time and is
followed by drying periods, for example when exposed to weather. It should be noted that
not all types of coatings are film-forming or hydrophobic and therefore effective against
capillary water absorption.
Some building materials can be given a hydrophobic structure during production using
additives (soaps, hydrophobic polymers), meaning that protection against liquid water
absorption is not just limited to a surface zone.
d) Moisture management (building physics strategy)

Through sensible choice of layer sequence, layer thicknesses and materialsComponents
can be dimensioned so that the water content is as intendedUse in the relevant shifts
remains permanently below a permissible limit. This strategy has been used since it has
been possible to realistically record the moisture transport processes in a component using
the tools of building physics. E.g. has
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Glaser invented the method named after him, with which a greatly simplified accounting of
the condensation mass over the course of the year is possible under certain climatic
conditions. Even today, the glazing process with the boundary conditions specified in DIN
4108-3 is widely used to assess the risk of condensation inside
II Exterior components used in lounges in the climate region “Germany”. DIN 4108 also
contains a list of moisture accumulation in the cross-section of the component.
Experience shows that external components are not at risk if the building physics rules
mentioned there are adhered to (see Section 5.2.4).
In addition, computer programs can be used to calculate transient heat and moisture
transport processes in layered components under almost any initial or boundary conditions,
so that the necessary measures to maintain a harmless water content can be determined.
The possibility of moisture management in components promotes “diffusion-
open”Construction method and reduces the previously widespread use of vapor barriers,
which can become traps for moisture penetration, and of rear ventilation, which damages
the thermal insulation and can form an entry point for many harmful substances. By
avoiding air layers or air ducts, the component thickness can often be reduced and the
construction can be simplified.
In order to be able to find the optimal moisture protection measures in each caseThis book
chapter provides the necessary knowledge. After explaining the objective in Section 1, the
scientific principles are examined in Sections 2 to 4: Sections 2 and 3 describe how water is
stored in building materials and in the air and the various ways in which it is transported in the
building materials. Water vapor contained in the room air, which can condense on the room-
side surfaces of components, is considered with regard to possible countermeasures. The
transfer of water from one building material to another or to the atmosphere is discussed in
Section 4. The planning tools for solving practical moisture problems in components under
stationary and transient conditions, ie the tool for so-called moisture management, are
explained in Sections 5 and 6. Under stationary conditions, the so-called Glaser method is the
most important planning tool; under non-stationary conditions, computer calculation is the
most important planning tool. Possible measures to prevent condensation inside the component
are discussed. In the final section 7, the mechanical consequences of the hygric load on
building materials, ie stresses, deformations, crack formation, etc. are shown.
2 Moisture storage 161
2 Moisture retention
II
2.1 Moisture storage in air
2.1.1 Water vapor content of the air
Air can absorb a limited amount of water in gaseous form (water vapor) until it is
saturated.take. This amount depends on the temperature , with the absorption capacity
increasing with temperature (Table 2.1). Even air that is colder than 0ºC can still contain a
correspondingly small amount of water vapor. From 100ºC onwards, the water vapor can
completely fill a given space, so that in extreme cases there is only water vapor and no air at
all.
Table 2.1Water vapor concentration in air at saturation as a function of temperature

θ vsat θ vsat θ vsat θ vsat
[°C] [g/mt] [°C] [g/mt] [°C] [g/mt] [°C] [g/mt]
– 10 2.1 ±0 4.8 + 10 9.4 + 20 17.3
–9 2.3 +1 5.2 + 11 10.0 + 21 18.3
- 8th 2.5 +2 5.6 + 12 10.6 + 22 19.4
–7 2.7 +3 5.9 + 13 11.3 + 23 20.5
–6 3.0 +4 6.4 + 14 12.0 + 24 21.7
–5 3.2 +5 6.8 + 15 12.8 + 25 23.0
–4 3.5 +6 7.3 + 16 13.6 + 26 24.3
–3 3.8 +7 7.7 + 17 14.5 + 27 25.7
–2 4.1 +8 8.3 + 18 15.3 +28 27.2
-1 4.5 +9 8.8 + 19 16.3 + 29 28.7
But air can also be supersaturated with water vapor. That means the soluble amountWater
vapor, which is invisible like the air itself, was exceeded. The excess is no longer dissolved in
the air as water vapor, but forms fine drops that appear as mist or clouds.
The air is unsaturated if the water vapor is present in a lower concentration than would be
soluble at the relevant temperature. To characterize this condition, the ratio of the existing
water vapor concentration  to the maximum soluble concentration sat at the relevant
temperature is given and is referred to as relative air humidity :
n (2.1)
nsat
The relative humidity is given either as a percentage or as a number, for example 45% or
0.45. In analogy to the term “relative air humidity”, the water vapor concentration is
referred toconcentration in air as “absolute humidity”. Figure 2.1 shows the water vapor
content of air in the so-called carrier diagram depending on the temperature and relative
humidity, with the temperature range in which the outside air in Central Europe normally
moves. The curve labeled  = 100% represents the saturation moisture; the curves run for
lower relative humidity
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Figure 2.1Carrier diagram (water vapor content of the air as a function of temperature and relative
humidity).
Wsserdampfkonzentration v (Water vapor consentration), Relative Luftfeuchte (Relative humidity), Temperatur
(Temperatur).
so that they have the ordinate intercept at every temperaturebetween the temperature axis
andof the saturation humidity according to the ratio given by the relative humidity. At the
temperature of 0 ºC, the course of the curves has a barely noticeable bend with the tip pointing
upwards.
In building physics, it is common practice to specify the amount of water vapor in air not
as a concentration, but as a partial pressure. The so-called water vapor partial pressure is
the pressurewhich one would have to allocate air to the water vapor according to its proportion
in the gas mixture, so that together with the other gas components of the air, which are also
allocated a partial pressure corresponding to their quantity, there is a total pressure of around 1
bar, which is characteristic of the air mixture on the earth's surface. Many misunderstandings
are based on the fact that instead of the correct but cumbersome term “water vapor partial
pressure,” people often say “water vapor pressure” for short. The wrong conclusion is
sometimes drawn from this that the water vapor present in the air can exert mechanical
pressure, whereas in fact only the gas mixture “air” as a whole can exert pressure on solid and
liquid surfaces.
With sufficient accuracy for practical construction purposes, air can be viewed as an
“ideal” gas. This means that between the water vapor partial pressure p and the water
vapor concentration  taking into account the gas constant of the water vaporRV = 461.5
J/kgK and the temperature T according to the following proportionality relationship, which is
known as the “ideal gas equation”:
p =   RV T (2.2)
The water vapor concentration  corresponds to the water vapor partial pressure p, the
maximum water vapor concentration sat or saturation moisture corresponds to a maximum
water vapor pressure psat or saturated vapor pressure. Table 2.2 shows the saturated steam
pressure as a function of temperature for a temperature interval of 0.1 K.
From the definition of the relative humidity  and the proportionality between partial pressure
p and concentration  it follows that the relative humidity  is the ratio of existing
Table 2.2Saturated vapor pressure of water vapor in air as a function of temperature according to DIN 4108-3.
θL Water vapor partial pressure in the saturation state psat over water or ice [Pa]
[°C] 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
30 4241 4265 4289 4314 4339 4364 4389 4414 4439 4464
29 4003 4026 4050 4073 4097 4120 4144 4168 4192 4216 II
28 3778 3800 3822 3844 3867 3889 3912 3934 3957 3980
27 3563 3584 3605 3626 3648 3669 3691 3712 3734 3756
26 3359 3379 3399 3419 3440 3460 3480 3501 3522 3542
25 3166 3185 3204 3223 3242 3261 3281 3300 3320 3340
24 2982 3000 3018 3036 3055 3073 3091 3110 3128 3147
23 2808 2825 2842 2859 2876 2894 2911 2929 2947 2964
22 2642 2659 2675 2691 2708 2724 2741 2757 2774 2791
21 2486 2501 2516 2532 2547 2563 2579 2594 2610 2626
20 2337 2351 2366 2381 2395 2410 2425 2440 2455 2470
19 2196 2210 2224 2238 2252 2266 2280 2294 2308 2323
18 2063 2076 2089 2102 2115 2129 2142 2155 2169 2182
17 1937 1949 1961 1974 1986 1999 2012 2024 2037 2050
16 1817 1829 1841 1852 1864 1876 1888 1900 1912 1924
15 1704 1715 1726 1738 1749 1760 1771 1783 1794 1806
14 1598 1608 1619 1629 1640 1650 1661 1672 1683 1693
13 1497 1507 1517 1527 1537 1547 1557 1567 1577 1587
12 1402 1411 1420 1430 1439 1449 1458 1468 1477 1487
11 1312 1321 1330 1338 1347 1356 1365 1374 1383 1393
10 1227 1236 1244 1252 1261 1269 1278 1286 1295 1303
9 1147 1155 1163 1171 1179 1187 1195 1203 1211 1219
8th 1072 1080 1087 1094 1102 1109 1117 1124 1132 1140
7 1001 1008 1015 1022 1029 1036 1043 1050 1058 1065
6 935 941 948 954 961 967 974 981 988 994
5 872 878 884 890 897 903 909 915 922 928
4 813 819 824 830 836 842 848 854 860 866
3 757 763 768 774 779 785 790 796 801 807
2 705 710 715 721 726 731 736 741 747 752
1 656 661 666 671 676 680 685 690 695 700
0 611 615 619 624 629 633 638 642 647 652
–0 611 605 601 596 591 586 581 576 571 567
-1 562 557 553 548 544 539 535 530 526 521
–2 517 513 509 504 500 496 492 488 484 479
–3 475 471 468 464 460 456 452 448 444 441
–4 437 433 430 426 422 419 415 412 408 405
–5 401 398 394 391 388 384 381 378 375 371
–6 368 365 362 359 356 353 350 347 344 341
–7 338 335 332 329 326 323 320 318 315 312
- 8th 309 307 304 301 299 296 294 291 288 286
–9 283 281 278 276 274 271 269 266 264 262
– 10 259 257 255 252 250 248 246 244 241 239
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Value can be viewed as the maximum value not only of the water vapor concentration, but also of the
water vapor partial pressure:
n p
 (2.3)
nsat psat
II
The water vapor partial pressure psat in the saturation state can be calculated for the following
temperature ranges using a numerical equation [47]:
  n
psat a  b  100°C (2.4)

psat θ a b n
Pa °C Pa – –
Here and below, the box indicates the equation in question as a numerical value equation. It
contains the variables that appear in the equation and prescribes the dimensions to be adhered
to when using them numerically. Partial pressures are identified as such by lowercase letters
(p), total pressures by capital letters (P).
The following values should be assigned to the three parameters a, b and n:
OºC ≤ θ ≤ 3OºC – 2OºC ≤ θ ≤ OºC
a 288.68 Pa 4,689 Pa
b 1,098 1,486
n 8.02 12.30
In closed rooms with a sufficiently large free surface of a salt solutiontypical relative
humidity levels are established for the salt solution [67] (Figure 2.2): A relative humidity of
100% can only be found over pure water. Strong drying agents, such as silica gel, can keep the
air in closed rooms almost free of water, so that the relative humidity in these rooms is
practically 0%. The salts mentioned in Figure 2.2 in an aqueous solution only lead to the
specified humidity above the solution if the solution is saturated. As the salt concentration
decreases, the relative humidity above the solution in question increases.
The formation of a specific equilibrium in the water vapor content of the air over a saturated
salt solution is often used in laboratory technology to maintain the desired relative humidity in
air spaces. However, conditions that are largely stable against changes in air humidity can only
be achieved if an excess of salt is added to the solution, so that the saturated salt solution has a
base of corresponding salt. If water vapor is then supplied to the air space above the salt
solution from any source, the relative humidity does not increase because the water vapor
absorbed by the salt solution dissolves salt from the soil body and thus increases the amount of
saturated salt solution. However, if water vapor is removed from the airspace, Water evaporates
from the saturated salt solution and the soil body grows. Since it requires a lot of effort to keep
the temperature of an air space sufficiently constant over a long period of time, it is desirable to
have such salts available for the production of saturated salt solutions whose equilibrium air
humidity changes only slightly with the temperature. The salts mentioned in Figure 2.2 largely
meet this requirement.
II
Figure 2.2The relativeHumidity above saturated salt solutions.
According to Figure 2.3, the relative humidity of

the outside air normally changes over the course of
a day in such a way that in the early afternoon, at
the time of the highest temperature, the relative
humidity drops to oneMinimum value drops and
maximum values are reached in the early morning
shortly before sunrise at the lowest temperature. The
absolute humidity changes remarkably little. From
this it can be concluded that the relative humidity of
the outside air in the daily rhythm is primarily
controlled by the temperature change of the air and
that the moisture absorption of the air when it comes
into contact with the ground, free water levels, etc.
and the moisture release through, for example,
condensation excretion for the diurnal cycle of
relative air humidity is only of minor importance.
An overview of the seasonal changes in the relative
humidity and the temperature of the outside air
(monthly average values) in a Central European Figure 2.3Relative and absolute
city (Hannover) can be obtained from Figure 2.4. airhumidity of the outside air over the
The hysteresis loop shows that the course of the day.
Temperatures and relative humidity in the first half of the year are lower than in the second
(heating and cooling phase). Furthermore, the relative humidity generally increases as the
temperature decreases. Also noteworthy is the high relative humidity of around 82%, which
represents the average for the outdoor climate in the Federal Republic (Table 2.3). In fog and
rain, the relative humidity is always 100%. The relative air humidity that occurs in rooms and
is caused by construction, use and ventilation is examined in more detail in Section 2.3.
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Figure 2.4Temperature and relative humidity of the outside air in Hanover over the course of the year
(monthly average values).
Aubentemperatur (Outsite temperature), Relative Luftfeuchte (Relative humidity).
Table 2.3Typical temperature and relative humidity values indoors and outdoors.
Conditions Temperature θ relative humidity ф [%]
[°C]
In the free atmosphere
Average for Hanover in the winter half of the ~4 ~87
year
Average for Hanover in the summer half of the ~ 14 ~78
year
In rooms
Living room and study in the summer months
20 50 to 70
Living room and study in the winter months 20 30 to 55

bathroom 24 50 to 100
Adjoining rooms, stairwells 10 to 15 50 to 70
Cooling and storage rooms for food 4 to 10 75 to 100
Department stores 18 50 to 70
Companies, workshops 18 40 to 50
Theaters, gymnasiums 15 to 20 50 to 80
Laundries, swimming pools 20 to 25 80 to 95
Doctor's rooms, hospitals 24 40 to 60
2.1.2 Cooling and warming of moist air

The relationship between the water vapor concentration in air , the temperature  and the
relative humidity  is fully described in Figure 2.1. The carrier diagram is shown again in
Figure 2.5 and provided with further details that explain its possible applications. The
following examples:
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Figure 2.5Carrier diagram with registered application examples.
Wasserdampfkonzentration v (Water vapor consentration v), Relative Luftfeuchte (Relative Humidity), Temperatur (Temperature).
If moist air is cooled under such conditions (e.g. very quickly) that it cannot release any
water vapor, this means in Figure 2.5 that the geometric locationof the air condition must
move on a straight line parallel to the temperature axis in the direction of falling temperature
(for example from A to B). During such cooling, the relative humidity increases continuously
until it finally reaches the value  = 100% (at C). The cooled air then has the maximum
possible water vapor content at this temperature, ie it is saturated with water vapor. It is said
that the air now has its dew point
– better reaches their dew temperature s –. With further cooling it necessarily fallsWater
vapor is released, called mist or dew, and the relative humidity remains at 100%. The amount
of condensation water precipitated is the difference between the water vapor content at the dew
temperature and the maximum water vapor content at the temperature to which cooling took
place (eg at D).
There are three ways available for the theoretical determination of the dew temperature s
of air at given values of the air temperature L and the relative air humidity :
– Using the carrier diagram,as shown above.
– With the help of Table 2.2, ie a narrowly divided table of saturated steam pressures.
First you determine for Lthe saturated steam pressure, from which one can use  to
calculate the steam pressurepressure of the room air is calculated. Then you look for the
temperature sin the table whose saturated steam pressure is equal to the calculated steam
pressure.
– sis with that from Eq. (2.4) derived formula calculated:
s  1/8th
L  110°C  (2.5)
L110°C
Measuring the dew temperatureof air can be carried out using so-called dew point mirrors:
a small mirror is heated at a speed of, for example, 1ºC per 10 secondscooled and blown
with the relevant air. Once the mirror has reached the dew temperature θs, an easily
recognizable dew coating forms on the mirror.
The relative humidity can then be determined from the air temperature and the dew
temperature using Eq. (2.5) can be calculated or determined graphically using the carrier
diagram: E.g
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Figure 2.5 from point E(s) to C(sat), from F(L) vertically upwards to the intersection
point A() with the horizontal through C.
There is reason to note that the term dew temperature is only a characteristic value for moist air
and indicates the temperature to which this air may be cooled before it moistens a non-
I absorbent and non-hygroscopic surface. However, it would be wrong to talk about a dew point
I inside a component, since the question of whether condensation occurs in a component or not
also requires taking into account the effect of the building material layers to be penetrated that
hinders vapor diffusion (see Section 5.2) and not only the determination of the dew temperature
of air and the temperature profile in a component.
In addition, condensation does not occur spontaneously on building material surfaces as in
the case ofa mirror if the surface in question has the dew temperature of the air (see section 2.3).
Another application of Figure 2.5 is to determine the necessary air temperature of a
defined air volume above a larger water surface, e.g. in an indoor swimming pool, in order
not to exceed a certain relative humidity. The starting point for considerations is the water
level, because the air passing there assumes, on the one hand, the water temperature and,
on the other hand, a relative humidity of 100% (for example point X for a water
temperature of 23 ºC). The air conditioned in this way is heated up when it is whirled up
into the free air space by being mixed with warmer air andcomes into contact with warmer
surfaces. In Figure 2.5 this corresponds to a change in location from point X parallel to the
temperature axis into the area of low relative humidity,
e.g. according to Y.
It is therefore possible to lower the room air to a certain relative humidity by increasing the air
temperature above the water temperature. This is important for the materials of the built-in
parts and the building materials of the room-limiting components in indoor swimming pools
because, according to the explanations in Section 2.2.2, the water content of building materials
is decisively determined by the relative air humidity, but hardly by the temperature. However,
this consideration assumes that the air volume does not undergo any air exchange, which
means, in the example of an indoor swimming pool, it only applies to the non-operational state
when all ventilation devices are switched off. In this case, the warmer room air is in hygric
equilibrium with the colder water surface and there is no reason for water to evaporate.
Finally, the effect of shock ventilation in reducing room air humidity should be mentioned.
Through short-term, vigorous ventilation, the “used” warm air that has been humidified during
room use is replaced by dry, cold outside air. When the air exchange is complete and the
ventilation openings are closed again, the outside air in the room heats up quickly without
being able to exchange moisture with the room boundary surfaces or the objects placed in the
room. This will be discussed in Section 2.3.
2.1.3 The indoor air humidity as a state of equilibrium

The relative humidity that occurs in a room under stationary conditions represents a state of
equilibrium, which can be determined in a balance analysis. To simplify matters, it is assumed
that the air humidity in the room is evenly distributed and that only outside air flows into the
room. The amount of water vapor produced in the room when it is used and the amount of
water vapor contained in the inflowing outside air must be compared with the amount of water
vapor that is transported away with the escaping room air (Figure 2.6). The exchange of indoor
air is primarily achieved through conscious ventilation and
II
Figure 2.6To balance the water vapor flows in a ventilated room with constant moisture input (simplified
calculation).
Aubenluft (Outsite air), Raumlift (room air), Aubenluft (Ousite air), Feuchteeintrag durch Zuluft (Moisture entry
thriugh supply air), Feuchtebelastung durch Netzer (Moisture exposure from users), Feuchteaustrag durch Abluft
(Moisture removal trough exhaust air).
caused by wind-induced gap flows on windows and doors. When looking at the balance,
one takes a certain period of time, preferably one hour, and ignores the amount of water
vapor that diffuses outwards through the walls, ceilings, etc. It can easily be shown that by
changing air in the form ofIntended ventilation and as a result of the permeability of the joints
on windows, doors, connecting joints of components, etc., much more water vapor is removed
than by the diffusion of water vapor through components.
For the balance, it must be known to what extent indoor air is replaced by outside air, for which
the air exchange rate n is chosen as the measure. This indicates how often the room volume V
is replaced per hour. Which air exchange rates can be expected will be examined in more detail
later (see Section 3.3.3). This means that the water vapor flow GL,e entering the room from
outside can be written as follows:
GL, e  n  V  nsat,e
(2.6)
 e  Te
Ti
The ratio of the absolute temperatures Te and Ti takes into account that the air expands when
heated.
Analogously, the water vapor flow GL,i flowing out with the escaping air must be specified:
G L,i  n  V  nsat,i
(2.7)
i
The water vapor flow G produced in the room must also be known. He surrendersfrom the
way the space is used. The balance sheet can now be drawn up:
GL,e + G = GL,i (2.8)

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Substituting (2.6) and (2.7) into (2.8) one obtains:
n  V  nsat,e  e  Te  G  n
(2.9)
 V  nsat,i  i
Ti
Solving for i gives:

sat,e e G
i e n T 
(2.10)
nsat,i Ti n  V  nsat,i
II
The right-hand side of Eq. (2.10) shows the two contributions to indoor air humidity: The
first part is the contribution from the outside air, the second part is that caused by water
vapor production in the room.
For a four-person apartment with a volume V = 375 m3, a room air temperature
i = 20 ºC, a usage-related water vapor production G = 300 g/h and a relative
outside air humidity e = 80% are those according to Eq. (2.10) calculated room
air humidity at different air exchange rates n over the course of the year is
shown in Figure 2.7. The temperature and relative humidity of the outside air are
based on monthly average values for Germany. When calculating energy-saving
thermal insulation, an air exchange rate of n = 0.6 h–1 is assumed under certain
conditions. Figure 2.7 shows that during the heating period, relative humidity is
in the range between i = 29% (January) and
Set i = 50% (October). In July the relative humidity is i = 79%. If the air
exchange is restricted, the relative humidity in the room increases
accordingly. At veryWith intensive air exchange (and constant room air temperature), a
lower limit of the relative room air humidity is reached, which can no longer be fallen below.
This is the condition in which the water vapor content of the indoor air is the same as the water
vapor content of the outside air. For n   it follows from Eq. (2.10):
i nsat,i  T i e nsat,e  T e
(2.11)
But that means:
pi= pe (2.12)
Figure 2.7Relative humidity of the room air in a ventilated living space of normal size and use as a
function of the air exchange rate n.
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Relative Luftfeuchte innen (relative humidity inside), Monat im Jahreslauf (month in the course of the year).
The following information can be given regarding water vapor production G: During light
office work, an adult releases around 50 g of water vapor into his environment per hour
through his skin and breathing air (Table 2.4). A craftsman releases around 150 g, a high-
performance athlete releases around 1000 g per hour. When cooking and frying in a kitchen
are per hourAbout 700 to 1000 g of water vapor is released when washing dishes II
Approximately 100 g of steam per wash cycle (Table 2.5). It is when accounting on a case-by-case basis
to check whether peak production, which only occurs in certain hours of the day, or a
calculation is based on an average value based on the entire day. Plants release as much water
vapor to a largely uniform extent as is supplied to them in the form of water when watering.
Table 2.4Heat and water vapor release by humans as a function of air temperature during light
activity
Air- Total Air- Total
Water-steam Water-steam
temperatur heat temperatur heat
output [g/h] output [g/h]
e output e output
[W] [W]
[ºC] [ºC]
10 157 30 22 118 47
12 147 30 24 118 58
14 136 30 26 118 70
16 127 30 28 117 85
18 121 33 30 116 98
20 119 38 32 114 116
Table 2.5Water vapor release from various moisture sources according to DIN technical report 4108-8 [47.5]
Moisture source Water vapor release
Plants, average for different plants 2 g/h
Cook 700…1000 g/h
dishwasher 100g/wash cycle
Rinse under running water, 50°C 300 g/h
washing in the sink,50°C 140 g/h
Bath or shower room 300g/bath
Dry 70g/process
Tumble dry, spin 5 kg 2500g/washing machine
Aquarium, 90% covered, 26°C 6 g/m²h
Cat 10 g/h
Dog, medium size, 20 kg 40 g/h
The amount of water vapor released on water surfaces through evaporation is described in
Section 4. The extent to which the surfaces of the room boundaries and the room furnishings
can temporarily store water vapor in the air during transient use or water vapor exposure is
discussed in Section 6.
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2.2 Moisture storage in building materials
2.2.1 Characteristic values of building material moisture

IIThe amount of water (moisture) contained in a building material can be expressed as building
material volumerelated mass of water w, as volume of water related to building material
volume  or as mass of water u related to building material mass:
mass of water Volume

w  of building material
volume of water
 Volume of building
material
mass of water Mass of

u  the building material
While the building material volume-related mass of water is given in kg/m3, the volume and
mass-related water contents  and u are dimensionless quantities and are given either as
fractions or in percent. The relationship applies:
Water
u  (2.13)
building material
The possible water contents in a fine-pored, mineral building material from absolute
dryness to complete pore filling with water are shown in the diagram in Figure 2.8shown
schematically. One can then distinguish between three water content ranges [24]:
– Low humidity area (hygroscopic area)
Diffusion processes determine moisture transport and absorption processes determine
water storage.
– Area of higher humidity (capillary water area)
The water transport is through the unsaturated pore water flowdetermined and theThe
surface tension of the water and the resulting capillary pressure have a decisive influence on
the water. Water storage is accomplished by filling pore areas, starting with the smallest
pore sizes and increasing to ever larger pore sizes.
– Supersaturation range
The relative humidity has the value 1, the menisci are relaxed and a true state of
equilibrium between air and water content no longer exists.
The following characteristic moisture values are possible in building materials:
– Equilibrium humidity etc
In the sorption moisture range, also referred to as the hygroscopic water content
range,The relative air humidity determines the building material moisture. The
hygroscopic equilibriumHumidity by weight is characterized by an index of the relative
humidity with which it is in equilibrium. For example, the humidity u50 corresponds to the
water content at 50% relative humidity and thus approximately the value of building
materials in inhabited rooms
II
Figure 2.8Water content ranges in a fine-pored, hygroscopic building material.
Charakteristischer Feuchtewet (Character engrever), maximale Wassersattigung (maximum water level), freie wassersattigung
(water level), Gleichgewichts feuchte (Equilibrim light), Trockenzustand (Dry condition), Wssergehalt (Water echo etc),
Wssergehalts-bereich (water gehats area), ubersattigungs-bereich (Oversinging area), Uberhygros-kopischer Bereich (Hyperhygros
copic area), Kapillarwasser-bereich (kapilan water area), Sorptionsfeuchtebereich “Hygroskopischer Bereich” (Sorption moisture
range “hygroscopic range”), Speicher-mechanismus (Speicher-mechanism), Kapillar-kondensation ( Capillary condensation),
Adsorbtion “grobe pores” (Adsorption “large pores”), Transport-mechanismus (Transport mecanism), Wasser-srtomung (water
flow), Ungesattigte porenwasser-stromung (Unsturated pore water flow), Wsserdampf-diffution (water vapor diffution), Relative
Luftfeuchte (Relative humidity).
assume. The material moisture u95 indicates the state in which all micropores are
includedWater: Then there is a relative humidity of around 95% in the pore air and mass
transport through vapor diffusion in the pores is only possible with a temperature gradient.
The upper limit of the hygroscopic water content range is reached here.
In the sorption moisture range, the influence of temperature is negligible for building
physics considerations.
To determine the thermal conductivity of building materials, the term equilibrium moisture
content is used, which at a temperature of 23 °C is identical to the equilibrium moisture
content of 80% air humidity u80 or T80 (Table 2.6).
– Free water saturation and
Free water saturation occurs when a substance is exposed to unpressurized water for
some time. Coarse-pored, water-wettable materialsthen moisten quickly and completely
(uf = umax). In the case of hydrophilic, fine-pored materials (like almost all mineral
building materials), partial moisture penetration initially occurs. However, over the course
of many years, the water content of a building material that is constantly exposed to
unpressurized water slowly increases beyond the value of uf and finally reaches the value
umax, because the trapped air, which initially prevents the penetration of further water,
slowly dissolves in the pore water and escapes thereby. For wood, uf is traditionally
referred to as fiber saturation moisture. For void-free water-swellable materials, uf, u100
and umax coincide. The difference between the maximum and the voluntary water content
is important for the frost resistance of building materials.
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– Maximum water saturation at max
For a fine-pored building material, the maximum water content corresponds to the
complete filling of all cavities accessible to water or the maximum water absorption of
swellable, pore-free materials.
Table 2.6Equilibrium moisture content of building materials according to DIN 4108-4 [47.3] and DIN EN 10456 [54].
building material Moisture
content
u[k T
II g/kg] [m3/m3]
DIN4108-4
Concrete with a closed structure with porous aggregates 0.13
Lightweight concrete with a porous structure with dense aggregates 0.03
according to DIN 4226-1
Lightweight concrete with a porous structure with porous aggregates 0.045
according to DIN 4226-2
Gypsum, anhydrite 0.02
Mastic asphalt, asphalt mastic 0
Wood, plywood, chipboard, fiberboard, reed panels and mats, organic fiber 0.15
insulation materials
Vegetable fiber insulation materials made from seagrass, wood, peat and coconut 0.15
fibers and other fibers
DIN EN 12524
Expanded polystyrene rigid foam,  = 10…50 kg/m3 0
Extruded polystyrene rigid foam,  = 20…65 kg/m3 0
3
Polyurethane rigid foam,  = 28…55kg/m 0
Mineral wool,  = 10…200 kg/m3 0
3
Phenolic resin rigid foam,  = 20…50kg/m 0
Foam glass,  = 100…150 kg/m3 0
perlite panels, = 140…240 kg/m3 0.03
3
Expanded cork,  = 90…140 kg/m 0.011
Wood wool lightweight building panels,  = 250…450 kg/m3 0.05
3
Wood fiber insulation panels,  = 150…250kg/m 0.16
urea formaldehyde foam, = 10…30 kg/m3 0.15
3
Polyurethane spray foam,  = 30…50 kg/m 0
Loose mineral wool,  = 15…60 kg/m3 0
3
Loose cellulose fibers,  = 20…60 kg/m 0.18
Expanded perlite fill,  = 30…150 kg/m3 0.02
3
Fill made of expanded vermiculite,  = 30…150 kg/m 0.02
3
Expanded clay fill,  = 200…400 kg/m 0.001
Polystyrene particle bed,  = 10…30 kg/m3 0
3
Solid brick (fired clay),  = 1000…2400 kg/m 0.012
sand-lime brick, = 900…2200 kg/m3 0.024
3
Concrete with pumice aggregates,  = 500…1300 kg/m 0.035
Concrete with non-porous aggregates and artificial stone,  = 1600…2400 kg/m3 0.04
Concrete with polystyrene aggregates, = 500…800 kg/m 3
0.025
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Table 2.6(Continuation)
building material Moisture
content
u[k T
g/kg] [m3/m3] II
Concrete with expanded clay aggregates,  = 400…700 kg/m3 0.03
Concrete with predominantly expanded clay aggregates,  = 800…1700 kg/m3 0.03
Concrete with more than 70%expanded blast furnace slag,  = 1100…1700 0.04
kg/m3
Concrete prepared primarily from high-temperature treated dead rock,  = 1100… 0.04
1500 kg/m3
Aerated concrete,  = 300…1000 kg/m3 0.045
Concrete with lightweight aggregates,  = 500…2000 kg/m3 0.05
3
Mortar (masonry mortarand plaster mortar),  = 250…2000 kg/m 0.06
In addition, the following terms are used:

