Paraphrasing, Summarising, Quoting, Using Statistics Karin Macdonald

Paraphrase
Source: http://www.uefap.com/writing

Paraphrasing is writing the ideas of another person in your own words. You need to
change the words and the structure but keep the meaning the same. Please
remember, though, that even when you paraphrase someone's work, you must
acknowledge it.

Look at this example:

Original

It has long been known that Cairo is the most populous city on earth, but no-
one knew exactly how populous it was until last month.

Paraphrase

Although Cairo has been the world's most heavily populated city for many
years, the precise population was not known until four weeks ago.

The following stages may be useful:

1. Read and understand the text.

2. Make a list of the main ideas.

a. Find the important ideas - the important words/phrases. In some way mark
them - write them down, underline or highlight them.

b. Find alternative words/synonyms for these words/phrases - do not change

specialised vocabulary and common words.

3. Change the structure of the text.

a. Identify the meaning relationships between the words/ideas - e.g.

cause/effect, generalisation, contrast.

b. Express these relationships in a different way.

c. Change the grammar of the text: change nouns to verbs, adjectives to

adverbs, etc., break up long sentences, combine short sentences.

4. Rewrite the main ideas in complete sentences. Combine your notes into a piece of
continuous writing.

5. Check your work.

a. Make sure the meaning is the same.

b. Make sure the length is the same.

Page 1 of 19
Paraphrasing, Summarising, Quoting, Using Statistics Karin Macdonald

c. Make sure the style is your own.

d. Remember to acknowledge other people's work.

Paraphrasing Task A

Source: Unknown

You are writing an essay about 'The Importance of a Balanced Diet' and in a
paragraph about vitamins you wish to paraphrase the following quote and fit it into
the text below.

''Vitamin C in large doses not only protects against the common cold but also offers
considerable protection against other infectious diseases both viral and bacterial. I
believe that Vitamin C in adequate amounts could considerably decrease the
incidence and severity of the flu."

(Pauling and Robinson, p. 9)

Vitamin C can be found in various foods and offers many benefits. According to
Pauling and Robinson (1989)

Paraphrase Task B

You are writing an essay about artificial languages and wish to compare Esperanto
to Interlingua using the following quote. Put the text into you own words and
complete the text below. (Remember to include the writer's name in some way.)

"A more recent arrival on the international scene is interlingua, scientifically

constructed by a group of language experts out of Latin, the Romance languages,
and English. But whereas Esperanto has a large body of people who actually speak
it scattered throughout the world, lnterlingua has not yet achieved much popularity."
(Pei, pp. 175-176)

Esperanto has been around for some time but there are other artificial languages.

Page 2 of 19
Paraphrasing, Summarising, Quoting, Using Statistics Karin Macdonald

Paraphrasing Task Possible responses:

A.

Vitamin C can be found in various foods and offers many benefits. According to
Pauling and Robinson (1989) if it is taken in large enough quantities it offers
protection against the common cold as well as other viral and bacterial illnesses and
can reduce the likelihood of catching flu or at least lessen its effect.

B.

Esperanto has been around for some time but there are other artificial languages.
Interlingua is one example. This is a language which has been created from Latin,
the Romance languages and English. However, as Pei (1994) points out it is not yet
as popular as Esperanto, which is spoken by quite a number of people in various
parts of the world.

Paraphrasing

Source: Stephen Bailey, Academic Writing, 2007, Routledge, pages 29-31

Paraphrasing involves changing a text so that it is quite different from the source,
while retaining the meaning. This skill is important in several areas of academic
work, but this unit focuses on using paraphrasing in note-making and summary
writing. Effective paraphrasing is vital in academic writing to avoid the risk of
plagiarism.

1. Although paraphrasing techniques are used in summary writing,

paraphrasing does not aim to shorten the length of a text, merely to restate it.

For example:

Evidence of a lost civilisation has been found off the coast of China

could be paraphrased:

Remains of an ancient society have been discovered in the sea near China

2. A good paraphrase is significantly different from the wording of the original,

without altering the meaning at all.

Read the text below and then decide which is the better paraphrase, (a) or (b).

Page 3 of 19
Paraphrasing, Summarising, Quoting, Using Statistics Karin Macdonald

Ancient Egypt collapsed in about 2180 BC. Studies conducted of the mud from the
River Nile showed that at this time the mountainous regions which feed the Nile
suffered from a prolonged drought. This would have had a devastating effect on the
ability of Egyptian society to feed itself.

a) The sudden ending of Egyptian civilisation over 4,000 years ago was probably
caused by changes in the weather in the region to the south. Without the regular
river flooding there would not have been enough food.

b) Research into deposits of the Egyptian Nile indicate that a long dry period in the
mountains at the river's source may have led to a lack of water for irrigation around
2180 BC, which was when the collapse of Egyptian society began.

