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Money donations intentions among Muslim donors: An extended theory of

planned behavior model

Article in International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing · February 2015
DOI: 10.1002/nvsm.1519

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International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing
Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark. (2015)
Published online in Wiley Online Library
(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/nvsm.1519

Money donations intentions among Muslim

donors: an extended theory of planned
behavior model
Muhammad Kashif1* and Ernest Cyril De Run2
1
GIFT Business School, GIFT University, Gujranwala, Punjab, Pakistan
2
Faculty of Economics and Business, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia

• The investigation into determinants of money donation intentions while employing an extended
theory of planned behavior model is limited to developed country contexts. However, given the chal-
lenges facing charitable organizations and scant theoretical evidence from developing world, such
an examination can contribute pragmatically. The current study establishes the impact of subjective
norms, perceived behavioral control, past behavior, and attitude on respondents’ money donation
intentions to charities in Pakistan. The respondents (N = 223), a non-student population living in
the city of Gujranwala, completed a survey. The collected data are analyzed by means of a multivar-
iate analysis, which was comprised of regression and correlation. The results reveal a strong support
to the extended theory of planned behavior model in establishing the relationship between identified
independent and dependent variables in a developing country context of Pakistan. The study con-
tributes to the establishment of a few strategies, which are useful for managers working in charita-
ble organizations to attract and retain donors to support several causes.
Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Introduction activities to raise the standards of living. The role of

charitable organizations in helping the underprivi-
The public donations significantly contribute toward
leged has been highly appreciated (Edin & Lein,
helping the poor and needy people living across the
1998). However, charitable organizations are cur-
globe (Cheung & Chan, 2000) and can take several
rently struggling to find ways to stimulate private do-
forms such as formation of a welfare trust, pro-
nations. In this regard, philanthropists believe that
motion of education for children, development of
psychology of donor is a critical element that must
an understanding of religion, and other welfare
be studied in detail to develop market-driven strate-
gies to counter current thrill. The donors, whether
*Correspondence to: Muhammad Kashif, Assistant Professor of
Marketing, GIFT University, Gujranwala, Punjab, Pakistan. poor or rich, donate money (Wiepking & Breeze,
E-mail: kashif@gift.edu.pk 2012), which indicates that financial capacity is not

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark., 2015
DOI: 10.1002/nvsm