– Critical water content ukr
It indicates the limit at which the capacity for liquid water transport in a drying
building material has dropped to such an extent that water evaporation at theBuilding
material surface can no longer be satisfied. Then the building material moisture in the
surface zone drops sharply in a short time and evaporation drops sharply. The critical water
content is therefore assigned to the break point in the break point curve according to
Krischer (see Section 6.5).
– Water contentuH
In the case of cement-bound building materials, there is the additional characteristic
water content uH, which occurs after the cement has been completely hydrated, if no
water has been released into the environment during this time. This is therefore the
“initial moisture” with which the building material in question enters its use phase after
it has solidified.
Extruder-Schaum (extuder foam), poren-beton (pore
Concret), Wassergahalt (water content),
Ubersattigungsbereinch (overflow area),
Kapillarbereinch (Cpillary area),
Sorptionsbereinch (Sorption range), Kalksand-
Stein 1,4 (Sand-lime brick 1.4), Kalkputz (Lime
Plaster), Zement-beton (Cement-concret), polymer
-beschichtung (polymer coating).
Figure 2.9
Column charts of various building
materials with labeling
the areas of sorption moisture,
capillary condensation and
supersaturation.
Figure 2.9 shows the bar charts for 6 building materials. The three water content ranges are
each marked. Concrete is distinguished from other mineral building materials by its small
capillary area. Polymer coatings only have one sorption range, while extruder foam only has a
very small sorption range
II and has a very large supersaturation area, and a capillary area is completely missing.
Table 2.7 shows further characteristic water contents and the internal surface for some mineral
building materials.
Table 2.7Maximum water content umax, free water content u, equilibrium humidity u for 95% and
50% relative humidity and the size of the inner surface Oi of various building materials.
building material uMax uf[ u95 u50 Oi
[–] –] [–] [–] [m2/G
]
Schlaitdorf sandstone 0.16 0.11 0.006 0.002 1.5
Rüthen sandstone 0.22 0.16 0.016 0.005 4.3
Obernkirchen sandstone 0.17 0.11 0.0050 0.0014 1.2
Krenzheim shell limestone 0.14 0.07 0.0050 0.0020 0.4
clinker 0.17 0.16 0.075 0.040 0.2
Facing bricks 0.19 0.16 0.050 0.027 0.2
Lightweight tall brick 0.26 0.24 0.15 0.070 0.4
Hand blown bricks 0.24 0.18 0.035 0.021 0.3
Sand-lime brick  = 1.4 0.28 0.27 0.024 0.009 10
 = 1.8 0.25 0.24 0.050 0.019 18
 = 2.0 0.21 0.20 0.050 0.023 25
Concrete, alkaline B15 (C 12/15) 0.14 0.11 0.061 0.022 24
B25 (C 20/25) 0.16 0.12 0.064 0.024 25
B35 (C 30/37) 0.15 0.12 0.072 0.027 31
B45 (C 35/45) 0.14 0.11 0.079 0.032 39
Aerated concrete 0.72 0.40 0.050 0.010 38
cement plaster 0.14 0.13 0.08 0.02 16
Lime cement plaster 0.15 0.14 0.065 0.013 11
Lime plaster 0.24 0.18 0.020 0.004 3
Gypsum plaster (machine plaster) 0.52 0.40 0.015 0.0025 6
Fire protection plaster 0.75 0.30 0.20 0.075 250
According to Rose [11], six different stages can be distinguished in the increasing moisture
penetration of porous materials, which are shown in Figure 2.10. The water content should
increase in the order from A to F:
In a very dry building material (A), all water vapor that penetrates into the pores
becomesabsorbed by the walls (see Section 2.2.2), so that it cannot be said to be “transport” at
this stage. It's just saved. If the pore walls are then covered with one or more molecular layers
(B), the pore space is diffusible for water vapor. The thickness of the absorbed water film is in
balance with the relative humidity of the pore air.
In stage C, the pore bottlenecks are the result of capillary condensation with liquidFilled
with water, while there is air and water vapor in the extensions and a layer of sorbate on the
walls. At stage C, the sorbate layer is still so thin that the
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II
Figure 2.10Schematic representation of the progressive water retention in a building material pore as
the water content increases.
Porenengpass (pore bottleneck), porenerweiterung (pore expansion), sorbierte phase (sorted phase), Dampfphase
(Dampfphase), Llissigphase( Liquid phase).
Water transport in the pore expansion only occurs through water vapor diffusion, while in the
bottlenecks the water transport in the liquid phase is accomplished with only small resistance.
In stage D, the thickness of the sorbate layer in the extension has increased to such an
extent that, as a result of liquid water transport (see Section 3.2), there is a significant
amount of water in itis transported. Because continuous water transport is now possible in the
liquid phase, the performance for water transport is significantly increased compared to water
vapor diffusion.
In stage E, the extensions already contain enough water to be effectiveunsaturated flow can
form according to Krischer's law (see Section 3.2.2). There is still an air bubble trapped in the
pore expansion, but it can be characterized as floating freely in the water.
In stage F, the pore space is saturated with water and transport fully obeys Darcy's law (see
Section 3.4).
2.2.2 Hygroscopic water content

The water content that develops in a building material after long-term storage in air with
constant relative humidity and temperature is referred to as the equilibrium moisture content of
the air in question. The possible equilibrium moisture levels of a building material in relation to
moist air are summarized in the so-called sorption isotherm, ie in a functional relationship
between its water content and the relative air humidity that is characteristic of each building
material. These equilibrium humidities are also referred to as hygroscopic humidities. It is
noteworthy that the course of sorption isotherms of porous mineral building materials in the
axis system “relative air humidity – water content” depends so little on temperature that the
temperature dependence can be ignored for construction purposes (Figure 2.11). This is by no
means self-evident because the water vapor content in air depends to a large extent on
temperature and the sorption isotherm describes the state of equilibrium between moist air and
the water absorbed on the solid. The course of the “sorption isotherm of water vapor in air” is
linear because the relative humidity is defined in this sense and is clear
II
Figure 2.11The general course of the storage isotherms of fine-pored building materials, organic
polymers and air.
Feinporige Baustoffe (fine-pored building materials), Organische Polymere (organic polymers), Luft (air),
wassergehalt u (water content u), Relative Luftfeuhte (Relative humidity).
temperature dependent. With organic polymers the influence of temperature is not

alwaysnegligent.
Sorption isotherms, determined according to DIN EN ISO 12571 [55], always go through
the coordinate origin. In the case of porous building materials they have a steep gradient at
  1, while in the case of swellable polymers they abut the vertical at a more or less
obtuse angle at  = 1.
The course of the sorption isotherms can be well explained with the so-called BET theory
developed by Stephen Brunauer, Paul Hugh Emmett and Edward Teller [2] and later improved
[3]: The equation of the sorption isotherm is as follows:
c  1 n1 n  n

u()  u   (2.14)
 n1
1   1 c1    c n1
The course is then determined by three parameters:

– u is the water content that is sufficient to cover the entire internal (and external) surface of
the building material with a monomolecular water layer.
– c is the interaction parameter that describes the energy with which the first layer of water
molecules is physically bound to the surface of the building material.
– n is the average number of layers of water molecules covering the surface.
Figure 2.12 shows schematically the effect of the three parameters mentioned on the course of
the isotherms:
– um goes linear in sizeof the water content, but does not change the shape of the
isotherm.
– The interaction parameter c determines whether the first layer of water molecules is fully
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formed at low or only at higher humidity levels, ie c determines the slope of the sorption
isotherm at ф = 0.
II
Figure 2.12The influence of the three determining variables around , c and n on the shape of the sorption
isotherm according to the BET theory.
U: Wassergehalt, der ausreicht, um die gesamte innere (und aubere) Oberflache des Baustoffes mit einer
monomolekular wasserschicht zu bedecken (u: Water content sufficient to cover the entire internal (and external)
surface of the building material with a monomolecular layer of water),
C: Wechselwirkungsparameter, der die Energie beschreibt, mit welcher die erste Lage Wssermolekule physikalisch an
die Oberflache des Baustoffes gebunden wird (c: interaction parameter that describes the energy with which the first
layer of water molecules is physically bound to the surface of the building material),
N: MittlereAnzahl der Lagen Wssermolekule, welhe die Oberflache bedecken (n: Average number of layer of water
molecules covering the syrface).
– As the number n of additional water molecule layers increases, a steep increase in the
sorption isotherms occurs at higher air humidities.
As n   goes, Eq. (2.14) too
1
u()  u  c  
(2.15)
1   1 c1  
This approximation is useful for large pore sizes or gap-like pores. If c » 1 is added to the condition
n  , (2.15) becomes:
1
u()  u  (2.16)
1
This approximation applies to mineral and metallic surfaces (c » 1) and large pore or gap
widths (n  ), but not at very low relative humidity. For porous, mineral building materials,
the size of the inner surface Oi can be calculated from u as follows
become:
Oi= u OO (2.17)
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The size Oo has the numerical value 3850 m2/g. It indicates how many square meters of
surface can be covered with 1 g of water. Numerical values of Oi can be found in Table
2.7.
The specific surface area of solids by gas adsorption using the BET process is determined
according to DIN ISO 9277 [53].
The sorption isothermsFine-pored mineral building materials show an S-shaped curve, the
lower part of which is caused by the fact that the deposition of the first molecular layer of water
on the inner surface of the building material is highly exothermic (c  1) at low relative
humidity. The additional layers of water are only absorbed at significantly higher air humidity
and with lower heat (the heat of condensation of water).
Organic polymers that are naturally non-porous when viewed microscopicallyAs (frozen)
liquids, they prefer to absorb water through a dissolving process. Their sorption isotherms
generally have a slowly increasing curve (c < 1) and are only slightly curved on one side. The
amount of ingested
II Water does not depend crucially on the size of the (non-existent) inner surface, but rather
on the density of polar groups in the polymer molecule, but these also play a role
Crosslinking density and the proportion of crystalline areas in the normally amorphous
polymer play a role. In polymers containing fillers and pigments, water shells may form around
these “foreign body particles” or water may be incorporated into the structure due to osmotic
effects at higher relative humidity levels. The sorption isotherm then shows a significant
increase at higher relative humidity, similar to porous building materials. This also applies to
foamed polymers.
Figures 2.13 to 2.18 show sorption isotherms of fine-pored, mineral building materials,
wood and synthetic organic polymers used in constructionare often used, shown. Organic
polymers have small water contents compared to most building materials, which is why the
ordinate scale was chosen differently for the images. In addition, the isotherms of organic
polymers merge into the vertical straight line at a defined angle, which corresponds to 100%
humidity.
When measuring sorption isotherms, it is common practice to determine the water content
either with a gradual increase or a gradual decrease in the relative humidity. Then with the
usual procedure you get two different isotherms, oneso-called adsorption branch and a so-
called desorption branch and speaks of hysteresis.
If building materials contain water-soluble salts in significant quantities, for example in
old buildings, then the equilibrium humidity rises sharply at the air humidity that is
necessary for the formation of a saturated salt solution with the salt in question. Figure
2.19 shows this using the example of two building materials and three salts. The
peculiarity of the salt sodium sulfate is that, as a result of the addition of hydrated water,
there is no sudden increase in water content, but rather a gradually increasing increase.
Figure 2.13Storage isotherms ofcement concrete. Figure 2.14Storage isothermsof cleaning.

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Figure 2.15Storage isothermsfromnatural stones. Figure 2.16Storage isotherms of artificial

stones.
Figure 2.17Storage isotherms of wood and Figure 2.18Storage isotherms of synthetic organic
cork. polymers.
Alkalisch (aalkaline), carbonatisiert (carbonated), Wassergehalt (water content), Relative Luftfeuchte (Relative humidity),
Vermiculiteputz (Vermiculiteputz), Zement-putz (Cement-clean), Kalkzement-putz (lime cement clean), Kalk-putz (Lime-clean),
Gips-putz (plaster clean), Abbacher Grunsandstein (Abbach green sandstone), Ruthener Grunsandstein (Richen green sandstone),
Obernkirchner sandstein (Oberkirchner sandstone), Krenzheimer Muschelkalk (Krenzheimer Muschelkalk), Schonbucher Quarzit
(Schonbuch quartzite), Kalksand-stein (sand-lime stone), Porenbeton (Aerated concrete), Ziegel (brick), Fichte (Spruce), Eiche (Oak),
Mahagoni (Mahagoni), Balsa (Balsa), Kork (Cork), Polyamid (polyamid), Gummi (rubber), PUR (PURE), Bitumen (Bitumen).
2.2.3 Hyperhygroscopic water content
Water contents that are greater than the equilibrium humidity of 95% relative humidity are
referred to as overhygroscopic. A distinction is made between two areas (see Figure 2.8):
– Capillary water range, which ranges from the equilibrium moisture content of 95% to free
water absorption etcfsuffices
– supersaturation range,which is from ufup to uMaxextends
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Figure 2.19The influence of three water-soluble salts on the course of storage isotherms.
Vormauerziegel (Menghadapi batu bata), Natriumchlorid (Sodium cloride), Natriumsulfat (sodium sulfate), Calciumnitrat (calcium
nitrate), Kalksandstein (Facing bricks).
We only speak of capillary pores if they are accessible to liquid water and there is a water-
wettable pore wall. Because the pore space is only partially filled with water, menisci occur in
numerous places, which influence the water content distribution in that larger capillary
pressures occur at narrow cross-sections than at wider cross-sections (see Section 3.2.1).
Therefore, the fine pores suck the others empty until all pore spaces are filled with water up to
a certain diameter and there is a uniform capillary pressure as a negative pressure in the pore
water. The pore diameters in which this process takes place range from around 0.1 mm to
around 100 nm.
In the supersaturation range, pore filling can only be achieved through excess pressure,
condensation or very long exposure to water. This is due to the fact that as the pores
become filled with water, air bubbles become trapped in expansions of the pore space.
This air can only escape through diffusion into the pore water, which takes a very long
time under natural conditions.
Because in the equilibrium state all capillary pores are filled with water up to a certain
diameter and all other pores (apart from the sorption moisture) are empty, each
hygroscopic water content can be assigned a largest pore diameter and the corresponding
oneCapillary pressure can be assigned. For the pore structure in a building material, the
functional relationship between the water content and the capillary pressure is the decisive
characterization of its capillary water storage capacity. Krus [26] was the first to apply the
suction stress measurement, which has long been used in soil mechanics, to building materials,
thereby enabling the capillary water storage of building materials to be satisfactorily
characterized. The suction tension measuring system he uses is shown in Figure 2.20: The
building material sample, which has been watered until it voluntarily absorbs water, is placed
in a steel pressure pot. It is placed on water-saturated kaolin
stored in flour, which in turn rests on a water-saturated ceramic plate, the water
salary can relax to the outside world. If the air space surrounding the sample at the top is put
under excess pressure, the air displaces part of the water content of the sample until the
capillary pressure is in equilibrium with the air pressure. By repeatedly weighing the
II
Figure 2.20Suction tension measuring deviceaccording to Krus [26].
Manometer (Manometer), Probe (Probe), Tuch (Cloth), Kaolin (Kaolin), Keramikplatte (Cramic plate), definierter Gasdruck
(defined gas pressure), Wasser (Water), Gummimembran (Rubber membrane).
sample, each time after a defined overpressure load, the desired relationship between water
content and capillary pressure, the so-called suction stress curve, is obtained.
Figure 2.21 shows such suction stress curves for six different building materials. The pressure
range starts at 1 millibar, to which the building materials and their water content are exposed.
As the pressure increases, the water content decreases in a way that is characteristic of the pore
system. Because the connection between the diameter of a circular capillary tube and the
capillary pressure in water and very well wettable pore walls is clearly known (Eq. 3.16), the
upper edge of the image was dimensioned with the corresponding capillary radius.
Figure 2.21Suction stress curves of various building materials.

192 II Moisture
protection
Gips (plaster), Ziegel (brick), porenbeton (Aerated cocrete), Kalksandstein (sand-lime brick), Baumberger sandstein
(baumberger sandstone), Wassergehalt (Water content), Obernkirchner Sandstein (obernkirchner sandstone),
Druck[bar] (pressure [bar].
According to a theory by William Thomson alias Lord Kelvin, a reduction in vapor pressure
occurs via water menisci in very fine capillaries, which means that water vapor condenses there
before it reaches saturation and thus fills the pores with liquid water. The relationship in
question is:
II 2 

K exp   r  R (2.18)
 w T 
The one in Eq. (2.18) contains the relationship between the relative humidity and theThe
radius of the largest pore still filled with water can be seen from the following list:
= 0.9r = 10 -8thm
= 0.99r = 10-7 m
= 0.999r = 10-6 m
= 0.9999r = 10-5m
……
Due to this relationship, which is valid for capillary pores, the capillary radii indicated there
could be supplemented with the associated relative air humidity at the top edge of Figure 2.21.
This means that the capillary pores with the suction stress curves have a similar characteristic
function as for the micropores with the sorption isotherms: In both cases, the water content is
attributed to the relative humidity. The combination of sorption isotherm and suction stress
curve is referred to as the storage function of the building material in question (see Figure
2.22), as Kießl [21] suggested. The storage isotherm is the comprehensive parameter for the
water storage capacity of building materials, as it records both the hygroscopic and the over-
hygroscopic (capillary) water content as a function of the relative air humidity.
While the upper limit of the measuring range for sorption isotherms is a relative humidity of 
= 95%, the curve up to free water saturation in the over-hygroscopic range is determined on the
basis of suction stress measurements and follows the sorption isotherm without interruption
(Figure 2.22). . For estimated calculations, Künzel [24] suggests the following approximation
for a moisture storage function, which, however, is not generally suitable for all building
materials:
(b 1)  
   f b (2.19)
The approximation factor b is calculated from the equilibrium humidity at a relative humidity
of  = 80% by inserting the numerical values into Eq. (2.19) is determined. For the building
materials sand-lime brick, aerated concrete, brick and plasterboard, Künzel [24] found a good
agreement between the approximation and measured values of these building materials.
The moisture storage function underlying the moisture storage isotherm is required when
calculating unsteady moisture transport if the component under consideration is
directlycapillary-connected layers and the transport of liquid water from layer to layer is
important, for example from plaster to masonry. With these building materials, the over-
hygroscopic water content is greater than the hygroscopic one. In the case of fine-pored
building materials such as concrete, the sorption moisture at  = 93% is already so high that
the isothermal curve in the overhygroscopic range can be extrapolated up to free water
absorption [19]. This also applies to wood and wood-based materials. With non-hygroscopic
building materials such as glass, metal or some foam plastics, storage occurs without falling
below the
194 II Moisture
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II
Figure 2.22Combining the sorption isotherm and suction stress curve of a building material to form the storage
isotherm.
TRANSLATE PF PICTURE
Wassergehalt (water content), sorptionsisotherme (sorpsion isotermal), relative luftfeuchte (relative humidity), kapillardruck-kurve
(capillary pressure curve), porenradius (porenradius), feuchtespeichersotherme (moisture storage isotherm).
Do not add water at defrost temperature. They dry out completely at ambient conditions below  =
100%.
2.2.4 Moisture properties of some building material classes

a) metals and glasses
As solidified and non-swellable melts, metals and glasses are completely impermeable to
water molecules. They therefore have no water content and show neither swelling nor
shrinkage. Foamed glass with closed cells is therefore resistant to moisture. Metal foils are
used as vapor barriers. Glazes, ie thin layers of glass, for example on tiles and bricks,
prevent water absorption there. However, for surfaces made of glazed tiles or bricks, the
joints must be taken into account. If there is a high level of water exposure, the (low) water
solubility of some types of glaze and the corrosion resistance of the metal in question must
also be taken into account.
b) Bitumen and thermoplastics

Bitumen and thermoplastics are supercooled organic liquids that do not contain any
pores themselves and can nevertheless absorb water molecules in a dissolution process
with swelling and pass them on through diffusion.nen. Capillary water transport is
therefore excluded when the filler content is low. The water content is generally small, the
transfer of water through diffusion is very limited in quantity and is only significant with
very small layer thicknesses. For example, 0.2 to 0.4 mm thick polyethylene films are used
as a vapor barrier. Bitumen-based coatings and sealing membranes are still the most
important sealing materials against water in the building ground.
Bitumen and plastics can be thinned out using fillers and modified into mortar-like,
possibly porous materials with the addition of plenty of filler, e.g. asphalt and polymer-
cement mortar. The storage capacity and permeability for water moleculescan therefore
increase considerably. The hydrophobic character of these binders and the
II Then larger layer thicknesses usually keep the permeability of these layers for water
molecules at a low level.
Foam plastics can be produced by foaming plastics,which have a large pore volume and
therefore a low thermal conductivity. If the pores are closed-cell and the pore walls are
made of hydrophobic plastic, moisture penetration of the foam plastic is only possible
through condensation as a result of water vapor diffusion, which is particularly true for
extruder foam based on polystyrene.
c) Reactive resins
In terms of moisture, reactive resins behave very similarly to thermoplastics, but they are
much less sensitive to heating.
d) Cement, lime and gypsum-bound building materials

Cement, lime and gypsum-bound building materials, such as concrete, plaster, sand-lime
brick, aerated concrete, etc., have a porous, hydrophilic structure that can absorb water in a
capillary manner, store it and pass it on as liquid water and water vapor, but all of this to
very different degrees the product type. The pore diameters and the pore volume can be
minimized or maximized via the formulation of the substances
e.g. to create relatively water-impermeable structures, or a low thermal conductivity or a
high resistance to the outside climate. The diffusion resistance number moves
Table 2.8Exposure classes of concrete according to DIN 1045 [40] when concrete is attacked by frost.
Class Description of the environment Examples for assigning
exposure classes
XF1 Moderate water Exterior components
saturation, without de-
icing agents
XF2 Moderate water - Components in the spray mist or splash water
saturation, with de-icing area of traffic areas treated with de-icing agents,
agents unless XF4
- Components in the spray mist area of seawater
XF3 High water saturation, - OpenWater container
without de-icing agents - Components in the water change zone of fresh water
XF4 High water saturation, - With de-icing agentstreated traffic areas
with de-icing agent - Predominantly horizontal components in the
splash water area of traffic areas treated with
de-icing agents, concrete protective walls
- Cleaning tracks of sewage treatment plants
- Seawater components in the water exchange zone
196 II Moisture
protection
is at a medium to low level. An important moisture-related criterionThis group of

materials is the degree of frost resistance, which increases with decreasing porosity and
increasing strength. The exposure classes to be distinguished for concrete according to DIN
1045 are shown in Table 2.8. If there is a high water load, lime, magnesite and
Avoid gypsum-bound building materials and use cement-bound or factory-made ones. II
silicate-bonded building materials can be used.
e) Natural stones
Some natural stones have a porous, hydrophilic structure and their properties are
similar to mineral-bound artificial stones, such as sandstone andShell limestone. Others
are practically pore-free and therefore impermeable and cannot store water molecules, such
as basalt, granite, porphyry, which, like glass, are to be viewed as solidified melts.
f) bricks and other ceramic products

Bricks and other ceramic products are building materials artificially produced in firing
processes, whose moisture properties are determined by the manufacturing
conditionscan be controlled to a high degree: high temperatures can achieve a fusion of the
structure with absolute tightness for water molecules and frost resistance, for example in
clinker bricks. The melting can also be limited to the surface, for example with roof tiles or
facing bricks, which is then called sintered skin or glaze. On the other hand, it is possible to
produce structures that are rich in pores and therefore highly absorbent, have a high storage
capacity, are well permeable to water vapor and have good thermal insulation, and whose
frost resistance and compressive strength are then low. The shrinkage and swelling
deformations of brick products are very low.
g) Wood
Wood, as the dried out remains of a living being, has a cell structure, which in
hardwoods is interspersed with capillary-shaped conductive pathways. The ability of
the cell structure made of lignin and cellulose fibers to shrink and swell is different in
all three cylindrical coordinates of the tree trunk due to growth and is so great that it
isConstruction of wooden components must be taken into account. The storage capacity for
water is also high, and the capillary absorbency is considerable, particularly in the axial
direction. The diffusion resistance number is in the middle range. There are many types of
wood with significantly different properties, so choosing a special type of wood can make it
easier to solve a structural engineering task (Table 2.9). Sapwood is more susceptible to
fungal attack than heartwood. The durability of wooden components should be ensured
both structurally and according to building physics criteria with the aim of “keeping them
dry”. If that is not enough, the additional use of so-called chemical wood preservatives,
which can protect against insect infestation and fungal infestation (Table 2.10), counteract
biological degradation. The weathering of the wooden surface can be slowed down by
paints that can limit swelling/shrinkage. If there is a lot of water exposure, wood should be
avoided because it is fundamentally biodegradable. Alternations between wet and dry are
more damaging than, for example, constant storage underwater.
Table 2.9Different natural durability of wood species (heartwood) against wood-destroying fungi [7].
Class Trade name