3. Techniques

a) Changing vocabulary:

studies > research

society > civilisation

mud > deposits

NB Not all words and phrases can be paraphrased. For example, economics,
socialism or global warming have no effective synonyms.

b) Changing word class:

Egypt (n.) > Egyptian (adj.)

mountainous regions (adj. + n.) > in the mountains (n.)

c) Changing word order:

Ancient Egypt collapsed > the collapse of Egyptian society began

4. Find synonyms for the words in italics.

a) The growth of the car industry parallels the development of modern capitalism.

Example:

The rise of the automobile industry matches the progress of contemporary

capitalism.

b) It began in France and Germany, but took off in the United States.

c) There Henry Ford adapted the moving production line from the Chicago meat
industry to motor manufacturing, thus inventing mass production.

Page 4 of 19
Paraphrasing, Summarising, Quoting, Using Statistics Karin Macdonald

5. Change the word class of the words in italics, and then rewrite the
sentences.

a) In the 1920s Alfred Sloan's management theories helped General Motors to

become the world's dominant car company.

Example:

In the 1920s, with help from the managerial theories of Alfred Sloan, General Motors
dominated the world's car companies.

b) After the Second World War the industry developed 'planned obsolescence',
whereby frequent model changes encouraged customers to buy new cars more often
than they needed to.

c) Later, from the 1970s, environmentalists began to criticise the industry for
producing inefficient models which used too much fuel, contributing to global
warming.

6. Change the word order of the following sentences (other changes may be
needed).

a) At this time, trades unions became increasingly militant in defence of their

members' jobs.

Example:

At this time increasingly militant trades unions defended their members' jobs.

b) Today the industry owns some of the strongest brands in the world.

c) However, many major car companies struggle with stagnant markets and falling
profits.

7. Combine all these techniques to paraphrase the paragraph as fully as

possible.

FOUR WHEELS GOOD

The growth of the car industry parallels the development of modern capitalism. It
began in France and Germany, but took off in the United States. There Henry Ford
adapted the moving production line from the Chicago meat industry to motor
manufacturing, thus inventing mass production. In the 1920s Alfred Sloan's
management theories helped General Motors to become the world's dominant car
company. After the Second World War the industry developed 'planned
obsolescence', whereby frequent model changes encouraged customers to buy new
cars more often than they needed to. Later, from the 1970s, environmentalists began
to criticise the industry for producing inefficient models which used too much fuel,
contributing to global warming. At this time, trades unions became increasingly

Page 5 of 19
Paraphrasing, Summarising, Quoting, Using Statistics Karin Macdonald

militant in defence of their members' jobs. Today the industry owns some of the
strongest brands in the world. However, many major car companies struggle with
stagnant markets and falling profits.

Page 6 of 19
Paraphrasing, Summarising, Quoting, Using Statistics Karin Macdonald

Summarising
Source: Oshima and Hogue, Writing Academic English, 2006, Longman

Another way to use borrowed information from an outside source is to summarize it.
What is the difference between a paraphrase and a summary? When you retell a
story that someone has told you, you repeat the story in your own words. If your
retelling is about the same length as the original, it is a paraphrase. If you shorten
the story - retelling only the most important points and leaving out the details - it is a
summary.

Original Passage (85 words)

Language is the main means of communication between peoples. But so many

different languages have developed that language has often been a barrier rather
than an aid to understanding among peoples. For many years, people have dreamed
of setting up an international universal language which all people could speak and
understand. The arguments in favor of a universal language are simple and obvious.
If all peoples spoke the same tongue, cultural and economic ties might be much
closer, and good will might increase between countries (Kispert).

Paraphrase (63 words, about the same length as the original)

Humans communicate through language. Because there are so many different

languages, however, people around the world have a difficult time understanding
one another. Some people have wished for a universal international language that
speakers all over the world could understand. Their reasons are straightforward and
clear. A universal language would build cultural and economic bonds, it would also
create better feelings among countries (Kispert).

Summary (28 words, much shorter)

People communicate through language; however, having different languages creates

communication barriers. A universal language could bring countries together
culturally and economically as well as increase good feelings among them (Kispert).