the stronger determinant of charity donations as
poor people also donate generously (Avdeyeva,
Burgetova, & Welch, 2006). The behavior of a donor
to donate money largely depends upon cultural sys-
tems, religion, and a few personal factors
(Ranganathan & Henley, 2008). Because culture and
religious beliefs are practiced among the members
of a society, these trigger a particular behavior that
comprises various personal, social, and psychologi-
cal cues. An understanding of these personal, social,
and psychological elements is pivotal to devise mar-
keting plans that ultimately motivate donors to do-
nate generously (Knowles, Hyde, & White, 2012).
Muslims around the world are obliged to contrib-
ute significantly in the redistribution of one’s wealth
in the form of charity (Kroessin, 2007). Islamic teach-
ings strongly stress the need to pay zakat (obligatory
money charity only for those Muslims who have the
financial capacity to donate) to those who are needy
at an annual rate of 2.5% on one’s disposable income
(Khan, 2012). Pakistan and countries alike in the
Muslim world have their own strong cultural history
and a religious background, which is an interesting
avenue to study the money donation behavior. The
Muslims are also advised to provide financial support
to poor and needy people; as in one of the Quranic
verses, Allah Sub ānahu Wa Ta’Ala said:
For those who give to men and women in
charity and loan to Allah a Beautiful Loan, it
shall be increased (to their credit) and they shall
have (besides) a liberal reward. [Al-Quran,
Chapter 57, Verse 18].
Aside from the perspective of culture, religion,
and belief systems, amount of money donations
significantly impacts the decisions pertaining to mar-
keting management of charitable organizations. To-
day, nonprofit charity organizations heavily depend
on the public generosity to donate money and time
(Lee & Chang, 2007), which needs careful investi-
gation. This is because government funding to chari-
table causes is reduced significantly (Alexander,
2000), and charitable organizations are under
Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Muhammad Kashif and Ernest Cyril De Run
extreme financial pressures to manage funds. There
is a severe need felt to raise funds in order to support
poor and needy people, which, if not fulfilled prop-
erly, can seriously damage the efforts made by chari-
table organizations (Sargeant, Ford, & West, 2000).
In addition to external pressures, the charitable
and nonprofit organizations also face internal chal-
lenges such as institutional isomorphism, resource
dependence, and organizational slack (Kistruck,
Qureshi, & Beamish, 2013). Many charitable orga-
nizations are internally focused systems where
market-driven strategies are absent. The charitable
organizations usually do not have a professional
workforce to merit marketing and financial manage-
ment decisions. In order to cope with the envi-
ronmental threats, charitable organizations need
comprehensive marketing plans to take a leap for-
ward (Liu & Ko, 2012), but it strongly depends on
understanding the motives behind charitable giving
(Lemmens et al., 2005).
By understanding donor behavior, charitable orga-
nizations can earn certain marketing advantages
such as service innovation and design, reputation
equity, and an increased level of donor satisfaction
(Modi, 2012). The studies in developing countries
are limited to the identification of the role of demo-
graphics such as age, gender, and income to influ-
ence charity donation intentions (Lord, 1981;
Burgoyne, Young, & Walker, 2005; Lee & Chang,
2007). Because much of research has focused on
identifying the demographics of donors, most
studies do not imply a theoretical framework that
can help in sketching a complete picture of dona-
tion intentions (Greenslade & White, 2005). The
investigation must cover major tenants of behavior,
which are mainly covered by psychosocial theories
of behavior such as the theory of planned behavior
(TPB); however, the investigation of donation
intentions based on the extended TPB (ETPB) model
is limited (Knowles et al., 2012; Smith &
McSweeney, 2007) and almost absent in the case
of a Muslim country context such as Pakistan. The
charity organizations in Asia can benefit from such