II 1very permanently Jarra, teak
1-2 Iroko, black locust
2permanent Bongossi, sweet chestnut, oak, western red cedar
2-3 Dark Red Meranti, Sipo/Sipo Mahogany, Yellow Cedar
3moderate permanently Douglas fir1)
3-4 Douglas fir1), pine, larch, lightRed Meranti
4 fewpermanently Spruce, Southern Pine, Fir, Western Hemlock
5not permanently beech, ash, poplar,Southern Blue Gum
1)
varying durability depending on origin.
Table 2.10Assignment of the hazard class and the test ratings of the wood preservatives for the
load/application of wooden components in accordance with DIN 68800-3 [70.2].
Exposure to Application Hazard Test
precipitation, class predicateschemic
splash water or al wood
the like protection
Insect infestation
can be 0 –
controlledor
ϕi ≤ impossible
Inside- 70% Insect infestation
notpossible components possible ornot
1 IV
controllable
ϕi > 70%
Wet rooms 2 IV, P
Exterior components
Earth notconstant 3 IV, P, W
possible
and/orWater constant 4 IV, P, W, E
contact
IV:Effective as a preventive measure against insects
P:Effective against fungi (rot protection)
W: Also for wood, thatis exposed to the weather, but not in constant contact with water E: Also for
wood that is exposed to extreme stress (in constant contact with the earth and/or in
constant contact with water and dirt deposits in cracks and joints)
198 II Moisture
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2.2.5 Possible consequences of high water contents in building materials

a) Sources
Swelling of building materials is the increase in volume that appears to the outside
of a building material due to increased water content. With swelling you can II
other consequences may be associated, which are often more serious than the primary volume
Increase: Cracks and deformations can occur, the strength and modulus of elasticity can
decrease and the creep deformations can increase. On adhesive surfaces, especially
polymer coatings, the bond can weaken or even completely lose adhesion. In the
swollen state are also the chemical and themechanical resistance impaired. With flowing
water, ingredients can migrate out of the swollen building material, which is usually
disturbing for optical reasons and can be seen as positive or negative for the building
material properties, depending on whether the relevant ingredients (e.g. alkalis or
emulsifiers) had a favorable or unfavorable effect.
b) Biologically caused material decay

Biologically induced material decayis called rotting. He is preferred-is driven by
bacteria, fungi, small organisms, insects or their larvae and only occurs with sufficiently
high water contents and only with substances that serve as food or habitat for the organisms
mentioned. When it comes to wood, it is primarily certain fungi and insect pests that can
damage the strength of wooden components. Therefore, wood must be kept as dry as
possible through structural measures and protected from access by harmful insects, or, if
this is not possible to a sufficient extent, protected with chemical wood preservatives.
Certain bacteria release acids as metabolic products, such as nitric acid or sulfuric acid,
which then decompose acid-sensitive stones, such as limestone, sand-lime stone, lime
or cement-bound plaster and concrete, on or in which the bacteria live.
The mere presence of biological growth on a component surface can promote its decay
because a biological lawn can store water and hinder water vapor diffusion. If surfaces in a
common room are covered with biological growth, this is questionable for hygiene reasons.
The presence of noticeable quantities of microorganisms results in the release of odors and
germs into the air. Therefore, the component surfaces in common rooms must be so dry that
biological growth cannot occur.
c) Chemical-physically induced material decay

As temperature and humidity increase, the rate of chemical-physical material decay
increases. Because water is a good solvent for manySubstances and the solubility as well
as the reaction rate increase with temperature. Even with a low solubility in water, long-
term, repeated exposure to water can cause noticeable amounts of substances to be removed
by water. As a rule, the loss of material due to water solubility in mineral building materials
increases significantly when the pH value of the water decreases. Examples of this are the
washing out of the joint mortar in exposed masonry due to acid rain and the roughening of
smooth exposed concrete surfaces due to acid rain or acidic water over the years.
d) corrosion
The corrosion of metalsrequires the presence of liquid water on the metal surface. For
example, iron begins to corrode when the humidity in the air reaches around 65%.cent,
ie the adsorbed water film on the metal surface is sufficiently thick.
II The degradation products of organic building materials, such as wood or bitumen, are acidic
Character and can corrode metals exposed to it, e.g. fasteners, sheet metal covers, sheet
metal gutters, etc., more quickly. Therefore, the aspects ofCorrosion protection of
building metals with increasing moisture exposure must be carefully considered.
Chloride, sulfate and nitrate ions can be carried by flowing water and diffuse in standing
water. However, all structural metals (iron, zinc, aluminum, copper, stainless steel) are
corroded at an accelerated rate by the ions mentioned. Therefore, building materials may
only have very low levels of these ions or may only be used under dry conditions. If there is
an external impact on reinforced concrete (scattering from traffic routes, contact with sea
water, etc.), its penetration into the reinforcing steel must be prevented by surface
protection measures.
e) Consequences of water-soluble salts

Water-soluble salts can be contained in building materials due to production,
especiallyore if these are created by solidifying a mineral binder (cement, lime, gypsum,
magnesia) at the installation site. Particularly high concentrations of water-soluble salts are
found in old buildings because these were formed over time from substances that were
originally not water-soluble through reaction with the acidic gases in the atmosphere in the
component.
Water-soluble salts can increase the equilibrium moisture content of a building material
with the surrounding air moisture, which can then cause consequential damage. Salts
dissolved in pore water can be carried in flowing water and migrate in standing water
by diffusion. When the water evaporates on the surface of a component, the salts
remain behind and appear on the surface as so-called efflorescence saltsComponent
surface appears. If water evaporates below the surface of the building material, the salt
crystals formed exert pressure on the pore walls, which can destroy the structure of the
building material (so-called salt explosion). Frost damage occurs when ice crystals that
form exert pressure on the pore walls in an analogous manner. High water contents,
frequent cooling to temperatures below zero degrees and low strength are unfavorable for
the frost resistance of building materials.
2.3 Condensation and mold formation on component surfaces

2.3.1 The room-side surface temperature θsi and the temperature factor fRsi
When warm, moist air cools down on a cold glass or metal surface, condensation occurs
when the surface has 100% relative humidity.
i.e. when the dew temperature of the room air is reached. For fine-pored,absorbent
surfaceThe conditions are more complex on surfaces: as the surface temperature drops, the
water content in the surface zone gradually increases (Figure 2.23).
200 II Moisture
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II
Figure 2.23Gradual increase in building material moisture on absorbent surfaces and spontaneous condensation on
glass or metal as it cools down.
Kapillares saugen (capillary suction), schwach (weak), stark (strong), taupunktspiegel (dew point mirror), keine sorptionsfeuchte,
kein kapillares saugen (no sorption light, no capillary suction), sorptionsfeuchte (sorption moisture), oberflachentemperature
(surface temperature).
Assuming a room air temperature of 20 ºC with a relative humidity of 50%, mold infestation is
to be expected if the room-side component surface temperature θsi  12.6 ºC for absorbent
surfaces and θsi  9 for non-absorbent surfaces. 3 ºC, as shown by comparing the vapor
pressure on the component surface with that of the room air at 20°C and 50% RH.
It can therefore be stated that the surfaces made of absorbent, hygroscopic building
materials that are usually used in construction practice do not exhibit the behavior of a dew
point mirror, but rather become increasingly moist when they become colder than the room
air. Already overMold growth on wall surfaces can be expected over a period of five
consecutive days with humidity levels of more than 80% for at least 12 hours per day. In
addition to the moisture and the capillary behavior of the component surfaces, the nutrient
supply, the pH value and the temperature, among other things, influence mold growth.
For component surfaces that are not in the area of influence of thermal bridges, are flat
anddo not have any inhomogeneous layers, the room-side surface temperature si is
determined according to Eq. (2.20) calculates:
Rs i
si i   i e (2.20)
 R  ÂR  R
sis
The lowest monthly average outside air temperature in Germany is in January at around 1 °C.
With a certain safety margin, it can therefore be stated that in order to avoid mold infestation,
an external component can be considered to have sufficient thermal insulation if the above-
mentioned surface temperature θsi is 12.6 °C at 20 °C room air temperature and -5 °C outside
air temperature is not undercut. Expressed by the dimensionless temperature or the temperature
factor fRsi,
si e
fRSi  ie (2.21)
does this mean that

fRsi 
must be 0.70.
IIThe formation of condensation or mold normally occurs first on the room surfaces.There are
thermal bridges on the side surfaces because the lowest temperatures are present there. The
minimum values for the thermal resistance of external components are selected in DIN 4108-2
[47.1] so that the condition fRsi  0.70 is met for well-designed thermal bridges. The correct
procedure is therefore to use thermal bridge catalogs or calculations to check all thermal
bridges in the external components to see whether the temperature factor fRsi is above the limit
of 0.70. If this is the case, the cause of mold infestation is not the inadequate thermal quality of
the external components. This assumes that the rooms are evenly heated and adequately
ventilated and that air can circulate unhindered on the external component surfaces on the room
side.
In normal residential construction or in comparable situations, the requirement that the
temperature factor fRsi  0.7 can be derived from the standardized climatic conditions.
However, in special situations, for example when dimensioning external components of
private swimming pools in terms of heat and humidity, the required temperature factor
must first be determined. As an example, assuming that the room air temperature θi = 34
°C and the relative room air humidity in a swimming poolcan be kept constant by air
conditioning at фi = 0.7, the water vapor partial pressure of the room air is calculated according
to Eq. (2.3) to pi = 3723 Pa. On an average winter day with a temperature of -5°C and a relative
humidity of e = 0.8, the external water vapor partial pressure is pe = 321 Pa. According to
Eq. (2.22) and (2.23) according to DIN EN ISO 13788 [58], the lowest permissible saturated
vapor pressure on the component surface psat and the lowest permissible surface temperature
θsi,min are calculated:
psat (si )  pi /0.8 (2.22)
psat (si )  3723 / 0.8  4654 Pa


237.3log  psatt
 610.5
e
si,min  p  (2.23)
sat
17, 269  loge 
610.5 

237.3log  4654 
e610.5
   31.6 ºC
si,min
 4654 
17, 269  log e
 610.5
The minimum value of the temperature factor fRsi,minresults from Eq. (2.21):
f  31.6  (5)  0.94 []

RS
i 34 (5)
202 II Moisture
protection
The temperature factor of the proposed thermal bridge detail must at least reach the value of the
required temperature factor. This can be determined by calculations using PC programs (see
chapter “Heat”).
2.3.2 Condensation protection forComponent surfaces II

If “condensation” is expected on room-side component surfaces (see Section 2.1.2), the
following countermeasures can be considered:
a) Reduce water vapor production

People, animals and plants constantly release water vapor. Many human activities, such
as bathing, showering, cooking, washing and baking, are also associated with
significant water vapor production (Tables 2.4 and 2.5). The larger the spaceThe
volume-related water vapor production is, the higher the humidity is achieved. Experience
has shown that the probability of condensation occurring in the same apartment increases as
the number of residents increases.
If the water vapor production based on the room volume is too high, efforts should be
made to reduce it, for example by removing plants, washing, etcdrying clothes is moved
to another location, etc. Sometimes it is also possible to encapsulate the water vapor source,
for example by covering a plant container, an aquarium or a swimming pool, or to feed the
produced water vapor directly into the exhaust air,
e.g. through a vent above the stove.
b) Improve ventilation
The consequential damage caused by condensation on the inside of external components,
namely mold growth, detachment of wall coverings, rot, etc., depends on the extent of room
ventilation. When replacing old windows with new ones, which must contain tightly sealing
all-round sealing strips in the gap between the frame and the sash, the air exchange
(infiltration) caused by the structure is greatly reduced. This may raise the relative humidity
above the limit of 50% on which the design is based. Due to the sharp increase in heating
costs, the ventilation habits of residents have also changed (often unconsciously) in the
sense of less ventilation, because the air released takes not only water vapor with it, but also
heat. The air change in heated rooms, whether caused by conscious ventilation or by
infiltration, significantly influences the relative room air humidity. Nevertheless, the
infiltration rate in heated rooms should be as small as possible for reasons of energy saving.
Ultimately, heating costs are borne in rental housing constructioncontributes to more
economical ventilation for tenants. In this situation, it seems necessary to instruct
residents on how to ventilate the apartment more consciously. Generally
understandable information sheets about the connections between heating, ventilation,
condensation, mold infestation, etc. have been written by various sources, including
DIN technical report 4108-8 [47.5].
In order to rule out moisture damage in apartments, buildings to be constructed must be
checked to see whether ventilation measures are necessary. In the case of existing
buildings, this test must be carried out if more than 1/3 of the windows in an apartment
building or more than 1/3 of the window area in a single-family home are replaced or
more than 1/3 of the roof area is sealed airtight.
With the help of DIN 1946-6 [45], taking into account the thermal quality of a building, the
size of the apartment, the location of the building and other influencing factors, it can be
checked whether the air volume flow required to protect an apartment from moisture is
removed through leaks in the building envelope can be. This shouldn't
II If this is the case, it must be clarified with the user or owner to what extent ventilation
can be ensured by regularly opening the windows. If there are reasons that
If there are any arguments against this, e.g. the relatively frequent absence of the user, a
ventilation concept must be created. In addition to establishing the need for such a
conceptThis includes selecting a suitable home ventilation system.
c) Improve thermal protection of the component

The smaller the heat transfer coefficient of an external component and the more
favorable the thermal bridges are, the lower the risk of mold or condensation forming.
In the past, condensation usually took place on single-pane windows; today it is usually
through thermal bridges. In rooms with high air temperaturesand high relative humidity,
e.g. indoor swimming pools, the extent of the thermal insulation of external components is
often determined based on the condition that condensation must be avoided. Due to the
strict requirements of the Energy Saving Ordinance [35], the formation of condensation in
new buildings in the normal area of external components is almost certainly prevented.
No matter how good the thermal insulation alone, it is not possible to prevent
condensation.formation in used rooms should be avoided if there is not sufficient air
exchange. The users constantly add water vapor to the room air, which is why the room air
in common rooms with normal use must be saturated with water vapor after just a few
hours if no water vapor is removed through ventilation. Moisture-storing building material
surfaces, room furnishings, etc. can only increase the time until the air is saturated with
water vapor if there is no air exchange, but cannot prevent saturation. The water vapor
diffusion through the external components has practically no relief because it is not
sufficiently efficient. The requirement that external components should be permeable to
water vapor cannot generally be justified in terms of building physics.
Room-side surfaces of components in contact with the ground with poor thermal
insulation are subject to the formation of “condensation”, especially in the summer
months, because thenThe temperature difference between the component surface and the
incoming outside air is greatest. To avoid such ventilation-related condensation, grounded
rooms should not be ventilated heavily in summer, but in winter or in the transitional
period. In this sense, for example, building protection work on earthed containers, pipes,
tunnels, etc., which must always be carried out with strong ventilation, should be carried
out in the winter months. In summer, such rooms should only be ventilated with
dehumidified outside air if condensation is undesirable.
d) Improve heat transfer on the wall surface

The difference between the room air temperature and the room-side surface
temperatureThe lower the heat transfer resistance, the lower the temperature of an external
component. Therefore, areas at risk of condensation should be well ventilated. In this sense,
warm air curtains can keep window panes free of condensation, although this is associated
with increased heat loss. Everyone should be away from endangered areas
204 II Moisture
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II
Figure 2.24Temperature profile on an outside wall with and without a wall cabinet.
Ohne einbauschrank (without built-in cupboard), mit einbauschrank (with built-in wardrobe).
Obstructions to passing air, such as curtains, furniture, plants, tapestries, etc., should
either be removed or placed at a distance from the wall. AtIn built-in cupboards on
external walls, the risk of condensation is particularly high in the zone between the rear wall
of the cupboard and the outer wall surface if the cupboard and its contents have a heat-
insulating effect and the diffusion resistance of the cupboard to water vapor in the room air
is relatively small (Figure 2.24). In the area of influence of cabinets, when calculating the
room-side component surface temperature si according to Eq. (2.20) the following
equivalent heat transfer resistances are assumed, which contain the thermal resistance of the
cabinet:
– area behindBuilt-in wardrobes: Rsi,eq = 1.00 m²K/W
– Area behind freestanding cabinets: Rsi,eq = 0.50 m²K/W
3 Moisture transport
II
3.1 Diffusion of water molecules
3.1.1 Variants of diffusion
“Diffusion” is the migration of individual very small particles (atoms, ions, small molecules),
caused by the thermal mobility (Brownian molecular motion) of these small particles. When
viewed macroscopically, there appears to be immobility in the medium in which diffusion takes
place. The diffusing particles move in all spatial directions with the same statistical probability.
Nevertheless, with different concentrations of the diffusing particles, a macroscopically
detectable, directed mass flow occurs in the direction of a lower concentration (compensation
of concentration differences). This is due to the fact that more particles diffuse away from
places of greater concentration than from places of lower concentration.
Adolf Fick was the first to recognize the law underlying all diffusion processes:
in the literature under the name “1. Fick's law” can be found:
n
G D (3.1)
x
The one in Eq. (3.1) The fraction on the right is called a concentration gradient because it
isshows how much the concentration or volume-related humidity changes along the way. The
diffusion coefficient D is the measure of the permeability of a medium to the particles diffusing
in it. It depends on both the type of diffusing particles and the type of medium. The minus sign
is necessary because in reality the mass flow is directed in the direction of falling
concentration, ie a positive gradient produces a mass flow in the negative x-direction. The
magnitude of the diffusion coefficients of different particles in different media can be seen in
Figure 3.1.
The following variants of the diffusion of water molecules are important for construction:
water vapor diffusion, effusion and solution diffusion (Figure 3.2).
a) Water vapor diffusion
Water vapor diffusion occurs when the water molecules in air, i.e. in the gas
state,diffuse. The water vapor in the static air contained in the pores of building materials
also diffuses and causes a mass flow from places with larger to smaller water vapor
concentrations. The water vapor diffusion through the mostly layered, room-enclosing
components of heated rooms, which are used with the release of water vapor, must be taken
into account, especially in winter conditions.
When water molecules diffuse, the path traveled corresponds to a kinked line. The bend
points correspond to the places of collision with other particles or limiting walls. Figure 3.2
shows the zigzag path of a diffused water molecule in a relatively wide pore or in air on the
left. The average distance from break point to break point is called the mean free path ¯λ.
When it comes to the diffusion of gases, it depends on both the temperature and the total
pressure, with decreasing temperature and increasing pressure

3 moisture 197
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Figure 3.1Value ranges of the diffusion conductance coefficient D of small particles in different media.
In nichtporigen festkorpern (in non porous solids), in polymeren (in polymers), in flussigkeiten (in liquids), in porosen feskorpern
(in porous solids), in gasen (in gases), in luft (in air), diffusionskoeffizient (diffusion coefficient).
Picture 3.2 Tuee medium freeWlength¯λ theWwater molecules atWwater vapor diffusion, Effusion
and solution diffusion.
Wasserdampfdiffusion (water vapor duffusion), effusion (effusion), losungsdiffusion (solution duffusion).
mean free path becomes smaller. For water molecules in air at 20ºC and 1 bar total
pressure, the mean free path is about 40 nm. Pore diameters musti.e. at least 100 nm so
that the water molecules collide more with each other than with the pore walls, ie so that
water vapor diffusion occurs.
b) Effusion
In the very fine pores of a solid, e.g. B. in the so-called gel pores of the cement stone,
whose diameter is smaller than the free path length of the diffusing molecules
¯λ (Picture 3.2 center),wed theWresistance through Clashes with thepore
wallsdetermined more than by collisions with other diffusing molecules. One then
speaks of effusion, or (Knudsen) molecular movement.
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The mass flow density g, which occurs in a fine-pored solid as a result of effusion, is
described by the following relationship, provided that the pores have a circular cylindrical
shape with a diameter of 2  r:
II g8r
1  M   dp  E dp (3.2)

3 2 T dx dx
R
HierbeiistR¯dieuniversaleGas constantefromn8.315kJ/(kmol ·K),whiledM¯represents the
relative molar mass of the diffusing particles. For water it is 18 g. The pressure p can be
either a water vapor partial pressure or a total pressure. The influence of temperature is
relatively small in the construction sector, as the absolute temperature only affects the root.
E is called the effusion coefficient.
If in pore structure withBecause of the wide distribution of pore diameters, water vapor
diffusion also occurs alongside effusion, it is usually justified to call effusion the
diffusion
“to strike” because the transport laws according to Eq. (3.1) and Eq. (3.2) are very
related and the mass flow densities are relatively small due to effusion.
c) Solution diffusion
Solution diffusion is the movement of small particles in a liquid or quasi-liquid medium in
which they are dissolved, that is, molecularly distributed. Water can dissolve not only in
many liquids, but also in organic polymers (plastics, bitumen, wood, cellulose, etc.),
whereby the extent of solubility and thus the permeability for water molecules depends on
the density of the hydrophilic groups in polymers and with the Temperature increase. The
storage of water in a polymer causes it to swell, which facilitates the diffusion of the water
molecules and leads to concentration-dependent solution diffusion. In solution diffusion,
the mean free path¯λ has approximately the same size as the particle diameter of the solvent
(medium) and the dissolved particles (here water molecules), which is 0.3 nm (Figure 3.2
right).
The movement of solvents and plasticizers in organic polymers is also subject to the
solution diffusion mechanism. The medium does not need to have any pores; the diffusing
particles create the space they need through swelling.
3.1.2 Transport law of water vapor diffusion

The diffusion coefficient D in Fick's first law (Eq. (3.1)) characterizes the permeability of the
material structure to the diffusing particles. The numerical value of the diffusion coefficient
indicates the amount of mass flow density at a concentration gradient of 1. If you apply Fick's
first law to water vapor diffusion in still air,
g  D  n (3.3)
0
x
so the diffusion coefficient D0 is that for water vapor in air. As concentrationis to be
understood as that of water vapor in the air.
According to the former DIN 52 615 [68], the diffusion coefficient D0 can be determined
depending on the absolute temperature T and the air pressure p from the following numerical
value equation, in which T0 = 273 K and p0 = 101 325 Pa characterize the standard
atmospheric state:
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1.81
p 0  T D0 p T
D0 0, 0828  T0  2
(3.4)
p m/ Pa K
H
The lower the air pressureand the higher the temperature, the greater the diffusion coefficient II
cient D0, ie mobilityof water molecules in the air.
If one now goes back to the statement made in Section 2.1 that air behaves largely “ideally”,
that is, it follows the so-called gas laws with excellent accuracy, then one can use the water
vapor partial pressure in the corresponding sense instead of the water vapor concentration. By
inserting Eq. (2.2) in (3.3) results:
D0 p p
G   a  (3.5)
R vTx x
The diffusion conduction coefficient δa for water vapor diffusion in air has the same meaning
as the diffusion coefficient D0, only the former is to be used if there is a water vapor partial
pressure gradient as the triggering cause of the diffusion, while the latter is used if a
concentration gradient causes the diffusion process. From a physical point of view, it is
equivalent whether one considers concentration gradients or partial pressure gradients, as long
as the temperature remains approximately the same. Then the same event is just described
differently using different terms. From a mathematical point of view, however, one or the other
approach may be more advantageous. The unsteady processes of solution diffusion are
expediently viewed as a result of concentration differences.
If the water vapor diffusion starts from a water surface, ie if water evaporates, 22.4 liters of
water vapor are produced from every 18 g of water. The gas produced displaces a
corresponding volume of adjacent air. This creates a shift in air away from the evaporation
surface, which accelerates evaporation. Then Eq. (3.5) can be extended by a correction element
(the so-called Stefan factor):
p
G a 
p (3.6)

p  psat x
The Stefan factor contains the total pressure p of the air into which the water vapor is
introduced.and the saturated steam pressure psat of the water vapor. In Table 3.1, along with
other parameters explained in this section, the Stefan correction factor is given for the
temperature range under consideration. It can be seen from this that the Stefan factor only
becomes noticeably greater than one at temperatures above around 30ºC and therefore does not
normally need to be taken into account in construction.
If one considers the diffusion of water molecules in building materials as water vapor diffusion,
the transport law from Eq. (3.5) can be derived. According to a suggestion by Krischer, the
lower diffusibility of the building materials compared to still air is taken into account in the
sense of a reduction factor using so-called diffusion resistance numbers  of the building
materials:
a p
g  (3.7)
 x
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Table 3.1Various parameters of the theory of water vapor diffusion asFunction of the temperature.
θ RV · T D0 δa 1/δa p/(p –
[°C] [kJ/kg] [m2/ [kg/m h Pa] [m h Pa/kg] psat)
II H] [–]
30 140.2 0.1010 0.723 x 10–6 1.38 x 106 1,044
25 137.9 0.0976 0.710 x 10–6 1.41 x 106 1,033
20 135.6 0.0943 –6 6 1,024
0.697 x 10 1.43 x 10
15 133.3 0.0914 –6 6 1,017
0.685 x 10 1.46 x 10
10 131.0 0.0886 –6 6 1,012
0.675 x 10 1.48 x 10
5 128.7 0.0857 –6 6 1,009
0.665 x 10 1.50 x 10
0 126.3 0.0828 0.655 x 10–6 1.53 x 106 1,006
–5 124.0 0.0803 –6 6
0.646 x 10 1.55 x 10 1,004
–10 121.7 0.0774 0.637 x 10–6 1.57 x 106 1,003
–15 119.4 0.0745 –6 6 1,002
0.628 x 10 1.59 x 10
–20 117.1 0.0724 0.619 x 10–6 1.62 x 106 1,001
The diffusion conductivity coefficient δa changes only slightly with temperature (see
Table 3.1). It is therefore permitted to use an average value when calculating the diffusion
current density in the temperature range of around -10 ºC to around +20 ºC, which is
relevant for constructionto go out. Accordingly, the following numerical equation can be
found in DIN 4108-3 for calculating the diffusion current density when proving condensation
protection:
p G p µ d
g (3.8)
1.5106  kg/ Pa – m
d m2H
As can be seen from Table 3.1, the numerical factor 1.5 · 106 as the reciprocal of the water
vapor diffusion conductivity coefficient δa corresponds to the temperature of 5 ºC and is
linked to the fact that the temperature in Eq. (3.8) specified dimensions can be used to
calculate the mass flow density.
3.1.3 Diffusion resistance factor μ and water vapor diffusion equivalent air
layer thickness sd
As a measure of the tightness of a building material structure against diffusing water
moleculesthe (water vapor) diffusion resistance number  is used. It is a dimensionless
quantity whose numerical value indicates how many times smaller the mass flow density is if
the diffusing water molecules do not diffuse through still air but through the building material
structure.
The reason why it makes sense, when defining the diffusion resistance number, to relate
the resistance to water vapor diffusion present in a building material to the analogous
resistance in still air is the following: If one were to create an initially very dense material
by continually increasing the pore space
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dematerialize,The diffusion resistance number would then become smaller and smaller starting
from initially large numerical values. When the solid structure forming the pores has finally
almost disappeared, such as: B. with mineral wool, the only obstacle to the water molecules is
the still air. This is the smallest possible disability for
the diffusing water molecules in the Earth's atmosphere. Since the resistance of still air II
serves as a reference point, it has the diffusion resistance number  = 1. This means that the
possible value range of diffusion resistance numbers is between one and infinity: 1    
(3.9)
Material structures that are absolutely dense against diffusing water molecules,
corresponding to oneOnly metals and glasses have an infinitely large diffusion resistance
number; all other materials are more or less permeable to water vapor.
In order to characterize the tightness of a building material layer, not a building material,
against water vapor diffusion, specifying the diffusion resistance number of the building
material used is not sufficient, since both the type of building material and the thickness of a
layer are crucial for the extent of resistance to water vapor diffusion. The simplest definition
that characterizes the resistance of a building material layer is the product of the layer thickness
d and the diffusion resistance number . Therefore, the term “equivalent air layer thickness sd”
is used as a measure of the diffusion resistance of a building material layer according to the
following definition:
sd =  ·d(3.10)
The name “equivalent air layer thickness” reflects the meaning very clearly: the tightness
of a building material layer against diffusing water molecules under stationary
onesConditions are specified by the thickness of a layer of stationary air that would have to be
present so that the mass flow density of the diffusing water molecules in this air layer under the
specified conditions is exactly as large as in the building material layer.
When measuring diffusion resistance numbers in accordance with standards in accordance with DIN
ISO 12572
[56], disks made of the building material to be examined are placed between two air spaces
(outside and inside a small bowl closed with the disk) with the same temperature but
different relative humidity (Figure 3.3). By weighingof the dishes at certain time intervals,
you can determine how much water has penetrated the sample with a known area in a certain
time
has. The relevant mass flow density is calculated
based on the mass flow density that would occur
if instead ofThere would have been a static layer of
air in the building material sample. This ratio is the
diffusion resistance number. However, since only
water vapor diffusion takes place in still air, but
effusion, solution and vapor diffusion and even
liquid water transport are conceivable in a solid, the
size of the diffusion resistance number may also
depend on other factors and not just on the
difference between the relative ones
Figure 3.3Experimental setup for

measurementthe water vapor diffusion
resistance coefficient 
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Wirbler (whirlwind), schalchen (bowl), abdichtung (seal), probe (probe), salzlosung (seline solution), exsikkator
(desiccator), gitterrost (grating).
Humidity in accordance with the law that only applies to water vapor diffusion in
isothermal conditions. When making scientific considerations, one must therefore take into
account that the diffusion resistance coefficient of a building material depends in particular
on the relative air humiditycan be influenced in the sense that with increasing average relative
humidity in the
IISamples the diffusion resistance number decreases continuously. According to DIN EN ISO
12572, a distinction is made between different test environments:
A:  = 23 ºC ,  = 0…50% B: 
= 23 ºC ,  = 0…85% C:  = 23
ºC ,  = 50…93% D:  = 38 ºC ,
 = 0… 93%
On picture 3.4 is for some mineral onesBuilding materials the course of the diffusion
resistance numbershown as a function of relative humidity. For the building material concrete
B 45, the two (averaged) diffusion resistance numbers for the dry area () and the wet area (C)
are also indicated by a dashed line. In particular, building materials with binders made of
organic polymers, such as synthetic resin plasters, polymer paints, foam plastics, etc., show a
very strong dependence of the diffusion resistance number on the average relative air humidity.
DIN 4108-4 contains a comprehensive compilation of many diffusion resistance numbers,
which should be used as a basis for building physics calculations (table in the “Heat” chapter in
this book). For most building materials, two numerical values are given for the diffusion
resistance number, which represent upper and lower limit values. According to a note in DIN
4108-3, the less favorable value when considering the dew period should always be used in
calculations. However, the compilation of the diffusion resistance numbers in DIN 4108-4 is
quite incomplete with regard to materials based on organic polymers. Table 3.2 therefore
contains a supplementary compilation. The substances measured are characterized by the type
of their binder and possibly also their pigment-filler mixture.
Figure 3.4Variability of the water vapor diffusion resistance factor  with the relative humidity
(examples of concrete and plaster).
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Diffusionswiderstandszhal (diffusion resistance), zementputz (cement plaster), kalkzementputz (limr cement plaster), kalkputz
(lime plaster) relative luftfeuchte (relative humidity).
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Table 3.2Diffusion resistanceof polymer-based coatings, seals and floor coverings.
category Material d[ sd[

mm] m]
II
Coatings Silicate paint 0.15 0.03
Acrylic dispersion paint 0.15 0.05
Polyester coating, flexible 1.0 2.5
2-component PUR, flexible, contains solvents 0.25 0.12
PUR, moisture-curing 0.08 1.5
Acrylic cement filler, fine-grained 1.0 0.15
Acrylic cement filler, coarse grain 2.0 0.2
Synthetic resin dispersion plaster 3.0 0.45
seals Dispersion cement slurry, rigid 3.0 0.6
Dispersion cement slurry, flexible 3.0 2.0
Bitumen primer, water-based 0.15 0.15
Hot bitumen spread 1.5 150
Bitumen emulsion, fiber filled 2.0 5.0
Bitumen solution, filled 0.3 30
Bitumen mastic 3.0 100
Bitumen roofing membrane 2.5 100
PVC film 0.1 4.0
PE film 0.4 40.0
floor coverings Carpeted floor 6.0 0.15
linoleum 3.0 30
PVC sheets 2.5 50
rubber covering 3.0 90
Epoxy coating 3.0 50
Usually used in a thin layer, instead of the diffusion resistance number the layer thickness
d and the associated sd value are given. Building material layers are classified according to the
size of their diffusion resistance as diffusion-open, diffusion-inhibiting or diffusion-tight (Table
3.3). Diffusion-inhibiting layers are also referred to as vapor barriers and diffusion-tight layers
as vapor barriers.
Table 3.3Naming of building material layersaccording to the size of their water vapor diffusion
equivalent air layer thickness (sd values).
designation sd[
m]
open to diffusion  0.5
diffusion-inhibiting 0.5 < sd <
1500
diffusion-tight  1500
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3.2 Water transport in unsaturated pores