Page 7 of 19
Paraphrasing, Summarising, Quoting, Using Statistics Karin Macdonald

Summary Writing
Source: Stephen Bailey, Academic Writing, 2007, Routledge, pages 32-35

Making summaries is a common activity in everyday life. If a friend asks you about a
book you are reading, you do not tell her about everything in the book. Instead, you
make a summary of the most interesting and important aspects. The same principle
applies to summarising in academic work.

1. Choose three of the topics below and write summaries in no more than
twelve words each.

Example:

Birmingham - Birmingham is a large industrial city in the English west midlands.

a) Your home town

b) Bill Gates

c) Your academic subject

d) The last book you read

e) A film you saw recently

Look at the summaries you have written above. What are the features of a
successful summary?

2. Summary writing is an important skill in academic work.

Different kinds of summaries are needed in different situations.

List as many study uses for summary writing as you can think of.

making notes from lectures………

3. In essay writing students often have to summarise part of a book or journal

article.

The summary may be just one or two sentences, to explain the main idea of the
article, and perhaps compare it with another summarised text, or it might be
necessary to include much more detail. In other words, a summary can range from
1-2% of the original to more than 50%: summarising is a flexible tool. At first students
need to follow a series of steps to summarise successfully. With practice the number
of steps may be reduced, as the process becomes more automatic.

Page 8 of 19
Paraphrasing, Summarising, Quoting, Using Statistics Karin Macdonald

Complete the list of stages in a successful summary by using phrases from the box.

i) use your own words ii) key points

iii) important ideas iv) order of ideas where necessary

a) Read the text carefully and check key vocabulary.

b) Underline or highlight the…………..

c) Make notes of these, taking care to…………….

d) Write the summary using the notes, re-organising the…………………………

e) Check the summary to make sure no……………have been omitted or distorted.

4. Read the following text and compare the summaries. Decide which is best,
giving reasons.

Researchers in France and the United States have recently reported that baboons
are able to think abstractly. It has been known for some time that chimpanzees are
capable of abstract thought, but baboons are a more distant relation to mankind. In
the experiment, scientists trained two baboons to use a personal computer and a
joystick. The animals had to match computer designs which were basically the same,
but had superficial differences. In the experiment the baboons performed better than
would be expected by chance. The researchers describe their study in an article in
the Journal of Experimental Psychology.

a) French and American scientists have shown for the first time that baboons have
the ability to think in an abstract way. The animals were taught to use a computer,
and then had to select patterns that were similar, which they did at a rate better than
chance.

b) Baboons are a kind of monkey more distant from man than chimpanzees.
Although it is known that chimpanzees are able to think abstractly, until recently it
was not clear if baboons could do the same. But new research by various scientists
has shown that this is so.

c) According to a recent article in the Journal of Experimental Psychology, baboons

are able to think in an abstract way. The article describes how researchers trained
two baboons to use a personal computer and a joystick. The animals did better than
would be expected.

Page 9 of 19
Paraphrasing, Summarising, Quoting, Using Statistics Karin Macdonald

5. Read the following text and underline the key points.

Indian researchers are trying to find out if there is any truth in old sayings which
claim to predict the weather. In Gujarat farmers have the choice of planting either
peanuts, which are more profitable in wet years, or castor, which does better in drier
conditions. The difference depends on the timing of the monsoon rains, which can
arrive at any time between the beginning and the middle of June. Farmers, however,
have to decide what seeds to sow in April or May.

There is a local saying, at least a thousand years old, which claims that the monsoon
starts 45 days after the flowering of a common tree, Cassia fistula. Dr Kanani, an
agronomist from Gujarat Agricultural University, has been studying the relationship
since 1996, and has found that the tree does successfully predict the approximate
date of the monsoon's arrival.

6. Complete the following notes of the key points.

a) Indian scientists checking ancient

b) Old saying links monsoon to

c) Used by farmers to select peanuts (for wet) or

d) Dr Kanani of Gujarat Agricultural University has found that

7. Link the notes together to make a complete summary using conjunctions

where necessary. Check the final text for factual accuracy.

Indian scientists are checking

Page 10 of 19
Paraphrasing, Summarising, Quoting, Using Statistics Karin Macdonald

8. The original text was about 150 words. The summary above uses about 50,
so the original has been reduced by about 65%. However, it might be
necessary to summarise still further. Using the same techniques, summarise
the summary in about twenty words.

9. Summarise the following article in about 75 words.

South Korea is planning to move its capital from Seoul to a new site in the middle of
the country. Although Seoul has been the capital since the fourteenth century, the
city of over 20 million is now very crowded, and also close to the hostile armies of
North Korea. The new capital is planned to cost $45 billion, with construction
finishing by 2012.