studies, especially in efforts to develop some
Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark., 2015
DOI: 10.1002/nvsm
Predicting money donations among Muslims
marketing plans that can set the tone to grow fur-
ther by keeping abreast with consumer needs (Park
& Lee, 2009). It is also notable that the sociocultural
environment of Western and Asian countries is dif-
ferent, which must be acknowledged while investi-
gating and proposing marketing strategies to
charitable and nonprofit organizations operating in
Asia (Park et al., 2010).
The context of study: Pakistan
Philanthropy is a strong cultural and religious norm
in Pakistan where one of the world’s largest Muslim
populations resides. Since its inception in the year
1947, Pakistani corporate and entrepreneurial phi-
lanthropists are able to develop world-class institu-
tions. The top three donating behaviors among
Pakistanis are donating money, volunteering time,
and helping a stranger. According to a report pub-
lished by the World Giving Index, Pakistan as a coun-
try has climbed the rankings, from the 142nd
position in the previous years to the 34th position
recently. Further to the nation’s pride, Pakistan
ranks very high in terms of the gross domestic
product-to-giving ratio where 5% of the gross do-
mestic product is spent on charitable donations.
Overall, Pakistan contributed $1.7bn on charity to
the deserving in the year 2009. These donations
have helped the organizations such as Khana Ghar
to feed hungry people, Edhi Foundation to facilitate
rescues and orphanages, and Roshni Homes to
provide housing facilities for orphans. On account
of culture, Pakistan is a challenging and unique
country context to study charity donation inten-
tions. People in Pakistan, unlike their Western coun-
terparts, are scoring high on collectivism and power
distance (Hofstede, 2003). This establishes the no-
tion that charity donation intentions are differently
formed among the members of the Pakistani society.
There are other forms of charity as well other
than zakat to help poor and needy people. A
completely volunteering activity called sadaqah
depends solely on the discretion of the donor (Dean
Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
& Khan, 1997) and is not obligatory. The sadaqah
can be a service to save someone from a sin, dona-
tion of clothes, or providing food to the needy per-
son(s). Another form of charity in Islam is called
kaffara, which is offered in situations where an
oath has been broken. Finally, Muslims also donate
to hospitals, charities, mosques, and other institu-
tions to support people in need, which is known
as waqf (Opoku, 2012).
The current study focuses on the younger adults
because their motivation and intention to donate
money has remained an under-researched area of
investigation (Yuan et al., 2011). Another, a large
chunk of Pakistan’s population comprises of youn-
ger people where the median age is 22 years. The
younger adults are substantial spenders while
funding various charitable causes (Bashford, 2002)
and also donate on a regular basis (Safi & Ramay,
2013). It is also believed that younger adults become
long-life customers once they are satisfied with the
quality of products and services consumed at an
early stage of their life (Hart et al., 2007).
Theory of planned behavior
The psychosocial theories are proved extremely
beneficial to marketing researchers in understand-
ing consumer behavior. Among these theories, the
TPB model is widely acknowledged and employed
to understand intentions and behavior (Figure 1).
The TPB model is presented by Ajzen (1985) who
advocated the idea that attitude (target behavior
and its evaluation), norms (perceived social pres-
sures to perform a certain behavior), and perceived
behavioral control (PBC) influence behavioral inten-
tions, which in turn leads to a particular behavior. At
a later stage, to enhance the predictive power of
TPB, Ajzen (1991) proposed an extended model by
incorporating the effect of moral norms, descriptive
norms, and past behavior to predict behavioral in-
tentions, which ultimately leads to actual behavior.
This clearly indicates that behavior and intentions
are a function of a combination of factors: personal,
Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark., 2015
DOI: 10.1002/nvsm