3.2.1 Interfacial tension σ, contact angleθ and capillary pressure PK
Figure 3.5 shows some examples in which the physical phenomena of
II a specific force effect on the liquid surface can be significantly influenced.
You can see the spherical shape of freely falling drops, the good and bad wetting of a solid
surface, the depression (sinking) and ascension (rising) of the water in a narrow tube and the
formation of menisci on the edges of water surfaces.
The one that causes these phenomenaForce action is called interfacial tension. This term is
only related to that of mechanical tension in a solid as a result of a force, but is not
essentially the same.
The mechanical stress  is defined as force F per area A (Figure 3.6). Such tension occurs
when bodies are violently deformed. With increasingDuring forming, the stresses increase
until the cohesion of the solid is finally lost due to breakage. The interfacial tension , on the
other hand, is the force F per edge length lR that occurs at the interface between two substances
in a very thin layer, which refers to the length of an imaginary cut edge in the interface.
The interfacial tension as a physical phenomenon can be interpreted in two identical ways:
Firstly as the force F per edge length lR in an imaginary sectionperpendicularly through the
interface, which means that it is considered a special membrane. The corresponding
mathematical treatment of the interface idealizes this transition zone between two substances as
a surface without thickness, while in reality the interface has a certain thickness of only a few
molecular layers. On the other hand, the interfacial tension  can be interpreted as the energy E
related to an area A that is necessary to create a new interface or as the energy that is released
when the interface decreases by a certain amount:
E W  F b  F  F
 (3.11)
A A 21b2 1 1R
Figure 3.5Commonly observed effects of water surface tension.
TRANSLATE OF PICTURE frei fallender tropfen (freely falling drop), gute benetzung einer festkorperoberflache (good wetting of a solid
surface), schlechte benetzung festkorperoberflache (poot wetting of a solid surface), depression (absinken) in einer kapillaren (depression
(sinking) in a capillary), aszension (aufsteigen) in einer kapillaren (ascesion (rising) in a capillary), randaszension (edge ascension).
206 II Moisture
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II
Figure 3.6Mechanical tension and interfacial tension.

Mechanische spannung (mechanical tension), grenzflachenspannung/oberflachenspannung (interfacion tension/surface tension), luft
(air), membrane (membrane), wasser (water), festkorper (solids).
The two possible interpretations also emerge from the dimension of the interfacial tension:
power inN/ Cutting length in
 is in N/m
{ m Energy in N m / Area in m2
Surface tension (interfacial tension between liquids and gases)

In this section the interface between water and air is considered. Interfacesagainst gases are
called surfaces, and the corresponding interfacial tension is therefore also referred to as surface
tension. In terms of their mechanical effect, surfaces can be equated with membranes, which
are always subject to the same tensile force at all points and in every direction tangential to the
interface and want to contract against the resistance of the liquid phase. For this reason, liquid
drops in weightless space take on a spherical shape and the liquid in the drop is under excess
pressure. Regardless of whether the interface curves, shrinks, or expands, the force per length
in the surface still remains constant. As a result, a drop of liquid resting on a surface in the
gravitational field does not have an exact spherical shape,
Another characteristic difference between the mechanical stress in a solid and an
interfacial tension is that the mechanical stresses inSolids essentially only depend on the
deformation of the body and hardly on the environmental conditions in which the solid is
located. Conversely, the magnitude of interfacial tensions is not influenced by bending or
stretching of the interface. The material nature of the two adjacent partners or the conditions in
the gas space above the liquid surface are decisive for the numerical value of the interfacial
tension. If one simply speaks of the “surface tension of a liquid” without describing the
conditions in the gas space in more detail, then it is tacitly assumed that the gas space in the
immediate vicinity of the liquid surface consists of air, which contains the vapor on the other
side of the interface
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contains the liquid in the maximum possible amount. Because that is the natural state
above a liquid surface.
Interfacial tension and contact angle

II The interfacial tension does not only act in the interfaces between
liquids andGases (surface tension), it also occurs between different liquids, between solids
and liquids, between two solids and at the interfaces between solids and gases.
The magnitude of the interfacial tension depends crucially on the force effects between the
respective molecules or atoms of the two substances on either side of the interface [22]. The
temperature dependence is comparatively low in building physics contexts.
A special effect occurs where three different substances, e.g. B. a solid, aLiquid and a gas
adjoin each other. This situation is shown in Figure 3.7. Only at point A, which is actually an
edge, do three interfacial tensions, characterized by the two indices assigned to the two
substances on either side of the interface, act together. The right part of Figure 3.7 shows the
vector diagram of this force constellation. The equilibrium condition for horizontal forces is:
σ1.2 + σ2.3 · cos  = σ1.3 (3.12)
This results in the contact angle :
1.3
1.2
cos    2.3 (3.13)
Eq. (3.13) is called “Second Laplace's Theorem” after its discoverer. Accordingly, the edge
angle is determined by the size of the three interfacial tensions and not by the geometric
situation in the area around A. The size of  therefore only depends on the material nature of
the three adjacent media. For a given combination of three substances, the resulting edge angle
always has the same size. However, this assumes that the solid surface is ideally flat and
energetic
Figure 3.7To the balance of power at the jointEdge of solid, liquid and gas.
Situation (situation), vektordiagramm (vector diagram), flussigkeit (liquid), gas, luft (gas, air), festkorper (solids).
208 II Moisture
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is homogeneous. However, aging, oxidation, adsorption, contamination, roughening, etc. of a

surface changes the contact angle of a liquid in contact.
To explain Laplace's second theorem, the following considerations should be made:
Because of the limited range of existence of the cosine function, an equilibrium with a
defined contact angle  is only possible if the right-hand side of Eq. (3.13) lies between I
the two limits - 1 and + 1, i.e. if the three interfacial tensions exist in a certain mutual I
relationship within certain limits. According to Eq. (3.12)If equilibrium is to be possible, the
interfacial tensions of the solid against the gas on the one hand and against the liquid on the
other may differ by a maximum of the value of the interfacial tension of the liquid against the
gas.
If, for a given combination of solid, liquid and gas, the surface tension , between liquid
and gas e.g. B. is reduced by adding certain chemicals to the liquid, then according to Eq.
(3.13) the contact angle  becomes smaller. This is how the surfactants work, which reduce the
surface tension of the water and thus improve or even enable the wetting of a solid that is
difficult or difficult to wet with pure water.
The surface tension of metals and minerals against air is very high. If solids with such a high
surface tension are wetted with water, this means for Eq. (3.12) that , is the predominant
quantity and the equation cannot be satisfied. Point A in Figure 3.7 moves continuously to the
right due to the uncompensable excess of force pulling to the right, the liquid spreads on the
solid and the wetting angle  is zero. From Eq. (3.12) then becomes the inequality
σ1.3 > σ1.2 + σ2.3 (3.14)
The excess force at point A, which causes the liquid to spread, is called the spreading pressure
Psp:
Psp = σ1.3 – (σ1.2 + σ2.3)(3.15)
The spreading of water on a building material surface is probably the prerequisite for thisthe
capillary absorption of water through fine-pored building materials.
By coating a solid surface with a substance with low surface tensiontion, e.g. B. with
silicone, it is achieved that σ1.3 becomes the smallest value among the three interfacial
tensions at the edge of an applied liquid drop. The right-hand side of Eq. (3.13) now becomes
negative and therefore the contact angle  is larger than /2. In this situation, the surface
tensions at point A act to prevent the liquid from spreading across the surface. The wettability
of a solid is therefore classified according to the size of  as follows (Figure 3.8):
– completewettable:  = 0°
– incompletely wettable: 0° <   90°
– notWettable: 90° <   180°
In Figure 3.9, the surface tensions of solids and the associated contact angles of resting water
drops are compared according to studies by Neumann and Sell [15]. Numerical values of the
surface tension of water as a function of temperature can be found in Table 3.16. Organic
polymers have relatively small surface tensions, while all inorganic substances have large
surface tensions. In the
3 moisture 209
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II
Figure 3.8Classificationthe wettability of a solid according to the contact angle .

TRANSLATE OF PICTURE unfolstandig benetzung (incomplete wetting), flussigkeit (liquid), festkorper (solids), gas (gas),
keine benetzung (no wetting).
Figure 3.9Relationship between the solid surface tension  and the contact angle 
of a drop of water lying on it.
TRANSLATE PF PICTURE
Typische festkorper (typical solid), organische stoffe (organic substance), mineralische und metallische stoffe (mineral and metallic
substances), wasser (water), schmutz (dirt), silikon (silicone), oberflachen spannung des festkorper (surface tension a of the solid),
randwinkel des wasser tropfens (edge angel e of the water drip), alkyd (alkyd), spreitung und filmbildung (spreading and film
formation), aszension in einer kapillaren (ascension in a capillary).
The area between  = 0 and  = 72.8 mN/m (water) is the resulting contact angleof a drop
of water that contacts the corresponding solid surface.
Capillary pressure PK
If an interface is curved, it follows from the interpretation of the interface tension as a force per
cutting length that a pressure is exerted from the interface in the direction perpendicular to the
interface. If such pressure did not exist, then the interface would always have to be flat,
because a membrane under tension always assumes a flat shape unless it is deflected by lateral
pressure. Laplace already has the relationship between the interfacial tension , the two main
radii of curvature R1
210 II Moisture
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and R2 of the interface and the pressure generated, the so-called capillary pressure PK
(FirstLaplace's theorem):
 1 1 
PK    (3.16)
 R1 R 
2
This applies to rotationally symmetrical surfaces
II
r  R1  R 2  PK  2 (3.17)
r
According to Eq. (3.17) takes the sizeThe capillary pressure increases with increasing
curvature of the surface, i.e. with decreasing radii of curvature. The capillary pressure is
expressed as positivetive when it generates tensile stress or negative pressure. This is the case
when the interface of the material under tension appears to be concave. For the flat liquid
surface, i.e. for infinitely large radii of curvature, the capillary pressure is calculated according
to Eq. (3.17) to zero.
3.2.2 The liquid conductivity coefficient n

Given the current state of knowledge, a mathematical recording of the moisture transport in
partially water-filled pores of the building materials that simulates what actually happens
appears to be hopeless because of their bizarre walls and branches and the chaotic distribution
of air-filled and water-filled pore areas. That's why Krischer suggested a macroscopic
approach: the water content gradient and not the capillary pressure is viewed as the driving
potential. The approach for the relevant transport law is [25]:
G  (u)
w (3.18)
 duv
dx
The fluid conductivity coefficient  is the central characteristic of this theory. They
linkedthe moisture flux density with the water content gradient. Because the application of the
liquid conductivity coefficient should take place in a large water content range of the building
materials, in which there is certainly very different performance for water transport,  must
have a pronounced dependence on the water content. The determination of  from experiments
results from the following consideration (Figure 3.10):
Are the water content distributions in a building material at time t and shortly afterwards (t
+ ∆t)is known in the vicinity of a location x, the water content gradient ∆u : ∆x can be read
directly. The moisture flux density results from the change in water content ∆uv at the relevant
location over the period ∆t
M A xw uv w  uv 
x
G  (3.19)
A  tA  t t
This means that the liquid conductivity coefficient  at point x at time t has the
following size:
G  x (3.20)
(x, t)   uv
uv
uv  t
w x
x
If the water contents in a building material were determined at different points x and at
different times t, a corresponding number of numerical values of the liquid conductivity
coefficient can be determined.ficient can be derived from it. If the approach according to Eq.
(3.18) is chosen sensibly, depends
3 moisture 211
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II
Figure 3.10To derive the liquid conductivity coefficient  from measured water content distributions.
 neither depends on x nor t if the building material is homogeneous and

changes during the measurementhas not changed. On the other hand, a dependence on the
water content uv must be expected, since as the water content increases, more transportable
water is available and the transport performance increases.
As a typical example of such an analysis, the functional curve (uv) for the full water content
range of aerated concrete is shown in Figure 3.11. The natural spread of the individual values is
not shown, but only the averaged curve through the individual values. The following should be
noted:
a) The drying process produces a different curve than the moistening process.
Accordingly, a distinction should be made at  into values for “sucking” and for that
“Redistribute” water.
b) The range from 0 toaround 7 percent humidity (u95) corresponds to the validity range
of theWater vapor diffusion (range ཰). Whether liquid water is still transported here and, if
so, to what extent, is still being discussed among experts.
c) The increase in the curve by more than two powers of ten in the range from about 7 to
about 35 percent volume-related humidity (range ཱ) reflects the accelerating effect of the
increasing water content on the liquid water transport. This is the actual scope of
Krischer's transport law according to Eq. (3.17).
d) Above the voluntary water absorption, i.e. in the supersaturation range ི , Krischer's
approach only applies to the drying process, while for the one-sidedWater pollution only
absorbs water extremely slowly and therefore  sinks steeply.
e) When approaching umax,  increases asymptotically towards infinity, because in the
water-saturated aerated concrete without a water content gradient, water can be moved
through the building material according to the mechanism of saturated pore flow (see
Section 3.4).
To simplify many considerations for fine-pored mineral building materials, it can be assumed
that the liquid conductivity coefficient  increases linearly with the water content in the semi-
logarithmic axis system. If, as shown in Figure 3.11, the corresponding straight line is extended
to u = 0, the liquid conduction coefficient  can be determined there
212 II Moisture
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II
Figure 3.11Measured functional curve of (uv) for aerated concrete when moistening and drying.
Flussigkeitsleitkoeffizient (liquid conductivity coefficient), befeuchtung (humidification), trocknung (drying), feuchtegehalt
(moisture content).
Value 0 can be specified, just as a value  = f exists for u = uf. The straight increasing course of
 can therefore be achieved with the two points
u = 0   = 0
u = uf   = f
defined and formulated as follows according to a suggestion by Kießl [21]:
u f
(u) 0 exp ln
(3.21)
 uf 0
The transport law (Eq. (3.18)) and in many cases also the exponential water content-dependent
liquid conductivity coefficient (Eq. (3.21)) characterize the liquid water transport in the
unsaturated pore system of building materials, the so-called capillary water transport.
Table 3.4Extreme values 0 and F of the liquid water conductivity coefficient according to Krus [26] and others.
building material n (u=O) n (uf) nf : n0
[m2/H] [m2/H] [–]
Aerated concrete 8x10–6 8x10–4 100
–5
Obernkirchen sandstone 1 x 10 1 x 10–3 100
Baumberger sandstone –6 –4 12
8x10 1 x 10
brick 5x10–4 1 x 10–2 20
Sand-lime brick –6 –4 25
4x10 1 x 10
cement plaster 8x10–9 4x10–6 500
Lime cement plaster 8x10–9 4x10–5 5000
Lime plaster 2 x 10- 2 x 10–3 100000
8th
Concrete B 25 (C 20/25) 1 x 10- 3 x 10–6 300

8th
Concrete B 35 (C 30/37) 1 x 10- 2 x 10–6 200

8th
3 moisture 213
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Concrete B 45 (C 35/45) - –6 100
1 x 10 1 x 10
8th
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Table 3.4 shows the extreme values 0 and f of the liquid conductivity coefficients of some
building materials according to Kießl [21] and Krus [26]. These values can only indicate the
order of magnitude. Krus in particular has carried out many water content measurements using
the NMR method, which enables rapid and non-destructive water content determination in the
laboratory
IIsmall calculated
building material samples are carried out and the liquid conductivity coefficients are
from them. Among other things, he found that when the water was
redistributed, the  values were high
Water contents are about 10 times smaller than those measured during suction.
3.2.3 The water absorption coefficient Ww

If porous, water-wettableWhen building materials come into contact with water, it attracts
itMenisci created capillary pressure into the pores. The viscous flow resistance of the water
increases with increasing penetration depth. Therefore, the penetration depth h of the water
increases more and more slowly over time, which is confirmed by calculations based on
Krischer's law for unsaturated liquid water transport (Eq. (3.18)) and numerous experiments.
The penetration depth only increases with the root of time:
h  W'  t (3.22)
w
According to Künzel, the expression in front of the root is called the water penetration
coefficient W'W. The theoretically predicted parabolic time law of water penetration into
absorbent building materials has been very well confirmed through numerous experiments on
real building materials. The following test method for characterizing the capillary absorbency
of building material surfaces is based on this. The building material sample to be tested is
immersed in a water bath for a few millimeters with the relevant surface facing downwards
(Figure 3.12). By regularly observing the building material sample, the time course of the water
penetration depth can be determined. If you enter the penetration depth as a function of the
immersion time in a diagram, you get the expected parabola. However, it is more expedient
The same applies to the water mass m absorbed per unit area and as a function of time, which
is easier and more precise to determine than the suction height and is therefore preferred for
characterizing the capillary suction capacity of building materials. In analogy to Eq. (3.22), the
area-related water absorption m or the water absorption coefficient Ww can be defined as
follows:
m  Ww t (3.23)
According to DIN EN ISO 15148 [59], the absorbed water mass m is calculated from the
initial mass of a test specimen mi and the mass of a test specimen mt after time t
(Eq. (3.24)) and in an evaluation diagram over the root of the weighing t registered
time (Figure 3.13).
m t mi 
m (3.24)
A
After a short, initial stabilization phase, water absorption as a function of time (at the root
scale) assumes a linear course. The water absorption coefficient Ww is then determined from
the value of the water absorption at time t:
m
W w (3.25)
t
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II
Figure 3.12Experimental setup for determining the capillary water absorption of building materials
(suction test).
Schale (peel), wasser (water), punktauflage(point support), probekorper(test specimen), abdichtung(seal), beurtelite
oberflache(o assessed surface), ggf. Gitter mit auflast gegen auftrieb(ggt grid with surcharge against buoyancy).
Figure 3.13Evaluation diagram for the suction test.

Flachenbezogene massezunahme(area relate marame on), ausgangsmasse des probekorpers(initial mass of the test specimen), masse
des probekorpers nach der zeit(mass of the specimen after time t al), wasseraufnehmende(water-absorbing area), zeit(zeit).
The numerical value of the water absorption coefficient Ww is the area-related water mass that
can be determined as a result of a suction test for a specific suction time, usually one hour:
Ww
m1h 1 (3.26)

Table 3.5 summarizes the water absorption coefficients of building materials. The water
absorption coefficient can also be according to DIN EN ISO 9346 and DIN EN ISO
15148be specified per second. In this case the symbol is Aw. It should be noted that there are
216 II Moisture
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also product-specific standards for determining the water absorption of building materials.
While DIN EN ISO 15148 applies to building and insulating materials, the water absorption of
bricks, cast stone, aerated concrete and natural stone is specified in DIN EN 772-11 [38] as
well
3 moisture 217
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Table 3.5Water absorption coefficients Ww of building materials.

building material Ww
[kg/m2H0.5
]
II clinker 0.5…5
Hand blown bricks 5…25
Perforated bricks 5…10
Facing bricks 5…10
Sand-lime brick 2.5…10
Schlaitdorf sandstone 1.5
Rüthen sandstone 6…15
Obernkirchen sandstone 1.5…3.0
Krenzheim shell limestone 1.5
cement concrete 0.1…1.0
Pumice concrete 2…4
Aerated concrete 2…8
Plaster, gypsum mortar 20…70
White lime plaster 7..15
Lime cement plaster 0.5…4.0
cement plaster 0.1…2.0
Polymer dispersion coating 0.05…0.2
2-component polymer coating <0.01
Silicone-impregnated mineral building materials 0.01…0.1
of plaster and renovation plaster is regulated in DIN EN 1015-18 [39]. It should be noted
that the test conditions and the results are sometimes different, i.e. not comparable.
Various standards have replaced the earlier DIN 52617 [69].
The water absorption as a function of time, which can be determined by repeated weighing
(inRoot scale) usually follows the course shown in Figure 3.13. However, the suction behavior
can also show other courses (Figure 3.14): The linearly increasing branch corresponds to the
actual capillary suction (curve A). The threshold value occurring at the ordinate is caused by
adhesive water remaining on the suction surface when the sample is removed from the water
bath for weighing. At the break point, the advancing water front has reached the top of the test
disk. The gently rising further course of A corresponds to the redistribution of the water from
coarser to finer capillaries and is associated with a slight suction. For some building materials,
e.g. B. mineral building materials equipped with plastics or hydrophobic agents, a curved
suction curve is found (curve B).
Ww m24
(3.27)
hours 24
218 II Moisture
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II
Figure 3.14Typical time courses of water absorption during suction tests.

Flachenbezogene Massezunagme(Area relate increase in mass on), Zeit(time).
The capillary absorbency of building materials can be classified by the size of the water
absorption coefficient Ww as follows (Table 3.6):
Table 3.6Naming of building material layers according to the size of their water absorption coefficient Ww.
designation Ww
[kg/m2H0.5
]
water-sucking >2
water-retardant 0.5 < Ww  2
water repellent 0.001 < Ww 
0.5
waterproof  0.001
There must be a relationship between the water absorption coefficient Ww and the liquid
conduction coefficients F and k0 for suction, since both of them affect the water
absorption of acapillary absorbent building material. As will become clear from Section 5.4,
this is:
f  f
Ww2  ln  (3.28)
4w 
on 2 0
The influence of the factor ln f/0 is very small, so that it can be taken into account with an
estimate. With Eq. (3.28), the liquid conduction coefficient f can be determined from the
water absorption coefficient Ww, which is relatively easy to measure.
3.3 Moisture transport through flowing air

3.3.1 Driving rain load on facades
Air flows are triggered by total pressure differences, with the pressure differences to be
3 moisture 219
transport
considered here, generated by wind, temperature and ventilation devices, amounting to a
maximum of around 400 Pa. By carrying water drops and
220 II Moisture
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Water vapor can generate moisture mass flow densities in flowing air, which can exceed those
of water vapor diffusion by powers of ten.
For building physics, the long-term average values of the wind are of primary importance, not
the maximum wind forces, which are essential for the stability of a building or individual
building.
II ner components are crucial. The reference height for wind information is the 10 meter mark,
the corresponding wind speed is denoted by v10. Average wind speeds in northern Germany at
a height of 10 m are around 5 m/s, in southern Germany around 1.5 m/s. An average for the
Federal Republic is around 3.0 m/s. It should be taken into account that the prevailing wind
direction in the Federal Republic of Germany is approximately southwest and therefore north
and east facades are relatively rarely under dynamic pressure or driving rain. The height
dependence of the wind speed obeys an exponential law, the exponent n of which is determined
by the roughness of the wind-swept earth's surface (Figure 3.15). The equation of the wind
height profile is:
v(h)
 H n
v10   (3.29)
10m
Picture3.15distributionthe wind speed v over the height h depending on the roughness n.