There is, however, strong opposition to the project, since similar schemes in other
countries have taken far longer and cost much more than originally planned.
Australia, for example, took over 70 years to finish building Canberra, while Nigeria
has never completed its planned new capital, Abuja. Both Brazil and Malaysia have
found that the building of new capitals (Brasilia and Putrajaya) can sharply increase
the national burden of debt. Even if the government does eventually move to the new
capital, it is unlikely that South Korea's main businesses will follow it, so Seoul will
probably continue to be the country's principal city.

Page 11 of 19
Paraphrasing, Summarising, Quoting, Using Statistics Karin Macdonald

Quotations and Referencing

Source: R.R. Jordan, Academic Writing Course, 2004, Longman

Bibliography

There are a number of errors in the bibliography or list of references below. These may be to
do with the order of items or the omission of some details. Mark the places where the errors
occur and then write a description of the error and what is needed to correct it.

Abbott, G. (1981). Encouraging communication in English: a paradox. ELT Journal.

James, K. (1984a). The writing of theses by speakers of English as a Foreign Language: the
results of a case study. In R. Williams, J. Swales and J. Kirkman (Eds.). Common ground:
shared interests in ESP and communication studies. ELT documents: 117.

James (1984b). Speak to Learn.

McDonough, J. (1984). ESP in Perspective: A Practical Guide. Collins ELT: London.

Mackay, R. & A. Mountford (Eds.) (1978). English for Specific Purposes. London: Longman.

Zamel, V. Responding to student writing. TESOL Quarterly, 19 (1).

Swales, J.M. (1995). The role of the textbook in EAP writing research. English for Specific
Purposes, 14 (1).

Swales, J.M. and C.B. Feak (1994). Academic Writing for Graduate Students, Ann Arbor:
University of Michigan Press.

Quotations and References

1. Read the following passage carefully. Notice the different ways in which the quotations
are used and how they are acknowledged. Notice also how the references are listed at the
end.

- From how many different sources are direct quotations made?

- From how many different sources are paraphrases made?

Writer's Block and Getting Started

A writer's block is the feeling of being unable to write. It is different from writer's cramp,
which is stiffness of the hand caused by writing for a long time. Three different kinds of
block have been diagnosed: physical, procedural and psychological (Smith, 1982). Beard
and Hartley (1984:258) have neatly summarised the main differences:

Physical blocks occur when the writer is tired and it just becomes too much of an
effort to continue. Procedural blocks occur when the writer cannot decide what to
write next. Psychological blocks occur when the words should come, and could

Page 12 of 19
Paraphrasing, Summarising, Quoting, Using Statistics Karin Macdonald

come, but the writer cannot bring himself or herself to let the words appear on the
paper.

One of the main difficulties in writing for native speakers of English is the process of 'getting
started'. A questionnaire was sent to academics at a university in England and one in
Canada by Hartley and Knapper (1984:158). They posed the question 'What do you like
least about writing?' A common response was: 'Writing the first paragraph'. Hartley and
Knapper commented that 'Almost every respondent confessed to experiencing writer's
blocks'.

If writing the first paragraph presents difficulties for native speakers of English, the problem
for non-native speakers of English must be at least as great. This was confirmed by Jordan
(1993:75) who conducted a survey by questionnaire of overseas students studying at a
British university. Based on their experience in their own countries when writing an essay,
67% of the students admitted to having difficulty in starting.

Various suggestions have been made to overcome the Jo problem of 'getting started' in
writing. One fairly common one is to begin by simply jotting down ideas or notes on paper
(Hartley and Knapper, 1984; Northedge, 1990). In other words, to get what you want to say
down on paper as quickly as possible. 'Editing, polishing, changing, resequencing and the
like can be left until later. At this stage it does not matter if sentences are incomplete.' (Beard
and Hartley, 1984:253)

References

Beard, R.M. and J. Hartley (1984: 4th ed.). Teaching and Learning in Higher Education.
London: Harper and Row.

Hartley, J. and C.K. Knapper (1984). Academics and their Writing. Studies in Higher
Education, 9(2).

Jordan, R.R. (1993). Study Skills: Experience and Expectations. In G.M. Blue (Ed.)
Language, Leaming and Success: Studying through English. Developments in ELT. London:
Macmillan, Modern English Teacher and the British Council.

Northedge, A. (1990). The Good Study Guide. Milton Keynes: The Open University.

Smith, F. (1982). Writing and the Writer. London: Heinemann Educational.