Perceived
Behavioural
Attitude
Injunctive
Norm
Descriptive
norm
Moral norm
Past behaviour
Figure 1. Research model.
social, and psychological. The marketers of philan-
thropic services have employed the TPB model
extensively; however, the investigation based on
the extended model is scarce (Knowles et al.,
2012; Smith & McSweeney, 2007).
The major strengths of the TPB model lie in iden-
tifying the core determinants of behavior and in
theorizing the behavioral, control, and normative
beliefs. This belief-based model classifies individuals
into two categories: individuals who intend to per-
form certain behavior and those who do not have
any intentions. Empirical studies have supported
these assumptions of the TPB such as in predicting
blood donation behavior (Warburton & Terry,
2000), charitable bequest (Konkoly & Perloff,
1990), and in predicting charitable giving behaviors
(Okun & Sloane, 2002; Greenslade & White, 2005).
Furthermore, it is found that subjective norms, atti-
tude, and PBC bring a 40–50% variance in intentions
and that PBC and intentions cause another 30%
variance in behavior (Armitage & Conner, 2001).
There are only two studies found so far where the
researchers have used the TPB to examine money
donation intentions and behavior (Knowles et al.,
2012; Smith & McSweeney, 2007). It is important to
note here that these researchers employed an ex-
tended version of the TPB, which has never been
employed to investigate money donation intentions
Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Muhammad Kashif and Ernest Cyril De Run
Behavioural Behaviour
Intention
in an Asian setting. The study of Knowles et al.
(2012) employs regression analysis to predict inten-
tions and actual behaviors toward money donation
where elements of an extended TPB explain a 61%
variance in intentions to donate money. These
studies recognized the fact that attitude, subjective
norms, and PBC strongly predict intentions to be-
have that also explain actual behavior via the TPB
model. Keeping in view the limited literature in the
ETPB model, the following hypotheses are proposed:
H1: Attitude positively relates to money dona-
tion intentions
H2: Perceived behavioral control positively re-
lates to money donation intentions
The extended version of TPB has evolved over a
period of time. Initially, subjective norms and atti-
tude were found to predict donation intentions
and behaviors (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). After a
few years of the initially proposed model, re-
searchers extended the variables by adding a few
elements pertaining to norms and past behavior,
which further strengthened the predictive power
of the theory (Konkoly & Perloff, 1990). Both of
the two newly established categories of norms are
different from each other in a sense that descriptive
Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark., 2015
DOI: 10.1002/nvsm
Predicting money donations among Muslims
norms are considerate of the role of reference group
members on donation intentions while moral norms
are more personal in nature and acknowledge an
individual’s perception of personal responsibility to
donate (Manstead, 2000). Moral norms have been
added to the model in order to better predict
altruistic behaviors, money and blood donation
(Warburton & Terry, 2000; Armitage & Conner,
2001). The injunctive and descriptive norms have
been used to predict tobacco usage behavior
(McMillan & Conner, 2003a), drug usage behavior
(Conner & McMillan, 1999), and in gambling re-
search (Sheeran & Orbell, 1999), which is not
ethical and must not be promoted to societies.
These two distinct types of norms separately cause
an intention to behave, which ultimately determines
actual behavior (Rivis & Sheeran, 2003). These
studies contributed in enhancing the explanatory
power of the model in terms of predicting inten-
tions and behaviors.
The importance of moral norms while predicting
donation behaviors of individuals is acknowledged
(Oosterhof, Heuvelman, & Peters, 2009; and Radley
& Kennedy, 1995); however, only a few studies
consider a collective effect of injunctive, moral,
and descriptive norms to explain intentions and
behaviors. These three types of norms have been
studied in isolation to predict various behaviors
related to tobacco, drug, and alcohol use with very
little research conducted to understand the altruistic
behaviors (Warburton & Terry, 2000). Employing
these three norms in predicting altruistic behaviors
will contribute extensively to the theory develop-
ment in the attitude–behavior construct and will
result into the development of some behavioral
change strategies (Smith & McSweeney, 2007). The
current study proposes the following hypotheses:
H3: Descriptive norms positively relate to money
donation intentions
H4: Injunctive norms positively relate to money
donation intentions
Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
H5: Moral norms positively relates to money
donation intentions
In addition to the traditional TPB model, re-
searchers have highlighted the role and impact of
past behavior in predicting intentions to donate
money (Sutton, 1994). The element of past behavior
has been acknowledged as a strong predictor of be-
havioral intentions (Bozionelos & Bennett, 1999).
These researchers believed that past behavior is a
much stronger predictor of intentions as compared
with attitudes as it predicts socially acceptable
behaviors (Lee, Piliavin, & Call, 1999). Individual
behavior, mostly shaped by past experiences per-
taining to a specific phenomenon, which is not in-
vestigated in detail (Cheung & Chan, 2000), hence
must be focused. This leads to proposing the final
hypothesis:
H6: Past behavior positively relates to money
donation intentions
Methodology
The study
The study aims to relate money donation intentions
by employing the ETPB model in an Asian setting of
Pakistan. Because strong theoretical support was
evident, a positivist stance was preferred over a
realist and interpretive approach. Positivists advo-
cate an objective worldview and employ quantita-
tive approaches to analyze the data (Bryman,
2012). The positivist stance is preferred in such
cases as highlighted in this study and also is widely
employed by philanthropy marketers to investigate
social behaviors (Knowles et al., 2012; Smith &
McSweeney, 2007; Opoku, 2012).
The research team approached 250 inhabitants in
the city of Gujranwala, located in the largest
province of Punjab, Pakistan, where the colleges
and universities, regional offices of national and mul-
tinational companies, and offices of many small-
sized and medium-sized enterprises are located.
Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark., 2015
DOI: 10.1002/nvsm