Hohe uber gelande(height above ground), wiese(meadow), waid(forest), stadt(city), relave windgeschwindigkeit(relative wind speed),
bezugshohe(reference height).
The dynamic pressure is the pressure that occurs when a vertical blow is blown on flat plate
occurs immediately in front of the surface center (stagnation point). The size of the dynamic
pressure PST is calculated from the wind speed v and the density L of the air of 1.293 kg/m³
to:
PST
v 2 L
 (3.30)
2
Table 3.7 shows the dynamic pressure of the wind depending on the wind speed.
Table 3.7Dynamic pressure PST of the wind depending on the wind speed v.
3 moisture 221
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v [m/s] 1 3 5 10 15 20 25
PST [pa] 0.64 5.74 16.0 63.8 143 255 399
222 II Moisture
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The excess and negative pressures that occur on building envelopes are also influenced by
the geo-The geometry of the building being blown on and the blowing direction are
determined. The pressure distribution occurring on a building shell is taken into account by
introducing a form factor C, which indicates what fraction of the dynamic pressure is the wind
pressure on the building shell in question
position has. Form factors are determined in experiments or measured on the structure; she II
are dimensionless and can have a positive or negative sign to indicate
whether there is overpressure or underpressure:
PW = C · PST (3.31)
Figure 3.16 shows the pressure distribution and the streamlines of the wind on a
house.placed. This wind pressure load is the cause of the natural air exchange in rooms and
determines the natural ventilation of double-skin roofs and rear-ventilated facades. The
pressure difference effective for building ventilation consists of the positive pressure on the
inflow side and the negative pressure on the outflow side.
Figure 3.16Wind streamlines and

wind pressure distribution on a
building envelope.
Vertikalschnitt(vertical section)
Horizontalschnitt(horizontal section)
Driving rain on facades occurs when falling raindrops are deflected from their path by the
wind. Therefore, the intensity of the impact of driving rain on a facade depends on the
wind direction, wind speed, precipitation intensity and theWind flow on the building
envelope is determined. Wind speed increases with height above the ground. Because of the
relatively high wind speed at the edges of the building, which can be seen in Figure 3.16 by the
narrow streamlines, the driving rain load is at peak values there.
DIN 4108-3 provides recommendations when choosing measures against driving rain on
external walls. In advance, the building is divided into one of three load groups according to
specified criteria (amount of precipitation, building height, building location, regional rain and
wind conditions) (Table 3.8). In addition, the annual precipitation levels in Germany are
mapped in Figure 3.17.
3 moisture 223
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Table 3.8Criteria for classifying a building into the driving rain exposure groups according to DIN 4108-3.
Stress group Description

II I In general, areas with annual rainfall below 600 mm as well as
(Low exposure to driving particularly wind-protected locations in areas with larger amounts of
rain) rainfall.
II In general, areas with annual precipitation of 600 to 800 mm as well as
(Average exposure to wind-protected locations even in areas with larger amounts of
driving rain) precipitation, high-rise buildings and houses in exposed locations in
areas that would be subject to low exposure to driving rain due to
regional rain and wind conditions.
III In general, areas with annual precipitation over 800 mm as well as windy
(Heavy exposure to driving areas with lower amounts of precipitation (e.g. coastal areas, low and high
rain) mountain areas, foothills of the Alps), high-rise buildings and houses in
exposed locations in areas that have a medium average due to the regional
rain and wind conditions driving rain exposure.
Figure 3.17Overview map of

driving rain exposure in the
Federal Republic of Germany
in accordance with DIN 4108-
3.
224 II Moisture
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3.3.2 Measures against driving rain

A facade can be protected against driving rain by the geometry of the facade surfaceconstructive
development, the structure of the wall cross-section and through building protection measures
were protected on the facade surfacebecome.
Design measures include low roofs and large roof overhangs II
facade surfaces that recess at the bottom, water-draining cornices, etc. (Figure 3.18).
Figure 3.18Protection against driving rainDesign of the facade.

Weit herabgezogenes Dach(Roof pulled down far), Grober Dachhuberstand(Large roof overhang), Nach unten
zuruckspringende Fassadenflache(facade surface receding downwards), Bautenschutzmabnahmen(building protection
measure), Wasserableitende gesimse(water draining cornices).
The watertightness of a wall is always based on the entire wall cross-sectionassess (Figure
3.19): On the one hand, a homogeneously constructed wall can be chosen from a wall building
material that naturally absorbs only little or only slowly water, e.g. B. exposed concrete, or
which has sufficient storage capacity with a correspondingly large wall thickness (Image A).
Secondly, a ventilated shell can be installed in front of the wall to keep out the rain (Image B).
Shingles and panels on supporting frameworks or ventilated facing walls work in this sense.
The protective shell must be resistant to rain, including frost, etc. It does not have to be
completely impermeable to rainwater. Thirdly, an impermeable layer can be built into the wall
(Image C), e.g. B. a closed mortar shell, a hydrophobic core insulation layer or a bituminous
sealing skin, an underlayment, etc. Fourthly, the surface of a wall can be treated with paint,
mineral plasters, synthetic resin plasters, impregnating agents, etc. so that it no longer shows
capillary suction (Image D). The danger posed by cracks in the wall must then be taken into
account more than in case A, because the rainwater running off the wall surface has a
concentrated effect on the cracks. This can be counteracted by crack-bridging coatings or, in
the case of cracks with gap widths < 0.3 mm, by hydrophobicizing the wall zone near the
surface. because the rainwater running off the wall surface has a concentrated effect on the
cracks. This can be counteracted by crack-bridging coatings or, in the case of cracks with gap
widths < 0.3 mm, by hydrophobicizing the wall zone near the surface. because the rainwater
running off the wall surface has a concentrated effect on the cracks. This can be counteracted
by crack-bridging coatings or, in the case of cracks with gap widths < 0.3 mm, by
hydrophobicizing the wall zone near the surface.
DIN 4108-3 contains for the three driving rain exposure groups (see Section
3 moisture 225
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3.3.1)Examples of external walls resistant to driving rain. A short version of this is compiled in
Table 3.9 in this book. The terms “water-retardant” and “water-repellent” are used for external
plasters and joint mortars with the meaning defined in Section 3.2.3.
When using exposed brickwork, the conditions specified in DIN 1053-1 [42] must be observed:
Single-shell exposed brickwork on buildings for permanent residence of people must have at
least two rows of stones in each layer of stone, between which
226 II Moisture
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II
Figure 3.19Effective principles of watertightness of wall cross-sections.

Baustoff mit oder langsamer wasseraufnahme(building material with low or slow waterabsorption), Hinterluftete Schale auf der
Aubenseite(ventilated shell on the outside), Wasserundurchlassige Schicht in der wand(Waterproof layer in the wall), Oberflahen
schutzschicht auf der aubenseite(surfer protective layer on the outside).
Table 3.9Examples of the assignment of wall construction types and stress groups according to DIN
4108-3.
driving rain exposure group

I II III
low exposure to driving rain medium exposure to driving heavy exposure to driving rain
rain
Exterior plaster without any
specialRequirements for Water-repellent exterior plaster according to DIN 4018-3 Table 4
protection against driving rain
– Exterior walls made of masonry, wall building panels, concrete, etc.
– as well as plastered external thermal bridge insulation
Double-shell facing masonry
Single-shell exposed Single-shell exposed
with air layer and thermal
brickwork with a thickness of brickwork with a thickness of
insulation or with core insulation
31 cm (with interior plaster) 37.5 cm (with interior plaster)
(with interior plaster)
Exterior walls with thick-bed
or thin-bed mortared tiles or
Exterior walls with tiles or slabs mortared in a thick or thin bed
panels in accordance with
DIN 19515-1 with water-
repellent mortar
Exterior walls with a structurally tight concrete outer layer
Walls with ventilated external wall cladding
Walls with external insulation through a thermal insulation composite system or through a thermal
insulation composite system approved by the building authorities
Exterior walls made of wood with weather protection according to DIN 68800-2
There is a continuous, layer-by-layer, mortared, void-free, 2 cm thick longitudinal joint.

The masonry is also fully jointed and friction-locked throughout the entire cross-
sectionwall up. Double-shell exposed masonry must have one between the two masonry shells
3 moisture 227
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Includes a mortar shell 2 cm thick, which must not have any interruptions and is to be
applied as plaster to the first built backing wall shell. The front wall shell isto be built fully
and firmly from frost-resistant stones. Air layers or the space between the masonry shells filled
with core insulation material are at the base points
to protect against backlogged seepage water by inserting sealing membrane strips and II
to drain to the outside. Single-shell exposed masonry is just as popular as double-shell
with a grouted mortar shell without an air layer has proven to be a risky construction
method in the past in terms of impermeability to driving rain.
The possibility of treating exposed concrete, exposed masonry, plaster, aerated concrete, etc.
with impregnating agents or paints to prevent water absorption is widespread, proven and very
economical. Impregnation with silicones is very popular for exposed masonry because it does
not change the appearance of the wall surfaces, is inexpensive and a protection period of more
than 20 years can easily be achieved [75]. Almost without exception, facade plasters are
protected with paint and are therefore preserved for longer. From a building physics
perspective, the aim of these measures is to reduce capillary water absorption, which is why
products that are effective in this sense should only be used. For plasters and coatings to protect
against driving rain, DIN 4108-3 lists the requirements given in Table 3.10.
Table 3.10Requirements for rain protection of plasters and coatings according to DIN 4108-3.
Criteria for rain Water absorption Steam-diffusion- Product
protection coefficient equivalent air layer Ww · sd
Ww thickness [kg/m ·
[kg/m² h0.5] sd[ h0.5]
m]
water-retardant 0.5 < Ww < 2 - -
water repellent <0.5 2  0.2
DIN 4108-3 also gives recommendations for the formation of joints between prefabricated
large-format wall panels made of ready-mixed concrete (Figure 3.20 and Table 3.11). Measures
are only considered necessary at vertical joints if driving rain exposure group III is present.
Horizontal joints should either be open and then have to be threshold-shaped in a certain way.
However, they can also be sealed with permanently elastic sealants and then only need to be
equipped with correspondingly smaller thresholds.
Table 3.11Assignment of joint sealing types and driving rain stress groups according to DIN 4108-3 for
large-format external wall elements.
driving rain exposure group
Type of joint
I II III
constructive joint formation
Vertical joints
Joints according to DIN 18540 [64]
open, threshold-shaped joints, threshold height
h  60 mm h  80 mm h  100 mm
Horizontal joints
Joints according to DIN 18540 with additional constructive measures, e.g. B.
with threshold h  50 mm
228 II Moisture
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II
Figure 3.20Suggestion for

the formation of the
jointsbetween large-format
external wall elements in
accordance with DIN 4108-3.
Horizontalfuge(horizontal joint),
Vertivalfuge(vertical joint),
dichtstoff(sealant),
Schaumstoffband(foam tape),
Druckentspannungskammer(pres
sure relife chamer),
luftduchtung(air seal),
innenputz(interior plaster),
innen(inside), auben(outside).
DIN 4108-3 does not address the particularly problematic facades made of exposed
framework. This forms at the joints between the truss timber and the infillunavoidable
cracks into which rainwater can penetrate. This makes such facades very sensitive to driving
rain. Recommendations can be found from various publications [72] as to when which
construction method should be chosen for half-timbered facades (Table 3.12). Figure 3.21
shows a suggestion for lining wooden frameworks with aerated concrete [20].
Table 3.12Recommendations for the design of half-timbered facades for protection against driving rain.
driving
RequirementsSurface/Infill
rainStress group exposure to rain
I (g) Half-timbered facades in No requirements for external plasters

protectedLocation, facades facing and paints. No restrictions on the choice
away from the weather or protected by of infill materials
neighboring buildings
I Half-timbered facades with low Low water-repellent or water-inhibiting
rain exposure according to DIN external plasters, external paints sd 
4108-3 0.1 m. Vapor-permeable infill and
insulation materials ( < 10)
II, III Half-timbered facades for medium Rain protection through cladding or
and heavy rain exposure according to plaster systems with a decoupling layer
DIN 4108-3 between the framework and the top
plaster.
Infill as for I (g)
Testing the water tightness of windows is regulated in DIN 18055 [60], according to which the
windows are divided into stress groups A to D. The stress group must be stated in the service
specifications. The height of the building is normally the criterion, but in special cases other
3 moisture 229
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aspects (e.g. geographical location, type of window installation, etc.) can also be important. If
group D is selected, the requirements must be stated.
230 II Moisture
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II
Figure 3.21Lining of timber frame walls with aerated concrete.

Warmedamm-mortel(thermal insulation mortar), Hartholz-Dreikantleiste(hardwood triangular strip), fachwerk(half-timbered),
mineralischer dammputz mit anstrich(mineral insulating plaster with paint), auben(outside), innen(inside), porenbeton-
plansteine(aerated concrete planing blocks), gipsputz(gipsputz).
Driving rain can not only have an effect in the sense that it can dampen external layers
and, in extreme cases, wet entire walls. The possibility of a harmful effect of the absorbed
water, especially on non-frost-resistant building materials, must also be taken into account.
After all, a facade is also the “face of the building”.to be assessed from aesthetic aspects:
efflorescence salts, dirt streaks, leaching effects, biological growth, etc. are often the
consequences of the exposure of facades to rain. Most complaints are due to inadequately
formed or even missing drip edges on window sills, verges, wall crowns and attics. Minimum
dimensions for verge sheets can be found in Table 3.13.
Table 3.13Minimum dimensions for the dimensions of verge sheets and distance dimensions of drip
edges according to the technical rules of the plumbing trade [76].
Building Dime Drip edge
height nsion distance
[m] s h31)[mm]
verge h1 Graduatio
t)[mm] n h24)
[mm]
<8 40…60 > 50 20…30 ²)
8…20 40…60 >80 30…40 ²)
> 20 60…100 > 100 40…50 ²)
1)
If the location is unfavorable, the minimum distance is higher
2)
For copper, minimum distance 50…60 mm
3)
Verge upstand from top edgeRoof covering
3 moisture 231
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4)
Covering vertical building partsfrom the bottom edge of the formwork
232 II Moisture
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3.3.3 Air currents in channels and air layers

Air currents that occurred in pipes mounted vertically in front of facade surfaces
weredetermined at the same time as the flow speed of the wind against these facade surfaces.
The recorded flow velocities can be seen in Figure 3.22. It can be seen there that the speeds
I increase with the pipe diameter and that when there is no wind, an upward air flow occurs due
I to thermal buoyancy. As the wind speed increases, the direction of the air flow reverses. This
can be explained as follows:
Figure 3.22Measured flow velocities vs in a vertically arranged tube in front of a facade.

Stromungsgeschwindigkeit(flow velocity), abwarts aufwarts(downwards upwards), laminare stromung(laminar flow),
ubergengsbereich(transition area), turbulente stromung(turbulent flow), rohrdurchmesser(rorb diameter),
windgeschwindigkeit(wind speed).
For air flow in air gaps or in air ducts on the same side of the building,but have their inlet and
outlet openings at different altitudes, is the pressure difference
PW from wind loading due to insertionfrom Eq. (3.29) and (3.30) in (3.31):
P C L
v 2   ho  2n  hu  2n 

W
2
10m  (3.32)
  10m 
 
10m  
The pressure differences PA resulting from differences in the density of the air can be
stated as follows, if h indicates the height expansion of the air column:
∆PA = g · h · (Lo – Lu)(3.33)
The density of air depending on temperature and relative humidity can be found in Table 3.14.
It can be seen that the density L of moist air decreases with both temperature  and relative
humidity , although relative humidity only has a modest influence compared to temperature.
When calculating the flow velocity in channels, you have to use the sameearly effect of the
wind, which always wants to cause a downward flow and the thermal buoyancy as the motor of
the flow as well as the friction of the flowing air
3 moisture 233
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Table 3.14Density L, dynamicViscosity  and kinematic viscosity  of air as a function of temperature.
θ pl η v
[°C] [kg/m3] [Pa s] [m2/s] II
ф=O ф=1
–20 1,394 1,393 16.2 x 10–6 11.6 x 10–6
–10 1,341 1,340 16.7 x 10–6 12.4 x 10–6
–6
0 1,292 1,290 17.1 x 10 13.2 x 10–6
10 1,246 1,241 17.6 x 10–6 14.1 x 10–6
–6
20 1,204 1,193 18.1 x 10 15.0 x 10–6
–6
30 1,164 1,146 18.6 x 10 16.0 x 10–6
40 1,127 1,096 19.1 x 10–6 16.9 x 10–6
–6
50 1,092 1,042 19.5 x 10 17.9 x 10–6
60 1,060 0.981 20.0 x 10–6 18.9 x 10–6
–6
70 1,028 0.909 20.5 x 10 19.9 x 10–6
–6
80 0.999 0.823 20.9 x 10 20.9 x 10–6
90 0.972 0.718 21.4 x 10–6 21.9 x 10–6
–6
100 0.946 0.588 21.8 x 10 23.0 · 10–6
Consider brake [17.2]. According to the laws of fluid mechanics (Bernoulli's equation) one then
obtains the average flow velocity vs to:
vs  2 PW 
(3.34)
L PA
1    1  E  A  ...
d  can be taken from the well-known representation by
The coefficient of friction
Colebrook, Prandtl andKarman can be taken as a function of the Reynolds number of the flow:
vsdL
Re L (3.35)
This one and the othersFriction coefficients λ for local flow resistance, e.g. B. at the inlet,
at the outlet, etc. can be found in the relevant specialist literature [27.1], [27.3], [31]. When
recalculating practical construction conditions using the formulas given, it can be seen that
the pipe or gap flows discussed here have velocities of 0.1 to 2 m/s and the Reynolds
number is often in the area of the transition from laminar toturbulent flow lies. Because of
the many imponderabilities when calculating ventilation flows, it is therefore considered
sufficient to simply calculate with a coefficient of friction of λ = 0.04.
The water vapor removal effect of the flowing air results from an observation of a strip of the
height of the channel or air gap (Figure 3.23). The added moisture gD, usually as a result of
water vapor diffusion from the inside, is removed by the air flowing upwards, whereby its
relative humidity increases. This results in:
gD · b · dh = d · sat (L) · VL · d ·b(3.36)
234 II Moisture
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II
Figure 3.23For the moisture balance on a wall element with a ventilated facing shell.
It followsthe increase in relative air humidity in the air-carrying cross section along the flow
direction
d gD
 (3.37)
ie nsat(L ) vLd
Figure 3.24 shows a schematic vertical section through a rear-ventilated facade with the
course of the relative air humidity in the rear ventilation:
Figure 3.24Distribution of relative air humidity  over the height of an air gap.
Tauwasserbereich(defrost area), Anricherungsbereich(enrichment area), erwarmungsbereich(heating area), re;ative
luftfeuchte( relative humidity).
After the outside air flows into the channel or gap, heating initially occurs due to the heat
supplied from the inside, with the relative air humidity at the air inlet opening decreasing
nsat,i
vone on e 
sat,e
n
3 moisture 235
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(3.38)
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Then follows the enrichment phase of the flowing air with water vapor, which leads to air
saturation and condensation if the flow path is sufficiently large.
Flow-through or rear-ventilated components that are intended to dissipate incoming moisture
must not have flow paths that are too long and should neither be too strong nor too weak.
flows because, on the one hand, the thermal insulation is not damaged, but on the other hand, II
Depending on the situation, you want to use the dehumidifying effect of the air flow.
3.3.4 Joint gap flows and room ventilation

The practical construction significance of the joint gap flows that occur under atmospheric
pressure differences is, on the one hand, in the natural ventilation of roomsImpact on the
indoor climate can be seen (see sections 2.1.3 and 3.3.3). Furthermore, room air can penetrate
into the building structure due to leaks in the room-enclosing components and the water vapor
contained in the flowing air can condense in an undesirable place. Such water accumulation on
the walls of fissures flowing through is to be expected particularly in the winter months.
Exterior components must therefore be required to be airtight, not only to avoid unnecessary
heating energy losses, but also to protect the building envelope from moisture damage.
Gaps that are permeable to flowing air can be found primarily in the area of overlaps,
connections and penetrations of airtight membranes, at joints and connections of panel
materials to ensure airtightness and at window connections.conclusions occur. But
unplastered masonry is also a non-airtight surface. A layer of plaster must therefore always be
applied to ensure airtightness.
DIN 4108-7 [47.4] specifies requirements for the airtightness of buildings.Furthermore,
many planning and implementation recommendations as well as implementation examples can
be found in the standard. The suggestions shown there serve, on the one hand, to provide
energy-saving thermal protection (see the “Heat” chapter) and, on the other hand, to prevent
warm, humid room air from penetrating the structure.
TueeBige of through one separateFuge the length l urgent Air volume flowv˙ results from the
following equation:
v˙  l  a (3.39)
p2/3
The exponent 2/3 in the pressure difference is caused by the turbulent flow. Joint length l
means the joint length of the window as the sash circumference.
If different joints of length li and joint permeability ai occur one after the other in the
direction of flow, e.g. B. Window joints – partition door joints – window joints (Picture
3.25),sOputtsicH a Air volume flowv˙ followingBige a:
v˙ 
 p2/3 2/3 (3.40)
 i 1 
3/2

 l a 
  ii 
The pressure drop piThe joint i has the value:
 v˙
3/2 p
pi     (3.41)
 left ai  1 3/2
l a
3/2


3 moisture 237
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ii 
 leftai
238 II Moisture
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II
Figure 3.25Pressure distribution in a building with air flowing through it.
The air exchange rate n in room i with volume Vi then has the size:
˙
n v (3.42)
Vi
Common joint permeability coefficients a for components of older buildings can be found
in Table 3.15 [52]. The energy saving regulations regulate the tightness of functional joints
in new external windows, French doors and roof windowsCompliance with specified classes
of joint permeability is limited. For buildings with up to two full floors is class 2
(corresponding to a  0.3 m3/(m · h · Pa2/3) and for buildings with more than 2 full floors is
class 3 (corresponding to a  0.1 m3 (m · h · Pa2/3) must be adhered to.
In addition to the requirements for the tightness of windows, the Energy Saving Ordinance
requires the greatest possible tightness of the entire heat-transferring enclosing surface of
heated buildings. This is checked by placing the heated volume of a structure under an
overpressure or underpressure of 50 Pa. The air volume flow required to maintain this pressure,
based on the total air volume in the building, must then not exceed a certain limit, expressed as
the air exchange rate n (see chapter “Heat”).
3.3.5 Condensation protection for air layers and air ducts

Air layers and air channels, the physical laws of which were discussed in the previous
section, are installed in components to limit moisture penetration due to driving rain, to
remove water vapor and condensation and to create dry and warm wall surfaces. They are
also useful in terms of summer heat protection.
From a building physics perspective, very small gap widths in air layers are sufficient to
remove moisture from precipitation or from water vapor diffusion through flowing air.
However, the tolerances in the construction make a minimum layer thickness of 2 cm seem
advisable in order to exclude the transfer of liquid water from one gap wall to the other.
The ventilation openings at the top and bottom of one
3 moisture 239
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Table 3.15Joint permeability of joints on windows and doors and wall element joints according to DIN 4701-2.
Component quality feature a a·l

[m3/(m · h · Pa2/3)] [m3/(h Pa2/3)]
II
Window to open Stress group B, C, D 0.3 –
Stress group A 0.6 –

not to open normal 0.1 –
Doors Exterio Rotary very tight, with a tight stop all 1 –
r doors andSliding around
doors normal, with threshold or 2 –
lower sealing strip
Swing doors normal 20 –
Revolving normal 30 –
doors
inner doors tight, with threshold 3 –
normal, without threshold 9 –
externa Continuous joint very close 0.1 –
l wall between (with guaranteed tightness)
prefabricated without guaranteed tightness 1 –
elements
Roller accessible from outside normal – 0.2
shutters, accessible from the normal – 4
external inside
The bowl in front should be as large as possible. This means that the moisture in the gap
quickly increasesremoved. At the base of the gap, any condensation water that may
accumulate should be able to drain away without causing any damage.
a) Ventilated external wall cladding
DIN 18516-1 [63] lists the building physics requirements for rear-ventilated external
wall cladding:
“Rear ventilation is required to reduce building moisture, to divert any precipitation that
may penetrate through the open joints, to separate the cladding from the insulation layer or
the wall surface and to drain away condensation on the inside of the cladding.
This requirement is usually met if the cladding is arranged at a distance of at least 20 mm
from the outer wall or insulation layer. The distance can e.g. B. can be locally reduced to 5
mm due to the substructure or uneven walls.
In the case of vertically arranged trapezoidal or corrugated profile panels, the cladding may
lie in strips, although it must be ensured that the free horizontal rear ventilation cross-
section is at least 200 cm2/m.
For rear-ventilated external wall cladding, ventilation openings must be provided at least at
the base of the building and at the edge of the roof with cross-sections of at least 50 cm2
per 1 m of wall length.
240 II Moisture
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In the base area, openings for rear ventilation of the external wall cladding with a width
of over 20 mm must be secured by ventilation grilles.”
b) Ventilated roofs
Ventilated roofs whose thermal insulation meets DIN 4108-2 [47.1] and whichDIN
I 4108-3 [47.2] are harmless with regard to condensation inside the component without
I further proof, have already been listed in Section 5.2.4 in the so-called list of harmless
components.
Proper placement of the inlet and outlet openings for the air ensures complete ventilation,
especially in complicated roof areas. In the case of complicated building shapes, it is also
important to check whether the wind flow around the building actually leads to wind
pressure on one side of the roof and wind suction on the other side.
c) Ventilated facing walls
Ventilated facing walls are harmless in terms of condensation if they meet the requirements
of DIN 1053-1 [42]. The following is mentioned there to ensure rear ventilation:
– Air gap:
At least 4 cm thick
– Start of the air layer:At least 10
cm above ground level
– Location of the ventilation openings:
At the top and bottom of the column, also in the parapet area
– Size of the ventilation openings at the top and
bottom: 7500 mm each2area per20 m2wall
surface
These requirements mentioned in DIN 1053 lead to slower rear ventilation, which is
sufficient to remove the condensation water that accumulates on the back of the outer
shell in winter in the annual cycle.
d) Ventilated channels
In the case of ventilated ducts in components that are intended to be used for
dehumidification, a mathematical proof of effectiveness is recommended, as here, in
contrast to air layers, the flow resistance for the air is relatively high.
e) Columns, jointsand cracks
Narrow gaps, joints, cracks, etc. in external components must be designed or sealed to be
airtight in order to prevent condensation, energy losses, the passage of sound and smoke.
This is why it is mandatory to draw up an airtightness concept for new buildings and often
for energy-related repairs to existing buildings.
3.4 Flow of water in saturated pores and cracks

If liquids flow sufficiently slowly, ie “laminar”, the speed and their sense of direction only
change gradually from particle to particle. Therefore it is possible to specify streamlines and
velocity profiles. The diffusion of particles, which also occurs in flowing liquids or gases, leads
to a kind of interlocking of layers flowing at different speeds. The corresponding resistance in
the interfaces between
3 moisture 241
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Layers with different flow velocities are characterized by the so-called viscosity coefficient ,
which is defined in Newton's flow law:
According to Figure 3.26, consider a liquid layer of thickness dx that is located between two
plates of area A. If the plates are placed relatively slowly and parallel to each other
which is shifted so that its relative speed is dv, then this shift will occura II
Resistance F is opposite, which depends largely on the type of liquid and its temperature. If one
denotes, as usual, the resistance force F with respect to the area A as the shear stress  and the
relative speed dv of the plates with respect to the distance between the plates dx as the velocity
gradient (v'), then, according to measurements on numerous liquids and gases, it is not too large
Velocity gradients the shear stress  with good accuracy proportional to the velocity gradient
(Newton's flow law):
dv
t   n
dv (3.43)
dxdx
Figure 3.26To explain Newton's flow law at a plane-parallel gap with shear flow.
The dynamic viscosity coefficient , like the analogous kinematic viscosity coefficient , is a
characteristic material parameter of liquids and gases and is usually very temperature-
dependent. Numerical values of the dynamic and kinematic viscosity coefficients as well as the
density of water as a function of temperature are in the table
3.16 compiled. The definition applies:
=· (3.44)
If the flow of liquids and gases follows Newton's flow law (Eq. (3.43))
is enough, speaksone of viscous flow.
Furthermore, a circular cylindrical smooth tube with diameter d will be considered(Figure
3.27 left), in which water is under the effect of a pressure difference dp between two
242 II Moisture
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Table 3.16Density W, dynamic viscosity , kinematic viscosity  and surface tension  of water as a function of
temperature.
θ pW η v σ
[°C] [kg/m3] [Pa s] [m2/s] [N/m]
II 0 1000 1.787 x 10–6 1.787 x 10–6 0.0756
10 1000 1.307 x 10–6 1.307 x 10–6 0.0742
20 998 1.002 x 10–6 1.004 x 10–6 0.0727
30 996 0.798 x 10–6 0.801 x 10–6 0.0712
40 992 0.653 x 10–6 0.658 x 10–6 0.0696
50 988 0.547 x 10–6 0.554 x 10–6 0.0679
60 983 0.467 x 10–6 0.475 x 10–6 0.0662
70 978 0.404 x 10–6 0.413 x 10–6 0.0646
80 972 0.355 x 10–6 0.365 x 10–6 0.0626
90 965 0.315 x 10–6 0.326 x 10–6 0.0608
100 958 0.282 x 10–6 0.294 x 10–6 0.0589
Figure 3.27Comparison of viscous flow through a pipe and through a gap.