Structure and Vocabulary Aid

A. Quotations

When referring to a book or article, the normal procedure is to give the author's surname, the
year of publication in brackets, and the page numbers if necessary. The full reference is then
given at the end of the text.

There are two basic ways of using quotations.

1. Quotation marks (inverted commas) are put around the author's actual words, which
are then incorporated in the text: this is often used for short quotations, e.g.

Page 13 of 19
Paraphrasing, Summarising, Quoting, Using Statistics Karin Macdonald

Academic writers need to be cautious in their claims. In this respect, vague language
is important as 'it allows claims to be made with due caution, modesty, and humility'
(Hyland, 1994: 241)

2. The quotation is indented (it starts further from the margin than the other lines, and it
may be in a different type size or style; the quotation marks are usually omitted), this
is normally used for longer quotations (three or more lines), e.g.

Jordan (1977: 240) also draws attention to the necessity for being careful: A feature
of academic writing is the need to be cautious in one's claims and statements. In
other words, you may indicate your certainty and commitment in varying degrees.

This may be done in various ways ...

Note: Quotations are exact words of the author, which must be accurate, with the
same punctuation and spelling.

B. Incorporating quotations in writing

1. The main uses of quotations in writing are as follows:

- Support for an argument or point of view. As X has observed ‘…’

- Exemplification of the point being made. Thus, for example, ‘…’

- Introduction of a point or viewpoint etc. According to X, '. . .'

- Conclusion of a discussion, analysis, etc. Therefore X concludes: '…'

- Explanation of a point, item, etc. X explains it as follows: ‘…’

2. There are many verbs and phrases that can be used to introduce quotations in writing.
Some of the main structures are as follows:

- As X observed/pointed out/suggested/noted/indicated' ... '

- According to X, '. . .'

- For example, X argued that '. . .'

- X suggests that '. . .'

- The need for it is widely recognised: '. . .'

- Writing in 1979, X commented that '. . .'

- To quote X: '. . .'

- Recent research by X shows that '. . .'

Page 14 of 19
Paraphrasing, Summarising, Quoting, Using Statistics Karin Macdonald

C. References and bibliographies

References, at the end of an essay, for example, are arranged in alphabetical order (A-Z) of
the author's surname or the name of the organisation. If more than one author has the same
surname, they should appear in alphabetical order of the initial of the first name. If more than
one reference is given by the same author; then the earlier dated reference will appear first.
If two or more references by the same author appear in the same year, they will be labelled
in sequence with letters (a, b, c, etc.) after the year. References to one author are normally
listed before those of joint authorship of the same author.

There are differences between references to books and references to journals.

- Note the sequence of information commonly used in references to books: Author's

surname, initials, date (in brackets), title (underlined or in italics), place of publication,
publisher. E.g.

Wallace, M.J. (1980). Study Skills in English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

- Note the sequence of information commonly used in references to articles in journals:

Author's surname, initials, date (in brackets), title of article, name of journal (underlined or in
italics), volume number, issue number, sometimes season or month, sometimes page
numbers. E.g.

West, R. (1994). Needs analysis in language teaching. Language Teaching, 27 (1): 1-19

D. Footnotes

A footnote is a note at the bottom (or foot) of a page in a book or journal: it is used to explain
a word or other item, or to add some special information or a reference. Sometimes
footnotes appear at the end of the essay or article, or even at the back of a book.

A small number is written above the word or item in the text. The explanation of the item is
then given the same number. If there are two or more footnotes, then they are numbered in
sequence 1, 2, 3, etc. If they appear at the foot of each page, the numbering starts again on
each page. If they appear at the end of an essay, the numbering is continuous throughout
the essay. There are several systems of giving footnotes but this is the simplest:

... has given rise to a school of thought called neo1-Marxism

Note: It is better to avoid the use of footnotes if possible, but you need to understand their
use.

1
neo - a new or modern form or development of

Page 15 of 19
Paraphrasing, Summarising, Quoting, Using Statistics Karin Macdonald

Presenting Data

Source: R.R. Jordan, Academic Writing Course, 1999, Longman

Page 16 of 19
Paraphrasing, Summarising, Quoting, Using Statistics Karin Macdonald

Page 17 of 19
Paraphrasing, Summarising, Quoting, Using Statistics Karin Macdonald

Source: K. Cox and D. Hill, EAP Now, 2004, Pearson Longman

Page 18 of 19
Paraphrasing, Summarising, Quoting, Using Statistics Karin Macdonald

Page 19 of 19