The food businesses and traditional wrestling as an
art collectively contribute further to the city’s
vibrancy that appeals to people of all ages. There
are many young people from surrounding small
towns who travel to the city for the purpose of
work, study, and their personal businesses. In order
to collect data, a few shopping malls located in the
city of Gujranwala were chosen as per convenience.
The respondents qualified based on asking an
initial question: have you donated money in the
last one month? The core objective behind this
qualification of respondents was to gain insights
from those who have actually donated. Once the
initial qualification of respondents was completed,
the research team sought approvals from individual
respondents to participate in the study on a volun-
tary basis. There were 250 questionnaires dis-
tributed among the potential respondents, and 223
were collected back and found fit for data analysis.
The remainder of 27 respondents denied our re-
quest to participate in the survey. The response rate
(89.2%) and the sample size fit well with the previ-
ous studies conducted to understand money dona-
tion intentions in the non-Eastern and Western
context (Opoku, 2012; Knowles et al., 2012).
Measures
The survey-based questionnaire was based on
studies conducted by Knowles et al. (2012) and
Smith and McSweeney (2007). Because the variables
have been tested time and again, it was employed
without making any changes in the question struc-
ture and content. One of the well differentiated
products of this study is the sample respondents
who are not only students but also regular donors.
In recently conducted TPB studies, however, the
students have been sampled as respondents (Smith
& McSweeney, 2007; Opoku, 2012). The question-
naire comprised of two major parts: the revised
TPB items and demographics. The scale comprised
of 39 items clustered into seven dimensions, which
include attitude, PBC, injunctive norms, descriptive
Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Muhammad Kashif and Ernest Cyril De Run
norms, moral norms, past behavior, and self-
reported behavior. A five-point Likert scale was used
to measure all the constructs with 1 = strongly dis-
agree and 5 = strongly agree.
Attitude was measured by employing five-point
semantic differential items of attitude toward money
donation. For instance, the money donation experi-
ence to a charitable organization was considered
through a range of responses such as “unpleasant---
pleasant” and “useless—useful”. The PBC dimension
was comprised of five items. For example, “Overall,
how much control do you have over whether you
will donate money to charities or community ser-
vice organisations in the next 4 weeks?” Injunctive
norms were measured using six items, contributing
toward intentions to donate money. For instance,
“The people closest to me would disapprove if I
donated money to charities or community service
organisations.” Descriptive norms were measured
through four items such as “Most people who are
important to me donate money to charities or com-
munity service organisations.” Moral norms were
measured by six items. For example, “I am the kind
of person who donates money to charities or
community service organisations.” The dimension
past behavior was measured through a five-item
scale. For example, “I do not donate money to char-
ities or community service organizations.” Five items
were used to measure behavioral intention to
donate money to charitable organizations. For in-
stance, “I would like to donate money to charities
or community service organisations in the next
4 weeks.” Self-reported behavior was measured by
asking the question “How often during the past
4 weeks have you made monetary donations to
charities or community service organisations?”
The impact of non-response bias in results was
estimated. Chi-square difference test was con-
ducted by employing the approximate percentage
of each revised TPB item. A non-response analysis
was performed in accordance with the guidelines
provided by marketing researchers (Aydin, Özer,
& Arasil, 2005). The unidimensionality of scale
items was then assessed through exploratory
Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark., 2015
DOI: 10.1002/nvsm
Predicting money donations among Muslims
factor analysis (Churchill, 1979), and once found
appropriate, data would then be analyzed using
multiple regression.
Findings
The average age of respondents was 24 years where
the largest segment of sample comprised of people
in the age group of 19–27 years. Among the respon-
dents, 46.6% were aged between 18 and 21 years
and 53.4% were in the age range of 22–27 years.
There were 55% male respondents while the rest
were female. Table 1 presents the number of times
respondents donated in the past 4 weeks alongside
the respective percentage for each group, which is
self-explanatory.
The results of the chi-square tests for non-
response analysis were x23 = 0.1701 and p < 0.02,
which indicate the difference between distributions
as insignificant. Before moving further in the analy-
sis, the researchers assessed the unidimensionality
of scale items through exploratory factor analysis
(Churchill, 1979). Based on the scores of a 39-item
scale, no item in the scale was deleted. The relia-
bility of each scale used is shared in Table 2.
Descriptive analysis was also performed, and
results are presented in Table 3.
To further enrich the analysis, demographical dif-
ferences toward money donation intentions among
age and gender classifications were explored. An
independent-sample t-test was performed, and it is
found that male and female respondents do not vary
significantly toward money donation intentions by
Table 1. Times respondents donated in the past 4 weeks
Number of times donated N Percentage
One to two times 9 4.0
Three to four times 58 26.0
Five to six times 100 45.0
More than six times 56 25
Total 223 100.0
Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Table 2. Reliability for variables
Variable Alpha
Self-reported behavior 0.831
Behavioral intention 0.793
Past behavior 0.918
Attitude 0.735
Moral norms 0.787
Descriptive norms 0.812
Injunctive norms 0.739
Perceived behavioral control 0.797
injunctive norms, descriptive norms, and past be-
havior. The respondents considered these elements
as strong predictors of money donation intentions
and behaviors. However, male and female respon-
dents vary in their opinions regarding attitude,
PBC, moral norms, and behavioral intentions to
donate money. On the other side, between the age
groups, “attitude toward money donation” is found
significant with a “T” value of 2.56. For the rest of
the variables, differences are not found as signifi-
cant. The results are presented through Table 4.
For the purpose of hypothesis testing, a multiple
regression analysis was performed where the entry
of revised TPB dimensions into a stepwise regression
model was carried out (Smith & McSweeney, 2007).
As presented in Table 5, the linear combination
of attitude, injunctive norms, and perceived PBC
accounted for the 51% change in donation inten-
tions toward money F(3, 277) = 28.87. The inclusion
of descriptive norms and moral norms contributed a
further 7% increase in variance, F(6, 273) = 31.8.
Finally, the inclusion of past behavior further
strengthened the explanatory power of the predic-
tive model and caused a variance of 63% collectively,
F(7, 266) = 19.7. All the dimensions of revised TPB
model accounted for the 63% variance in money do-
nation intentions and behavior. The significance
level of 0.05 was envisioned, as a rule of thumb. Un-
der such a standard, the social science researchers
accept the hypothesis testing results to be accept-
able and valid. As per the results, the significance
levels for all the stepwise regression results are
Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark., 2015
DOI: 10.1002/nvsm
 Muhammad Kashif and Ernest Cyril De Run