Rohr(pipe), spalt(gap).
viscous flows between cross-sections at a distance dx from one another. Hagen and Poiseuille
calculated the law of this pipe flow. It is said:
W  d2 dp
g  or. W    d4 dp (3.45)
G 
32   dx 128 dx
The right-hand sides of Eq. (3.45) can be understood as the product of two quantities, as
indicated by the broken fraction line: The first fraction does not change,if the same pipe
diameter and the same liquid (with the same density  and the same viscosity coefficient )
are always present. The second fracture represents the pressure gradient
3 moisture 243
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represents, ie the pressure loss related to the pipe length to overcome the viscosity of the
water.
For a gap of width d between two flat, smooth, plane-parallel walls (Figure 3.27 right), the
mass flow density g of laminar flowing water or
Mass flow G at the gap length L using analog calculationto II
W  d2 dp
g  or. W  d3  L  dp (3.46)
G
12 dx 12 dx
It is assumed that viscosity represents the only resistance to the flow of water.
Pores in soils or building materials are not circular cylindrical tubes, but rather three-
dimensional, bizarrely designed cavities. Likewise, the walls of pores and cracks are not
smooth and the flow cross section is not the same size at all points. Therefore, considerable
energy losses occur due to cross flows, eddies, accelerations at bottlenecks and decelerations at
expansions, etc., which result in the mass flow density G being far smaller than expected based
on equations (3.45) and (3.46). would.
Darcy therefore suggested the following formulation for saturated pore water flow in rolling
soils:
g  k  dp
D (3.47)
dx
The quantity denoted by kD is the specific permeability according to Darcy. It is
determined exclusively through measurement. Table 3.17 contains numerical values for
rolling soils.
Table 3.17Specific permeability according to Darcy for some soil types.
Soil type Permeability coefficientk
 G m 
[m/s] m2 h Pa 
fine gravel 10–4up to 3 x 10–4 40 to 120

Coarse sand –4 20 to 40
0.5 x 10 until
10–4
Medium sand 0.5 x 10–5until 2 to 4
10–5
fine sand 10–7until 10–6 0.04 to 0.4
Silt, sandy –6 –4 0.4 to 40
10 until 10
Silt –9 –6 0.0004 to 0.4
10 until 10
loess 10-8thuntil 10–5 0.004 to 4
Clay –10 –6 0.00004 to 0.4
10 until 10
For the sake of simplicity, when calculating the mass flow density in Eq. (3.47) theentire
sample cross-section A instead of the cross-sectional area of the current channels
244 II Moisture
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placed. In reality, of course, the water only flows through the pores of the body being
viewed. But since kD always has to be determined through measurements, that meansIn
relation to the entire cross section of the material flowing through, only a change in the
parameter kD by a certain factor compared to that based on the pore area
II Value.
When applying Darcy's law, it should be noted that the specificThrough-permeability kD
can only be measured on completely water-saturated pore systems. This means that there must
be no air in the pore channels other than water, otherwise the surface tension could exert large
forces on the water. In wide-pored bodies, e.g. B. in gravels, the effect of surface tension fades
into the background in the presence of air.
Darcy's law of laminar pore water flow finds its practical application in construction, especially
when calculating seepage water flows in rolling soils and seepage layers and in consolidation
processes in cohesive soils. There are only a few values of the specific permeability kD
available for classic building materials because the validity of Darcy's law is linked to complete
water saturation and total pressure differences. These are requirements that are rarely met in
components.
The most important case of a saturated flow of water in building physics is that through
cracks in components, especially in concrete. The inhibiting influence of the roughness of
theGap walls are taken into account by a so-called flow coefficient , with the Eq. (3.46) now
reads as follows:
Wd3  L
dp
G  (3.48)
12 dx
According to tests on concrete [32], the flow coefficient approaches the upper limit of 1
with smooth walls and wide cracks, and approaches zero with gap widths of around 0.05
mm. The greater the wall roughness compared to the gap width, the smaller it isFlow
coefficient . For cracks in concrete with a maximum grain size of 16 mm and a gap width of
0.15 mm, it is 0.01. Over time, the coefficient drops by up to 90% if the gap walls do not move
and the water is not aggressive to the concrete because a narrow crack acts as a filter that
slowly becomes clogged. Because cracks do not run in a straight line and have a wall
roughness and because they show not only expanding movements but also shearing
movements, local closure occurs in concrete components with crack widths of ~ 0.1 mm and
smaller and the cracks can be impermeable to water.
3.5 Electrokinesis
The water contained in water-saturated, fine-pored substances such as stones, plaster,
cohesive and sandy soils, tree trunks, branches and plant stems as well as in organic
polymers begins to flow when the water contains electrically charged particles (ions) and
is exposed to an electrical voltage gradient. The water is moved towards the cathode.
Conversely, a voltage gradient is observed when pore water containing charged particles is
caused to flow for some reasonbecomes. This type of water transport is commonly referred to
as “electro-osmosis”; Here we should speak of “electrokinetic water transport”.
3 moisture 245
transport
The phenomenon of electrokinesis can be explained by the following experiment (Figure

3.28):
II
Figure 3.28Principle of electrokinetic accumulation and flow tests.
Fliebversuch(flow test), fliebrichtung(flowdirection), stauversuch(traffic jam attempt), elektroden(electrodes), probe(sample).
A test specimen is placed in a U-shaped apparatus so that it lies below the water level and is
exposed to the effect of an electrical voltage. A corresponding drain shows that water flows
through it. Piezometer tubes attached along the sample show that there is no overall pressure
gradient in the sample as long as the water flow is guaranteed. Such a test arrangement is called
a flow test (Figure 3.28 left) and is used to measure the relationship between the electrical
voltage gradient U and the mass flow density g of water.
The experiment described can be modified by allowing the water to flow outis prevented
and a riser pipe is installed instead so that the amount of water flowing through the sample has
to gradually build up pressure. This is then referred to as a traffic jam test (Figure 3.28 on the
right). After a certain start-up time, a state of equilibrium is established such that for every
electrical voltage gradient U in the flow test there is a certain total pressure gradient p in
the accumulation test.
The theoretical relationships between the total pressure difference and the electrical voltage
difference in the damming test and between the electrical voltage gradient and the amount of
water transported in the flow test were clarified by Helmholtz, Lamb, Perrin and
Smoluchowsky. The corresponding equations contain some physical quantities that are difficult
to measure and are of no direct relevance to the technical application. It has therefore become
common practice, in analogy to Darcy's law (see Section 3.4), to describe the amount of water
transported in the "flow test" using a simplified equation that only reflects the connection
between the voltage gradient dU and the amount of water pumped:
g  k  you
e dx (3.49)
246 II Moisture
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If one now considers the equilibrium state in the damming test as an exact compensation
of a Darcy seepage flow according to Eq. (3.47) by electrokinetic water transport
according to Eq. (3.49), equating the two equations yields the following relationship:
dp ke dU 
I  yo (3.50)
hey
I kD
u
The specific electrokinetic climbing height he is, as in Eq. (3.50), the ratio of the two
permeability coefficients for saturated pore water flow under hydrostatic water pressure
gradient (kD) and for electrokinetic water transport (ke). Electrokinetic water transport is used
as a method for measuring water movements in building components, soils and trees [13], for
improving soil properties through drainage and the introduction of stabilizing foreign ions [12],
for draining building materials and is used to prevent soil moisture from rising in walls [4],
[15].
3.6 Removing building moisture

Components often have high water contents immediately after the construction of a building,
which can be attributed to the production, transport, interim storage of the building materials
and to the possibly poorly protected condition of the shell. One speaks of the so-called building
moisture.
The deadline and cost pressure in today's construction leaves waiting periods and periods
of vacancyno more. That's why today, on the one hand, the choice of building materials (e.g.
mastic asphalt screed instead of cement screed, diffusion-permeable carpet instead of relatively
vapor-tight PVC covering, diffusion-permeable underlayment instead of underlayment foil,
dry-installed gypsum plasterboard instead of plaster) and the arrangement of barrier layers to
prevent moisture accumulation ,
e.g. B. from concrete ceilings in screeds, the expected building moisture is already in the
planning stagetaken into account. On the other hand, artificial drying can accelerate the
removal of building moisture before installing moisture-sensitive building materials. The users
of new apartments, offices, etc. must also be encouraged to ventilate vigorously in the
beginning.
The speed of drying out or moisture redistribution in a component depends on many factors.
These are mainly:
– Initial water content
– Ratio of moist building material volume to evaporation surface
– Conditions on the evaporation surface, ie the convection conditions and the vapor
pressure gradient from the building material into the adjacent air
– Surface layers that delay drying out
When planning and executing wooden structures, we now consistently focus on theThe
dryness of the wood is taken into account in order to avoid chemical wood protection against
fungal attack.
Concrete components dry particularly slowly. The following information can be given about
their drying speed:
After its production, concrete contains on average around 80 kg/m3 of desiccatable water,
which is due to the special pore structure of the cement stone and the often abundant
3 moisture 247
transport
Table 3.18Drying times for concrete slabs with one- and two-sided drying options according to DIN 4227 [50].
Plate thickness Drying out time [a]

[cm] II
bilaterall one-
y sided
5 0.25 0.6
10 0.60 1.5
20 1.5 4
40 4 8th
80 8th 16
160 16 30
Drying out time factors: DryAir: 1.0
General inOutdoors: 1.5

Very dampAir: 5.0
Table 3.19Maximum screed moisture levels to be maintained by the floor layer (so-called readiness for
covering), measured using the carbide method, according to [71].
flooring Maximum moisture content u
[%]
cement screed Calcium sulfate
screed
Elastic coverings vapor tight 1.8 0.3
Textile coverings vapor permeable 3.0 1.0
Parque 1.8 0.3
t cork
Laminate 1.8 0.3
Ceramic Thick bed 3.0 –
tilesNatural/concrete Thinbed 2.0 0.3
stones
Thickness of concrete components only dries out relatively slowly. As the thickness
increasesFor concrete parts, the time from concreting to reaching equilibrium moisture ranges
from several months to several decades. This can be seen from Table 3.18, which shows the
time required for concrete components in dry air to dry out. Conversion factors for the drying
time for two other air conditions are also given.
The building moisture is also important with regard to the so-called readiness for covering
of young screed surfaces. The flooring installer must check whether a floor covering can
already be applied by measuring the water content using the calcium carbide method and
then decide by comparing it with specified limit values (Table 3.19). This applies to
cementand anhydrite screeds and should be particularly taken into account when moisture-
sensitive adhesives or floor coverings are used, e.g. B. made of wood or linoleum should be
used or relatively vapor-tight floor coverings should be applied. Magnesia screeds should not
be coated or covered.
248 II Moisture
protection
Heated screeds dry out particularly quickly and thoroughly as soon as the heating is
switched on. The arrows in Figure 3.29 indicate the direction of the diffusion flowBecause
of the thermal insulation on the underside, it preferably tends upwards. If the floor covering is
well permeable to water vapor, there would be bowl-shaped curvatures and shrinkage.
II deformations are to be expected. If the floor covering is relatively vapor-tight, condensation
could occur on the underside. Therefore, a heated screed is in accordance with DIN 18560-2
[66].
first carefully preheated for sufficient hardening time. During this phase the screed dries
out and shrinks. Only then can the floor covering be applied if it is sensitive to moisture or
would prevent the screed from shrinking.
Figure 3.29Direction of the diffusion flow in heating screeds that dry out.
Fliesen(tiles), kleber(glue), taueben(dew plain), richtung des diffusionsstroms(direction of the diffution flow), heizestrich(heating
screed), trennlage(separation layer), dammschicht(insulating layer), beton(concrete).
The position of a thermal insulation layer can influence the temperature of a damp
component and thus its drying behavior: thermal insulation composite systemsOn the one
hand, external walls promote drying out by increasing the average temperature in the external
wall cross-section, but on the other hand, they also make it more difficult to dry out to the
outside. If an insulation layer lies over a concrete slab in contact with the ground, there is only
very little drying out upwards. If the thermal insulation layer lies under a concrete floor slab in
contact with the ground, drying out is promoted upwards. Both situations are shown in
comparison in Figure 3.30, whereby the moisture volume to be dried out is highlighted by
hatching and the average vapor pressure gradient is indicated by an arrow.
Particularly suitable as clothing for damp (and salty) masonry, e.g. B. in old buildings and in
architectural monuments and generally on cellar walls and bases are so-called renovation
plasters. These are cement-bound lightweight plasters with a pore content of at least 40%. They
were developed according to building physics aspects, have a low diffusion resistance and
show only low capillary suction. They therefore enable moisture to be released quickly from
the component into the air and thereby produce a dry surface. Salts transported in the capillary
water from the plastered component can be deposited without damage in the pore volume of
the renovation plaster (Figure 3.31). A surface treatment of the renovation plaster with paint,
finishing plaster, etc. is possible,
3 moisture 249
transport
II
Figure 3.30Drying behavior of concrete floor slabs in contact with the ground.
Oberseitige warmedammschicht(top thermal insulation layer), estrich(screed), dammung(insulation), beton(concrete),
erdreich(soil), unterseitige warmedammschicht(thermal insulation layer on the bottom).
Figure 3.31Renovation plasters for covering damp walls.
Flussigwasser(liquid water), wasserdampf(steam), ausbluhsalze(efflorescences salts).

250 II Moisture
protection
4 Moisture transfer
II
4.1 Mass transfer coefficients βp and βv
Air-washed surfaces of building components or bodies of water have a layer of air a few
millimeters thick that is more or less stationary, which is called the boundary layer and
covers the surface.passage to the atmosphere (Figure 4.1). Moisture transport through this
boundary layer is only possible using the mechanism of water vapor diffusion. The mass flow
density g through the boundary layer can be calculated if the water vapor partial pressure
difference pO – pL and the effective thickness d are known, because the diffusion resistance
number of air is known to be μ = 1. However, it is common practice to choose the following
approach for moisture transport through the boundary layer:
Figure 4.1situationat the interface between surface and air.

Atmosphare luft in konvection(atmosphere air in convestion), grenzschicht(boundary layer), baustoff oder
wasser(buildingmaterialor water).
g = βp∆p(4.1)
Here βp is the water vapor transfer coefficient. Instead of the thickness d, which is essentially
influenced by the air movement, the water vapor transfer coefficient is given directly as a
function of the air speed. The water vapor partial pressure difference according to equation
(4.1) or the concentration difference ∆v of the water vapor can be used as the driving potential
for the mass transfer. It is also possible to use the equivalent air layer thickness sd of the
boundary layer as the measure of its resistance to water vapor diffusion:

g  p  p  n  n   p
sd (4.2)
In the sense of these three possibilities, Table 4.1 shows the mass transfer through βv, βp
and sdas a function of the flow velocity v of the air in front of the boundary layer. The sd value
is probably the most clear. Since for air the diffusion resistance number μ
= 1 is the one specifiedsd value identical to the effective thickness of the boundary layer.

3 moisture 251
transport
4 Moisture 241
transition
Table 4.1Water vapor transfer coefficients  and p and their equivalent air layer thickness sd as a function of the
air speed v.
situation v[m/ βv βp sd[
s] [m/h] [kg/m² h Pa] m]
0.10 3.0 0.22 x 10–4 31 II
0.15 4.0 –4 23
0.30 x 10
in rooms (h = 2.5 m)
0.25 6.0 0.45 x 10–4 16
0.50 10 –4 9.3
0.75 x 10
in rooms (corners) 10 0.75 x 10–4 9.3
1.0 16 –4 5.6
1.2 x 10
2.5 35 2.6 x 10–4 2.6
5.0 55 –4 1.5
outdoors (l = 5 m) 4.5 x 10
10 100 7.8 x 10–4 0.9
25 200 –4 0.4
16 x 10
Krischer and Kast [25] gave the convective heat transfer coefficient for plates blown parallel to
the surface at temperature equilibrium, from which the mass transfer coefficient can be derived
in the following size:
– with turbulent flow:
v0.81 βv v l
v  22  l0.19 m/h m/s m (4.3)
– with laminar flow:

0,5
 13 B.C βv v l (4.4)
v
l0.5 m/h m/s m
Here l is the linear expansion of the plate in the direction of flow and v is the flowspeed of the air.
The transition from laminar to turbulent air flow occurs at an air speed of around 0.1 m/s. The numerical
values in Table 4.1 were calculated using these equations, with the value of l being 2.5 m chosen for the
mass transfer in rooms because the air flow there is practically always vertical (floor height). L = 5.0 m
was used as a basis for the mass transfer outdoors because the flow path from the stagnation point in the
middle of the facade to the building edges in smaller and medium-sized buildings is likely to be of this
order of magnitude.
4.2 Mass transfer in this specific case

If the moisture flux density through the boundary layer is to be calculated for a specific
situation, then the mass transfer coefficient or the equivalent must be taken into accountAir
layer thickness also the vapor pressure difference must be known. However, this is difficult to
specify because the transport of substances on a building material or water surface is always
associated with heat transport and depends on other factors in a confusing manner. The
temperature of the building material or water surface depends on the solar radiation q˙ j, the
heat supply q˙ i from the building material or water, and the heat release q˙ k+s
242 II Moisture
protection
Convectionn andRadiationG at theAtmospheree and dem power consumptionq˙ v for

thevevaporation of water determined [17.2]. However, the vapor pressure difference that is
crucial for the mass transfer depends crucially on the surface temperature of the building
material or the water level. The energy balance for the surface is (Figure 4.2):
II q˙ jq˙ i q˙ vq˙ k s  0 (4.5)
Picture 4.2 To Balance sheet the Energy current densitiesq˙ at one building material or.Wwater surface.
Atmosphare luft in konvection(atmosphere air in convection), grenzschicht(boundary layer), baustoff oder wasser(building
material or water).
The following can be said about the components of the balance equation:
Tuee Energy flux densityq ˙ v is proportional toMoisture flow tighte G at thevevaporate
or.Condense:
q˙ v r g  r (4.6)
p  p
The so-called heat of evaporation r is shown in Figure 4.3 as a function of the temperature θ of
the water. This shows that when ice or snow evaporates, the amounts of energy referred to as
heat of fusion, liquid and vaporization have to be used, while to evaporate from water at 100ºC
“only” the heat of vaporization has to be supplied.
TheHeat release by convection and radiation q˙ k+s from the building material or water surface
to the atmosphere is known to be achieved by the approach
q˙ks  h O (4.7)
L 
described, whereby the heat transfer coefficient h contains both the convection and the
radiation components. The heat flux density q˙ j due to solar radiation results from the
absorption coefficient a and the radiation intensity I of the sun
q˙ j a  I
(4.8)
4 Moisture 243
transition
II
Figure 4.3Heat of evaporation r of water as a function of temperature 

Verdunstungswarme(evaporative heater), schmelzwarme(heat of fusion), flussigkeits warme(liquid warmth), verdampfungs-
warme(evaporation warmth), temperatur(temperature).
Finally, the heat supply from the water or building material side, the so-called transmission heat, is
through the approach
R  O
q˙i (4.9)
R si  Âd
i
i
to describe, where θR means the temperature of the room air. Inserting equations (4.6) to (4.8)
into Eq. (4.5) yields:
R O
a I  r p  O  psatO 
 h O L   0 (4.10)
L psat L 
R si  Âd
i
i
From Eq. (4.10) can e.g. B. by systematically varying the temperature θO, the temperature
θO that meets the balance can be determined. A parameter study [17.2] has shown, among
other things, that the evaporation of water on facades in summer due to air
ventilationmovement and high outside air temperatures. In winter, on the other hand, the
drying of facades is practically not influenced by the wind because the wind increases the mass
transfer coefficient, but at the same time reduces the temperature of the facade surface. Solar
radiation has a great influence, which is why a balancing analysis is always necessary if
realistic results are expected. On the other hand, the cooling effect of water evaporation is so
great that in summer, despite intense solar radiation, a damp surface cannot get warmer than
40ºC. For orientation purposes, Table 4.2 lists values for the heat flux densities due to
evaporation/thawing, transmission and solar radiation.
When it comes to mass transfer in rooms, the influence of air convection and radiation is
generally considered to be low. Therefore, without accounting based on Eq. (4.1)the
condensation water release on room surfaces that are cold compared to the room air is
calculated and shown graphically in Figure 4.4, where for the room air θR = 20ºC and for βp
the value is 0.75 · 10–4 kg/m² · h · Pa corresponding to an air speed of approximately 0, 5 m/s
was assumed.
244 II Moisture
protection
TAbelle 4.2 Energy current densitiesq˙ due to evaporation/thawing of water vapor, transmission of heat through
components and solar radiation (guide values).
Designation Conditions Size[W/
m²]
II wet surface protected from wind in summer 30
wet surface in summerstrongly blown 300
vearth evaporation heatq˙ v
Defrosting of water vapor on room 20
surfaces at 5°C
Well insulated external wall 10
Ttransmission heatq˙ i
Poorly insulated exterior wall 80
South facade, daytime center, bright summer and 150
winter sand-lime brick
South facade, day center, summer and winter red 300
brick
Radiant heateq˙ j
North facade, daytime center, summer and winter light sand- 25
lime brick
North facade, day center, summer and winter red 50
brick
Figure 4.4Condensation flow density gon a cold room surface as a function of the room air humidity
R and the wall surface temperature O .
Tuwasserstromdichte(condensation flow density), relative raumluftfeuchte(relative room air humidity),
wandoberflachentemperatur(wall surface temperature).
The diagram can be used to estimate whether and, if so, which condensation masses can be
expected on the inside of external walls of heated living spaces given a known wall surface
temperature θO and a known room air humidity фR. Experience has shown that condensation
in rooms occurs primarily at thermal bridges, e.g. B. on outwardly projecting corners because
that is where the lowest temperatures prevail and therefore the greatest vapor pressure
difference or the greatest condensation water flow density occurs there.
The thawing (condensation) of water vapor is the reverse of water evaporation. All
considerations apply equally to both processes.
4 Moisture 245
transition
4.3 Estimation of water evaporation from water surfaces

Following Sprenger [31], water evaporation from a stationary water surface outside can be
described as follows:
II
G v Δp
g 1, 6 1, 2  v 104  p kg/m2·
(4.11)
m/s Pa
H
The influence of the air speed v can be seen immediately in this numerical equation. When
calculating the water vapor partial pressure difference ∆p, φ = 1 must naturally be set for
the water surface.
The water evaporation in (unused) indoor swimming pools is significantly lower than in outdoor
ones.baths, lakes, etc. Biasin and Krumme [1] distinguish whether the air temperature θL above the water
is greater, smaller or the same as the water temperature θW:
θL< θW: g = – 0.055 + 1.0 · 10–4 · ∆p θL = θW: g = –
G Δp (4.12)
0.055 + 0.8 · 10–4 ·∆p θL > θW: g = – 0.055 + 0.7 ·
kg/m2· Pa
10–4 · ∆p
H
According to Kappler, when using an indoor swimming pool, the number of people bathing in the pool at the same
time per square meter (px) has a decisive influence:
g  0.12  8.9 104  G v Δp (4.13)

px  p kg/m2· m/s Pa
H
Equations (4.12) show that evaporation only begins when ∆p exceeds a certain amount and
the equations only apply if the masscurrent density g is positive. Kappler believes that the
reason for the initially somewhat strange result is a relatively thick boundary layer resting in
the water basin. The increasing mass flow density in equations (4.12) as the air temperature
decreases in relation to the water temperature can be explained by the then increasing
convection of the room air. For basins without freeboard, the mass flow density that can be
calculated using equation (4.13) also refers to the normal flooding area of the basin
surroundings. A number of visitors of 0.3 m2 is considered a maximum, while a number of
0.15 m2 is considered good occupancy. The equation for the bath used is only to be applied to
the times of use; during the rest of the day the evaporation is to be calculated from equations
(4.12). For equations (4.12) and (4.
246 II Moisture
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5 Stationary moisture transport in components
II
5.1 Formulas for sd values of composite layers
It is assumed that a layer package is composed of plane-parallel individual layers of thickness
di with diffusion resistance numbers i. The diffusion flow penetrates the layer package
perpendicular to the layer planes and stationary conditions prevail.
The requirement of stationary conditions means that the mass flow density in allIndividual
layers are the same size. If this were not the case, there would be either enrichment or depletion
of water in one of the layers, ie the water content distribution would change. But this
contradicts the assumption of stationary conditions. So the following applies:
p1
g1  g2  …  … (5.1)
1, 5106  sd1
Eq. (5.1) states that the ratio of water vapor partial pressure drop pi to the corresponding
equivalent air layer thickness sdi must be the same in all layers of the layer package. That
is why the layer package shown in cross section in Figure 5.1 was depicted so distorted
that the layers are not in their true thickness, but in their equivalent air layer thickness
appear. The gradient of the water vapor partial pressure must not only be the same in each
individual layer, but the entire course through the layer package must also be a straight line and
not a bent line. Only then is the partial pressure drop pi proportional to the equivalent air
layer thickness sdi. If one applies this knowledge to the layer package as a whole, the following
sum must be assigned to the total water vapor partial pressure difference p as the equivalent
air layer thickness of the layer package:
sd,sed sd1 sd2 … Â i sdi (5.2)
Figure 5.1Vapor pressure curve during stationary diffusion vertically through a layer package.

5 Stationary moisture transportin 247
components
The addition rule applies to the equivalent air layer thicknesses of layers lying one behind the other when
stationary water vapor diffusion is present.
The transport law of water vapor diffusion (Eq. (3.7)) is the same for multi-layer
components and stationary conditions
II
  p
g (5.3)
Â idi 
If in certain cases the influence of the air boundary layer present on both building material
surfaces is taken into 
account, ie the mass transfer, Eq. (5.3) the following relationship:
p
g
1 1 1
(5.4)
  idi  
 pi a
Â  pe
This relationship clearly shows the analogy between heat conduction and diffusion in
multi-layered components under stationary conditions because the denominator is inEq.
(5.4) is constructed completely analogously to the heat transfer resistance RT = 1/U.
Next, a layer is considered that is also oriented perpendicular to the diffusion flow, but which
has different partial surfaces with different equivalent air layer thicknesses next to each other
(Figure 5.2). The entire area should consist of partial areas A1 to with associated equivalent air
layer thicknesses sd1 to sdn. The question that needs to be answered here is what average
equivalent air layer thickness sd must be assigned to the total area A so that the diffusion flow
remains the same, even if stationary conditions prevail here and water vapor exchange between
the partial areas (i.e. perpendicular to the direction of diffusion) is not possible. The solution is
obtained by first calculating the total diffusion flow by adding the partial flows through the
partial areas and then determining the sd value, which would give the same diffusion current.
For reasons of simpler notation, only two partial areas are considered when deriving the
equation.
Figure 5.2To divert the diffusion current through a component consisting of two partial surfaces.
248 II Moisture
protection
According to the diffusion laws, the diffusion flow through the partial area is as follows:
p1  A1
G1 A1g1 
1, 5106  sd1 (5.5)
II The sum of the diffusion flows through both partial surfaces is:
p
G  G1  G2    A1  A2  (5.6)
1, 5106 
 sd2 
sd1
If the diffusion flow is known, the corresponding equivalent air layer thickness results from the
following relationship, which can be found by converting Eq. (5.5) gives:
p A
s 1, 5106
d (5.7)
G
Inserting Eq. (5.6) in Eq. (5.7) immediately provides the desired mean equivalent air layer thickness:
p  A  1
sd (5.8)
1A1
A
1.5106
A2   p   A1  1
A
sd1 A sd2
2
1.5106  sd2


sd1 
If there are any number of partial areas, the relationship is:
sd Â
Ai 1 (5.9)
 i 1

 A sdi 
If layers do not have a flat surface but a profiled surface, the diffusion current density is greater
than one would expect based on the average value of the layer thickness. This is because the
thin areas are more permeable than the thickened areas. This is shown using the example of the
apparent diffusion resistance numbers shown in Figure 5.3, which are given for three types of
profiling, depending on the amplitude of the profile d1, based on the average thickness of the
layer d0. The following applies to rectangular profiling:
If the thickness of the thin point is 50% of the mean value and the thickness of the
thickened point is 150% of the mean value, the diffusion current densities are as follows:
– Thin spot: 200% of the current density at medium layer thickness
– Thick spot:67 % of current density at average layer thickness
– Total:267 %
The average value of the diffusion current density is therefore: 0.5 x 267 = 133% of the
current density that would occur with a flat surface and the average value of the layer
thickness.
This example of the greater permeability of profiled layers compared to plane-parallel
layers is confirmed by point A, which corresponds to the rectangular profile and
amaximum deflection of the profiling of 50% of the average thickness is assigned, and
indicates a reduction in the effective diffusion resistance number to 75%, which corresponds to
components
the reciprocal of 133%.
250 II Moisture
protection
II
Figure 5.3Apparent diffusion resistance numbers of layers of variable thickness with three different thickness
profiles.
Diffusionswiderstand(diffusion resistence), schichtdicke(layer thickness).
5.2 The Glaser process

5.2.1 Description of the procedure
In Section 5.1 it was shown that in the case of stationary diffusion, the partial pressure in
components layered perpendicular to the direction of the diffusion flow is linear if the
component is shown in cross section in such a way that the individual layers do not appear in
the geometrically correct thickness ratio, but in accordance with their equivalent air layer
thickness. If the water vapor partial pressures pi and pe on the two surfaces of a component are
known, e.g. B. because the climate on both sides of the component is known, the course of the
water vapor partial pressure can easily be determined using the assumed type of representation
by linearly connecting the two partial pressures pi and pe on the surfaces of the component.
This knowledge is the basis of the so-called Glaser process, which was published as a semi-
graphical method by Glaser in 1959 [6] and standardized in DIN 4108 [47] in 1981. The Glaser
method is generally regarded as proven and very useful because it can be used to determine
mathematically whether condensation is to be expected as a result of water vapor diffusion in a
component in a stationary situation or in an external component as a result of seasonal climate
change in Central Europe or not.
The procedure according to DIN 4108-3 is carried out in several steps:
a) Preparatory tabular calculation
The individual layers of a component to be assessed, including the two airBoundary
layers must be listed one below the other in the first column in accordance with Table 5.1.
The last line is intended for the sum of the values in the lines above. The associated
thicknesses d, the diffusion resistance numbers µ, equivalent air layer thicknesses sd, the
ratios of the sums of the listed sd values to the sd,T value of the overall construction and the
thermal conductivities  of the individual layers must be stated in the following columns.
In order to be able to calculate the temperature profile that arises under stationary
conditions during the dew period, the next column contains the heat transfer resistances R
of the component layers as well as the heat transfer resistances Rsi and Rse
components
of the two boundary layers. The last line in this column contains the total thermal
resistance RT of the component. The temperature differences that occur in all
component layers and in the thermal boundary layers result from the heatmeasurement
resistance of the component, the total temperature difference ∆θ between the
II climates separated by the component and the transition or forward resistance of the layer in
question, taking into account Eq. (5.10):
 2 1  q  R (5.10)
with
1
q  i e   (5.11)
RT
The next column contains the temperatures θ occurring at the layer boundaries for the
Dew period, i.e. the temperature profile.
Because the associated saturated vapor pressure of the water vapor can be clearly stated
based on knowledge of the temperature alone, the saturated vapor pressures psat at the
layer boundaries are listed in the following column, which can be read from the table of
saturated vapor pressures (Table 2.2). Further application of the Glaser method is based
on the standardized climatic boundary conditions and the heat transfer resistances
according to Table 5.2.
b) Creation of the Glaser diagram for the dew period
A Glaser diagram is the representation of a component in a CartesianAxis system is to
be understood, the abscissa of which represents the equivalent air layer densities sd of the
component layers, while the ordinate is assigned to the water vapor partial pressure p and
the saturated vapor pressure psat (Figure 5.4). The cross-section of the component is drawn
into this axis system in such a way that the direction of the diffusion flow corresponds to
the direction of the abscissa.
The course of the saturated steam pressure psat through the component cross section is
now transferred from the table to the Glaser diagram. These are used for the layer
boundaries
Table 5.1Preparatory tabular calculation.

layer d[ µ sd Σ sd/ λ R, Rsi, θ psat
m] [–] [m] sd,T[– W/mK] Rse [°C] [pa]
] [m²K/W]
room air – – – – – –
20.0 2337
Heat transfer inside – – – – – 0.250
Layer 1
Layer 2
Layer 3
layer n
Heat transfer outside – – – – – 0.040
Outside air – – – – – – -5.0 401
total dT sd,T= RT =
=
Heat transfer coefficient: U = 1/RT = W/(m2K)

Heat flux density: q = U · (θi – θe) = W/m2
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Table 5.2Climatic boundary conditions and heat transfer resistance.

climate temperature relative Water vapor Duration
airmoisture partial t
θ ф pressure p
[°C] [%] [pa] [d] [H] [s]
II
Dew period from December to February
Inside 20 50 1168
90 2160 7776 
Outside –5 80 321 10³
Evaporation period from June to August
Inside 1200
Outside 1200
Water vapor partial pressure (saturation state) in the condensation area
– Walls that seal off living spaces from outside 7776 
90 2160
air; Ceilings under unfinished roof spaces 1700 10³
– Roofs that seal off living spaces from outside

2000
air
Heat transfer resistance

inside: Rsi = 0.25 m²K/W
outside: Rse = 0.04 m²K/W
Figure 5.4Schematic representation of a Glaser diagram for the dew period.
components
Wasser dampfpartialdrunk(water vapor partial pressure), wasserdampfpartialdrunk im sattigungszustand(water vapor partial pressure in the
saturation state psat), wasserdumpfdiffusionsaquivalente luftschichtdicke(water vapor diffusion equivalen air layer thicknees), innen(inside),
auben(outside).
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determined saturated steam pressures are linearly connected if the temperature

differences perLayer is not larger than about 10 Kelvin. If they are larger, the saturated
steam pressures are also used for intermediate points, e.g. B. for the middle levels of the
relevant layers, determined and entered.
II Now the linear connection between the two water vapor partial pressures pi and
pe is produced on the component surfaces, which, according to the explanations in Section
5.1, represents the course of the water vapor partial pressure in the component. The values
for pi and pe on the component surfaces result from the temperatures and relative humidity
of the climate on both sides. If the linear connection is possible without intersecting the
polygon of the saturated vapor pressure, the linear water vapor pressure curve is correct and
condensation is not to be expected in the entire cross section. If the linear connection
between the two vapor pressure values on the component surfaces is not possible without
intersecting the polygon of the saturated vapor pressure profile, the vapor pressure curve
must be determined according to the rope rule (Figure 5.5): The two points that correspond
to the known water vapor partial pressures pi and pe on the component surfaces are
equivalent to, imagine it as a rope pulley over which a weightless rope with plenty of slack
(indicated by dashed lines) is placed. The saturated steam pressure curve represents the
lower edge of an obstacle that cannot be overcome. If the two ends of the rope are pulled
outside the cross-section of the component until the rope becomes taut, then at certain
points it lies against the saturated steam pressure profile, which represents an
insurmountable obstacle; In the remaining areas, the rope runs in a straight line and without
contact. The course of the taut rope is the course of the water vapor partial pressure. Water
vapor is excreted at points of contact with the saturated steam pressure profile. The
saturated steam pressure curve represents the lower edge of an obstacle that cannot be
overcome. If the two ends of the rope are pulled outside the cross-section of the component
until the rope becomes taut, then at certain points it lies against the saturated steam pressure
profile, which represents an insurmountable obstacle; In the remaining areas, the rope runs
in a straight line and without contact. The course of the taut rope is the course of the water
vapor partial pressure. Water vapor is excreted at points of contact with the saturated steam
pressure profile. The saturated steam pressure curve represents the lower edge of an
obstacle that cannot be overcome. If the two ends of the rope are pulled outside the cross-
section of the component until the rope becomes taut, then at certain points it lies against
the saturated steam pressure profile, which represents an insurmountable obstacle; In the
remaining areas, the rope runs in a straight line and without contact. The course of the taut
rope is the course of the water vapor partial pressure. Water vapor is excreted at points of
contact with the saturated steam pressure profile. then at certain points it adheres to the
saturated steam pressure profile, which represents an insurmountable obstacle; In the
contact with the saturated steam pressure profile. then at certain points it adheres to the
saturated steam pressure profile, which represents an insurmountable obstacle; In the
contact with the saturated steam pressure profile.
Even if no condensation occurs in the wall cross-section under the climatic conditions
under consideration, the rope rule correctly reflects the vapor pressure curve, namely as
components
Figure 5.5The rope rule for determining the vapor pressure curve in the Glaser diagram for condensation
water separation.
Wasser dampfpartialdrunk(water vapor partial pressure), wasserdampfpartialdrunk im sattigungszustand(water vapor
partial pressure in the saturation state psat), wasserdumpfdiffusionsaquivalente luftschichtdicke(water vapor diffusion
equivalen air layer thicknees), tauwassereben(condention level), innen(inside), auben(outside).
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linear connection between the vapor pressures on the two component surfacesthe same
current density when diffusing in as when diffusing out.
c) Calculation of the condensation water mass Mc and the evaporation water mass Mev
Condensation can occur not only in one plane, as shown in Figure 5.5, but also in two
planes or in one area. Figure 5.6 shows diffusion diagrams for four systematic cases of
I
condensation water failure and the associated condensation water evaporation. I
Figure 5.6Variants of condensation failure and condensation evaporation in a component.

Fall a kein tauwasser(case a no condesation), fall b in einer ebene(case in one level), fall c in zwei ebene(case c in two levels), fall d
in einem bereich(case d in one area), tauperiode(dew period), verdunstungs periode(evaporation perode).
Condensation failure on one level (case b)

The diffusion current density gc, which occurs at the dew level during the 90-day dew period,
results from Figure 5.7:
G g g pi  pc pc  pe  (5.12)
cci ce
   
0
sd, c sd,T  d,c
s
The condensation water mass Mc is determined as follows, taking into account the duration tc
of the dew period:
Mc  gc  (5.13)
tc
In the diagram associated with the dew period, the index i is the area of infusion from
the room up to the point of condensation, and the index e is the areaof diffusing away
from the condensation area. pi – pe and sdc represent the vapor pressure difference and the
equivalent air layer thickness that the water vapor has to overcome when penetrating to the
condensation level. The same applies to the
components
II
Figure 5.7Explanations for calculating the moisture flux densities in the dew period and in the evaporation
period.
Tauperiode(dew periode), tauwasserebene(condensation level), verdungstungperiode(evaporation period).
Area of outdiffusion. The diffusion current density g is nothing other than the difference
between the current density of the water vapor diffusing in and that of the water vapor
diffusing out.
If condensation occurs during the dew period, a second Glaser diagram must be prepared
for the so-called evaporation period (summer). According to Table 5.2, the same water
vapor partial pressure of p = 1200 Pa can be assumed outside and inside. In the dew level,
the water vapor partial pressure in the saturation state is psat = 1700 Pa (walls and ceilings)
or psat = 2000 Pa (roofs). The diffusion current density gev now results in (Figure 5.7):
G g g pi  pc pc  pe  (5.14)
evci ce
   
0
sd, c sd,T  d,c
s
The evaporation water mass Mev is determined as follows, taking into account the duration
tev of the evaporation period:
Mev gev tev (5.15)
Condensation water failure on two levels
(case c)
Dew period, condensation level c1Water
vapor diffusion flux density gc1
G 
pi  pc1 pc1  pc2 (5.16)

 
c1
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0

sd,c1 sd,c2  sd,c1
Condensation mass
Mc1
(5.17)
Mc1 gc1 tc
components
Dew period, condensation level c2Water

vapor diffusion flux density gc2
G 
pc1  pc2 pc2  pe (5.18)

 
c2 0  s 
d,c2  sd,Tsd,c2 II
sd,c1
Condensation mass Mc3
Mc2 gc2 tc (5.19)
Dew period, total
condensation water
mass Mc Mc  Mc1
(5.20)
 Mc2
Evaporation period, condensation level c1
Water vapor diffusion flux density gev1
G 
pc  pi  (5.21)
 
ev1 0 s
d,c1
Evaporation period, condensation level c2

Water vapor diffusion flux density gev2
G ev2 0
pc  pe  (5.22)
s  s
 d,T d,c2

Evaporation periods tev
c1
tev1  M
Gev1 (5.23)
c2
tev2  M
Gev2 (5.24)
Evaporation water mass Mev, if tev1 > tev and tev2 > tev
Mev1 = gev1 · tev (5.25)
Mev2 = gev2 · tev (5.26)
Mev = Mev1 + Mev2 (5.27)
Evaporation water mass Mev, if tev1 < tev2
Mev1 = gev1 · tev1 (5.28)
Mev2  
 gev2  pc2  pi  tev1
  sd,c2   t
ev,2
ev (5.29)
tev1 0  g
Mev = Mev1 + Mev2 (5.30)
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Evaporation water mass Mev, if tev2 < tev1
Mev2 = gev2 · tev2 (5.31)
Mev1 pc1  pe

  ev1
  tev2 (5.32)
0  d,T sd,c1 
ev
gev1 tev2
g  ts


Mev = Mev1 + Mev2 (5.33)
components
Condensation failure in one area (case d)

Dew period
Water vapor diffusion flux density gc
II
pi  pc1 pc2  pe  (5.34)
G   
0

c
sd,c1 sd,T  sd,c2
Condensation mass Mc
Mc  gc  tc
(5.35)
evaporation period
Water vapor diffusion flux density gev
G  pc  pi pc  pe  (5.36)
ev
 
0  s
 
d,c,m sd,T  sd,c,m
wit
h
sd,c,m sd, c1 0,5sd,c2 sd,c1  (5.37)
Evaporation water mass Mev

Mev = gev + tev (5.38)
Unlike DIN 4108-3, DIN EN ISO 13788 calculates the condensation waterThe
formation of condensation inside the component is regulated in such a way that
condensation and evaporation are determined for each month of the year, taking into
account the monthly average external conditions. The accumulated mass of condensation at
the end of the months in which condensation formed is compared with the total value of
evaporation during the remaining months of the year.
5.2.2 Choice of boundary conditions

When investigating the question of whether condensation on the inside of external components
is to be expected in the winter months under German outdoor climate conditions, three
situations must be distinguished:
a) The component is a well-known and proven construction method, where experience has
shown that no condensation is to be expected when used in residential and office buildings
or buildings of similar use. DIN 4108-3 contains a list of external walls, ventilated and non-
ventilated roofs that are harmless in this sense (see also Section 5.2.4). This assumes that
the building is not air-conditioned, that it has a living or office climate, i.e. around 20 °C
and 50% RH, and that it is located in the Federal Republic of Germany. These conditions
are intended to ensure that the assumed climate conditions actually exist inside and outside.
Even if a calculation according to b) were to produce a negative result, practical proof
would still be the decisive criterion.
b) The components meet the climatic conditions already mentioned, but are notthe list
contained in DIN 4108-3 (Section 5.2.4) and experience does not show that it is clearly
harmless. Then the Glaser method, as described in Section 5.2.1, must be applied with the
specified climatic conditions.
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The Glaser method is initially used for dews that represent winter conditions.period
carried out. If no condensation occurs, the risk of condensation is considered safe.
However, if condensation occurs during the dew period, it is still considered harmless
provided the following additional conditions are met
(according to DIN 4108-3, No. 4.2.1).are: II
– The water lost during the thaw period can be calculated according to another calculation
according to the Glaser process under the conditions specified for the evaporation
perioddry out again. A typical Glaser diagram for the dew period when condensation
occurs and for the associated evaporation period is shown in Figure 5.7.
– The building materials that come into contact with the condensation water must not be
damaged as a result, e.g. B. due to corrosion, fungal attack, etc.
– For roofs and walls, the condensation mass Mc that occurs during the thaw period
may not exceed a total of 1.0 kg/m2not exceed, except in the following two cases.
– If the condensation water occurs at the interface of non-capillary absorbent layers,
the condensation water mass Mc may be 0.5 kg/m in order to limit run-off or
dripping2do not exceed. The layers that are not capable of capillary water
absorption include, for example: B. metals, foils and normal concrete as well as
the majority of insulation materials made of foamed plastics or mineral wool or
materials with a water absorption coefficient of Ww < 0.5 kg/(m2· H0.5).
– In the case of wood, the mass-related moisture content u may not increase by more
than 5% as a result of condensation, and in the case of wood-based materials
(lightweight wood wool panels and multi-layer lightweight panels in accordance
with DIN EN 13168 [43] are excluded) no more than 3%.
– In addition, the following is required for wooden structures in DIN 68800-2:
“Adequate protection of components closed on both sides against the occurrence
and penetration of unacceptable moisture through diffusion or convection must
be ensured. For this purpose, an additional calculated drying reserve of ≥ 250
g/m² must be proven for components closed on all sides in accordance with DIN
4108-3 or DIN EN 15026.”
c) If the component is allowed to be used due to a special outdoor climate, e.g. B. due to high
mountain location, or because of a special indoor climate, e.g. B. as an indoor swimming
pool or because of air conditioning, cannot be assessed with the standardized climatic
boundary conditions according to b), the following calculation methods can be used, which
are also based on the Glaser method, but take the special conditions into account and are
therefore more labor-intensive:
R. Jenisch [8] has derived a method that uses the annual meanBased on the outside air,
it is first possible to determine whether the overall condensation-drying balance is
positive or negative. Then the outside temperature becomes calculateddetermined at
which point condensation appears in the wall. For the seven cities of Braunschweig,
Bremen, Clausthal, Hamburg, Karlsruhe, Munich and Münster, a table shows how long the
dew period lasts and what the average temperature of the outside air is during this time. The
amount of condensation water can be calculated from a Glaser diagram for the average
temperature of the outside air during the dew period.
The alternative method, the calculation according to the, is quite simple and
transparentGlaser procedure to be carried out for every month of the year with the
corresponding actual monthly average values of the temperature and humidity of the
outdoor climate. Included
components
This is what you get for the winter period, provided that there is any condensation at
alltotal amount of condensation water and the location of the condensation water failure. If
you then set the relative humidity in the evaporation period at 100% at the location of the
condensation, you get the water mass that can dry out in the warmer season.
II When assessing calculation results using the Glaser method, it should be borne in mind that
that stationary conditions are assumed. Such are e.g. B. given if aPartition between two
rooms that have constant but different climates is considered. In such a case, the glazing
process is fundamentally a suitable and very realistic criterion. However, if there is a constant
indoor climate but a variable outdoor climate, as is usually the case, the glazing process may
only be used for verification with the climatic conditions and evaluation criteria listed in DIN
4108-3, because:
a) Only the transport mechanism “water vapor diffusion” is taken into account. At higher
material moisture levels, a strong increase in the water transport capacity occurs in
almost all building materials, which is not taken into account in the Glaser process.
b) The moisture storage capacity of the building materials is not taken into account.
Therefore, the Glaser method only provides realistic information if the building
materials store relatively little moisture,
c) The standardized onesClimatic conditions are radically simplified and exacerbated
compared to the actual conditions of an annual cycle.
For the reasons mentioned, the calculation of external components with a German outdoor
climate according to Glaser with the standardized boundary conditions and evaluation criteria
cannot be viewed as realistic. According to Glaser, a condensation mass in external
components will only coincide by chance with a condensation mass that can be detected on a
building object. However, the result is on the safe side: If an external component is assessed as
harmless according to Glaser under the standard conditions, it is always actually harmless.
However, if an external component is considered questionable when assessed using the Glaser
method, it may be questionable, but does not have to be.
The Glaser method must not be used on green roof structures or for calculating the natural
drying behavior of components.
5.2.3 Examples of typical Glaser diagrams

Glaser diagramsof component cross-sections with thermal insulation layers become
essentialinfluenced by their location. The possible shapes of the diagrams are shown in Figure
5.8 can be explained, in which four wall structures made of a mural or of a mural and a thermal
insulation material are shown in different arrangements:
Wall structure A is a homogeneous wall made of a single building material. Wall structure B
represents a wall made of a wall building material with an internal thermal insulation layer.
Wall structure C deals with the analogous case with an external thermal insulation layer, while
case D represents the wall builder with core insulation. It can be seen that the saturated steam
pressure psat assumes relatively high values in the wall cross section when the thermal
insulation layer is arranged on the outside, and that it acquires a downward-oriented,
unfavorable peak when the thermal insulation layer is placed on the inside. This peak becomes
more dangerous the smaller the equivalent air layer thickness of the internal wall former and
the greater the thermal resistance of the insulation layer.
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II
Figure 5.8Glaser diagrams of component cross sections with different positions of the thermal insulation
layer.
The effect of a vapor barrier in the wall cross section is shown in Figure 5.9: The Wall
structure A consists of a wall structure with a vapor barrier arranged on the room side, wall
structure B with an external vapor barrier. A mural with a vapor barrier on both sides is shown
under letter C. Actually, a vapor barrier must be represented in the Glaser diagram by a layer
with an infinitely large sd value, ie an infinitely large abscissa value, which is of course
impossible. However, if you imagine such a diagram and cut out the vapor barrier through two
cuts parallel to the ordinate and put the two remaining parts of the diagram back together, you
get the Glaser diagrams labeled A, B and C.
The course of the saturated vapor pressure is practically independent of whether a vapor
barrier is installed or not, because the small layer thickness of the usual vapor barrier
layers influences the temperature profile in the wall cross-section and therefore does not
affect the saturated steam pressure course. The vapor pressure curve in the “normal”
Glaser diagram is created by a linear connection between pi and pe, provided there is no
condensation. Because the vapor barriers with infinitely large sd values have now been
separated out from the glazier diagramsthe vapor pressures pi and pe are actually infinitely
far apart in the remaining cross sections. Therefore the vapor pressure curve between pi and pe
must actually be horizontal. With layer structure A, the vapor pressure pe is planted in the
interior of the cross section at a constant level, while the vapor pressure pi cannot have an
effect on the cross section because of the vapor barrier on the inside. According to Glaser,
arrangement A therefore remains free of condensation. In arrangement B, the vapor pressure pe
cannot be effective inside the component because of the external vapor barrier. However, since
pi would meet pc at an acute angle in the cross section if it were horizontal, which is
impossible because of the rope rule, p and pc only meet on the inside of the outside vapor
barrier.
components
II
Figure 5.9Glaser diagrams of component cross sections with different positions of vapor barrier layers.
In Sandwich C, the two vapor barriers prevent both the inside and outside vapor pressure
from acting on the building material between the vaporlock out. Therefore, if the water
content is not too high, a horizontal vapor pressure curve occurs in the component, the amount
p1, p2 etc. of which is determined by the size of the water content of the building material
before the two vapor barriers are applied.
5.2.4 Harmless components

DIN 4108-3 contains a list of components for which no mathematical proof of
condensation loss due to water vapor diffusion is required. It is assumed that the
components meet the requirements for minimum thermal protection and are airtight.and the
climatic conditions from Chapter 5.2.1 apply. Experience has shown that there is no risk of
condensation for the components listed, even if the calculation using the Glaser method would
lead to this result. This applies in particular to capillary-active building materials, in which the
moisture transport is essentially determined by capillarity effects and only partly by the
diffusion processes, which are only taken into account in the Glaser process. A mathematical
proof of condensation is not required for the following components:
– Exterior walls and floor panels
– Single and double-shell masonry
Single and double-shell masonry, walls made of normal concrete, walls made of
structuraldense lightweight concrete, walls made of porous lightweight concrete, each
with interior plaster and the following outer layers:
– water-repellent exterior plaster;
– mortared or bricked-on cladding, with a joint proportion of at least 5%;
266 II Moisture
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– ventilated external wall cladding with and without thermal insulation;

– one-sided ventilated external wall cladding with a ventilation opening of 100
cm/m²;
– small-format, air-permeable external wall cladding with and without ventilation;
– External insulation or water-repellent thermal insulation plasterstandard II
or according to building authority approval or standardized or building authority
approved thermal insulation composite system.
– Walls with internal insulation
Walls without exposure to driving rain, such as the external walls mentioned above,
with a thermal resistance of the internal insulation of R ≤ 0.5 m2 · K/W. With a
thermal resistance of the thermal insulation layer of 0.5 < R ≤ 1.0 m2 · K/W, a
value sd,i ≥ 0.5 m of the thermal insulation layer including the room-side cladding
is required.
– Wooden wallsaccording to DIN 68800-2
a) Wooden walls clad or planked on both sides with curtained external wall cladding
with a diffusion-inhibiting layer sd,i ≥ 2.0 m on the room side and a diffusion-open
layer sd,e ≤ 0.3 m on the outside or wood fiber insulation board in accordance with
DIN EN 13171. This also applies to non-ventilated external wall cladding made of
small-format elements if an additional water-draining layer with sd,e ≤ 0.3 m is
applied to the outer paneling;
b) Wooden walls clad or planked on the room side with dif- ferentfusion-inhibiting
layer sd,i ≥ 2.0 m and with thermal insulation composite systems made of mineral
fiber insulation according to DIN EN 13162 or wood fiber insulation panels
according to DIN EN 13171 and a water-repellent plaster system with sd ≤ 0.7 m;
c) Wooden walls clad or planked on both sides with room-side dif- ferentfusion-
inhibiting layer sd,i ≥ 2.0 m as well as with an external paneling sd ≤ 0.3 m in
conjunction with a thermal insulation composite system made of mineral fiber
insulation material according to DIN EN 13162 or wood fiber insulation boards
according to DIN EN 13171 as well as a water-repellent plaster system with sd ≤ 0,
7m;
d) Elements clad or paneled on both sides with a thermal insulation composite system
made of polystyrene or masonry facings in accordance with DIN 68800-2:2012-02
Appendix A;
e) Solid wood construction with curtained external wall cladding or thermal insulation
composite systems according to DIN 68800-2:2012-02 Appendix A.
– Timber frame walls with airtightness layer and
a) heat-insulating infill (visible framework) as well as a water vapor diffusive
fusion-equivalent air layer thickness of the inner lining of 1 m ≤ sd,i ≤ 2 m;
b) Internal insulation (via framework and compartment) with a thermal resistance R
≤ 0.5 m2· K/W. With a thermal resistance of the thermal insulation layer of 0.5 <
R ≤ 1.0 m2· K/W a value of 1 m ≤ sd,i ≤ 2 m of the thermal insulation layer
including the room-side cladding is required; The inflow of room air into or
behind the interior insulation must be prevented by taking appropriate measures;
c) External insulation (via trusses and compartments) as an approved or
standardized thermal insulation composite system or thermal insulation plaster,
whereby the water vapor diffusion equivalent air layer thickness of the
mentioned external constructionlayers sd.3 ≤ 2 m, or with rear-ventilated external
wall cladding.
components
– Basement exterior walls in contact with the ground, with seals according to DIN
18195, parts 4 to 6, made of single-shell masonry or concrete, each with perimeter
insulation according to DIN 4108-10 or approval;
– floor tileswith perimeter insulation and seals according to DIN 18195-4, whereby
II The share of the room-side layers in the total heat transfer resistance of the floor
slab must not be more than 20%.
– roofs
– Unventilated roofs
The thermal resistance of the component layers below a diffusion-inhibiting or
diffusion-tight layer on the room side may be permitted for roofs without
legalnerical proof must not exceed 20% of the total thermal resistance (for roofs with
adjacent areas of different thermal resistance, the compartment area must be taken as a
basis).
– Non-ventilated roofs with roof coverings
– Non-ventilated roofs (Figures 5.10 to 5.12)
– with ventilated roof covering
– or with an additional ventilated air layer under non-ventilated roofing
– and thermal insulation that is not open to diffusion
– and additional rainproof layer when assigning the values of the water vapor
diffusion equivalent air layer thicknesses sd (Table 5.4).
– Non-ventilated roofs (Figure 5.13)
– or with an additional ventilated air layer under a non-ventilated roof covering
– and with a diffusion-tight thermal insulation layer on the rafters
– and with an additional, diffusion-inhibiting rainproof layer
– anda diffusion-inhibiting layer sd,i ≥ 10 m below the thermal insulation
at sd,e ≤ 0.5 m, otherwise with a diffusion-inhibiting layer sd,i ≥ 100
m. This only applies if there is neither wood nor wood materials between the
diffusion-inhibiting layers with sd,e and sd,i.
– Non-ventilated roofs (Figure 5.14)
– or with an additional ventilated air layer under non-ventilated roofing
– and with a diffusion-tight thermal insulation layer under the rafters
– and with an additional, diffusion-inhibiting rainproof layer
– anda diffusion-inhibiting layer sd,i ≥ 10 m below the thermal insulation
at sd,e ≤ 0.5 m.
– Non-ventilated roofs with roof waterproofing
– Non-ventilated roofs with roof waterproofing (Figures 5.15 and 5.16)
and a diffusion-inhibiting layer with sd,i ≥ 100 m below the thermal insulation
layer if there is neither wood nor wood-based materials between the roof
waterproofing and the diffusion-inhibiting layer with sd,i. For diffusion-
inhibiting insulation materials with sd ≥ 100 m or for diffusion-tight insulation
268 II Moisture
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Insulating materials on solid ceilings may require additional diffusivesion-