Table 3. Correlation and means

Dimensions Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Attitude 4.21 0.576 —

Perceived behavioral control 4.04 0.715 0.91 —
Injunctive norms 4.20 0.472 0.80b 0.41a —
Descriptive norms 4.02 0.716 0.71 0.40a 0.42a —
Moral norms 3.71 0.813 0.62a 0.38a 0.81a 0.75a —
Past behavior 4.37 0.359 0.68a 0.48a 0.61b 0.53a 0.89a —
Behavioral intentions 4.34 0.480 0.78b 0.92 0.78a 0.66 0.39a 0.28a —

a
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed).
b
Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two-tailed).

Table 4. Demographic differences in money donation intentions

Gender Age

Dimensions Male Female T Below 21 22–27 T

Attitude 2.53 2.37 2.37 2.57 2.39 2.56

Perceived behavioral control 3.49 3.30 2.72 3.35 3.42 0.97
Injunctive norms 3.09 2.97 1.76 3.07 3.00 0.99
Descriptive norms 3.27 3.21 0.81 3.20 3.29 1.17
Moral norms 3.14 2.98 2.39 3.04 3.10 0.73
Past behavior 3.24 3.20 0.64 3.25 3.16 1.91
Behavioral intentions 3.10 2.85 3.52 3.05 2.96 1.10

Table 5. Multiple stepwise regression

Step Predictor R2adjusted Fchange Degrees of freedom β Significance

1 Attitude 0.51 28.87*** 3, 277 0.24 0.000

Injunctive norms 0.26
Perceived behavioral control 0.21
2 Attitude 0.58 31.8*** 6, 273 0.43 0.004
Injunctive norms 0.22
Behavioral control 0.07
Descriptive norms 0.04
Moral norms 0.22
3 Attitude 0.63 19.7.*** 7, 266 0.26 0.002
Injunctive norms 0.27
Behavioral control 0.31
Descriptive norms 0.22
Moral norms 0.34
Past behavior 0.29

***P < .001.

Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark., 2015
DOI: 10.1002/nvsm
Predicting money donations among Muslims
0.000, 0.004, and 0.002, respectively, which is
within the established standard to confirm hypothe-
sis testing in TPB studies (Knowles et al., 2012). The
significance level postulates an acceptable standard
where the decision about hypothesis testing is ren-
dered by researchers. The results reveal acceptance
of all the hypothetical relationships proposed in this
study, given the significance levels achieved. The
results also indicate a strong relationship between
TPB dimensions of attitude, subjective norms, past
behavior, and PBC on the behavioral intentions
among donors in Pakistan. All the independent
variables bring about a 63% change in behavioral
intentions among Muslim donors in Pakistan.
Discussion
The studies that inculcate a collective role of all the
dimensions of the ETPB model to investigate money
donation intentions in a developing Asian country
context are scarce (Frimpong & Wilson, 2013). In
particular, the model has never been employed to
investigate behaviors of Muslim donors. This is
where current study contributes by investigating
money donation intentions through employing the
ETPB model in a developing Islamic country. The di-
mensions of the ETPB model studied here strongly
relate to each other and are useful to philanthropists
to better able to understand Muslim donor behavior.
This is in line with the previous studies conducted
to investigate money donation intentions in the
West (Smith & McSweeney, 2007). The findings
provide support for H1, H2, and H3. Overall, the
results provide strong support to the ETPB model
as it accounted for a 63% variance in intentions to
donate money. These results provide strong support
to the studies conducted by early researchers in the
field of consumer behavior (Ajzen, 1991; Fishbein &
Ajzen, 1975).
The findings of this study have added a deve-
loping country context to the ETPB model. The
traditional as well as contemporary elements of the
TPB significantly relate to money donation
Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
intentions. However, the results provide a strong ev-
idence to the ETPB model and its dimensions that is
a good contribution. Being a Muslim society, charity
at microlevels as well as at macrolevels is promoted
and people refer each other to help the poor and
needy. The findings reveal higher levels of PBC that
is understandable. Being a culturally collectivist soci-
ety where people like to be part of a group and know
each other very well, a high score on descriptive
norms is justified. Given the frequency of social is-
sues and natural disasters over the years, respon-
dents’ agreeableness with moral norms is
understandable. A large number of charitable organi-
zations requested people to donate money since last
few years that may have contributed to high mean
scores for past behavior dimension.
The results of this study are different as compared
with previously conducted studies in a Western con-
text where descriptive and moral norms do not
strongly relate to behavioral intentions (Knowles
et al., 2012). The new finding can be attributed to
culture as for instance, Hofstede (2003) pointed that
Pakistanis score high on collectivism, which means
they are likely to become part of a group, and this
is why the impact of reference group members has
been found significant in this study. Furthermore,
descriptive norms are an individual’s perceptions
of the role and impact of reference group members;
hence, the respondents seem to be strongly influ-
enced by descriptive norms in an Asian setting of
Pakistan. The results of current study strongly
support the notion that descriptive norms strongly
relate to money donation intentions. The signi-
ficance of descriptive norms has already been
acknowledged in previous studies (Konkoly &
Perloff, 1990), which entails that charitable organi-
zations in Pakistan should promote their brands by
focusing on group-centered promotions.
The results reveal a high frequency of charitable
donations among Pakistani youth, which can be
attributed to religious reasons. For example, while
answering the question how frequently have you
donated in the last four weeks? 45% highlighted
they donated five to six times. This is due to the fact
Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark., 2015
DOI: 10.1002/nvsm