inhibiting layer can be omitted. For wooden roofs where wood or wood-based
materials are located above a diffusion-inhibiting layer with sd,i
≥ 100 m, this does not apply.
– Non-ventilated roofs made of aerated concreteaccording to DIN 4223, parts 1 to
5Roof- II
waterproofing and without a diffusion-inhibiting layer on the underside and
without an additional thermal insulation layer.
– Non-ventilated roofs with roof waterproofing and thermal insulation above
the roof waterproofing (“inverted roofs”), according to DIN 4108-2 and DIN
4108-10 or after approval.
– Non-ventilated roofs with an additional ventilated air layer under the
waterproofing (Figure 5.17), with an assignment of the values of the water
vapor diffusion-equivalent air layer thicknesses sd according to Table 5.3; For
requirements for the additionally ventilated air layer, see “ventilated roofs”.
– Ventilated roofs
– Ventilated roofs with a roof pitch < 5° (Figure 5.18) and a diffusion-inhibiting
layer with sd,i ≥ 100 m below the thermal insulation layer, whereThe thermal
resistance of the component layers below the diffusion-inhibiting or diffusion-tight
layer may not exceed 20% of the total thermal resistance. The ventilated air layer
must comply with the following conditions:
– The maximum length of the ventilation room is 10 m.
– The height of the free ventilation cross section within the roof areaabove the
thermal insulation layer must be at least 2 ‰ of the associated sloping roof
surface, but at least 5 cm.
– The minimum ventilation cross-sections on at least two opposite roof edges
must each be at least 2 ‰ of the associated sloping roof area, but at least 200
cm2/m.
– Ventilated roofs with a roof pitch ≥ 5° (Figure 5.19)under the following
conditions:
– The height of the free ventilation cross-section within the roof area above the
thermal insulation layer must be at least 2 cm. This free ventilation height
may be locally restricted due to construction tolerances or installations.
Overall, however, ventilation must be guaranteed. For safetyMechanical
devices or auxiliary structures can also be used to adjust ventilation cross
sections.
– The free ventilation cross-section at the eaves or at the eaves and lean-to roof
ends must be at least 2 ‰ of the associated sloping roof area, but at least 200
cm2/m.
– At ridges and ridges, a minimum ventilation cross-section of 0.5 ‰ of the
associated sloping roof surface is required, but at least 50 cm2/m.
– The sd value of the component layers arranged below the ventilation layer must
be at least 2 m in total.
components
Table 5.3Water vapor diffusion equivalent air layer thicknesses sd of the layers on the outside and inside of the thermal
insulation layer.
water vapor diffusion equivalent air layer thickness
Line outside inside
II sd,ea) sd,ib)
[m] [m]
1  0.1  1.0
2 0.1< sd,e   2.0
0.3
3 0.3 < sd,e   6  sd,e
2.0
a)4
sd,e is the sum of the values of > 2.0 c
)
the water  6  sd,e
vapor diffusion equivalent air layer
c
)
thicknesses of
allLayers located above the thermal insulation layer up to the first ventilated air layer.
b)
sd,i is the sum of the values of the water vapor diffusion equivalent air layer thicknesses of all layers
located below the thermal insulation layer up to the first ventilated air layer.
c)
Only applies if there is neither wood nor wood materials between sd,e and sd,i.
Figure 5.10Construction example of a

non-ventilated roof structure with
ventilated roof covering, insulation
between the rafters, if necessary in
combination with minor insulation
under the rafters (sd,i and sd,e according
to Table 5.3).
1.Beluftete dachdeckung konterlattung/beluftungsebene(ventilate roof covering counter battens/ventilation level)
2.regensichernde Schicht,ggt.auf schalung(rain proof layer,if necessary on formwork)
3.Sparren / zwischensparrendammung, nich diffusinsdicht(rafter/between rafter insulation not diffusion tight)
4.diffusionshemmende schicht bekleidung,ggf.auf unterconstruction, mit oder ohne dammung(diffution inhiditing layer clothing if
necessary on a substraction with or without insulation).
270 II Moisture
protection
Figure 5.11Construction example of a non-ventilated roof structure with ventilated roof covering or non-
ventilated roof covering and additional ventilated air layer, non-diffusion-tight over-rafter insulation and,
if necessary, minor intermediate or under-rafter insulation
(sd,i and sd,e according to Table 5.3).
1. Beluftete dachdeckung konterlattung/beluftungsebene oder nicht beluftete dachdeckung konterlattung/zusatzling beluftete
luftschicht(ventilate roof covering counter battens/ventilation level or non ventilated roof counter battens/total)
2.regensichhernde schicht(rainproof layer)
3. aufsparrendammung, nicht diffusionsdicht(rafter insulation, not diffusion tight)
4. diffusionshemmende schicht,ggf.auf schlung(diffusion inhibiting layer if necessary on formwork)
5.sparren,ggf.mit zwischen-oder untersparrendammung und bekleidung(rafter, possibly with intermediate or under rafterinsulation and clothing).
components
II
Figure 5.12construction
play of a non-ventilated roof
construction with non-
ventilated roof covering and
additionally ventilated
airlayer, between-rafter
insulation in combination with
above-rafter insulation and, if
necessary, under-rafter
insulation (sd,i and sd,e
according to Table 5.3).
1. 1 nicht belüftete Dachdeckung Konterlattung / zusätzlich belüftete Luftschicht( non-ventilated roof
covering Counter battens / additional ventilated air layer)
2 regensichernde Schicht, ggf. auf Schalung Aufsparrendämmung (mit Asd > 0,5 m, wird zum Sd,e-Wert
hinzugerechnet),,( rainproof layer, if necessary on formwork Rafter insulation (with Asd > 0.5 m, is added
to the Sd.e value)
3 Sparren/Zwischensparrendämmung, nicht diffusionsdicht( rafters / intermediate rafter insulation, not
diffusion-tight)
4 diffusionshemmende Schicht Bekleidung, ggf. auf Unterkonstruktion, mit
oder ohne Dämmung(diffusion-inhibiting layer of clothing, if necessary on the substructure, with or
without insulation in).
ventilated roof covering and an additional ventilated air layer, diffusion-tight insulation on top of the
rafters and, if necessary, with insulation between or below the rafters.
1. Beluftete dachdeckung konterlattung/beluftungsebene oder nicht beluftete dachdeckung konterlattung/zusatzling
beluftete luftschicht(ventilate roof covering counter battens/ventilation level or non ventilated roof counter battens/total)
2.regensichhernde schicht(rainproof layer)
3. aufsparrendammung, nicht diffusionsdicht(rafter insulation, not diffusion tight)
4. diffusionshemmende schicht,ggf.auf schlung(diffusion inhibiting layer if necessary on formwork)

272 II Moisture
protection
5.sparren,ggf.mit zwischen-oder untersparrendammung und bekleidung(rafter, possibly with intermediate or under

rafterinsulation and clothing).
ventilated roof covering and additional ventilated air layer, under-rafter insulation, if necessary in
combination with intermediate rafter insulation.
1 belüftete Dachdeckung Konterlattung / Belüftungsebene oder(ventilated roof covering counter battens / ventilation
level or non-ventilated roofing Counter battens / additional ventilated air layer)
2 regensichernde Schicht(rainproof layer)
3 Sparren, ggf. mit Zwischensparrendämmung(rafters, possibly with insulation between the rafters)
4 Untersparrendämmung, diffusionshemmend diffusionshemmende Schicht / Bekleidung, ggf. auf

Unterkonstruktion(Under-rafter insulation, diffusion-inhibiting diffusion-inhibiting layer / clothing, if necessary on
the substructure).
components
II
Figure 5.15Construction example of a non-ventilated roof structure with a roof seal on a solid ceiling
or a steel structure.
1 belüftete Dachdeckung Konterlattung / Belüftungsebene oder(ventilated roof covering counter battens / ventilation
level or non-ventilated roofing Counter battens / additional ventilated air layer)
3 Sparren, ggf. mit Zwischensparrendämmung(rafters, possibly with insulation between the rafters)
4 Untersparrendämmung, diffusionshemmend diffusionshemmende Schicht / Bekleidung, ggf. auf

Unterkonstruktion(Under-rafter insulation, diffusion-inhibiting diffusion-inhibiting layer / clothing, if necessary on
the substructure).
274 II Moisture
protection
Figure 5.16Construction example of a non-ventilated roof construction with roof sealing, over-rafter
insulation, possibly in combination with minor intermediate or under-rafter insulation.
1 Dachabdichtung(roof sealing)
2 Aufdachdämmung(roof insulation)
3 diffusionshemmende Schicht, ggf. Verzicht auf diffusionshemmende Schicht bei diffusionshemmende Dämmstoffen
mit sa z 100 m oder bei diffusionsdichten Dämmstoffen auf Massivdecken(diffusion-inhibiting layer, if necessary
waiving the diffusion-inhibiting layer for diffusion-inhibiting insulation materials with a height of 100 m or for
diffusion-tight insulation materials on solid ceilings)
4 Massivdecke oder Stahlkonstruktion(Solid ceiling or steel structure).
Figure 5.17Construction example of a non-ventilated roof construction with an additional ventilated

air layer under the waterproofing, insulation between the rafters, possibly in combination with
insulation above or slightly below the rafters.
1 Dachabdichtung(roof sealing)
2 Aufdachdämmung(roof insulation)
3 diffusionshemmende Schicht auf Schalung(diffusion-inhibiting layer on formwork)
4 Sparren oder Dachbalken, ggf. mit Zwischen- oder Untersparrendämmung und Bekleidung(rafters or roof beams,
possibly with intermediate or under-rafter insulation and cladding).
components
II
Figure 5.18Construction example of a ventilated roof construction with roof sealing, insulation between the rafters,
if necessary in combination with minor insulation under the rafters
(sd,i and sd,e according to Table 5.3).
1 Dachabdichtung auf Schalung Konterlattung / Belüftungsebene(roof sealing on formwork counter
battens/ventilation level)
2 regensichernde Schicht ggf. Aufsparrendämmung (mit Asa > 0,5 m, wird zum So,e-Wert hinzugerechnet),,
( rainproof layer, if necessary, rafter insulation (with Asd > 0.5 m, is added to the Sd,e value))
3 Sparren/Zwischensparrendämmung(rafters / between rafter insulation)
4 diffusionshemmende Schicht Bekleidung, ggf. auf Unterkonstruktion, mit oder ohne Dämmung(diffusion-
inhibiting layer Clothing, if necessary on a substructure, with or without insulation)
Figure 5.19Construction example of a ventilated roof construction with roof covering, insulation between the rafters,
possibly in combination with minor insulation under the rafters.
1 Dachdeckung, ggf. auf Konterlattung(roof covering, if necessary on counter battens)
276 II Moisture
protection
3 Belüftungsebene(ventilation levels)
4 Sparren / Zwischensparrendämmung(rafters / between rafter insulation)
5 5 diffusionshemmende Schicht Bekleidung, ggf. auf Unterkonstruktion, mit oder ohne Dämmung(diffusion-
inhibiting layer Clothing, if necessary on a substructure, with or without insulation).
5.2.5 Calculation examples to prove condensation inside the

component
According to the statements in chapters 5.2.1 and 5.2.2, in the event that a tooThe
component to be examined is not included in the list of harmless components (Section 5.2.4),
further verification essentially takes place in the following steps (Figure 5.20).
Using the example of two external components taken from DIN 4108-3, the process of
detecting condensation in the interior of the component using the Glaser method will be
explained.
a) external wall
A component sketch and the tabular preliminary calculation are shown in Figure 5.21
and Table 5.4. The Glaser diagram for the dew period is shown in Figure 5.22.
components
Step 1: Boundary conditions met (location, building type and air conditioning)?
† †
Yes no
II † †
Apply glazier method Glaser process not applicable

†
Step 2: Preparatory tabular calculation and creation of the Glaser diagram (tau period), can condensation
water failure be detected?
† †
Yes no
†
† Component is harmless
Step 3: Calculation of the existing and maximum permissible condensation mass, initial assessment of
the component
† †
Mc≤ Mc,max Mc>Mc,max
†
† Component is questionable
Step 4: Preparatory tabular calculation and creation of the Glaser diagram (evaporation period),
calculation of the evaporation water mass, final evaluation of the component
† †
Mc ≤ Mev Mc > Mev
† †
Component is harmless Component is questionable
Figure 5.20Process of proof of condensation inside the component.
Figure 5.21Constructionand
descriptionof the component
(example: external wall).
TRANSLATE OF PICTURE Spanplate(clipboard), diffusionshemmende schicht(diffusion inhhibiting layer), mineralwolle(mineral wool),

spanplatte(chlipboard), beluftete luftschicht(ventilated air layer), vorgehangte aubenschale(curtained outer shell).
278 II Moisture
protection
Table 5.4Preparatory tabular calculation for the Glaser diagram for the thaw period (example external wall).
d[ µ sd Σsd/sd,T λ R, Rsi, θ psat

layer
m] [–] [m] [–] [W/(m K)] Rse [m2· [°C] [pa]
K/W]
II
room air – – – – – –
20.0 2337
Heat transfer
– – – – – 0.250
inside
18.6 2142
Chipboard V 20 0.019 50 0.95 0.190 0.127 0.150
diffusion- 17.8 2037
inhibiting layer 5x105 40000 2.00 0.589 – –
17.8 2037
mineral wool 0.160 1 0.16 0.621 0.040 4,000
Chipboard V 100 0.019 100 1.90 1,000 0.127 0.150 –4.0 437
Heat transfer –4.8 408
– – – – – 0.040
outside
-5.0 401
Outside air – – – – – –
dT sd,T=
total RT =
=0.198 5.01
4.590
1
Heat transfer coefficient:U = 1/RT = 1/4.590 = 0.218 W/(m2K)
Heat flux density: q = U · (θi – θe) = 0.218 · (20 – (–5)) = 5.447
W/m2
Figure 5.22Glaser diagram for the dew period (example external wall).
The Glaser diagram shows condensation between the thermal insulation layer and the outer
chipboard. The water vapor diffusion flux density and the condensation water mass are
calculated taking into account the diffusion conduction coefficient according to Eq. (3.8)
and the climatic conditions (Chapter 5.2.1) according to Eq. (5.12) and (5.13).
components
Gc  2 1010   1168  437  437  321   3, 48108 kg /m2 s

3,11 5, 01 3.11
M c 3, 48108th  7776103 0,27 kg/m2

II The building material-related permissible limit of condensation is not exceeded:
Mc  0. 27 kg/m2  Mc,max  0.5kg/m2
The next step is to check whether the requirements for the amount of water precipitated
during the thawing period are met. For wood-based materials, the water content based on
the mass of the material may not increase by more than 3%. The increase in the mass-
related moisture content of the chipboard is:
c
u  M
d (5.39)
0,27
u   0. 02[]  2%
700  0.019
Since both conditions are met,can be checked in the next stepThe condensation water
mass that falls out during the thawing period can dry out again in the evaporation period.
For this purpose, the Glaser diagram for the evaporation period is first created (Figure 5.23)
and then the water vapor diffusion flux density and the evaporation water mass are
calculated according to Eq. (5.14) and Eq. (5.15) calculated.
Figure 5.23Glaser diagram for the evaporation period (example: external wall).
ge v  2 1010   1700 1200  1700 1200  8, 48108 kg/ m2  s

3.11 5.01  3.11 
Me v 8th, 48108  7776103 0, 659 kg/m2

280 II Moisture
protection
The evaluation of the component leads to the conclusion that the formation of condensation
is harmless because the three conditions mentioned above are met:
– The permissible condensation mass is not exceeded:
Mc = 0.27 kg/m2 < Mc,max = 0.5 kg/m2

– The permissible increase in the mass-related moisture content is not exceeded:
II
∆u = 2% < ∆umax = 3%
– The condensation water mass is smaller than the evaporation water mass:
Mc = 0.27 kg/m2 < Mev = 0.659 kg/m2
b) Example of a flat roof

The Glaser diagram shows condensation between the thermal insulation layer andthe
outer chipboard. The water vapor diffusion flux density and the condensation water mass
are calculated taking into account the diffusion conduction coefficient according to Eq.
(3.8) and the climatic boundary conditions (Chapter 5.2.1) according to Eq. (5.12) and
(5.13).
   
G c  21010  1168 412  412 321 4, 078109 kg/m2 s
 36.8 636.8  36.8
Mc = 4.078 · 10–9 · 7776 · 103 = 0.032 kg/m2
The building material-related permissible limit of condensation is not exceeded: Mc =
0.032 kg/m2 < Mc,max = 0.5 kg/m2
Water vapor diffusion flux density
ge v  2 1010   2000 1200  2000 1200   4, 614 109 kg/ m2  s
 36,863 6,8 36.8
evaporation water mass
Mev = 4.614 · 10–9 · 7776 · 103 = 0.036 kg/m2
The evaluation of the component leads to the conclusion that the formation of condensation
is harmless because the two conditions mentioned above are met:
– The permissible condensation mass is not exceeded: Mc

= 0.032 kg/m2< Mc,max = 0.5 kg/m2
– The condensation water mass is smaller than the evaporation water
mass: Mc = 0.027 kg/m2<Mev = 0.659 kg/m2
Figure 5.24Structure
andDescription of the
component (example flat
roof).
components
Dachabdichtung(roof waterproofing), polystyrol partikelschaum(polystyrene particle foam), diffusionshemmende schicht(diffusion inhibiting
layer), stahlbetondecke mit ausgleichsschicht(reinforced conrete ceiling with leveling level).
282 II Moisture
protection
Table 5.5Preparatory tabular calculation for the Glaser diagram for the thawing period (example: flat
roof).
d[ µ sd Σsd/sd,T λ R, Rsi, θ psat
layer
m] [–] [m] [–] [W/(m K)] Rse [m2· [°C] [pa]
II K/W]
room air – – – – – –
20.0 2337
Heat transfer
– – – – – 0.250
inside
18.4 2115
Reinforced 0.18 70 12.6 0.020 2,100 0.086
concrete 17.8 2037
diffusion-
0.002 10000 20 0.051 – –
inhibiting layer
17.8 2037
polystyrenepartic
0.140 30 4.2 0.058 0.040 3,500
le foam
–4.7 412
Roof 0.006 100000 600 1,000 – –
waterproofing –4.7 412
Heat transfer
– – – – – 0.040
outside
-5.0 401
Outside air – – – – – –
dT sd,T=
total RT =
=0.32
2
Heat transfer coefficient:U = 1/RT = 1/3.876 = 0.258 W/(m K)
Heat flux density: q = U · (θi – θe) = 0.258 · (20 – (–5)) = 6.45
W/m2
Figure 5.25Glaser diagram for the dew period (example: flat roof).
components
II
Figure 5.26Glaser diagram for the evaporation period (example: flat roof).
5.3 Measures against condensation inside the component

If condensation is to be expected inside components (see Section 5.2.1), the risk of
condensation can be reduced or eliminated either by changing the adjacent climate (if this is
possible at all) or by taking the following measures on the component:
a) Changing the layer sequence
The aim should be to arrange the layers in such a way that their sd values decrease from the
inside to the outside and their thermal resistance increases from the inside to the outside, so
that the saturated steam pressure is as high as possible (Figure 5.27).
Figure 5.27Avoiding the risk of condensation through the sensible ordering of the sub-layers in a component cross
section. Translate of picture Wasser dampfpartialdrunk(water vapor partial pressure), wasserdampfpartialdrunk im
sattigungszustand(water vapor partial pressure in the saturation state psat), wasserdumpfdiffusionsaquivalente
luftschichtdicke(water vapor diffusion equivalen air layer thicknees), innen(inside), auben(outside).
284 II Moisture
protection
b) Exchange of building materials

When choosing a building material, the diffusion resistance factor and thermal
conductivity are also taken into account (see a)). In the case of internal insulation and
core insulation, in certain situations it is advisable to use insulation materials with large
sizes to avoid condensation
II Choose diffusion resistance numbers. The selection of the diffusion resistance of
However, interior insulation depends on the moisture exposure of the wall, e.g. B.
throughDriving rain and must not hinder the drying out too much inside. The moisture-
related consideration of internally insulated structures is very complex and must be
examined in detail in each individual case, taking transient conditions into account. If the
wall structure is homogeneous and there is external thermal insulation, the SD values of the
layers do not play a decisive role. For flat roofs, e.g. B. a thermal insulation layer that has
become damp can occasionally be left in place if a particularly water vapor permeable
plastic waterproofing membrane is used instead of a bitumen waterproofing membrane. In
general, diffusion-open construction methods are advantageous because they allow
moisture that is unintentionally absorbed to be released more quickly.
c) Installation of vapor barriers or vapor barriers
By installing vapor barriers (10 m ≤ sd < 100 m) and vapor barriers (sd ≥ 100 m) in a
layer package, the vapor pressure in the area protected from the diffusion flow is
increasedArea of the component is lowered, the rest of the area is increased (Figure 5.28).
Therefore, such barrier layers should be placed as close as possible to the component
surface that borders the climate that supplies condensation water. Regardless of this
principle, attention must be paid to mechanical protection of the sealing layer and to the
presence of sufficient condensate buffers on the surface.
d) Ventilation, ventilation
By ventilating the inside or outside layers, they are decoupled from the rest of the
component in terms of water vapor diffusion. This is particularly true for external
layers with large SD values, e.g. B. metal facades, useful or even
Figure 5.28Effect of vapor barriers or vapor barriers in layer packages.
Homogene(homogenous wall), wand mit dampfperre(wall with vapor barrier).
components
necessary. However, the thermal protection of the component is often reduced. Certain
conditions must also be met if the rear ventilation is to be effective, further information on
which can be found in Section 3.3.2.
e) Ensuring airtightness
If external components are permeable to flowing air, it can be used in winterInside
II
As air flows outwards, a lot of water vapor is transported to cross-sectional areas at low
temperatures in a relatively short time, where it then forms a condensation layercan
knock down. Therefore, external components must be designed to be airtight.
5.4 Moisture transport with one-sided water exposure

5.4.1 The associated liquid water transport
As Krischer suggested, unsaturated liquid water transport can be calculated using Eq.
(3.18) can be described. Kießl suggested that the dependence on the water content of the
liquid conductivity coefficient к(u), which increases disproportionately with the water
content, can be determined using the exponential approach Eq. (3.21) to approximate.
In this sense, if one sets Eq. (3.21) in Eq. (3.18), we get:
g  w 0  exp  u  ln
f   u (5.40)
u  x f 0
This equation describes the relationship between the moisture mass flux density and the slope
of the water content profile. The mass flow density in the stationary state can be obtained
through integration because this must then be independent of the path coordinate x:
x
gdx
you u    exp  u  ln F (5.41)
0 u w
f
0  0
uf
The boundaries of the integration areas were chosen so that the path coordinate x = 0 is
assigned to the water content uf (surface in contact with water) and the path coordinate x is
assigned to the water content u (surface facing away from water). If you carry out this
integration and insert the specified range limits, you get, solved for the mass flow density g:
 0
g  wff  1  1 uf 
u
  etc   (5.42)
f

 
x  ln f 
0 
If the moisture conduction coefficients к0 and кf differ at water contents u = 0 and u = uf
differ by powers of ten, which is the general case, it is permitted to set the term in the
square brackets equal to unity, even if u is significantly smaller than uf. Thiscan be seen in
Figure 5.29, which shows the numerical value of the expression in the square brackets as a
function of u:uf and к0:кf. The value range of the expression in brackets, which is close to 1.0,
is indicated by hatching, which is maintained if u:uf < 0.6 and к0:кf < 10–2, a condition which
e.g. B. is fulfilled by structurally dense concrete if there is no more than 95% relative humidity
on the air side. Under this
276 II Moisture
protection
The simplified equation for the mass flow density of water through a building material layer
of thickness x that is exposed to water on one side is:
w uf f
g (5.43)
II x  ln f
0
Figure 5.29Numerical value of the expression

in brackets in equation (5.42) as a function of
u:uf andк0:кf.
Klammerausdrunk(parenthetical expression)
Wassergehalt(water content)
To obtain the water content profile u (x), Eq. (5.43) in Eq. (5.40) inserted:
w uf   f f
g
u w0 exp  u  ln  (5.44)
x  ln f uf  0 u
0
Now we separate according to the variables u and x and integrate within the limits of x = 0
to x or from uf to u:
x u 
f
u
you dx   exp  u  ln 
f f
(5.45)
 ln f uf 0
0
x 0  uf
0
Running the integration gives, solved for u:uF:
ln1
 x 
u x
 1 (5.46)
uf f
ln 
0
Figure 5.30 shows water content profiles, calculated using Eq. (5.46), shown. The distance x
from the surface exposed to water to the surface exposed to air was varied from 0.1 m to 0.4 m.
Using the corresponding concrete data, the associated mass flow density was determined for
each layer thickness x according to Eq. (5.43) and this is recorded on the relevant water content
profile. Because the mass flow density is assumed to be constant in the considerations
components
presented here (steady state), one must imagine that the liquid water with the specified
moisture flow density penetrates into the building material at x = 0 and exits or passes through
the building material at x = x Evaporation disappears.
276 II Moisture
protection
II
Figure 5.30Calculated water content profiles for the capillary transport area with one-sided water
wetting of a concrete layer.
Wassergehalt(water content), abstand(distance).
5.4.2 Liquid water transport and diffusion in series connection

Normally, in a building material layer that is exposed to water on one side and is sufficiently
fine-pored and water-wettable, a dry zone of small thickness occurs near the side facing away
from the water. In this only hygroscopically moist layer, water vapor diffusion takes place,
while in the partial layer facing the water, liquid water transport is decisive (Figure 5.31). The
boundary between these two sub-layers is the coordination
Figure 5.31Liquid water transport area and vapor diffusion area in a water-wetted, fine-pored building
material layer on one side.
components
Wassergehalt(water content), wegkoordinate(path coordinate).

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Translated from German to English - www.onlinedoctranslator.

1 Goals and strategies of moisture protection

WM Willems et al. (Ed.), Textbook of Building Physics,

Figure 1.1Names for the water acting on buildings.

c) Inactivation of capillary water transport

d) Moisture management (building physics strategy)

Table 2.1Water vapor concentration in air at saturation as a function of temperature

Figure 2.2The relativeHumidity above saturated salt solutions.

According to Figure 2.3, the relative humidity of

Living room and study in the winter months 20 30 to 55

2.1.2 Cooling and warming of moist air

Figure 2.5Carrier diagram with registered application examples.

2.1.3 The indoor air humidity as a state of equilibrium

GL,e + G = GL,i (2.8)

Solving for i gives:

2.2 Moisture storage in building materials

2.2.1 Characteristic values of building material moisture

mass of water Volume

mass of water Mass of

Figure 2.8Water content ranges in a fine-pored, hygroscopic building material.

In addition, the following terms are used:

2.2.2 Hygroscopic water content

temperature dependent. With organic polymers the influence of temperature is not

c  1 n1 n  n

The course is then determined by three parameters:

Figure 2.13Storage isotherms ofcement concrete. Figure 2.14Storage isothermsof cleaning.

Figure 2.15Storage isothermsfromnatural stones. Figure 2.16Storage isotherms of artificial

Figure 2.20Suction tension measuring deviceaccording to Krus [26].

Figure 2.21Suction stress curves of various building materials.

2.2.4 Moisture properties of some building material classes

b) Bitumen and thermoplastics

d) Cement, lime and gypsum-bound building materials

is at a medium to low level. An important moisture-related criterionThis group of

f) bricks and other ceramic products

Class Trade name

2.2.5 Possible consequences of high water contents in building materials

b) Biologically caused material decay

c) Chemical-physically induced material decay

e) Consequences of water-soluble salts

2.3 Condensation and mold formation on component surfaces

does this mean that

psat (si )  3723 / 0.8  4654 Pa

f  31.6  (5)  0.94 []

2.3.2 Condensation protection forComponent surfaces II

a) Reduce water vapor production

c) Improve thermal protection of the component

d) Improve heat transfer on the wall surface

WM Willems et al. (Ed.), Textbook of Building Physics,

3.1.2 Transport law of water vapor diffusion

Figure 3.3Experimental setup for

Table 3.2Diffusion resistanceof polymer-based coatings, seals and floor coverings.

category Material d[ sd[

3.2 Water transport in unsaturated pores

Figure 3.5Commonly observed effects of water surface tension.

Figure 3.6Mechanical tension and interfacial tension.

Surface tension (interfacial tension between liquids and gases)

Interfacial tension and contact angle

is homogeneous. However, aging, oxidation, adsorption, contamination, roughening, etc. of a

Figure 3.8Classificationthe wettability of a solid according to the contact angle .

3.2.2 The liquid conductivity coefficient n

 neither depends on x nor t if the building material is homogeneous and

Concrete B 25 (C 20/25) 1 x 10- 3 x 10–6 300