that Pakistan as a country has frequently faced
several social issues of distress and a few natural
disasters such as the earthquake in the year 2005,
flooding in 2010, spread of dengue fever, and the
US–Afghan war that affected immigrants who re-
quired food and shelter. The Government of
Pakistan declared an emergency situation several
times and asked people to donate generously to help
the poor and needy. These disasters were rescued
with charities donated by the general public, which
involve people from all sects of life, especially the uni-
versity students. A huge amount of sadaqah, zakat,
and waqf were collected and distributed to the poor
and needy. People donated to several well-known
charitable organizations such as Edhi in Pakistan and
also generously helped affected people on an individ-
ual basis. However, the amount donated has been un-
known. The Muslim donors usually do not share the
amount of money donated to help the poor and
needy as donation is made to gain Allah’s blessings
and is widely practiced among Muslims.
The results also reveal a positive attitude of
younger people toward moral norms in relation to
investigating money donation intentions. This is also
in line with previous studies conducted in the West
(Warburton & Terry, 2000; Oosterhof et al., 2009). A
few demographic differences were also explored in
this study where it is found that men and women
vary significantly in their opinions concerning atti-
tude, PBC, moral norms, and behavioral intentions
to donate money. The different attitudinal response
toward money donation intention between male
and female respondents is also found to exist in
studies conducted in the West (Greenslade & White,
2005). Furthermore, the age of respondents was
distributed into two main groups: people below
21 years old and people between 21 and 27 years
old. However, a few differences were found and it
can be concluded that majority of people in these
age brackets donate money in Pakistan.
The findings of this study offer several implica-
tions for charitable and nonprofit organizations.
First, the results suggest that an increase in positive
attitude encourages donors to donate money. To
Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Muhammad Kashif and Ernest Cyril De Run
establish positive attitude, organizations need to
create wonderful customer service experiences
while minimizing fatigue and anxiety during service
encounters (Hart et al., 2007). This can be per-
formed by hiring service-oriented frontline staff,
usage of technology to target those areas that are
geographically distant by offering them conve-
nience, and the development of an online donation
facility to save consumers’ time and cost. Second,
subjective norms are found to significantly relate to
donation intentions. In a collectivist Muslim popula-
tion, organizations can benefit from the role being
played by reference group members in an effort to
raise funds (Konkoly & Perloff, 1990). In addition
to that, religious campaigns, emphasizing to help
the poor and needy, can be launched to generate
funds. In this regard, an awareness of religious char-
itable products, commonly used among Muslims,
must be focused such as zakat, waqf, kaffarah,
and sadakah. It is observed that charitable organiza-
tions create brand awareness through traditional
channels; however, product awareness is also im-
portant and must be developed to raise the amount
of funds donated by the public. Third, the charity or-
ganizations need to maintain customer databases
where they can predict future intentions based on
past behaviors (Bozionelos & Bennett, 1999). Char-
ity and nonprofit organizations need to understand
the predictors of donation intentions in order to
formulate effective marketing strategies (Lemmens
et al., 2005). Understanding and serving the needs
of beneficiaries will enhance the public trust and
satisfaction with these organizations (Modi, 2012).
The results of this study are expected to serve this
purpose, and it is clear that the traditional as well
as contemporary dimensions of the TPB must be
considered while trying to attract donors.
Limitations and future research
directions
In spite of several strengths of current study such as
employment of a sound theoretical model, the new
Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark., 2015
DOI: 10.1002/nvsm
Predicting money donations among Muslims
Asian setting and country context of Pakistan, selec-
tion of a non-student population, and an application
of robust statistical techniques, the findings must be
understood in the light of a few limitations. First, the
data are collected only from younger adults residing
in the city of Gujranwala, hence limiting the general-
izability of the findings to other age groups as well as
to other geographical areas of Pakistan. Future re-
searchers are strongly recommended to study the
population residing in other cities of Pakistan. Given
the differences of culture and language, a different
set of results is expected.
Second, the study did not identify motives be-
hind various forms of charity donation such as
zakat, waqf, and sadaqah. In a Muslim setting,
some other elements also cause intentions to do-
nate such as motivations for waqf endowment
may be different when compared with those for
sadaqah and zakat. The element of religiosity
so far has not been discussed in the ETPB model
and can be a very strong potential area of investi-
gation for TPB researchers.
Third, the data collected are cross-sectional
where researchers acknowledge the sporadic nature
of charitable giving that can be associated with
certain eves and festivals in Muslim settings such as
the holy month of fasting where charity donation
intentions increase significantly to gain the blessings
of Allah. Future researchers investigating Muslim
donors must acknowledge these occasions. Hence,
a longitudinal research strategy is strongly recom-
mended to understand the impact of these special
occasions on charity donation intentions. Finally,
current study did not investigate the amount of
money asked from respondents. Future studies are
recommended to ask the amount of money
donated as linking it with the purpose of donation
will provide excellent results.
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